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EnCTCLOPjEDIA Britannica;
D I C T I O NARY
O F
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Encyclopedia B
ritannica.
HYDROSTATICS;
A SCIENCE which treats of the weight, modgn,
and equilibria of liquid bodies. Under this h&d,
not only accounts of the nature and properties of fluids
in general are introduced, and the laws by which they
aft ; but alfo the art of weighing folid bodies in fluids,
in order to difcover their fpecific gravities.
Sect. I. Fluids in general.
Fluid de- S1R Ifaac Newton’s definition of a fluid is, That it is
Sntd, &c. a body yielding to any force impreffed, and which
hath its parts very eafily moved one among another.
See Fluidity.
This definition fuppofes the motion fpoken of pro¬
duced by a partial preffure ; for in the cafe of an in-
compreffible fluid, it is demonftrated by Dr Keil, that
under a total or an equal preflure, it would be impof-
fible that the yielding body (hould move.
The original and conftituent parts of fluids are by
the moderns conceived to be particles fmall, fmooth,
hard, and fpherical: according to which opinion,
everjr particle is of itfelf a folid or a fixed body ; and,
when confidered fingly, is no fluid, but becomes fo
only by being joined with other particles of the fame
kind. From this definition, it hath been concluded
by fome philpfophers, that fome fubftances, fuch as
mercury, are eflentially fluid, on account of the par-
ticular'configuration of their particles ; but later dif-
coveries have evinced the fallacy of this opinion, and
that fluidity is truly to be reckoned an effeft of heat.
See Fluidity.
That fluids have vacuities, will appear upon mixing
fait with water, a certain quantity whereof will be
diflblved, and thereby imbibed, without enlarging the
dimenfions. A fluid’s becoming more buoyant, is a
certain proof that its fpecific gravity is iucreafed, and
of confequence that many of its vacuities are thereby
filled: after which it may ftill receive a certain quan¬
tity of other dilfoluble bodies, the particles whereof
are adapted to the vacancies remaining, without adding
any thing to its bulk, though the abfolute^veight of
the whole fluid be thereby increafed.
This might be demonflrated, by weighing a phial
of rain-water critically, with a nice balance: pour
this water into a cup, and add fait to it; refund of
the clear liquor what will again fill the phial; an in-
creafe of weight will be found Under the fame dimen¬
fions, from a repletion, as has been faid, of the vacuities
of the frefli water with faline particles.
Vol. IX. Part I,
And as fluids have vacuities, or are not perfeftly
denfe ; it is alfo probable, that they are compounded
of fmall fpheres of different diameters, whole inter-
ftices may be fucceffively filled with apt materials for
that purpofe : and the fmaller thefe interftices are, the
greater will the gravity of the fluid always be.
For inftance, fuppofe a barrel be filled with bulleta
in the molt compaft manner, a great many fmall-fhot
may afterwards be placed in the inter dices of thofe
balls, the vacuities of the fhot may then be replenifhed
with a certain quantity of fea-fand ; the interdices of
the grains of the fand may again be filled with water;
and thus may the weight of the barrel be greatly
augmented, without increafing the general bulk.— ®
Now this being true with, regard to folids, is appli- ’“(inaJ“r°
cable alfo to fluids. For indance, river-water will perties?'
diffolve a certain quantity of fait; after which it will V
receive a certain quantity of fugar; and after that, a
certain quantity of alum, and perhaps other diflbluble
bodies, and hot increafe its firfl dimenfions.
_ The more perfeft a fluid is, the more eafily will it
yield to all impreffions, and the more eafily will the
parts unite and coalefce when feparated. A perfeft
fluid is that whofe parts are pfit into motion by the
kaji force imaginable : an imperfeft one is that whofe
parts yield to a fmall force, not the leaf. It is pro¬
bable, that in nature there is no perfeft fluid, the ele¬
ment of fire perhaps excepted ; fince we fee that the
mutual attraftion of the parts of all the fluids, fubjeft
to our experiments, renders them cohefive in fome de¬
gree ; and the more they cling together, the lefs per¬
feft their fluidity is. If, for indance, a glafs be filled
with water above the brim, it will vifibly rife to a
convex furface, which, was it a perfeft fluid, free from
either tenacity or cohefion, would be impoffible.
Mercury, the mod perfeft fluid we know, is not
exempt from this attraftion ; for fliould the bottom
of a flat glafs, having a gentle rifing toward the mid¬
dle, be covered thin with quickfilver, a little motion of
the machine will caufe the fluid foon to feparate from
the middle, and lie round it like a ring, having edges
of a confiderable thicknefs.
But if a like quantity thereof be poured into a gol¬
den cup, it will, on the contrary, appear higher con-
fiderably on the fides than in the middle. Which may
proceed in part, perhaps, from the gold’s being of
great denfity, and therefore capable of exerting there¬
on a greater degree of attraftion than other metals.
Probably too it may happen from its having pores of
2 HYDROS
PreHcre »f an apter difpolition and magnitude to receive the mi-
, Flmds. ^ nute mercurial particles, than thofe of iron and fome
v other metals ; and therefore the attraftion of cohefion
in this experiment may obtain alfo : and every one
knows how eafdy thefe two bodies incorporate, and
make a perfect amalgama. But the reafon commonly
given for the two phenomena is, tha?*mercury, in the
firft cafe, attra&s itfelf more than it does glafs; and,
in the laft cafe, mercury attrafts gold more than it
does itfelf.
Sir Ifaac Newton held all matter to be originally
homogeneous; and that from the different modifica¬
tions and texture of it alone, all bodies receive their
various ftrufture, compofition, and form. In his defi-1
nition of a fluid, he feems to irhply, that he thought
fluids to be compofed of primary folids ; and, in the
beginning of his Princlpia, he, fpeaks of fand and pow¬
ders as of imperfect fluids.
Borelli has demonftrated, that the conftituent parts
of fluids are not fluid, but confident bodies ; and that
3 the elements of all bodies are perfectly firm and hard.
Florentine The incompreffibility of water, proved by the Flo-
«xpenment.rent;ne eXperjment, is a fuffieient evidence alfo, that
each primary particle or fpherule thereof is a perfect
and impenetrable folid. Mr Locke too, in his EJfay
on Human Underjlanding, admits this to be fo.
This famous experiment was firft attempted by the
great lord Verulam, who inclofed a quantity of water
in lead, and found that it inclined rather to make its
way through the pores of the metal, than be reduced
into lefs compafs by any force that could be applied.
The academics of Florence made this experiment af¬
terwards more accurately with a globe of filver, as
being a metal .lefs yielding and duftile than gold.
This being filled with water, and well clofed, they
found, by hammering gently thereon, that the fpheri-
city of the globe was altered to a lefs capacious fi¬
gure (as might geometrically be proved); but a part
of the water always like dew came through its lides
before this could be obtained. This has been attempted
by Sir Ifaac Newton, and fo many competent judges,
on gold and feveral other metals iince, with equal fuc;
cefs, that we do not hold any fluid in its natural ftate,
except the air, to be either comprefiible or elaflic.—
In fome experiments by Mr Canton, it hath been ob-
ferved, that water is more or lefs compreffed accord¬
ing to the different conftitution of the atmofphere ;
whence it hath been concluded that the Florentine
experiment Was erroneous: but it will not follow, that
water can be compreffed by any artificial force, be-
caufe nature hath a method of compreffing it; any
more than that folid metal can be compreffed artifi¬
cially, though we know that very flight degrees of
heat and cold will expand or contrail its dimenfions.
See Water.
Sect. II. Of the Gravity and Preffure of Fluids.
FUlidfprefs All bodies, both fluid and folid, prefs downwards
a* much by the force of gravity : but fluids have this wonder-
upward as ful property, that their preflure upwards and fidewife
Uuwnvvard, js eqllal to their preflure downwards; and this is al¬
ways in proportion to their perpendicular height,with¬
out any regard to their quantity: for, as each par¬
ticle is quite free to move, it will move towards that
T A T I C S. Sea. II.
part or fide in which the preffure is leaf!;. And hence, Preffure of
no particle or quantity of a fluid can be at reft till it is Flu5df-
every way equally preffed.
To fhow by experiment that fluids prefs upward as Piate
well as downward, let AB be a long upright tube ccxxxix.
filled with water near to its top; and CD a fmall tube
open at both ends, and immerfed into the water in the
large one : if the immeriion be quick, you wii! fee
the water rife in the fmall cube to the fame height
that it ftands in the great one, or until the furfaces
of the water in both are on the fame level : which
fhows that the water is prefled upward into the fmall
tube by the weight of what is in the great one ; other-
wife it could never rife therein, contrary to its natural
gravity, unlefs the diameter of the bore were fo
fmall, that the attraftion of the tube would raife the
water; which will never happen, if the tube be as
wide as that in a common barometer. And, as the
water rifes no higher in the fmall tube than till its ,
furface be on a level with the furface of the water in
the great one, this ihows that the preflure is not in
proportion to the quantity of water in the great tube,
but in proportion to its perpendicular height therein
for there is much more water in the great tube all
around the fmall one, than what is raifed to the fame
height in the fmall one as it ftands in the great.
Take out the fmall tube, and let the water run out
of it; then it will be filled with air. Stop its upper
end with the cork C, and it will be full of air all be¬
low the cork: this done, plunge it again to the bot¬
tom of the water in the great tube, and you Will fee
the water rife up in it to the height E. Which fliows
that the air is a body, otherwife it could not hinder
the water from riling up to the fame height as it
did before, namely, to A ; and in fo doing, it drove
the air out at the top ; but now the air is confined
by the cork C: And it alfo Ihows that the air is a
comprefiible body; for if it were not fo, a drop of
water could not enter into the tube.
The pieflure of fluids being equal in all dire&ions,
it follows, that the fidesof a veffel are as much prefied
by a fluid in it, all around in any given ring of points,,
as the fluid below that ring is preffed by the weight
of all that ftands above it. Hence the preffure upon
every point in the lides, immediately above the bottom,
is equal to the preffure upon every point of the bottom.
—To (how this by experiment, let a hole be made at e Fig. 3.
in the fide of the tube AB clofe by the bottom, and
another hole of the fame fize in the bottom at C ;
then pour your water into the tube, keeping it full as
long as you choofe the holes Ihould run, and have two
bafons ready to receive the water that runs through
the two holes, until you think there is enough in
each bafon ; and you will find by meafuring the quan¬
tities, that they are equal. Which fhows that the wa¬
ter run with equal fpeed through both holes; which
it could not have done, if it had not been equally
preffed fhrough them both. For, if a hole of the
fame fize be made in the fide of the tube, as about/,,
and if all three are permitted to run together, you
will find that the quantity run through the hole at f
is much lefs than what has run in the fame time
through either of the holes C or e.
In the fame figure, let the tube be re curved from
the bottom at C into the fhape DE, and the hole at
C
Sea.n. H Y D R O S
Preffure of C be Ilopt with a cork. Then pour water into the
Fluid?. tutjC t0 any height, as Ag, and it will fpout up in a
jet EFG, nearly as high as it is kept in the tube AB,
by continuing to pour in as much there as runs through
the hole E ; which will be the cafe whilft the furface
A g keeps at the fame height. And if a little ball of
cork G be laid upon the top of the jet, it will be fup-
ported thereby, and dance upon it. The reafon why
the jet rifes not quite fo high as the furface of the
water A^, is owing to the refiftance it meets with in
the open air : for if a tube, either great or fmall, was
fcrewed upon the pipe at E, the water would rife in
it Until the furfaces of the water in both tubes were
on the fame level; as will be Ihown by the next expe¬
riment.
The hydro- Any quantity of a fluid, how fmall foever, may be
flatic para- made to balance and fupport any quantity, how great
dox. foever. This is defervedly termed the hydrojlatical
paradox ; which we (hall firft (how by an experiment,
and then account for it upon the principle above men¬
tioned, namely, that the prejfure of fluids is direSly as
their perpendicular height, without any regard to their
quantity.
plate Let a fmall glafs tube DCG, open at both ends,
ccxxx?x. and bended at B, be joined to the end of a great one
4' AI at cd, where the great one is alfo open ; fo that
thefe tubes in their openings may freely communicate
with each other. Then pour water through a fmali
necked funnel into the fmall tube at H ; this water
will run through the joining of the tubes at cd, and
rife up into the great tube; and if you continue pour¬
ing until the furface of the water comes to any part, as
A, in the great tube, and then leave off, you will fee
that the furface of the water in the fmall tube will be
juft as high at D ; fo that the perpendicular altitude
of the water will be the fame in both tubes, however
fmall the one be in proportion to the other. This
(hows, that the fmall column DCG balances and fup-
ports the great column A«/; which it could not do
if their prelfures were not equal againft one another in
the recurved bottom at B.—If the fmall tube be
made longer, and inclined in the fituation GEF, the
furface of the water in it will ftand at F, on the fame
level with the furface A in the great tube : that is,
the water will have the fame perpendicular height in
both tubes, although the column in the fmall tube is
longer than that in the great one; the former being
oblique, and the latter perpendicular.
Since then the preffure of fluids is dire&ly as their
perpendicular heights, without any regard to their
quantities, it appears, that whatever the figure or fize
of veffels be, if they are of equal heights, and if the
areas of their bottoms are equal, the preffures of equal
heights of water are equal upon the bottoms of thefe
veffels; even though the one fhould hold a thoufand
or ten thoufand times as much water as would fill the
other. To confirm this part of the hydroftatical pa¬
radox by an experiment, let two veffels be prepared
of equal heights, but very unequal contents, fuch as
AB fig. 5. and AB in fig. 6. Let each veffel be open
at both ends, and their bottoms D D </be of equal
widths. Let a brafs bottom CC be exaftly fitted to
each veffel, not to go into it, but for it to ftand upon;
and let a piece of wet leather be put between each
veffel and its brafs bottom, for the fake of clofenefs.
T A T I C S. 3
Join each bottom to its veffel by a hinge D, fo thatPreffure of
it may lie open like -the lid of a box ; and let each boc- Fluids,
tom be kept up to its veffel by equal weights E and E —v—
hung to lines which go over the* pulleys F and F
( whofc blocks are fixed to the fides of the veffels at/),
and the lines tied to hooks at d and d, fixed in brafs
bottoms oppofite to the hinges D and D. Things
being thus prepared and fitted, hold the veffel A B
(fig. 6.) upright in your hands over a bafon on a
table, and caufe water to be poured into the veffel
llowly, till the preffure of the water bears down its
bottom at the fide d, and raifes the weight E ; and
then part of the water will run out at d. Mark the
height at which the furface H of the water ftood in
the veffel, when the bottom began to give way at d;
and then, holding up the other veffel AB (fig. 5.) in
the fame manner, caufe water to be poured into it at
H : and you will fee, that when the water rifes to A
in this veffel, juft as high as it did in the former, its
bottom will alfo give way at d, and it will lofe part of
the water.
The natural reafon of this furprifing phenomenon
is, that fince all parts of a fluid at equal depths be¬
low the furface are equally preffed in all manner of
dire&ions, the water immediately below the fixed
part B/ (fig. 5.) will be preffed as much upward a-
gainft its lower furface within the veffel, by the attion
of the column A^, as it would be by a column of
the fame height, and of any diameter whatever; (as
was evident by the experiment with the tube, fig. 4.)
and therefore, fince a&ion and reaction are equal and
contrary to each other, the water immediately below
the furface By will be preffed as much downward by
it, as if it was immediately touched and preffed by a
column of the height g A, and of the diameter B/.*
and therefore the water in the cavity BD df will be
preffed as much downward upon its bottom CC, as
the bottom of the other veffel (fig. 6.) is preffed by
all the water above it.
To illuftrate this a little farther, let a hole be made F; ,
aty in the fixed top Bf, and let a tube G be put into
it; then, if water be poured into the tube A, it will
(after filling the cavity B d) rife up into the tube G,
until it comes to a level with that in the tube A ;
which is manifeftly owing to the preffure of the water
in the tube A, upon that in the cavity of the veffel
below it. Confequently, that part of the top By, in
which the hole is now made, would, if corked up, be
preffed upward with a force equal to the whole weight of
all the water which is fupported in the tubeG: and the
fame thing would hold at j-, if a hole were made there.
And fo, if the whole cover or top B f were full of holes,
and had tubes as high as the middle one A^- put into
them, the water in each tube would rife to the fame
height as it is kept in the tube A, by pouring more
into it, to make up the deficiency that it fuftains by
fupplying the others, until they are all full; and then
the water in the tube A would fupport equal heights
of water in all the reft of the tubes. Or, if all the
tubes except A, or any other one, were taken away,
and a large tube equal in diameter to the whole top
By were placed upon it and cemented to it, and
then if water were poured into the tube that w ;s left
in either of the holes, it would afeend through all the
reft of the holes, until itfilled the large tube to the"
A 2 fame
4
HYDROS
Preffure of fame height that it {lands in the {mall one, after a fuf-
, Fluid5- ^ ficient quantity had been poured into it: which {hows,
' ' ^ " that the top B/ was prefled upward by the water
under it, and before any hole was made in it, with a
force equal that wherewith it is now prefled downward
by the weight of all the water above it in the great
tube. And therefore, the reaftion of the fixed top
By mud be as great, in prefling the water down¬
ward upon the bottom CC, as the whole preffure of
the water in the great tube would have been, if the
top had been taken away, and the water in that tube
left to prefs dire&ly upon the water in the cavity
6 BD<//.
The hydro- Perhaps the bed machine in the world for demon•
ftatic bel- ftrating the upward prcfibre of fluids, is the hydro-
lows, fig. 7. ftatic bellows, which confids of two thick oval boards
AB, EF, each about 16 inches broad, and 18 inches
long: the fides are of leather, joined very clofe
to the top and bottom by drong nails. CD is a pipe
fcrewed into a piece of brafs on the top-board at C.
Let fome water be poured into the pipe at D, which
will run into the bellows, and feparate the boards a
little. Then lay three weights, each weighing too
pounds, upon the upper board ; and pour more water
into the pipe, which will run into the bellows, and
raife up the board with all the weights upon it ; and
if the pipe be kept full until the weights are raifed as
high as the leather which covers the bellows will al¬
low them, the water will remain in the pipe, and fup-
port all the weights, even though it ftrould weigh no
more than a quarter of a pound, and they 300 pounds:
nor will all their force be able to caufe them to de-
feend and force the water out at the top of the pipe.
The reafon of this will be made evident, by confi-
dering what has been already faid of the refult of the
preflure of fluids of equal heights without any regard
to their quantity. For if a hole be made in the up¬
per board, and a tube be put into it, the water will
rife in the tube to the fame height that it does in the
pipe i and would rife as high ^by fupplying the pipe)
in as many tubes as the board could contain holes.
Now, fuppofe only one hole to be made in any part
of the board, of an equal diameter with the bore of
the pipe, and that the pipe holds juft a quarter of
a pound of water ; if a perfon claps his finger upon
the hole, and the pipe be filled with water, he will find
his finger to be prefled upward with a force equal to a
quarter of a pound. And as the fame preflure is equal
upon all equal parts of the board, each part, whofe
area is equal to the area of the hole, will be prefled
upward with a force equal to that of a quarter of a
pound : the fum of all which preffures againft the un¬
der fide of an oval board 16 inches broad, and 18 inches
long, will amount to 3001b. ; and therefore fo much
weight will be raifed up and fupported by a quarter of
^ a pound of water in the pipe.
How a man Hence, if a man Hands upon the upper board, and
may raife blows into the bellows through the pipe, he will raife
waJd h Uhi upward upon the board: and the fmaller the
breath? 'bote of the pipe is, the eafier he will be able to raife
himfelf. And then, by clapping his finger upon the
top of the pipe, he can fupport himfelf as long as he
pleafes; provided the bellows be air-tight, fo as not
to loft what is blowrth'nto it.
Upon this principle of the upward preflure of fluids,
T A T I C S. Sea II.
a piece of lead may be made to fwim in water, by im-PrefTure of
merfing it to a proper depth, and keeping the water
from getting above it. Let CD be a glafs tube, open
at both ends ; and EFG a flat piece of lead, exaftly how
fitted to the lower end of the tube, not to go within may he
it, but for it to ftand upon ; with a wet leather be- made to
'tween the lead and the tube, to make clofe work. Lct*wiin m
this leaden bottom be half an inch thick, and heldp-g?^
clofe to the tube by pulling the packthread IHL up¬
ward at L with one hand, whillt the tube is held in
the other by the upper end C. In this fituation, let
the tube be immerfed in water in the glafs veflel AB,
to the depth of fix inches below the furface of the wa¬
ter at K ; and then, the leaden bottom EFG will be
plunged to the depth of fomewhat more than eleven
times its own tbicknefs : holding the tube at that
depth, you may let go the thread at L ; and the lead
will not fall from the tube, but will be kept to it by
the upward preflure of the water below it occafioned
by the height of the water at K above the level of the
lead. For as lead is 11.33 times as heavy as its bulk of
water, and is in this experiment immerfed to a depth
fomewhat more than 11.33 times its thicknefs, and no
water getting into the tube between it and the lead, the
column of water EafoG below the lead is prefled up¬
ward againft it by the water KDEGL all around the
tube ; which water being a little more than 11.33 times
as high as the lead is thick, is fufficient to balance and
fupport the lead at the depth KE. If a little water
be poured into the tube upon the lead, it will increafe
the weight upon the column of water under the lead,
and caufe the lead to fall from the tube to the bottom
of the glafs veflel, where it will lie in the fituation l> d.
Or, if the tube be raifed a little in the water, the lead
will fall by its own weight, which will then be too
great for the prefiTure of the water around the tube up¬
on the column of water below it._ But the following
method of making an extremely heavy body float upon
water is more elegant. Take a long glafs tube, open
at both ends; flopping the lower end with a finger,
pour in fome quickfilver at the other end, fo as to take
up about half an inch in the tube below. Immerfe
this tube, with the finger ftill at the bottom, in a deep
glafs veflel filled with water; and when the lower end
of the tube is about feven inches below the furface, take
away the finger from it, and then you will fee the
quickfilver not fink into the veflel, but remain fufpend-
ed upon the tube, and floating, if we may fo exprefs
it, upon the water in the glafs-veffel. jis
In the fame manner as an heavy body was made to
fwim on water, by taking away the upward preflure j wood "may
fo may a light body, like wood, be made to remain be made to
funk at the bottom, by depriving it of all preffure
from below : for if two equal pieces of wood be planed, °
furface to furface, fo that no water can get between
them, and then one of them (c d) be cemented to the
infide of the vefiel’s bottom; then the other being
placed Upon this, and, while the veflel is filling, being
kept down by a flick ; when the flick is removed and
the veflel full, the upper piece of wood will not rife
from the lower one, but continue funk under water,
though it is actually much lighter than water ; for as
there is no refiftance to its under furface to drive it up¬
ward, while its upper furface is ftrongly prefled downy
it muft neceffarily remain at the bottom.
Sect. III.
H YI3 It O S T^A_T IC S.
Plate C CXXXDL.
Sea. III. HYDROS
Specific
Gravities.1 Sect. III. Of the Specific Gravity of Bodies.
Of fpccific When an unfpongy or folid body finks in a veflel of
gravity. water, it removes a body of water equal to its own
bulk, out of the place to which it defcends. If, for
inftance, a copper ball is let drop into a glafs of water,
we well know, that if it finks, it will take up as much
room as a globe of water equal to itfelf in fize took up
before.
Let us fuppofe, that this watery globe removed by
the ball were frozen into a folid fubftance, and weigh¬
ed in a fcale againll the copper ball: now the copper
ball being more in weight than the globe, it is evi¬
dent that it will fink its own fcale, and drive up the
oppofite, as all heavier bodies do when weighed againft
lighter ;■ if, on the contrary, the copper ball be lighter
than the water globe, the ball will- rife. Again, then
let us fuppofe the copper ball going to be immerfed in
water ; and that, in order to defcend, it muft difplace
a globe of water equal to itfelf in bulk. If the copper
ball be heavier than the globe, its preffure will over¬
come the other’s refiftance, and it will fink to the bot¬
tom ; but if the watery globe be heavier, its prelfure
upwards will be greater than that of the ball down¬
ward, and the ball will rife or fwim. In a word, in
proportion as the-ball is heavier than the fimilar bulk
of water, it will defcend with greater force ; in pro¬
portion as it is lighter, it will be raifed more to the
furface.
From all this we may deduce one general rule,
which will meafure the force -with which any folid
body tends to fwim or fink in water; namely. Every
lody immerfed in water, lofes jujl as much of its weight
as equals the weight of an equal hulk of water. Thus,
for inftance, if the body be two ounces, and an equal
bulk of water be one ounce, the body when plunged,
will fink towards the bottom of the water with a
weight of one ounce. If, on the contrary, the folid
body be but one ounce, and the weight of an equal bulk
of water be two ounces; the folid, when plunged, will
remove but one ounce, that is half as much water as
is equal to its own bulk: fo that, confequently, it can¬
not defcend; for to do that, it muft remove a quanti¬
ty of water equal to its own bulk. Again, if the fo¬
lid be too ounces, and the equal bulk of water two
ounces, the folid, wherever it is plunged, will nei¬
ther rife nor fink, but remain fufpended at any depth.
Thus we fee the reafoo why fome bodies fwim in
water, and others fink. Bodies of large bulk and little
weight, like cork or feathers, muft. neceftarily fwim, be-
caufe an equal bulk of water is heavier than they ; bo¬
dies of little bulk but great weight, like lead or gold,
muft fink, becaufe they are heavier than an equal bulk
of water. The bulk and the weight of any body con-
fidered together, is called its fpecifc gravity ; and the
proportion of both in any body is eafily found by wa¬
ter. A body of little bulk and great weight, readily
finks in water, and it is faid to have fpecific gravity ; a
body of great bulk and little weight, lofes almoft all its
weight in water, and therefore is faid to have but little
fpecific gravity. A woolpack has adlually greater real
gravity, or weighs more in air, than a cannon ball; but
for all that, a cannon ball may have more fpecific gra¬
vity, and weigh more than the woolpack, in water.
T a t i c s.
Denfity is a general term that me^ns the fame thing ; Specific
fpecific gravity is only a relative term, ufed when folids i Qravides^
are weighed in fluids, or fluids in fluids. ' " v
As every folid finks more readily in water, in pro¬
portion as its fpecific gravity is great, or as it con¬
tains greater weight under a fmaller bulk, it will fol¬
low, that the fame body may very often have different
fpecific gravities, and that it will fink at one time and
fwim at another. Thus a man, when he happens to
fall alive into the water, Jinks to the bottom ; for the
fpecific gravity of his body is then greater than that
of water : but if, by being drowned, he lies at the
bottom for fome days, his body fwells by putrefaftion,
which difunites its parts ; thus its fpecific gravity be¬
comes lefs than that of water, and he floats upon the
furface. lT
Several more important ufes are the refult of our How to dif.
being able exa&ly to determine the fpecific gravities covef at}uI~
of bodies. We can, by weighing metals in water, ‘a
difcover their adulterations or mixtures with greater
exadtnefs than by any other means whatfoever. By
this means, the counterfeit coin, which may be offer¬
ed us as gold, will be very eafily diftinguifhed, and
known to be a bafer metal. For inllance, if we are
offered a brafs counter for a guinea, and we fufpedf it;
fuppofe, to clear our fufpicions, we weigh it in the
ufual manner againft a real guinea in the oppofite fcale,
and it is of the exaft; weight, yet ftill we fufpedf it;
What is to be done ? To melt or deftroy the figure
of the coin would be inconvenient and improper : a
much better and more accurate method remains. We
have only to weigh a real guinea in water, and we fliall
thus find that it lofes but a nineteenth part of its
weight in the balance: We then weigh the brafs coun¬
ter in water, and we adtually find it lofes an eighth
part of its weight by being weighed in this manner.
This at once demonftrates, that the coin is made of a
bafe metal, and not gold ; for as gold is the heavieft of
all metals, it will lofe lefs of its weight' 6y being weigh¬
ed in water than any other.
This method Archimedes firft made ufe of fo detedb
a fraud with regard to the crown of Hiero king of Sy-
racufe. Hiero had employed a goldfmith to make him
a crown, andvfurniftied him with a certain weight of
gold for that purpofe; the crown was made, the
weight was the fame as before, but ftill the king fuf-
pedfed that there was an adulteration in the metal.
Archimedes was. applied to ; who, as the ftory goes,
was for fome time unable to detedk the impofnion. It
happened, however, one day as the philofopher was
ftepping into a bath, that he took notice the water
rofe in the-bath in proportion to the part of his body
immerfed. From this accident he received a hint ;
wherewith he was fo tranfported, that he jumped out
of the bath, and ran naked about the ftreets of Syra-
cufe, crying in a wild manner, I have found it ! I have
found it l—In confequence of this fpeeulation, he pro¬
cured a ball of gold and another of filvev, exactly of
the weight of the crown, confidering, that if the crown
were altogether of gold, the ball of gold would be of
the fame bulk as the crown, and when immerfed in
water, would raife the water juft as high as the crown
immerfed ; but if it were wholly of filver, the ball of
filver being immerfed, would raife the water no higher
than the crown immerfed j and if the crown was of
gold
HYDROS
Specific gold and filver mixed in a certain proportion, this pro-
^Gravitiec. ^ port;on WOuld be difcovered by the height to which
the crown would raife the water higher than the gold
and lower than the filver. Accordingly, let AMLB
be a vefftd filled with water to the height D C, >nd let
the mafs of gold, equal in weight to the crown, on
being immerfed into the water, raife the furface of it to
E, and the mafs of filver raife it to G; then if the
height of the veffel above D C be divided into equal
parts, and D F= 11, and D G = 19, it is plain the
bulks of gold and filver will be as D F to D G, and
the fpecific gravities in the inverfe proportion of thefe
quantities, or as D G to D F. If the crown be im¬
merfed, it will raife the furface of water to E ; whence
the proportion of the bulks of the gold and filver in
the crown may be determined. For fince the differ¬
ence of the fpecific gravities of the gold and filver is
DG—DF=FG=8, if the bulk of the crown is
divided into eight equal parts, it is evident, that fince.
the fpecific gravities of the debafed and pure gold
■crowns will be as the bulks invetfely, that is, as DF to
DE, we can eafily find the point H, which willexprefs
the fpecific gravity of the former; forDE: DF:: DG:
DH. This point H always divides the difference FG
into two parts GH, HE, which have the fame propor¬
tion as the parts of filver in the crown to the parts of
gold ; for as the point E afcends, the point H defcends,
and when E coincides with G, H falls upon E, and the
crown becomes wholly filver ; on the contrary, when E
defcends to F, and H afcends to G, the crown becomes
wholly gold; therefore FH will be every where to HG
as the parts of gold to the parts of filver in the crown.
Confequently, in the prefent cafe, becaufe the crown,
when immerfed, raifes the water to the heightDE, and
H is three divifiotis below G, it fhows that three of the
eight parts of the crown are filver, and the other five
parts gold, as H is five of the divifions above F. Hence
the bulk of the gold in the crown is to that of the filver
as 5 to 3. In fome fuch method as this Archimedes de¬
duced his propofition, viz. that the difference of the fpe¬
cific gravities of the compound and lighter ingredient,
i. e. 5 (fuppofing the fpecific gravity of gold to filver as
19 to 11, and the fpecific gravity of the king’s crown
to be 16), is to the difference of the fpecific gravities
of the heavier ingredient and the compound, i. e. 3, as
the bulk of gold to that of filver made up of: fo that if
the whole crown were divided into eight parts, the
gold would confift of five, and the filver of three 5 and
the magnitudes 5 and 3, multiplied by the fpecific gra¬
vities 19 and 11 refpeftively, will give the numbers 95
and 33, expreffing the proportion of the weight of the
gold to that of the filver.
This propofition of Archimedes may be demonflra-
ted analytically in the following manner: let the
magnitudes of the gold and filver in the crown be A
and B, and their fpecific gravities as a and b; then,
fince the abfolute gravity of any body is compounded
of its magnitude and fpecific gravity, the weight of
the gold is a A, of the filver b B, and of the crown
o A-f£B = cXA4-B, fuppofing c to be the fpecific
gravity of the mixture. Hence aA—cA=rrB—£B ;
and confequently c—b : a—c: : A : B, as before.
T A T I C S. Sea. III.
Upon this difference in the weight of bodies in open Specific
air and water, the hydroftatic balance has been form- gravities. ^
ed; which differs very little from a common balance, ^
but that it hath an hook at the bottom of one fcale, The hydro-
on which the weight we want to try may be hung by ftatic ba-
an horfe-hair, and thus fufpended in water, withoutlance*
wetting the fcale from whence it hangs. Firft, the
weight of the body we want to try is balanced againft
the parcel or weight in open air; then the body is
fufpended by the hook and horfe-hair at the bottom of
the fcale in water, which we well know will make it
lighter, and deftroy the balance. We then can know
how much lighter it will be, by the quantity of the
weights we take from the fcale to make it equipoife ;
and of confequence we thus precifely can find out its
fpecific gravity compared to water (A).This is the moft
exaft and infallible method of knowing the genuine-
nefs of metals, and the different mixtures with which
they may be adulterated, and it will anfwer for all
fuch bodies as can be weighed in water. As for thofe
things that cannot be thus weighed, fuch as quick-
filver, fmall fparks of diamond, and fuch like, as they
cannot be fufpended by an horfe-hair, they muff be
put into a glafs-bucket, the weight of which is already
known: this, with the quickfilver, muff be balanced by
weights in the oppofite fcale, as before, then immer¬
fed, and the quantity of weights to be taken from the
oppofite fcale will fhow the fpecific gravity of the buc¬
ket and the quickfilver together: the fpecific gravity
of the bucket is already known; and of confequence
the fpecific gravity of the quickfilver, or any other fi-
milar fubftance, will be what remains.
As we can thus difcover the fpecific gravity of dif¬
ferent folids by plunging them in the fame fluid, fo we
can difcover the fpecific gravity of different fluids, by
plunging the fame folid body into them ; for in pro¬
portion as the fluid is light, fo much will it diminilh
the weight of the body weighed in it. Thus we may
know that fpirit of wine has lefs fpecific gravity than
water, becaufe a folid that will fwim in water will fink
in fpirit; on the contrary, we may know that fpirit of
nitre has greater fpecific gravity than water, becaufe
a folid that will fink in water will fwim upon the fpirit
of nitre. Upon this principle is made that fimple in- I3
ftrument called an hydrometer, which ferves to meafure The hydro-
the lightnefs or weight of different fluids. For thatmeter*
liquors weigh very differently from each other is found
by experience. Suppofe we take a glafs-veffel which
is divided into two parts, communicating with each '
other by a fmall opening of a line and an half diame¬
ter. Let the lower part be filled up to the divifion
with red-wine, then let the upper part be filled with
water. As the red-wine is lighter than water, we
ffiall fee it in a fliort time riling like a fmall thread up
through the water, and diffufing itfelf upon the fur¬
face, till at length we lhall find the wine and water have
changed their places ; the water will be feen in the
lower half, and the wine in the upper half, of the vef¬
fel. Or take a fmall bottle AB, the neck of which
muff be very narrow, the mouth pot more than £ of qqxL
an inch wide; and have a glafs-veffel CD, whofe fig.*,
height exceeds that of the bottle about two inches.
1 With
(a) This is the common hydroftatic balance. The reader will fee.an improved apparatus at Hydrojlatk
Balance, in order of the alphabet.
sea. III. HYDRO
Specific With a fmall funnel fill the bottle quite full of red-
Gravities^ wine, and place it in the veffel CD, which is to be
1 v ' full of water. The wine will prefently come out of
the bottle, and rife in form of a fmall column to the
furface of the water; and at the fame time the wa¬
ter, entering the bottle, will fupply the place of the
wine; for water being fpecifically heavier than wine,
muft hold the loweft place, while the other naturally
rifes to the top. A fimilar effeft will be produced if
the bottle be filled with water, and the veifel with
wine : for the bottle being placed in the veffel in an
inverted pofition, the water will defcend to the bottom
of the vefiel, and the wine will mount into the bottle.
In the fame manner we may pour four different li¬
quors, of different weights, into any glafs-veffel, and
they (hall all Hand feparate and unmixed with each
other. Thus, if we take mercury, oil of tartar, fpi-
rit of witie, and fpirit of turpentine, fhake them toge¬
ther in a glafs, and then 1ft them fettle a few minutes,
each fhall Hand in its proper place, mercury at the
bottom, oil of tartar next, fpirit of wine, and then
fpirit of turpentine above all. Thus we fee liquors
are of very different denfities; and this difference it is
that the hydrometer is adapted to compare. In ge¬
neral, all vinous fpirits are lighter than water; and the
lefs they contain of water, the lighter they are. The
hydrometer, therefore, will inform us how far they
are genuine, by fhowing us their lightnefs ; for in
pure ’fpirit of wine it finks lefs than in that which is
mixed with a fmall quantity of water.
The hydrometer fhould be made of copper: for ivory
BiS- 3- imbibes fpirituous liquors, and thereby alters their gra¬
vity ; and glafs requires an attention that is incompatible
with expedition. The moft fimple hydrometer con-
fiils of a copper ball B 5, to which is foldered a brafs
wire AB, one quarter of an inch thick. The upper
part of this wire being filed flat, is marked proof, at
m, fig. 4. becaufe it finks exaftly to that mark in
proof-fpirits. There are two other marks at A and B,
fig. 3. to fhow whether the liquor be one-tenth above
or- below proof, according as the hydrometer finks to
A, or emerges to B, when a brafs weight, as C or K,
is- fcrewed to its bottom c. There are other weights
to fcrew on, which fhow the fpecific gravity of differ¬
ent fluids, quite down to conunon water.
The round part of the wire above the ball may be
marked fo as to reprefent river-water when, it links to
RW, fig. 4. the weight which anfwers to that water
being then fcrewed on; and when put'into fpring-
water, mineral-water, fea-w^ater, and water of fait
fprings, it will gradually rife to the marks SP, MI,
SE, SA. On the contrary, when it is put into Bri-
ftol water, rain-water, port-wine, and mountain-wine,
it will fucceffively fink to the marks br, ra, po, mo.
Inftruments of this kind are fometimes called areometers.
There is another fort of hydrometer that is calcu¬
lated to afeertain the fpecific gravity of fluids to the
greateil precifion poffible, and which confifts of a
large hollow ball B, fig. 5. with a fmaller ball b fcrew¬
ed on to its bottom, partly filled with mercury or fmall
fhot, in order to render it but little fpecifically lighter
than water. The larger ball has alfo a fhort neck at
C, into which is fcrewed the graduated brafs-wire AC,
which, by a fmall weight at A, caufes the body of
the inftrument to defcend in the fluid, with part of
the ftem.
STATICS. 7
When this inftrument is fwimming in the liquor Specific
contained in the jar ILMK, the part of the fluid dif- Gr'i^lKa^
placed by it will be equal in bulk to the part of the
inflrument under water, and equal in weight to the
whole inftrument. Now, fuppofe the weight of the
whole to be four thoufand grains, it is then evident
we can by this means compare the different dimenfions
of four thoufand grains of feveral forts of fluids. For
if the weight at A be fuch as will caufe the ball to fink
in rain-water till its furface come to the middle point
of the ftem 20 ; and after that, if it be immerfed in
common fpring-water, and the furTace be obferved to
ftand at one-tenth of an inch below the middle point
20; it is apparent, that the fame weight of each water
differs only in bulk by the magnitude of one-tenth of
an inch in the ftem.
Now, fuppofe the ftem to be ten inches long, and to
weigh a hundred grains, then every tenth of an inch
will weigh one grain: and as . the ftem is of brafs,
which is about eight times heavier than water, the
fame bulk of water will be equal to one-eighth of a
grain, and confequently to the one-eighth of one four-
thoufandth part, that is, one thirty-two thoufandth
part of the whole bulk. This inftrument is capable
of ftill greater precifion, by making the ftem or neck,
confift of a flat thin flip of brafs, inftead of one that
is cylindrical: for bv this means we increafe the fur¬
face, which is the moft requifite circumftance, and di-
minifh the folidity, which neceffarily renders the in¬
ftrument ftill more accurate.
To adapt this inftrument to all purpofes, there
fhould be two ftems, to fcrew on and off, in a fmall
hole at a. One ftem fhould be a fmooth thin flip of
brafs, or rather fteel, like a watch-fpring fet ftraight,
fimilar to that we have juft now mentioned ; on one
fide of which is to be the feveral marks or divifions to
which it. will fink in different forts of water, as rain,
river, fpring, fea, and falt-fpring waters, &c.; and
on the other fide you may mark the divifions to which
it finks in various lighter fluids, as hot Bath water,-
Briftol water, Lincomb water, Cheltenham water,
port-wine, mountain, madeira, and other forts of wines.
But here the weight at A on the top muft be a little-
lefs than before when it was ufed for heavier waters.
But in trying the ftrength of the fpirituous liquors,
a common cylindric ftem will do beft,. becaufe of its
ftrength' and fteadiriefs : and this, ought to be fo con*
trived, that, when immerfed in what is called proof-
fpirit, the furface of the fpirit may- be upon the middle
point 20 ; which is eafily done by duly adjufting the
fmall weight A on the top, and making the ftem of
fuch a length, that, when immerfed in water, it may
juft cover the ball and rife to a; but, when immerfed
in pure fpirit, it may rife to the top A. Then, by di¬
viding the upper and lower parts a 20 and A 20, into
ten equal parts each, when the inftrument is immerfed
into any fort of fpirituous liquor, it will immediately
fhow how much it is above or below proof. (
Proof-fpirit confifts of half water and half pure fpi¬
rit, that is, fuch as, when poured on gun powder, and
fet on fire, will burn all away ; .and permits the pow¬
der to take fire and flafh, as in open air. But if
the fpirit be not fo highly reftified, there will remain
fome water, which, will make the powder wet, and un¬
fit to take fire. Proof-fpirit of any kind weighs feven .
pounds twelve ounces per gallon-
The
HYDROSTATICS.
Sea, nr.
proved hy¬
drometer.
Hydrome¬
ter made
byjojies.
The common method of fhaking the fpirits in a in its horizontal diameter. It has a fquare (lem A D, Specific
phial, and railing a head of bubbles, to judge by their on the four lides of which are graduated the different Gravi::iea',
manner of riling or breaking whether the fpirit be llrengths of the fpirit. The other three Tides not fhown v ""
proof, or near it, is very fallacious. There is no way in this figure are reprefented in fig. 7. with the three
fo certain,' and at the fame time fo eafy and expedi- weights belonging to them, marked nJ r. 2. and 3,
tious, as this by the hydrometer. correfponding to the fides fimilarly marked at the top.
A variety of different conftrudfions of the hydrome- When the inllrument is placed in the fpirit to be tried,
ter have recently been made with a particular .view if it finks to the divifions on the item without a
of improving the inftrument, fo as to afcertain the weight, the flrength will be fhown on the fide marked
flrengths of fpirits, and worts in brewing, in the o on the top; and it will indicate any ftrength from
moft eafy and accurate manner. As it would be unne- 74 gallons in the 100, to 47 to the 100 above proof,
ceffary to defciibe all of them here, we fhali conclude The fmall figures, as 4 at 66, 34- at 61, 2^ at 48, &c.
this fe&ion with defcrijWfons of thofe only which have {how the concentration by mixture above mentioned,
been moll approved and are now in general ufe. The Cuf- v/s;. the rate of diminutions that will take place, by
i. toms have for a long time adopted an hydrometer of an making a mixture with water, to reduce the fpint at
, old conltruftion, by the late Mr Clarke. It differs very thofe ftrengths to proof. If the hydrometer does not
little from the one above defcribed (fig. 3. 4.); and has fink to the Item without a weight, it mull be made
belonging to it a great variety of weights, which are oc- do fo by applying cither of the three weights requi-
eafionally fecured on to the bottom of the Item : This • fite. The fide n° 1. with the weight no 1. (hows the
renders the inftrument troublefome and complicated ftrength of fpirits from 4610 13 gallons to the 100
in its ufe, and where difpatch in bufinefs and accuracy above proof, as before. The concentration figures are
are wanted, not fo commodious as fuch an inftrument 2, tx, Sic. the ufe as before. The fide n°2. with the
fhculd be. weight n° 2. Ihows the remainder of the over-proof to
An hydrometer upon a very fimple conftru&ion, proof, the divifion of which is marked P on the inftru-
eafy in its application, and fufficiently accurate for the ment, and every gallon in 100 under proof down to
common purpofes it is wanted to anfwer, by diftillers 29. The fide n0 3. with its weight, fhows the re-
and others concerned in the fale and ftate of fpirits, mainder from 30 gallons in the 100 under proof down
is made by Mr Wm. Jones mathematical inftrument to water, marked W, which may be confidered 109
maker in Holborn. It requires only three weights, to in 160. The application of the thermometer (F)
difcover the ftrengths of fpirits from alcohol down now appears eafy and expeditious; for as it is immer-
to water. This hydrometer, like others, is adjuft- fed in the fpirits with the hydrometer, they both may
ed to a temperate ftate of the air, or 60° of the be obferved at one experiment or trial. The fcale of
thermometer with Fahrenheit’s fcale; but as an altera- the thermometer is divided into four columns ; two on
tion of this temperature very materially affefts the one fide, as fhown in the figure, and two on the other,
gravity of fpirits, caufing them by the inftrument to At the top of the columns are marks o. 1^ 2. 3. agree-
appear ftronger when the weather is hotter, and the ing with the weights, or no weight, in ufe ; and that
contrary, it has been found indifpenfably neceffary column of divifions of the thermometer is to be ob-
to place a thermometer in the fpirits previous to the ferved which correfponds with the weights in ufe ; if no
xmmerfing of the inftrument, and make a juft allow- weight is ufed, then the column marked o is obferved.
ance for the feveral degrees that the mercury may be The divifions of the thermometer commence from the
above or below the temperature above mentioned, middle of each .column at the temperate point, which
This has been ufually, though inaccurately, eftimated at is marked o : - then for as many divifions as the quick-
the rate of one gallon allowance for every three de- filver in the tube appears above o, fo many gallons in
grees of the thermometer above or below 6o° ; viz. the 100 muft the fpirit be reckoned weaker; and
for every three degrees warmer, reckoning the fpirit one for fo many divifions as the quickfilver may appear
gallon in the too weaker than what is fhown by the below o, as many gallons in the 100 muft be reckoned
hydrometer ; and for every three degrees colder than ftronger.
6o°, allowing one gallon in the too ftronger. In this Hydrometers of a fimilar conftru&ion, and with no
hydrometer, the thermometer is united with the inftru- more weights, Mr Jones makes for difcovering to great
ment; and from experiment its divifions are adjufted exadtnefs the different ftrengths or fpecific gravity of
to the different degrees above or below the temperate worts in brewing, of different minerals, fea waters.
Hate. The concentration is alfo confidered in this &c. For thefe purpofes the thermometer is not uni-
inllrument, which is the mutual penetration of ted with the inftrument; but is found to be more ufe-
fpirit and water when mixed together; which in ful feparately, and of a larger dimenfion. Notwitldiand-j^,
ftrong fpirits is fo confiderable as to caufe a diminu- ing the above hydrometer anfwering the general purpo-Dicas ^4^
tution of 4 gallons in the 100: for example, if to xco fes in an accurate and eafy manner, yet the induftry ofa Aiding
gallons of fpirit of wine, found by the inftrument to be feveral ingenious perfons interefted in the fale of fpirits rufe*
66 gallons in the 100 over proof, you add 66 gallons has been exerted to conltruft an inftrument of the
of water in order to reduce it to a proof ftate; the mix- greatejl poffible exadlnefs. The effeds of heat and cold
ture, inftead of producing 166 gallons, will produce upon different ftrengths of fpirits not being lo uniform
\&2 gallons only of proof fpirits, and therefore 4 gal- as generally underftood, and every different degree of
ftrength of fpirit between water and alcohol having its
peculiar degree of eontradion and dilatation, errors of
fome importance muft be found in the hydrometers con-
ftruded upon the ufual principle of temperature. With
Ions will be loft in the mutual penetration of the par¬
ticles of the water and fpirit.
Fig. 6. is a reprefentation of the whole xnftrument,
with the thermometer united. Its length A B is a-
bout 9-*-'inches ; its ball C, is of the fhape nearly of a view to obviate this defed, Mr Dicas of Liverpool
an egg> an(i made of hard biafs, and about ij i nch e onftruded fome years back an hydrometer of the form
N° 161. ge-
5ea.HI. HYDRO
SjtCifit generally ufed, with 36 weights, which were valued
'Gravities. from 0 to 370, including the diviiions on the ttem ; but
w—y—• jjjg improvement confifts folely in an ivory Hiding rule
which accompanies the inftrument. In the graduation
of this rule, is confidered the different effedis of heat
and cold above-mentioned on the fpirits. Every de¬
gree of ftrength included by the hydrometer between
o and 370, has the fame feries of numbers placed on
the Hiding part of the rule ; oppofite to which, on the
fixed rule, are marked the different Hrengths, and which
are thus determined by immediate infpe&ion. They
proceed on one fide from water to proof, and on the
other from proof to alcohol, and divided in fuch a man¬
ner, as to Ihow how many gallons in the 100 the fpi¬
rits are above or below proof. There is alfo a line,
containingthe concentration for everydegree of ftrength;
and, what is the chief advantage of the rule, at one end
of the fide is placed a fcale, containing the degree of
heat from 30 to 80 of Fahrenheit’s fcale, with a flower
de luce oppofite, as an index, to fix it to the tempera¬
ture of the fpirits. By the affiftance of this Hiding
rule, the exaft ftate of the fpirits is corre&ly obtained.
A perfect comprehenfion of this rule can only be had
by an infpedtion of it, and it always accompanies the
hydrometer on fale. Mr Dicas has obtained a patent
t8 for his improvement.
"Mr Q^jn’s An hydrometer of a more univerfal conftruftion has
nuiivedal fjeen ma(]e by Mr Qmn, who for many years has been
Wr. accuftomed to conftvu6l hydrometers of various kinds.
This hydrometer is made of hard brafs; and therefore
not fo liable to be injured as fine copper, of which hy¬
drometers are ufually made : it is conftru&ed fo as to
afcertain, in a plain and expeditious manner, the ftrength
of any fpirit from alcohol to water, with the concen¬
tration and fpecific gravity of each different ftrength ;
and difcovers alfo the weight of worts, &c. with four
weights only ; which, according to the old conftrudtion
of hydrometers, would require a far greater number of
weights. Fig. 8. is a reprefentation of the inftrument,
with its four fides of the Item graduated and figured at
top, to correfpond with the weights below. The fide
of the fquare-ftem engraved A,B,C, D, &c. to Z,
fiiows the ftrength of any fpirit from alcohol to water ;
and the three other fides, numbered 1, 2, 3, are adapted
for worts, &c. The heat and cold altering the denfity
of fpirits, and giving to every degree of ftrength a pe¬
culiar degree of contra&ion and dilatation ; this cir-
cumflance is confidered in dividing the Aiding rule be¬
longing to and fold with the hydrometer. This Ai¬
ding rule is nearly fimilar to that of Mr Dicas’s above-
mentioned, and differs but very little from it. Some
diredlions for the ufe of this hydrometer may further
exemplify its fimpHcity and accuracy.
Find the heat of the fpirit by a thermometer, and
bring the ftar on the Hiding rule to the degree of heat
on the thermometer fcale, and againft the number of
the weight and letter on the ftem you have the
llrength of the fpirit pointed out on the Hiding rule,
which is lettered and numbered as the inftrument and
weights are.
The weights apply on the under ftem at C.
Example. Suppofe the heat of the fpirit 65° by thb
thermometer, and of fucb ftrength as to fink the hy¬
drometer to D on the ftem, without any weight ; then
put the ftar (on the rule) to 6e° of the thermometer,
Vol. IX. Fart I.
STATICS. 9
and againft D you have 75 gallons to the too over Specific
proof ; at this ftrength the concentration is 5 gallons Gravitne3-j
(marked above 75) ; and the fpecific gravity is nearly ’ ■
811, as marked below D : fo that if 75 gallons of wa¬
ter are added to 100 gallons of this fpirit, the mixture
will be hydrometer proof; but will only produce in
meafure 170 gallons. Again, let the heat be 50°, and
the fpirit-require the weight m> t. to fink the indru-
ment to I on the ftem ; then put tfte ftar to 50° of
heat, and againft I on the Hiding rule you have 524-
gallons to 100 over proof, concentration 2^- gallons,
and the fpecific gravity 854.
If the inftrument with the weight n° 2. fhould fink
to Q^on the ftem, and the heat 41°, it ftiows the
ftrength tq gallons to the too over proof, concentra¬
tion ^ fpecific gravity 905.
If the fpirit be at 320 of heat, and the weight n° 3.
finks the inftrument to letter S on the ftem on the
Hiding rule, it ftiows the liquor to be 13 gallons in the
100 under proof, concentration fpecitie gravity 945.
So of the reft. In afcertaining the ftrength or gravity
of worts, the weight n° 4. is always to continue on the
hydrometer ; and the weights n° 1, 2,3, are adapted to
the fides n° 1, 2, 3, of the Square ftem j which difcovers
the exaft gravity of the worts.
The inftrument is adjufted fo as to fink in rain wa¬
ter at 6o° of the thermometer with the weight n° 1.
to W, on the fide of the ftem n° 1. and ftiows to 26°
heavier than water. The fide n° 2. with its correfpond-
ing weight n° 2. ftiows from 26° to 53°, and the
fide n° 3. afcertains from 530 to 8i°, or 404- pounds
per barrel heavier than water; two degrees on the ftera
being a pound per barrel.
To ufe the hydrometer in afcertaining the gravity of two
or more ’worts.
Rule. Multiply the gravity of each wort by its re-
fpecfive number of barrels or gallons; divide the fum
of the produfts by the number of gallons or barrels ;
the quotient will be the mean gravity required.
Suppofe firft wort 30 barrels,
at 6o° gravity,
fecond wort 20 barrels,
at 350 gravity,
6o° 350
30 barrels 20 barrels
1800
700
700
50)2500(50° mean gravity required.
2500
When the heat of the worts cannot be conveniently
tried at 6o° of the thermometer, the following finall
table ftiows the number of divifions to be added for the
heat:
Degrees of the thermometer 60
72
9i
99
Degrees of
thehydro-
meter to be
added.
This table is not philofophically true ; yet the error
from it will not exceed a quarter of a pound per barrel
in any gravity, and for fermentation ; but for more accu¬
racy in this particular Mr Quin completes a fcale which
may be applied to any particular degree of heat.
B
Mr
IO
Specific Mr Nieholfon has lately improved the conftruftion
Gravities. 0f tjie hydrometer, and made it a new inftrument for
^ meafuring the fpecific gravity of bodies ; and for that
purpofe it appears the mofl. accurate of any yet con-
ftru&ed. See fig. 9. where A A reprefents a fmall fcale,
which may be taken off at D; diameter 1-5 inch, weight
44. grains. B a ftem of hardened fteel wire; diameter 3~-
inch. E a hollow copper globe ; diameter 2T8S inches,
weight with ftem 369 grains. FF a ftirrup of wire
fcrewed to the globe at C. G a fmall fcale ferving like-
wife as a counterpoife’; diameter 14 inch, weight with
ftirrup 1634 grains. The other dimenfions may be had
from the figure, which is y of the linear magnitude of
the inftrument itfelf.
In the conftru&ion, it is affumed, that the upper
fcale (hall conftantly carry 1000 grains when the low¬
er fcale is empty, and the inftrument funk in diftilled
water at the temperature of 6o° Fahrenheit to the
middle of the wire or ftem. The length of the ftem
is arbitrary, as is likewife the diftance of the lower
fcale from the furface of the globe. But the length
of the ftem being fettled, the lower fcale may be made
lighter, and confequently the globe lefs, the greater
its diftance is taken from the furface of the globe ; and
the contrary. It is to be noted that the diameter of
each fcale muft not be lefs than the fide of a cube of
water weighing 1000 grains.
The diftances of the upper and lower fcales refpec-
tively from the neareft furface of the globe being fet¬
tled, add half the fide of a cube of water weighing
1000 grains to the diftance of the upper fcale. This
increafed diftance, and the faid diftance of the lower
fcale, may be confidercd as the two arms of a lever ;
and, by the property of that mechanical power,
As the number expreffing the lower diftance,
Is to the whole weight above ; namely 1000 grains
added to the weight of the upper fcale ;
So is the number exprelfing the upper diftance,
To the lower weight, when the inftrument has no
tendency to any one pofition.
This laft found weight muft be confiderably increa¬
fed, in order that the inftruments may acquire and
prcferve a perpendicular pofition.
Add together into one fum the weight of the low¬
er fcale thus found, the weight of the upper fcale and
its load, and the eflimate weight of the ball and wires.
Find the folid content of an equal weight, of water ;
and thence, by the common rules of menfuration the
diameter of an equal fphere. This will be the diame¬
ter, from outfide to outfide, of the globe that will float
the whole.
As this procefs, and every other part of the prefent
defcription, may be eafily deduced from the well known
laws of hydroftatics, it is unneceffary to enlarge here
on the demonftrative part.
To mcafure the fpecific gravities and thermometrical ex-
panjions of fluids. If the extreme length or height
«f the inftrument be moderate, its weight, when load¬
ed, will be about 3100 grains. It is, however, necef-
fary in praftice, that its weight fhould be accurately
found by experiment. This whole weight is equal to
that of a quantity of diftilled water at the temperature
©f 6o°, whofe bulk is equal to that part of the inftru¬
ment which is below the middle of the ftem. If,
therefore, the inftrument be immerfed to the middle of
the ftem in any other fluid at the fame temperature
Sea. irr.
(which may be done by altering the load), the differ- Specific
ence between this laft load and 1000 grains will be the Gravities,
difference between equal bulks of water and of the —“"V"—-.
other fluid, the weight or the mafs of water being
known to be 3100 grains. If the faid difference be
excefs above 1000 grains it muft be added, or if it be
defeft fubtra&ed from 3100 grains: the fum or re¬
mainder will be a number whofe ratio to 3100 will ex-
prefs the ratio of the fpecific gravity of the affumed
fluid to that of water. And this ratio will be expref-
fed with confiderable accuracy ; for the inftrument ha¬
ving a cylindrical ftem of no more than of an inch
diameter, will be raifed or depreffed near one inch by
the fubtradlion or addition of of a grain, and will
therefore indicate with eafe fuch mutations of weight
as do not fall ihort of of a grain, or y-T^trs-th part
of the whole. Confequently, the fpecific gravities of
all fluids, in which this inftrument can be immerfed,
will be found to five places of figures.
It is evident, that this inftrument is a kind of ther¬
mometer, perhaps better adapted than the common one
for meafuring the expanfions of fluids by heat. As the
fluid, in the common thermometer, rifes by the excefs
of expanfion of the fluid beyond the expanfion of the
glafs veffel; fo this inftrument will fall by the excefs of
the fame expanfion beyond the proper expanfion of
the materials it is compofed of.
To meafure the fpecific gravities of folid bodies. The fo¬
lid bodies to be tried by this inftrument muft not ex¬
ceed lodo grains in weight. Place the inftrument in
diftilled water, and load the upper fcale or difh till the*
furface of the water interfe&s the middle of the ftem.
If the weights required to effeft this be exa&ly 1000*
grains, the temperature of the water anfwers to 6o°
of Fahrenheit’s fcale ; if they be more or lefs than*
1000 grains, it follows, that the water is colder or
warmer. Having taken a note of this weight, unload
the fcale, and place therein the body whofe fpecific
gravity is required. Add more weight, till the furface
of the water again bifedts the ftem. The difference
between the added weight and the former load is the
weight of the body in air. Place now the body in*
the lower fcale or difh under water, and add weights on
the upper fcale till the furface of the water once more
bifedts the ftem. This laft added weight will be the
difference between 1000 grains and the weight of the
body in water. To illuftrate this by an example.
N. B. The fpecific gravity of lead and tin, and
(probably other metals) will vary in the third figure
when the fame piece of metal is melted and cooled a
fecond time. This difference probably arifes from the ar¬
rangement of the parts in cooling more or lefs fuddenly
Grains.
The load was found by experiment - 999,10.
A piece of caft lead required the addi¬
tional weight - - 210,85
Difference is abfolute weight in air 788,25
Additional weight when the lead was in
the lower fcale - - 280,09
Difference between the two additional
weights or lofs by immerfion - 69,24
788.25 11384
Hence fpecific gravity =.  —-
69.24 1000
When
HYDROSTATICS.
Sea.IIT. HYDROS
Specific When the inftrument is once adjufted in diftilled wa-
Gravities. {erj common water may be afterwards ufed. For the
I 1 * " ratio of the fpecific gravity of the water made ufe of
to that of dillilled water being known ( = -)> and the
I ratio of the fpecific gravity of the folid to the water
made ufe of being alfo known (=:^), the ratio of the
fpecific gravity of the folid to that of diftilled water
cb
will be compounded of both (that is,
There is reafon to conclude from the experiments of
various authors, that they have not paid much atten¬
tion either to the temperature or fpecific gravity of
the water they made ufe of. They who are inclined
to be contented with a lefs degree of precifion than is
intended in the conftru6tion here deferibed, may
change the ftetn, which for that purpofe may be made
to take out for a larger.
One of the greateft difficulties that attends hydro-
ftatical experiments, arifes from the attra&ion or repul-
fion that obtains at the furface of the water. After
trying many expedients to obviate the irregularities
ariiing from this caufe, Mr Nicholfon finds reafon to
prefer the Ample one, of carefully wiping the wffiole
iriftrument, and efpecially the ftem, with a clean cloth.
The weights in the dilh muft not be efteemed accu¬
rate while there is either a cumulus or a cavity in the
water round the ftem. _ .
Yet, after all, we cannot with great geometrical
certainty rely upon either the hydrometer or the hy-
droftatic balance ; for there are fome natural inconve¬
niences that difturb the exaftnefs with which they dif-
cover the fpecific gravities of different bodies. Thus,
if the weather be hotter at one time than another, all
fluids will fwell, and confequently they will be lighter
than when the weather is cold : the air itfelf is at one
time heavier than at another, and will buoy up bodies
weighed in it; they will therefore appear lighter, and
will of confequence feem heavier in water. In fhort,
there are many caufes that would prevent us from ma¬
king tables of the fpecific gravities of bodies, if rigo¬
rous exaftnefs were only expe&ed ; for the individuals
of every kind of fubftauce differ from each other, gold
from gold, and water from water. In fuch tables,
therefore, all that is expefted is to come as near the
exaft weight as we can ; and from an infpe&ion into
feveral, we may make an average near the truth. Thus,
Mufchenbroek’s table makes the fpecific gravity of
rain-water to be nearly eighteen times and an half lefs
than that of a guinea; whereas our Englifh tables
make it to be but feventeen times and an half, nearly,
lefs than the fame. But though there may be fome
minute variation in all our tables, yet they ia general
may ferve to condudt us with fufficient accuracy.
In conftrufting tables of fpecific gravities with ac¬
curacy, the gravity of water muft be reprefented by
unity or i.ooo, where three cyphers are added to
give room for expreffing the ra'ios of other gravities
in decimal parts, as in the following table.
/
T A T I C S.
A TABLE of the SpEcrrrc GaAvirrES of feveral
Solid and Fluid Bodies.
jTroy weight.
A cubic inch of .oz. pw. gr.
3-83
6.44
17
19.84
11.61
Very fine gold
Standard gold
Guinea gold
Moidore gold
Qmckfilver
Lead
Fine filver
Standard filver
Copper
Plate-brafs
Steel
Iron
Block-tin
Spelter
Lead ore
Glafs of antimony
German antimony
Copper ore
Diamond
Clear glafs
Lapis lazuli -
Welch afteftos
White marble
Black ditto
Rock cryllal
Green glafs -
Cornelian ftone
Flint -
Hard paving ftone
Live fulphur -
Nitre
Alabafter
Dry ivory
Brimftone
Alum
Ebony
Human blood
Amber
Cow’s milk
Sea-water
Pump-water -
Spring-water
Diftilled water
Red wine
Oil of amber
Proof fpirits -
Dry oak
Olive oil
Pure fpirits
Spirit of turpent.
Oil of turpentine
Dry crabtree
Saffafras wood
Cork
'7-55
5 16 23.23
3-36
3 7.04
4 9.60
2 20.12
o 15-20
7 5-c8
4 12.86
1 17.76
6.89
4.8c
20.c
5.58
12 5.
tio 17.57
8 13.4
8 12.65
8 1.00
7 »5-38
7
6 19.63
5 22.87
1 2.40
o 1.08
o 19 18.74
o 19 6.09
O r8 23.76
o 17 21.92
o u 18 82
o II 2.89
o lO 20.79
o 10 20.79
o 10 20.79
o TO 13.30
O 10 12.94
O 10 11.42
o 10 11.42
o 10 7.63
o 9 19.73
o 9 18.00
15-1?
3‘27
2.76
8-53
1.69
2.04
2,77i
Avoirdu,
3Z. drams.
1 5.80
10 14.90
10 4.76
9 147
8 1.45
6 9.08
6 6.66
6 1.54
5 i.r
4 10.09
4 8.70
4 6-77
4 3-79
4 i-42
3 I4-96
3 0.89
2 5-°4
2 4-43
1 15.48
1 ,3.16
1 12.27
1 10.97
1 9.06
r 9.02
1 8.6
1 8.26
1 7-73
1 7-53
1 6.77
1 2.52
1 1.59
1 I-35
1 0.89
1 0.66
o 15.72
O IO.34
o 9.76
o 9.54
O 9.54
O 9.54
0 9.26
o 9. 5
o 9.20
o 9.20
o 9.06
o 8.62
o 8 56
o 8.45
o 8.02
o 7.99
° 7-33
o 7.08
o 4.46
O 2.21
Compa¬
rative
veight
19-63 7
'.888
793
140
019
325
087
535
843
000
852
645
3 2
065
800
280
000
75
400
5°
°54
9i3
707
704
658
620
568
542
[.60
000
900
875
825
800
7'4
17
054
030
030
030
000
999
993
993
978
931
925
9i3
66
64
72
65
.82
40
Take away the decimal point from the numbers i._
the right-hand column, or (which is the fame) mul¬
tiply them by 1000, and they will fhow how many
B 2 ounces
II
Specific
Gravities.
Tabic of
fpecifie gra¬
vities.
12 HYDROS
Hydranlies.ounces avoirdupois are contained in a cubic foot of
*"1 ' each body.
How to ^ie U^e t^ie ta^ ^Pec^c w>^ beft;
find out appear by an example. Suppofe a body to be cotn-
the quan. pounded of gold and filver, and it is required to End
tky of adu’.- the quantity of each metal in the compound.
metals'1 'n t'ie fpec‘fic gravity of the compound, by
weighing it in air and in water; and dividing its aerial
weight by what it lofes thereof in water, the quotient
will {how its fpecific gravity, or how many times it is
heavier than its bulk of water. Then fubtraft the
fpecific gravity of filver (found in the table) from that
of the compound, and the fpecific gravity of the com¬
pound from that of gold ; the firll remainder {hows
the bulk of gold, and the latter the bulk of filver, in
the whole compound: and if thefe remainders be mul¬
tiplied by the refpe&ive fpecific gravities, the products
will lhow the proportion of weights of each metal in
the body.
Suppofe the fpecific gravity of the compounded
body be 13; that of ftandard filver (by the table) is
J0.5, and that of gold 19.63: therefore 10.5 from 13,
remains 2.3, the proportional bulk of the gold; and
13 from 19.63, remains 6.63, the proportional bulk
of filver in the compound. Then, the firft. remainder
2.5, multiplied by 19.63, the fpecific gravity of gold,
produces 49.075 for the proportional weight of gold;
and the laft remainder 6.63 multiplied by 10.5, the
fpecific gravity of filver, produces 69.6x5 for the pro¬
portional weight of filver in the whole body. So that
for every 49.07 ounces or pounds of gold, there are
69.6 pounds Or ounces of filver in the body.
Hence it is eafy to know whether any fufpe&ed me¬
tal be genuine, or allayed, or counterfeit; by finding
how much it is heavier than its bulk of water, and
comparing the fame with the table: if they agree, the
metal is good; if they differ, it is allayed or coun¬
terfeited.
** A cubical inch of good brandy, rum, or other proof
^imouf7fPir‘t3’ weighs 235-7 grains; therefore, if a true inch
hiuors. cube of any metal weighs 235.7 grains lefs in fpirits
than in air, it {hows the fpirits are proof. If it lofes
lefs of its aerial weight in fpirits, they are above proof;
if it lofes more, they are under: For, the better the
fpirits are, they are the lighter; and the worfc, the
heavier.
T A T I C S. Sea. IV.
by water are entirely conftru&ed; feveral different en- Hydraulica.J
gines ufed in the mechanic arts, various kinds of mills, ^ \
pumps, and fountains, are the refuk of this theory, ju-
dicioufiy applied. zi :
And what is thus demonflrated of the bottom of the The v/la“
veffel, is equally true at every other depth whatfoever.
T.pf ii« tlipn tpilnpp this mm a theorem ! irplnntv L . .
Sect. IV. Hydraulics.
Hydraulics is that part of hydroftatics, which
teaches to eftimate the fwiftnefs or the force of fluids
in motion.
It has been always thought an inquiry of great cu-
riofity, and ftill greater advantage, to know the caufes
by which water fpouts from velfels to different heights
and diftances. We have obferved, for inftance, an
open veffel of liquor upon its ftand, pierced at the
bottom: the liquor, when the opening is firft. made,
fpouts out with great force; but as it continues to run,
becomes lefs violent, and the liquor flows more feebly.
A knowledge of hydraulics will inftruft us in the caufe
of this diminution of its ftrength; it will {how precife-
ly how far the liquor will fpout from any veffel, and
how fall or in what quantities it will flow. Upon
the principles of this Icience, many machines worked
Let us then teduce this into a theorem: 'Hhe velocity^
101th which water fpouts out at a hole in- the Jide or bottom
of a vejfet, is as the fquare root of the depth or SJlance of
the hole below the furface of the water. For, in order
to make double the quantity of a fluid run through
one hole as through another of the fame fize, it will
require four times the preffure of the other, and there-
foie mull be four times the depth of the other below
the furface of the water: anti for the fame reafon,
three times the quantity running in an equal time
through the fame fort of hole, muft run with three
times the velocity ; which will require nine times the
preffure, and confequently muft be nine times as deep
below the furface of the fluid : and fo on.— To prove P]ate
this by an experiment: Let two pipes, as C andg, ofcexxxna
equal-fixed bores, be fixed into the fide of the veffel ^•9-,
AB ; the pipe g being four times as deep below the
furface of the water at b in the veffel as the pipe C is:
and whilft thefe pipes run, let water be conftantly
poured into the veffel, to keep the furface ftill at the
fame height. Then if a cup that holds a pint be fo
placed as to receive the water that fpouts from the
pipe C, and at the fame moment a cup that holds a
quart be fo placed as to receive the water that fpouts ,
from the pipe g, both cups will be filled at the fame
time by their refpeftive pipes.
The horizontal dillance to which a fluid will fpout The hori-:
from a horizontal pipe in any part of the fide of an^^di*
upright veffel below the furface of the fluid, is equal t0!y3njch wa.
twice the length of a perpendicular to the fide of the ter will
veffel, drawn from the mouth of the pipe to a femi-fpout from
circle deferibed upon the altitude of the fluid : andP'P®*
therefore, the fluid will fpout to the greateft diftance
pofiible from a pipe whofe mouth is at the centre of
the femicircle; becaufe a perpendicular to its diame¬
ter (fuppofed parallel to the fide of the veffel) drawn
from that point, is the longeft that can poffibly be
drawn from any part of the diameter to the circumfe¬
rence of the femicircle. Thus, if the veffel AB be
full of water, the horizontal pipe D be in the middle
of its fide, and the femicircle be deferibed up¬
on D as a centre, with the radius or femrdiameter
D £ N, or the perpendicular D d to the diame¬
ter ND£,is the longeft that can be drawn from any
part of the diameter to the circumference N e d c b.
And if the veffel be kept full, the jet G will fpout
from the pipe D, to the horizontal diftance N M,
which is double the length of the perpendicular D d.
If two other pipes, as C and E, be fixed into the fide
of the veffel at equal diftances above and below the
pipe D, the perpendiculars C c and E e, from thefe
pipes to the femicircle, will be equal: and the jets F
and H fpouting from them will each go to the horizon¬
tal diftance NK; which is double the length of either
of the equal perpendiculars C c or D </. ^
Fluids by their preffure may be conveyed over hills and How wates?
valleys in bended pipes, to any height not greater than niay he
the level of the fprings from whence they flow. This^Jej7^
is what the ancients were ignorant of; and therefore and vaif,
they leys.
The fy-
jphoiia.
Sea. IV. HYDROS
Hydraub'cs. they irfually built Aqueducts (vaft rows of arches one
above another, between two hille, at a vaft expence of
money, time, and labour), in order to convey water
over them, crofs the valley, in a common channel. This
is now done to equal advantage^ and at much lefs ex¬
pence, by a range of pipes laid down one hill and up
the other. An inftance whereof may be given by a
bent tube or crane ; into one of the equal legs whereof
if water be poured, it will rife to the fame level exa£Uy
in the other. The reafon is obvious: In the leg A,
(fig. (4.) there are,Tuppofe, two ounces of water en
deavouring by the power of gravity to defcend with
the force of 2 ; thefe will thruft forward, buoy up, and
fupport an equal quantity of a like fluid in B ; and the
bottom of the machine C, againft which both fides
equally bear, will of confequence fuftain a double
preffure, or that of four ounces ; and in the prefent
cafe will pretty well reprefent the prop or fixed
point of a balance-beam as the equal fluid-columns
AC, and B C, may be admitted to denote equal
weights, fufpended on the balance arms, counterpoi-
fing each other. So that the rife of fluids to their
firft level, thus confidered, is a cafe truly ftatical ;
and all their other motions proceed only from weight
added.
A fyphon, generally ufed for decanting liquors, is a
bended pipe, whofe legs are of unequal lengths; and
the (horteft leg muft always be put into the liquor in¬
tended to be decanted, that the perpendicular altitude
of the column of liquor in the other leg may be
longer than the column in the immerfed leg, efpecially
above the furface of the water. For, if both columns
were equally high in that refpeft, the atmofphere,
which prefics as much upward as downward, and
therefore a&s as much upward againft the column in
the leg that hangs without the vefiel, as it a&s down¬
ward upon the furface of the liquor in the veffel,
would hinder the running of the liquor through the
fyphon, even though it were brought over the bended
part by fu£tion. So that there is nothing left to caufe
the motion of the liquor, but the fuperior weight of the
column in the longer leg, on account of its having the
greater perpendicular height.
Let D be a cup filled with water to C ; and ABC
a fyphon, whofe fhorter leg B C F is immerfed in the
water from C to F. If the end of the other leg were
no lower than the line AC, which is level with the
furface of the water, the fyphon would not run, everv
though the air fhould be drawn out of it at the mouth
A. For although the fuftion would draw fome water
at firft; yet the water would ftop at the moment the
fu&ion ceafed ; becaufe the air would aft as much up¬
ward againft the water at A, as it afted downward for
it by prefling on the furface at C. But if the leg AB
comes down to G, and the air be drawn out at G by
fuftion, the water will immediately follow, and conti¬
nue to run until the furface of the water in the cup
comes down to F ; becaufe, till then, the perpendicular
height of the column BAG will be greater thanlfhat
of the column CB; and, confequently, its weight will
be greater, until the furface comes down to F ; and
then the fyphon will ftop, though the leg CF fhould
reach to the bottom of the cup. For which reafon,
the leg that hangs without the cup is always made
long enough to reach below the level of its bottom;
fig. IC..
T A T I C S. 13
as from ^ to E : and then, when the fyphon is emp- Hy Iraulics-
tied of air by fuftion at E, the water immediately fol-'
lows, and by its continuity brings away the whole
from the cup ; juft as pulling one end of a thread will
make the whole clue follow.
If the perpendicular height of a fyphon, from the
furface of the water to its bended top at B, be more
than 33 feet, it will draw no water, even though the
other leg were much longer, and the fyphon quite
emptied of air, becaufe the weight of a column of
water 33 feet high, is equal to the weight of as thick
a column of air, reaching from the furface of the earth
to the top of the atmofphere : fo that there will then
be an equilibrium ; and confequently, though there
would be weight enough of air upon the furface C to
make the water afeend in the leg CB almoft to the
height B, if the fyphon were emptied of air, yet the
weight would not be fufficient to force the water over
the bend; and therefore it could never be brought
into the leg BAG.
Mercury may be drawn through a fyphon in the
fame manner as water ; but then the utmoft height of
the fyphon muft always be lefs than 30 inches, as
mercury is near 14 times heavier than water. That
fluids are forced through the fyphon by the preflure
of the atmofphere, is proved experimentally by the
air-pump ; for, if a fyphon immerfed in a vefiel of
water be placed when running in the receiver, and
the air extrafted, the running will immediately ceafe.
It is however certain, that a fyphon of a particular
kind, once fet a running, will perfift in its motion,
though removed into the moft perfeft vacuum our air-
pumps will make : or, if the lower orifice of a full fy¬
phon be Ihut, and the whole be thus placed in a recei¬
ver, with a contrivance for opening the orifice when the
air is exhaufted ; the water will be all emptied out of the
veflel, as if it had been in open air.
This faft has been fufficiently afeertained by many
approved hydroilatjcal writers. Defaguliers informs
us, that he made the experiment both with water and
mercury ; for having filled a fyphon, recurved at the
extremities of its legs, fucceflively with thofe liquors,
and fufpended it by a flip wire in the receiver of an air-
pump, over two fmall jars containing mercury to -une¬
qual heights (and water, vvhen water was ufed in the
fyphon), he exhaufted the air out of the receiver, and
then letting down the fyphon, fo that its two ends
went into the liquor in the jars, the liquor ran from the
higher into the lower vefiel. He alfo made an experi¬
ment in the open air, where the mercury ran through
a fyphon, whofe bend was more than 31 inches above
the lower orifice of the fhort leg of the fyphon. But
neither of thefe experiments afford a juft objeftion againft
the preceding doftrine, viz. that the air is the caufe
of the difeharge of liquors from one veflel into another
by means of fyphons; for its running in vacuo was on¬
ly owing to the attraftion of cohefion, which afts for a
fmall height; becaufe the experiment will not fucceed
in vacuo, if the fyphon ufed for mercury has its bend
fix inches higher than the orifice of the fhort leg, and
if the bend for the fyphon of water be two or three
feet high; neither will the laft mentioned with mercu¬
ry in the open air anfwer, if the bend of the fyphon be
forty inches high : and in all the experiments the bores
of the fyphons muft be very fmall.
Thfr--
HYDROS
The figure of the fyphon may be varied at pleafure,
(feejf^. i. 2.3-) provided only the orifice C be below the
level of the furface of the water to be drawn up ; but
ftill the farther it is diftant from it, the fafter will the
fluid be carried off. And if, in the courfe of the flux,
the orifice A be drawn out of the fluid, all the liquor
in the fyphon will go out at the lower orifice C; that
in the leg CB dragging, as it were, that in the fltorter
feg A B after it. If a filled fyph on be fo difpofed, as
that both orifices A and C be in the fame horizontal
line ; the fluid will remain pendant in each leg, how
-unequal foever the length of the legs may be. Fluids,
therefore, in fyphons, feem as it were to form one con¬
tinued body ; fo that the heavier part defeending like a
chain,-prills the lighter after it.
Upon the principle of the fyphon depend the expe¬
riments of 'Tantalus's cup, n° 44 ; the Fountain at com¬
mand, n0 45 ; and the inverted drinking-glafs, n° 58. As
to the laft of thefe, it may be here obferved, that if the
paper was put dry on fuel) a vtfiel empty, it would
link in the air, and fall away even by its own gravity ;
and if put on wet, it were to be doubted whether a
very fmall weight added thereto would not feparate it
from the glafs, fo inconfiderable would the tenacity of
the water be in this cafe. The paper therefore can¬
not be fuppofed to fupport the incumbent weight of
v/ater ; and the true caufe thereof mull be this: The
bottom and Tides of the inverted glafs-veffel being
rigid, keep off the preffure of the air from the fluid
above, whereas it hath liberty of accefs and freely
a£ts thereon below : and that it does fo, will in part
appear to an obferver by the concavity of the paper
underneath. Could the air’s preffure in this cafe be
any-how admitted through the foot of the veffei in¬
verted, without doubt the whole column would defeend
together. And the like would happen fnould the
paper be removed ; but for a different reafon, viz. the
.large, column of water in the mug, being compofed of
many collateral ones, which, being difpofed as in a
■bundle, reft on the paper wherewith the veflel is co¬
vered, as on a common bafe ; and thefe being all
equally denfe, and equall fluid, are all retained, and
continued of the fame length, by the general and uni¬
form preffure of the air againft the paper below ; and
fo long as this continues, none of them getting the
leaft advantage over the reft, they are all fuftained in a
body compaft together. But when the paper is re¬
moved, it being fcarce poflible to hold the veffei fo
exactly level, but that fome one or other of thefe
fmaller fluid columns will become longer, confequently
heavier, than thofe adjacent, and, over-balancing the
reft, will defeend, and give the lighter fluid, the air,
leave to rife in its place, even to the top of the
glafs: the general preffure whereof being there ad¬
mitted, will foon caufe the reft of them to move, and
the whole quantity will then defeend, feemingly to¬
gether.
Again, fhould a veffei be but part filled with water,
the fame effeft will follow to a certain degree. For
inftance, fuppofe we fill a long glafs half with water,
cover it with paper, and turn it down as before. Six
inches fuppofe of water, endeavouring to defeend, will
by its weight rarefy the air in the glafs above it, per¬
haps a 60th part or more. The denfer air without
will then overpoife the air rarefied within; and there-
3
T A T I C S. Sea. IV.
fore a certain quantity of water, equal to the diffe-Hydraulic*,
rence of the two preffures, will in this cafe be thereby ‘ *
buoyed up and fupported. But the air within the
glafs being dilated as aforefaid, the water fufpended
mult be expe&ed to hang fomething below the
mouth of it ; though not enough, perhaps, to over¬
come the tenacity of the water, and make it all de¬
feend.
Upon the principle of the fyphon alfo we may eafily
account for intermitting or reciprocating fprings. Let ting fprings
A A be part of a hill, within which there is a cavitypl3re
BB ; and from this cavity a vein or channel running
in the dire&ion of BCDE. The rain that falls upon"8' **
the fide of the hill will fink and ftrain through the
fmall pores and crannies G, G, G, G ; and fill the
cavity K with water. When the water rifes to the
level HHC, the vein BCDE will be filled to C, and
the water will run through CDF as through a fy¬
phon ; which running will continue until the cavity
be emptied, and then it will ftop until the cavity be
filled again.
We have feen that fluids led in pipes will always
rife to the level of the referyoir whence they are fup-
plied ; the rifing column being pufhed forward, and
raifed by another equally heavy, at the fame time en¬
deavouring to defeend. A like effedf might be ex- *
petted from jets of water thus impelled, did not fric- ^etS'd e3U
tion againft the fides of the machines, and the refin¬
ance of the air, both lateral and perdendicular, gene¬
rally prove an abatement, and prevent its rifing fo high
as the head.
Where jets are executed in the bell manner, and
the frittion fpoken of is as much as poflible removed,
the impediment of the air only, through which they
needs mull beat in their rife, will caufe them, accor¬
ding to experiment, to fall fhort of the height of the
refervoirs, in the following proportions, viz.
Jar.
Feet.
*5
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Reservoir.
Feet. Inches.
5 : 1
10 : 4
15 : 9
21 : 4
27 : i
33 : 0
39 = *
45 : 4
51 : 9
58 : 4
65 : 1
72 : o
79 : 1
86 : 4
93 - 9
101 : 4
109 : 1
117:0
125 : 1
'33 • 4
Whence in general it may be obferved:
That as often as a five-foot jet (to be taken in thefe
matters as a ftandard,)
Shall
Sea. IV.
HYDROSTATICS.
Hydrau!ics- Shall he contained in the height of any jet prbpofed;
 v By fo many inches multiplied into themfelves, or fqua-
red.
The furface of the 'water in the refervatory which fup-
plies it, ought to exceed that jet in height.
Thus, to obtain a jet of 30 feet, which contains five
feet fix times, the refervoir ought to be 36 inches or
a yard higher; and a jet of 60 feet may be had from
a head higher by four times that difference, 144 inches,
or four yards. So that jets done in the lef manner fall
fhort of the heights of their refervatories, in a hind of fub-
duplicate ratio of the heights to which they rife.
This great difproportion in the rife of jets mufl in
general be owing to the refiftance of the air they are
made to move through; which has been fhown to be
in proportion to the fquares of their celerities refpeq-
tively : nor can the acceleration of the falling water in
the pipe, or the retardment of the rifing ftream by the
aftion of gravity, be concerned at all in it; lince thefe
are probably adequate, and counterbalance each other
every where in the fame level.
Their air’s refiftance being thus confiderable, it will
always be found neceffary to increafe the bore of the
adjutage or fpouting-pipe with the height of the refer¬
vatory : for if it be too fmall, the rifing ftream will
want fufficient weight and power to divide the air;
which being denfeft near the earth, a fmall ftream of
water, endeavouring to mount to a great height, will
be dafhed againft it with fo great violence, as to fall
away in a mift and be wholly loft. And it may be
obferved, that the weightier any body is, the greater
force it will have when in motion : fince an ounce-ball
fired from a mulket, will go much farther, and do
greater execution, than will an equal weight of fhot;
and thefe again may be projefted farther than fo much
lead rafped into powder and fired off. A charge of
water fired from a piftol would fcarce wet a paper at
the diftance of fix feet. Accordingly, ihould a calk
of water be any where pierced with holes of two, four,
fix, eight, and twelve lines over, all in the fame level,
the larger bore will always be found to throw the wa¬
ter fartheft.
It may be of ufe here to add Mr Man iote’s propor¬
tions of the bores of the adjutages and pipes of con-
dud, who was very converfant in thefe things, and
hath written very well on this fubjed.
N. B. The French divide their inch into 12 equal
parts, which they call lines.
Heights of
' Refervoirs.
Feet. Lines.
5 3* 4» 5» or 6
10 4, 5, or 6  
15 5, or 6 
20 6, or half an inch
Ditto 
Ditto 
7, or 8 
I5
25
3°
40
50
60
80
100
Diameters of ft
Adjutages.
Diameter of the Pipes
of Conduct.
Lines.
8, or 10 
10, or 12 —
12, or 14. —
. 12, 14, or 15  
Hence it may be remarked, that there is a certain
and fit proportion to be obferved between the adjutage
ay Inches.
z7> or zt
30, or zi
33, or 2jr
$6, or 3
y 1, or 4|.
65, or si
72, or 6
84, or 7
96, or 8
whereby the jet is delivered, and the pipe condudiug Hydraulic
it from the head. In general, Aboutfve times the dia- EngiiKS-
meter of the adjutage for jets under half an inch, and fix or v "~J
feven times for all above, will fve the pipes of conduit pretty
well: not but it will always be an error on the right fide,
to have them rather larger than in ftridnefs they ought
to be, that the jet may always be freely fupplied with
water, and in due time.
For a like reafon, if there be occafion for a cock to
be placed in any part of the pipe of condud, particular
care muft be taken that it (hould be there bigger in
proportion, that the water-way may not be pinched ;
but that the cavity be left at leaft equal to the bore of
the reft of the pipe.
The bore of an adjutage cannot be too fmooth or
true. Thofe that are cylindrical are beft ; thofe that
are bored conical worft, becaufe of the refledions of the
water from the inclined fides of the machine, which in
the hurry of the iffuing ftream will in them unavoidably
be made.
When fluids are defigned to be raifed higher than
the fprings from whence they flow, forcing engines
muft be ufed ; of which and other hydraulic machines,
we come now to give a particular account.
Sect. V. Hydraulic Engines.
x8
The pump is at once the moft common and moftOf pumps*-
ufeful of all the hydraulic inftruments. It was firft
invented by Ctefebes, a mathematician of Alexandria,
120 B. C.; when the air’s preffure came afterwards
to be known, it was much improved, and it is now
brought to a great degree of perfedion.
Ctefebes’s pump aded both by fudion and pulfion ; Plate
and its ftrudure and adion are as follow :—A brafs cy- CCXLlIIi
linder ABCD, furniftied with a valve in L, is placed in 15’
the water. 2. In this is fitted the embulus MK, made
of green wood, which will not fwell in the water, and
adjufted to the aperture of the cylinder with a covering
of leather, but without any valve. In H is fitted on
another tube NH, with a valve that opens upwards in
I. Now, the embulus EK being raifed, the water
opens the valve in L, and rifes into the cavity of the
cylinder:—and when the fame embulus is again de-
preffed, the valve I is opened, and the water driven up
through the tube HN. This is the pump ufed among
the ancients, and that from which the others after-
mentioned are deduced. Sir S. Morland has endea¬
voured to increafe its force by leffening the fri&ion ;
which he has done to good effeft, infomuch as to make
it work without almoft any friftion at all.
Of this pump as now ufed there are Amply three
kinds, viv. the fucking, the forcing, and the lifting-
pump. By the two latt, water may be raifed to any
height, with an adequate apparatus and fufficient pow¬
er : by the former it may, by the general preffure of the
atmofphere on the furface of the well-water, be raifed
no more than 33 feet, as was before hinted, though in
pradtice it is feldom applied to the raifing it much
above 28 ; becaufe from the variations obferved on the
barometer, it is apprehended that the air may, on cer¬
tain occafions, be fomething lighter than 33 feet of
water ; and whenever that ftiall happen, for want of
the due counterpoife, this pump may fail in its per¬
formance.
The*
HYDROSTATICS. * Sea. V,
Hydra oil-. The. common fucling-pump, with which we draw wa-
lingines. ter out 0f weus> ;g an engine both pneumatic and hy-
1 v draulic. It confifts of a pipe open at both ends, in
The com- which is a moveable pifton, bucket, or fucker, as
mon pump, big as the bore of the pipe in that part wherein it
works; and is leathered round, fo as to fit the bore
exaftly; and may be moved up and down, without
•fuffering any air to come between it and the pipe or
pump-barrel.
We (hall explain the ccnftru&ion of this and the
forcing-pump by pi&ures of glafs models, in which
both the a&ion of the pitlons and motion of the valves
are feen.
Hold the model DCBL upright in the veflel of wa-
T'CXLI. ter.K, the water being deep enough to rife at lead as
V' high as from A to I. The valve a on the moveable
bucket G, and the valve l on the fixed box H (which
box quite fills the bore of the pipe or barrel at H), will
each lie clofe, by its own weight, upon the hole in the
. bucket and box, until the engine begins to work. The
valves are made of brafs, and covered underneath with
leather for clofing the holes the more exaftly : and the
bucket G is railed and depreffed alternately by the
handle E and rod D d, the bucket being fuppofed at
B before the working begins.
Take hold of the handle E, and thereby draw up
the bucket from B to C, which will make room for
the air in the pump all the way below the bucket to
dilate itfelf, by which its fpring is weakened, and then
its force is not equivalent to the weight or preiTure of
the outward air upon the water in the veffel K : and
therefore, at the firft ftroke, the outward air will prefs
up the water through the notched foot A, into the
lower pipe, about as far as e: this will condenfe the
rarefied air in the pipe between e and C to the fame
flate it was in before; and then, as its fpring within
the pipe is equal to the force or prefl’ure of the out¬
ward air, the water will rife no higher by the firft
dlroke ; and the valve £, which was rkifed a little by
the dilation of the air in the pipe, will fall, and ftop
the hole in the box H ; and the furface of the water
•will Hand at e. Then deprefs the pifton or bucket from
C to B ; and as the air in the part B cannot get back
again through the valve b, it will (as the bucket de¬
scends) raife the valve a, and fo make its way through
the upper part of the barrel d into the open air. But
upon raifing the bucket G a fecond time, the air be¬
tween it and the water in the lower pipe at a will be
again left at liberty to fill a larger fpace ; and fo its
ipring being again weakened, the preiTure of the out¬
ward air on the water in the veifel K will force more
water up into the lower pipe from e to f; and when
the bucket is at its greateft height C, the lower valve
b will fall, and ftop the hole in the box H as before.
At the next ftroke of the bucket or pifion, the water
will rife through the box H towards B ; and then tkp
valve b, which was raifed by it, will fall when the
bucket G is at its greateft height. Upon deprefiing
the bucket again, the water cannot be pufhed back
through the valve which keeps clofe upon the hole
whilft the pifton defeends. And upon raifing the pifton
again, the outward preflure of the air will force the
water up through H, where it will raife the valve, and
follow the bucket to C. Upon the next deprefiion of
<fche bucket G, it will go down into the water in the
Np 161.
barrel B ; and as the water cannot be driven back Hydraulic
through the now clofe valve b, it will raife the valve a £ng|nes- ^
as the bucket defeends, and will be lifted up by the v
bucket when it is next raifed. And now, the whole
fpace below the bucket being full, the water above it
cannot fink when it is next deprdfed ; but upon its de¬
prefiion, the valve a will rife to let the bucket go
down ; and when it is quite down, the valve a will fall
by its weight, and ftop the hole in the bucket. When
the bucket is next raifed, all the water above it will
be lifted up, and begin to run off by the pipe F. And
thus, by raifing and deprefiing the bucket alternately,
there is ilill more water raifed by it ; which getting
above the pipe F, into the wide top I, will fupply the
•pipe, and make it run with a continued ftream.
So at every time the bucket is raifed, the valve 3
rifes, and the valve a falls; and at every time the buc¬
ket is depreffed, the valve b falls, and a rifes.
As it is the preffure of the air or atmofphere which
caufes the water to rife and follow the pifton or buc¬
ket G as it is drawn up ; and -fince a column of water
33 feet high is of equal weight with as thick a column
of the atmofphere from the earth to the very top of
the air ; therefore, the perpendicular height of the pi¬
fton or bucket from the furface of the water in the well
muft always be lefs than 33 feet; otherwife the water
will never get above the bucket. But when the height
is lefs, the preffure of the atmofphere will be greater
than the weight of the water in the pump, and will
therefore raife it above the bucket: and when the wa¬
ter has once got above the bucket, it may be lifted
thereby to any height, if the rod D be nsade long
enough, and a fufficient degree of ftrength be em¬
ployed to raife it with the weight of the water above
the bucket.
The force required to work a pump, will be as the
height to which the water is raifed, and as the fquare
of the diameter of the pump bore in that part where
the pifton works. So that, if two pumps be of equal
heights, and one of them Be twice as wide in the bore
as the other, the vvideft will raife four times as much
water as the narroweft ; and will therefore require four
times as much ftrength to work it.
The widenefs or narrownefs of the pump, in any
other part befides that in which the pifton works, does
not make the pump either more or lefs difficult to
work, except what difference may arife from the fric¬
tion of the water in the bore ; which is always greater
in a narrow bore than in a wide one, becaufe of the
greater velocity of the water.
The pump-rod is never raifed dire&ly by fnch a
handle as E at the top, but by means of a lever, whofe
longer arm (at the end of which the power is applied)
generally exceeds the length of the fhorter arm five or
fix times; a’nd, by that means, it gives five or fix
times as much advantage to the power. Upon thefe
principles, it will be eafy to find the dimenfions of a
pump that {hall work with a given force, and draw wa¬
ter from any given depth. But as thefe calculations
have been generally negle&ed.by pump-makers (either
for want of (kill or induftry), the following table was
calculated by the late ingenious Mr Booth for their be¬
nefit. In this calculation, he fuppofed the handle of
the pump to be a lever increafing the po\*er five times;
and had often found that a man can work a pump four
1 inches
Plate COXU.
HX I) It OS TAT I C S
Sea. V.
HYDROS
Hydraulic inches diameter and 30 feet high, and difeharge 27^
t F-ngines. ^ gallons of water (Englifh wine-meafurej in a minute.
' v ' Now, if it be required to find the diameter of a pump
that (hall raife water with the fame eafe from any
other height above the fufface of the well; look for
that height in the firll column, and over againft it in
the fecond you have the diameter or width of the
pump, and in the third you find the quantity of wa¬
ter which a man of ordinary ftrength can difeharge in
a minute.
Height
pump above
the furface of
the well.
of the Diameter of the
25
30
35
40
45
5°
%
65
70
75
80
85
So
95
TOO
bore where the
bucket works.
Water difeharged in
a minute, Englifli
wine-meafure.
o a
& S
•93
.66
.90
•38
.00
.70
.46
.27
.10
•95
.84
.72
.62
•53
•45
•38
•3i
•25
•J9
81
54
40
32
27
23
20
18
16
H
J3
,0 The forcing-pump raifes water through the box H
•Theforcing in the fame maner as the fucking-pump does, when
E
CCXLI.
fig. 4.
the plunger or pifton g is lifted up by the rod D d.
But this plunger has no hole through it, to let the wa¬
ter in the barrel BC get above it, when it is deprefled
to B, and the valve b (which rofe by the afeent of the
water through the box H when the plunger g was
drawn up) falls down and Hops the hole in H, the
moment that the plunger i? raifed to its greateft
height. Therefore, as the water between the plunger
g and box H can neither get through the plunger up¬
on its defeent, nor back again into the lower part of
the pump L e, but has a free paflfage by the cavity
around H into the pipe MM, which opens into the
air-vefiel KK at P; the water is forced through the
pipe MM by the defeent of the plunger, and driven
into the air-vefiel ; and in running up through the
pipe at P, it opens the valve a; which ihuts at the
moment the plunger begins to be raifed, becaufe the
aftion of the water againfi. the under fide of the valve
then ceafes.
The water, being thus forced into the air-veffel KK
by repeated ftrokes of the plunger, gets above the
lower end of the pipe GHI, and then begins to con-
clenfe the air in the veffel KK. For, as the pipe GH
Vot. IX. Part I.
T A T I C S. 17
is fixed air-tight into the veffel below F, and the air Hydraulic
has no way to get out of the vefltl but through the .
mouth of the pipe at I, and cannot get out when the
mouth I is covered with water, and is more and more
condenfed as the water rifes upon the pipe, the air
then begins to aft forcibly by its fpring againft the
furface of the water at H : and this aftion drives the
water up through the pipe IHGF, from whence it
fpouts in a jet S to a great height; and is fupplied by
alternately raifing and deprefling of the plunger g,
which conftantly forces the water that it raifes through
the valve H, along the pipe MM, into the air-veffel
KK.
The higher that the furface of the water H is raifed
in the air-veffd, the lefs fpace will the air be conden¬
fed into which before filled that vefl'el; and therefore
the force of its fpring will be fo much the ftrongcr up¬
on the water, and will drive it with the greater force
through the pipe at F: and as the fpring of the air
continues whilft the plunger g is rifing, the ftream or
jet S will be uniform, as long as the aftion of the
plunger continues; and when the valve b opens, to let
the water follow the plunger upward, the valve a ftiuts,
to hinder the water, which is forced into the air-veffel,
from running back by the pipe MM into the barrel of
the pump.
If there was no air-veffel to this engine, the pipe
GHI would be joined to the pipe MMN at P; and
then %he jet S would flop every time the plunger is
raifed, and run only when the plunger is depreffed.
Of lifting-pumps there are feveral forts ; the moft 3* ,
common is thus conftrufted. AB is the barrel, fixed tin**
in the frame KILM ; which is alfo fixed immoveable, pjate
with the lower part in the water that is to be pumped ccxxxtx.
up. GEQHO is a frame with two ftrong iron rods, I3-
moveable through holes in the upper and lower parts
of the pump, IK and LM. In the bottom of this
frame is fixed an inverted pifton BD, with its bucket
and valve uppermoft at D. From the top of the bar¬
rel there goes off a part KH, cither fixed to the bar¬
rel, or moveable by a ball and focket (as here re-
prefented at F) ; but in either cafe fo very exaft
and tight, that no water or air can pofliby get into
the barrel, as that would prevent the effeft of the
pump. In this part, at C, is fixed a valve opening
upward.
When the piflon frame is thruft down into the wa¬
ter, the pifton D will defeend, and the water beneath
it rufh up through the valve at D, and get above the
pifton ; where, upon the frame’s being lifted up, the
pifton will force the water through the valve C, into
the ciftern P, there to run off by the fpout. It is to
be remembered, that this fort of pump muft he fet fo
far in the water, that the pifton may play below its
furface. It appears by the above defeription, that
this is only a different manner of conftrufting a for¬
cing-pump.
By means of forcing-pumps, water may be raifed
to any height above the level of a river or fpn’ng ; and
machines may be contrived to work thefe pumps, ei¬
ther by a running ftream, a fall of water, or by horfes.
An inltance in each fort will be fufficient to /how the
method.
I. By a running ftream, or a fall of water. Let Plate
AA be a wheel, turned by the fall of water BB ; and CCXLT.
4 C have % 3*
,8 HYDROS
Hydraulic have any number of cranks (fuppofe fix) as C, D, E,
Engines, on ;ts ax;8| according to the ftrength of the
fall of water, and the height to which the water is in-
3a tended to be raifed by the engine. As the wheel turns
A pump- round, thefe cranks move the levers, c, d, e, f,g, b, up
engine to and down, by the iron rods i, k, /, m, n, o ; which al¬
go by wa- ternately raife and deprefs the piftons by the other iron
*8r' rods p, q, r^J, t> «, w, ^,y, in 12 pumps; nine where¬
of, as L, M, N, O, P, Q^R, S, T, appear in the
plate ; the other three being hid behind the work at V.
And as pipes may go from all thefe pumps, to con¬
vey the water (drawn up by them to a fmall height)
into a clofe cillem, from which the main pipe pro¬
ceeds, the water will be forced into this ciftern by the
defcent of the piftons. And as each pipe, going from
its refpeftive pump into the ciftern, has a valve at its
end in the ciftern, thefe valves will hinder the return of
the water by the pipes; and therefore, when the ci¬
ftern is once full, each pifton upon its defcent will
force the water (conveyed into the ciftern by a former
ftroke) up the main pipe, to the height the engine was
intended to raife it: which height depends upon the
quantity raifed, and the power that turns the wheel.
When the power upon the wheel is leffened by any de-
fed of the quantity of water turning it, a proportion-
able number of the pumps may be laid afide, by aifen-
gaging their rods from the vibrating levers.
This figure is a reprefentation of the engine ere&ed
8t Blenheim for the duke of Marlborough, by the late
ingenious Mr Alderfea. The water-wheel is 73- feet
in diameter, according to Mr Switzer’s account in his
Hydraulics.
When fuch a machine is placed in a ftream that
runs upon a fmall declivity, the motion of the levers
and adion of the pumps will be but flow; fince the
wheel muft go once round for each ftroke of the
pumps. But when there is a large body of flow run¬
ning water, a cog or fpur-wheel may be placed upon
each fide of the water-wheel AA, upon its axis, to
turn a trundle upon each fide; the cranks being upon
the axis of the trundle. And by proportioning the
cog-wheels to the trundles, the motion of the pumps
may be made quicker, according to the quantity and
ftrength of the water upon the firft wheel; which
may be as great as the workman pleafes, according to
the length and breadth of the float-boards or wings
of the wheel. In the fame manner the engine for
raifing water at London-Bridge is conftruded.
iHate The wheels of the London-bridge water-works are
«:XLI[. p]aCed under the arches of the bridge, and moved by
7' the common ftream of the tide-water of the river. A B
the axle-tree of the water-wheel is nineteen feet long,
and three feet in diameter ; in which C, D, E, F,
are four fets of arms, eight in each place, on which
are fixed G G G G, four fets or rings of felloes twen¬
ty feet in diameter, and the floats H H H fourteen
feet long, and eighteen inches deep, being about
twenty-fix in number. The wheel lies with its two
gudgeons, or centre pins, A, B, upon two braffes in
the pieces M N, whicK are two great levers, whofe
fulcrum or prop is an arched piece of timber L; the
levers being made circular on their lower fides to an
arch of the radius M O, and kept in their places by
two arching ftuds fixed in the flock L, through two
mortoifes in the lever M N. The wheel ia by thefe le¬
vers made to rife and fall with the tide in the following
T A T I C S. Sea.V*
manner. The levers M N are fixteen feet long ; from Hydraulic
M the fulcrum of the lever to O the gudgeon of Ungwea- ^
the water-wheel, fix feet; and from O to the arch ’
at N, ten feet. To the bottom of the arch N is fixed
a ftrong triple chain P, made after the fafhion of a
watch-chain, but the links arched to a circle of one
foot diameter, having notches or teeth to take hold of
the leaves of a pinion of call iron Q^ten inches dia¬
meter, with eight teeth in it moving on an axis. The
other loofe end of this chain has a large weight hang¬
ing at it to help to counterpoife the wheel, and pre-
ferve the chain from Aiding on the pinion. On the
fame axis is fixed a jeog-wheel R, fix feet diameter,
with forty-eight cogs. To this is applied a trundle,
or pinion S of fix rounds or teeth ; and upon the fame
axis is fixed T, a cog-wheel of fifty-one cogs, into
which the trundle V of fix rounds works, on whofe
axis is a winch or windlafs W, by which one man with
the two windlafles raifes or lets down the wheel as there
is occafion. And becaufc the fulcrums of thefe levers
M N are in the axis of the trundle K, vzz. at M or
X, in what fituation foever the wheel is raifed or let
down, the cog-wheel I, I, is always equidiftant from M,
and works or geers truly. By means of this machine
the ftrength of an ordinary man will raife about fifty
ton weight.
I, I, is a cog-wheel fixed near the end of the
greet axis eight feet diameter, and forty-four cogs
working into a trundle K, of four feet and an half
diameter, and twenty rounds, whofe axis or fpindle is.
of call iron four inches in diameter, lying in braflea
at each end as at X. ZZ is a quadruple crank of call
iron, the metal being fix inches fquare, each of the
necks being turned one foot from the centre, which is
fixed in braffes at each end in two headftocks faftened
down by caps. One end of this crank at Y is placed
clofe abutting to the end of the axle-tree X, where
they are at thofe ends fix inches diameter, each having
a flit in the ends where an iron wedge is put one half
into the end X, the other half into Y, by means of
which the axis X turns about the crank ZZ. The four
necks of the crank have each an iron fpear or rod fixed
at their upper ends to the refpedtive libra or lever,,
a 1, 2, 3, 4, within three feet at the end. Thefe
levers are twenty-four feet long, moving on centres ia
the frame bhbb ; at the end of which, at c 1, 2, 3, 4,
are jointed four rods with their forcing plugs working
into d 1, 2,’3, 4, four call iron cylinders four feet
three quarters long, feven inches bore above and nine
below where the valves lie, faftened by ferewed flanches
over the four holes of a hollow trunk of caft iron, har
ving four valves in it juft over eeeetrt. the joining on of
the bottom of the barrels or cylinders, and at one end
a fucking pipe and grate f going into the water, which
fupplies all the four cylinders alternately.
From the lower part of the cylinders d l, d 1, d 3,
d 4, come out necks turning upward arch-wife, as
ggggt whofe upper parts are call with flanches to
ferew up to the trunk hhbh\ which necks have bores
of feven inches diameter, and holes in the trunk above
communicating with them, at which joining are placed
four valves. The trunk is caft witH four boffes or pro¬
tuberances Handing out againftthe valves to give room
for their opening and {hutting ; and on the upper fide
are four holes flopped with plugs to take out on, occa¬
fion to cleanfc _the valves. One end of this trunk is
^6 - ‘ flopped
Ssa.V. HYDROS
Hydraulic flopped by a plug To the other iron pipes are joined
Engines. as j 2f by flanches, through which the water is forced
up to any height or place required.
Befides thefe four forcers there are four more placed
at the other ends of the librae, or levers (not fhown
here to avoid confufion, but to be feen on the left
hand), the rods being fixed at rf I, 2, 3,4, working in
four fuch cylinders, with their parts dd, &c. e e,f, gg,
and i, as before defcribed. Handing near h h.
T A T I C S. 19
of the ft iff leather commonly ufed. Dr Defagullers Hydraulic
has formed a comparifon of the powers of this engine ngtnes. ^
with thofe of the famous machine at Marly. Efti-
mating the quantity of water merely raifed by thefe
machines, the former raifes almoft twice and a quarter *
as much as the latter ; but confidering that the Lon¬
don bridge water-works raife this water but 120 feet
high, and that the Marly engine raifes its water 533
feet high, he deduces from a calculation formed on
At the other end of the wheel (at B) is placed all thefe different heights, and on the difference of the
-c r—    J a r-j-r—.-l-j pa]j 0f water on both engines, this conclufion, w*.
that the effect of the four wheels at London-bridge is
three times greater than that of four of the wheels at
Marly.
The engine at London-bridge was put up by Mr
Sorocold towards the beginning of this century : the
contrivance for raffing and falling the water-wheel was
the invention of Mr Hadley, who put up the firlt of
that kind at Worcefter, for which he obtained a pa*
the fame fort of work
The cog-wheel I.
The trundle K.
The fpindle X.
The crank Y, Z.
s at the end A is defcribed,
The four levers a c, a c, &c.
8 forcing rods ad, ad, &c.
8 Cylinders de, de, &c.
4 Trunks fuch as ee, hh.
The fucking pipes f. 2 Forcing pipes as i.
So that one Angle wheel works 16 pumps.
All which work could not be drawn in one perfpec-
tive view without making it very much confufed.
Mr Beighton, who has defcribed the ftru&ure and tent.
operation of this engine (fee Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. vi.
p. 358.) has calculated the quantity of water raifed by
it in a given time. In the firll arch next the city there
is one wheel with double work of fixteen forcers; and
in the third arch one wheel with double work at one
end and fingle at the other, having twelve forcers 5 a
fecond wheel in the middle having eight forcers, and
a third wheel with fixteen : fo that there are in all
fifty-two forcers ; one revolution of a wheel produces
in every forcer 2f ftrokes; fo that one turn of the
33
ABCD is a wheel turned by water according to the A quadra-
order of the letters. On the horizontal axis are four
fmall w’heels, toothed almoft half round ; and the parts raiGng Wa«
of their edges on which there are no teeth are cutter,
down fo as to be even with the bottoms of the teeth plate
where they ftand. figfif1*'
The teeth of thefe four wheels take alternately in¬
to the teeth of four racks, which hang by two chains
over the pullies Q^_and L ; and to the lower ends of
thefe racks there are four iron rods fixed, which go
four wheels makes 114 ftrokes. When the river a&s down into the four forcing-pumps, S, R, M, and N.
with moft advantage, the wheels go fix times round in
minute, and but 44- at middle water : hence the num¬
ber of ftrokes in a minute is 684 ; and as the ftxoke is
24 feet in a feven-inch bore, it raifes three ale gal¬
lons j aod all raife per minute 2052 ale gallons; i. e.
23120 gallons = 1954 hogftieads per hour, and at the
And, as the wheels turn, the racks and pump-rods are
alternately moved up and down.
Thus fuppofe the wheel G has pulled down the rack
I, and drawn up the rack K by the chain : as the laft
tooth of G juft leaves the uppermoft tooth of I, the
firft tooth of H is ready to take into the lowermoft
rate of 46896 hoglheads in a day, to the height of tooth of the rack K, and pull it down as far as the
120 feet. Such is the utmoft quantity they can raife,
fuppofing that there were ne imperfedtions or lofs at
all ; but Mr Beighton infers, from experiments per¬
formed on engines whofe parts were large and excel¬
lently conftrudted, that they will lofe one fifth and
fometimes one fourth of the calculated quantity. For
an eftimate of the power by which the wheels are
moved, fee Phil. Tranf. ubi fupra.
Mr Beighton obferves, that though thefe water¬
works may juftly be efteemed as good as any in Europe,
yet fome things might be altered much for the better.
If (he fays), inftead of fixteen forcers, they worked
teeth go ; and then the rack I is pulled upward thro’
the whole fpace of its teeth, and the wheel G is ready
to take hold of it, and pull it down again, and to
draw up the other.—In the fame manner, the wheels
E and F work the racks O ajid P.
Thefe four wheels are fixed on the axle of the great
wheel in fuch a manner, with refpedt to the pofitions
of their teeth, that, whilft they continue turning round,
there is never one inftant of time in which one or other
of the pump-rods is not going down and forcing the
water. So that, in this engine, there is no occafion
for having a general air-veflel to all the pumps, to pro-
only eight, the ftroke might be five feet in each forcer, cure a conftant ftream of water flowing from the up-
which would draw much more water with the fame per end of the main pipe.
power in the wheel; becaufe much water is loft by
the two frequent opening and (hutting of the valves ;
and that the bores that carry off the -water from the
From each of thefe pumps, near the loweft end, in
the water, there goes off a pipe, with a valve on its
fartheft end from the pump ; and thefe ends of the
forcers are too fmall; and that they fhould be near pipes all enter one clofe box, into which they de'
nine inches in diameter. This obje&ion Dr Defagu- liver the water : and into this box the lower end of
Hers fays is of no force, unlefs the velocity of the piftons the main conduft-pipe is fixed. So that, as the wa-
was very great ; but here the velocity of the water ter is forced or puflied into the box, it is alfo pufhed
paffing through the bores is much lefs than two feet up the main pipe to the height that it is intended to
in a fecond. This laft writer obferves, that a triple be raifed.
crank diftrrbutes the power better than a quadruple
one. He adds, that forcers made, with thin leather
... Where a ftream or fall of water cannot be had, e ,ineM
and gentlemen want to have water raifed, and brought go'by
tanned, of about the thicknefs of the upper-leather of to their houfes from a rivulet or fpring ; this may be hoifea.
a countryman’s ihoe, would be much better than thofe
effected by a horfe-engine, wprking three forcing-
C 2 pumps,
20 HYDROS
Hydraulic pamps wlijch ftand in a refervoir filkd by the fpring
..Engine-. ^ or rjvu]tt: the piftons being moved up and down in
j>late* the pumps by means of a triple crank ABC, which,
CCXLI. as it is turned round by the trundle G, raifes and de*
ihj- 6. preffes the rods D, E, F. If the wheel has three
times as many cogs as the trundle has ftaves or rounds,
the trundle and cranks will make three revolutions for
every one of the wheel: and as each crank will fetch
a itroke in the time it goes round, the three cranks
will make nine ftrokes for every turn of the great
wheel.
The cranks Ihould be made of call iron, becaufe
that will not bend ; and they fhould each make an
angle of 120 with both of the others, as at a, b, c;
which is (as it were) a view of their radii in looking
endwife at the axis : and then there will be always one
or other of them going downward, which will pulh the
water forward with a continued iiream into the main
pipe. For when b is almoft at its lowed fituation,
and is therefore juft beginning to lofe its a&ion upon
the pifton which it moves, c is beginning to move
downward, which will by its pifton continue the
propelling force upon the water : and when c is come
down to the pofition of b, a will be in the pofition
of c.
The more perpendicularly the pifton rods move up
and down in the pumps, the freer and better will their
ftrokes be : but a little deviation from the perpendicu¬
lar will not be material. Therefore, when the pump-
rods D, E, and F, go down into a deep well, they
may be moved direftly by the cranks, as is done in'a
very good horfe-engine of this fort at the late Sir
James Creed’s at Greenwich, which forces up water
about 64 feet from a well under ground, to a refervoir
on the top of his houfe. But when the cranks are
only at a fmall height above the pumps, the piftons
muft be moved by vibrating levers, as in the above en¬
gine at Blenheim : and the longer the levers are, the
nearer will the ftrokes be to a perpendicular.
35 Let us fuppofe, that in fuch an engine .as Sir James
A cakula- Creed’s, the great wheel is 12 feet diameter, the
tion of the trundle 4 feet, and the radius or length of each crank
water*that^^ *nc^es> working a pifton in its pump. Let there be
may berai- t^ree Pumps in all, and the bore of each pump be four
fed by a inches diameter. Then, if the great wheel has three
horfe en- times as many cogs as the trundle has ftaves, the trun-
gine. dle and cranks will go three times round for each re¬
volution of the horfes and wheel, and the three cranks
will make nine ftrokes of the pumps in that time, each
ttroke being 18 inches (or double the length of the
crank) in a four-inch bore. Let the diameter of the
horfe-walk be 18 feet, and the perpendicular height
to which the water is raifed above the furface of the
well be 64 feet;
If the horfes go at the rate of-two miles an hour
(which is very moderate, walking) they will turn the
great wheel' 187 times round in an hour.
In each turn of the wheel the piftons make nine
ftrokes in the pumps, which amount to 1683 in an
hour.
Each ftroke raifes a column of water 18 inches long
and four inches thick, in the pump-barrels; which co¬
lumn, upon the defeent of the pifton, is forced into
the main pipe, whofe perpendicular altitude above the
furface. of the well is dpTeet*
T A T I C S. Sea. V.
Now, fince a column of water 18 inches long, and Hydraulic
4 inches thick, contains 226.18 cubic inches, tins
number multiplied by 1683 (the ftrokes in an hour) ^ " ^
gives 380661 for the number of cubic inches of water
raifed in an hour.
A gallon, in wine-meafure, contains 231 cubic
inches, by which divide 380661, and it quotes 146?
in round numbers, for the number of gallons raifed in
an hour; which, divided by 63, gives 26^ hogiheads.
If the horfes go falter, the quantity raifed will be fo
much the greater.
In this calculation it is fuppofed that no water is
wafted by the engine. But as no forcing engine can be
fuppofed to lofe lefs than a fifth part of the calculated
quantity of water, between the piftons and barrels, and
by the opening and (hutting of the valves, the borfes
ought to walk almoft 2x miles per hour to fetch up
this lofs.
A column of water 4 inches thick and 64 feet high,
weighs 349rV pounds avoirdupois, or 424^ pounds
troy; and this weight, together with the friction of the
engine, is the refiftance that muft be overcome by the
ftrength of the horfes.
The horfe-tackle (hould be fo contrived, that the
horfes may rather puih on than drag the levers after
them. For, If they draw, in going round the walk,
the outfide leather-ftraps will rub againft. their fides
and hams ; which will hinder them from drawing at
right angles to the levers, and fo make them pull at a.
difadvantage. But if they pufh the levers before their
breafts, inftead of dragging them, they can always
walk at right angles to thefe levers.
It is no ways material what the diameter of the
main dr conduct pipe be : for the whole refiftance of
the water therein againft the horfes will be according
to the height to which it is raifed, and the diameter of
that part of the pump in which the pifton works, as
we have already obferved. So that by the fame pump,
an equal quantity of water may be raifed in .(and con-
fequently made to run from) a pipe of a foot diameter,.
with the fame eafe as ima pipe of five or fix inches:
or rather with more eafe, becaufe its velocity in a
large pipe will be lefs than in a fmall one, and there*
fore its fri&ion againft the- fides of the. pipe will be
lefs alfo.
And the force required to raife water depends not
upon the length of the pipe, but upon tire perpendi¬
cular height to which it is raifed therein above the le- Plate
vel of the fpring. So that the fame force which CCXLI,
would raife water to the height AB in the upright 7*
pipe Ai k.lmn 0 p q ¥>, will raife it to the fame height
or level BIH in the oblique pipe AEFGH. For the
preffure of the water at the end A of the latter is
no more, than its preffure againft. the end A of the.
former.
The weight or preffure of water at the lower end :
of the pipe, is always as the fine of the angle to
which the pipe is elevated above the level parallel to
the horizon. For although-the water in the upright
pipe AB would require a force applied immediately to
the lower end A equal to the weight of all the water
in it, to fupport the water, and a little more to drive
it up and out of the pipe ; yet, if that pipe be in¬
clined from its upright pofition to an angle of 80 de¬
grees (as in A 80), the force required to fuppert or to
Sea. V.
Hydraulic raife the fame cylinder of water will then be as much
Engine?. Ids as the fine 80 A is leis than the radius AB ; or as
v the fine of 80 degrees is lefs than' the fine of 90. And
fo, decrealing as the fine of the angle of elevation lef-
fens, until it arrives® at its level AC or place of reft,
where the force* of the water is nothing at either end
of the pipe. For although the aofbliite weight of the
water is the fame inhll pofitipns, yet its preffure at the
lower end decreafes as the fine of the angle of eleva¬
tion detreafes ; asi will appeaf plainly by a farther con-
fideration of the figure.
Let two pipes AB and AC, of equal lengths and
bores, join each other at A ; and let the pipe AB
be divided into 100 equal parts, as the fcale S is ;
whofe length is equal to the length of the pipe.—
Upon this length, as a radius, defciibe the quadrant
BDC, and divide it into 90 equal parts or degrees.
Let the pipe AC be elevated to to degrees upon
the quadrant, and filled with water : then, part of the
water that is in it will rife in the pipe AB; and if it be
kept full of water, it will raife the water in the pipe
AB from A to i; that is, to a level i 10 with the
mouth of the pipe at 10 : and the upright line a 10,
equal to A e, will be the fine of 10 degiees elevation ;
which being meafuredjupon, the fcale S, will be about
17.4 of fuch parts as the pipe contains ioo„'in length :
and therefore, the force or preffure of the water at A,
in the pipe A 10, will be to the force or preflure at A
an the pipe AB, as 17.3 to !ioo.
Let the fame pipe be elevated to 20 degrees in the
quadrant ; and if it be kept full of water, park of that
water will run into the pipe AB, and rife therein to the
height A i>. which ,is equal to the length_ of the up¬
right line b 20, or to the fine of 20 degrees elevation ;
which, being meafured upon the fcale S, will be 34.2
HYDROSTATICS.
17
35
5*
70
87
104'
122
139
156
j74
191
208
225
242
259
276
292
Z°9
325
342
358
375
39l
407
423
438
454
469
485
500
D.3.
S2
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44'
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
5'5
530
545
559
573
588
602
616
629
648
656
669
682
695
707
719
73i
743
755
766
777
788
799
809
819
829
839
84.8
857
865
875
883
891
899
906
913
920
927
934
940
945
95i
956
961
966
970
974
978
982
985
988
990
992
994
996
997
998
999
1000
of fuch parts as the pipe contains 100 in length. ®^cau^"e mayJ,e ufe to have the lengths of all
And therefore, the prefTure of the water at A, in the .f Hf1fS r 3 ^ J3n* ro51 0 degrees to 90, we have
, . „ .5. . . „ ... . mven the roreo-oino-raKip./hr>,,„n>T f t, *
. ---- -   ^ lu yu, we nave
given the foregoing Fable, ftiowihg the length of the fine
were raifed to the perpendicular fituatien AB, as 34*2 ofever>’ degree in fuch parts as the whole pipe (equal
to ,QO> 3 to the radius of the quadrant) contains tooo. Then
Elevate tire pipe to the pofition A 30 on the qua- y!16, int^gra^ or whole parts in length,
drant, and if it be fupplied with water, the water But if you _ fuppofe the length of the pipe to be di-
will rife from it, into the pipe AB, to the height A /, V‘df °n^ lnt0 ‘ ^ ^ ^ figure of each
or to the fame level with the mouth of the pipe at 30. ffrr°r , mU • e cu.t fs,a decimal; and then
The fine of this elevation, or of the angle of 30 de- th°f? W.hich r"ma,n at,the kh hand of this feparation
grees, is r 30; which is juft equal to half the length of W1 rp,e ^ or ^ °^e Parts.
the pipe, or to 50 of fuch parts of the feale as the , US>, 1 1 « radius of the quadrant (fuppofed to
kngth of the pipe contains 100. Therefore, the pref- . e eclua 0 e ength of the pipe AC) be divided
fure of the water at A, in a pipe elevated 30 degrees 10 ° I0P0 5^ua Pa^ts> aud the elevation be 45 de-
above the horizontal level, will be equal to one half r 6 ^ Z t-r1 , vatl°n w‘d be equal to 707
of what it would, be if the fame pipe flood upright ° e e far 3 ' t^e radlus he divided only into •
■ .t--r. • _ a tj rr r & 100 equal parts, the fame fine will he nr,*
100 equal parts, the fame fine will be only 70.7 c..
7PtV of thefe parts. For, as 1000-is to 707, fo is
100 to 70.7.
As it is of great importance to all engine-makers.
in the fituatiort AB
And thus, by elevating the pipe to 40, 50,.60, 70,,
and 8o" degrees on the quadrant, the fines of thefe
elevations will be d 40, e 50, f 60, g.^o, and 80 ;
which will be equal to the heights Am, An, Ao, . , . - . • -o— 
Ap, and Aq; and thefe heights meafured upon the ° n.°W, . at PuanUty and weight of water will be
feale S will be 64.3, 76.6, 86.6. 94.0, and 98.5; co"tam.ed in an upright round pipe of a given diameter
which exprefs the prefibres at A in all thefe eleva- ancir jC1ght 5 fo as> b>' k!.)OW’‘ug what weight is to be
tions, confidering the preffure in the upright pipe AB ra'ie<?’ raay ProP°rtlon their engines to the force
S3-too. t r r which they can afford to work them; we/hall fubjoin
Tables ftiowing the number of cubic inches of water
contained in an upright pipe of a round bore, of any
diameter from one inch to fix and a half, and of any.
height from one foot to two hundred : together with
f the weight of the laid number of cubic inches, both
22 H Y D R O S T
Hyt'i'oflatic Sn troy and avoirdupois ounces. The number of cu-
, 'raMe8, , bio inches divided by 331, will reduce the water to Y
’ gallons in wine-meafure ; and, divided by 283, will
reduce it to the meafure of ale-gallons. Alfo, the
troy ounces divided by 12, will reduce the weight to
troy pounds ; and the avoirdupois ounces divided by
16, will reduce the weight to avoirdupois pounds.
And here we mull repeat it again, that the weight
or preflure of the water afting againft the power that
works the engine, muft always be eftimated accord¬
ing to the perpendicular height to which it is to be
raifed, without any regard to the length of the con¬
duct-pipe, when it has an oblique pofition, and as if
the diameter of that pipe were juft eqal to the dia¬
meter of that part of the pump in which the pifton
works. Thus, by the following Tables, the preflure
of the water, againft an engine whofe pump is of a
4y inch bore, and the perpendicular height of the
water in the condu&-pipe is 80 feet, will be equal to
1*057.5 troy ounces, and to 8848.2 avoirdupois oun¬
ces ; which makes 671.4 troy pounds, and 553 avoir¬
dupois.
Example. Required the number of cubic inches, and
the weight of the water, in an upright pipe 278 feet high,
and X x inch diameter.
Feet. Cubic inches.
200 4241.1
70 1484.4
8 169.6
Troy 0%. Avoir, oas.
2238.2 2457.8
783.3 860.2
89.5 98.3
Anfw. 278 5895.1
3111.0 3416.3
Here the neareft Angle decimal figure is only taken
into the account; and the whole being reduced by
•divifion, amounts to 254. wine-gallons in meafure;
to 2594 pounds troy, and to 2134- pounds avoirdu¬
pois.
Thefe tables were at firft calculated to fix decimal
places for the fake of exa&nefs: but in tranfcribing
them there are no more than two decimal figures taken
into the account, and fometimes but one-; becaufe
there is no necelfity for computing to hundredth-parts
of an inch or of an ounce in pra&ice.
A r 1 c s.
DROSTATICAL TABLES.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
9.42
18.85
28.27
37-7°
47.12
56-55
65.97
75.40
84.82
94.25
I
282.74
376.99
471.24
565.49
659-73
753-98
843-23
942.48
1884.96
Weight
in troy
ounces.
4-97
9-95
14.92
19.89
24.87
29.84
34-82
39-79
44.76
49-74
99.48
149.21
X9S.95
248.69
298.43
348.17
397.90
447.64
497-38
994-76
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
5.46
10.92
16.38
21.85
27-31
32-77
38.23
43-69
49.16
54.62
109.24
163.86
218.47
273.09
327-7‘
382.33
436-95
491 -57
546.19
109^38
14- Inch diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
42.41
63.62
84.82
106.03
127.23
I47-44
169.65
190.85
2I2.06
424.12
636.17
848.23
1060.29
>272.35
1484.40
1696.46
1908.52
2120.58
424r->5
Weight
in troy
ounces.
11.19
22.38
33-57
44.76
55-95
67.15
78.34
89-53
100.72
111.91
223.82
335-73
447.64
559-55
671.46
783-37
895.28
1007.19
1119.09
38->8
In avoir-
dupoife
ounces.
12.29
24.58
36.87
49.16
61.45
73-73
86.02
98.31
110.60
122.89
245.78
368.68
49,-57
614.46
737-35
860.24
983.14
106.03
1228.92
2457-84
Seft.V.
HydroftatiC
Tables.
HYDRO-
iSea.V.
HYDROSTATI CS.
HYDROSTATICAL TABLES.
2 Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
Weight
in troy
ounces.
37-70
75.40
113.10
150.80
188.50
226.19
263.89
3OI-59
339-29
376.99
753-9*
(130.97
1507.97
1884.96
2261.95
2638.94
3015-93
3392-92
3769.91
7539-*2
19.89
39-79
59.68
79.58
99-47
”9-37
139.26
159.16
179.06
198.95
397-90
596.85
795.80
994-75
ii93-7o
1392.65
1591.60
1790.56
1989.51
3979-QO
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
2».8S
43-69
65.54
*7-39
109.24
131.08
152-93
174-78
196.63
218.47
436.95
665.42
873.90
1092.37
1310.85
1529.32
1747.80
1966.27
2184.75
4369-50
3 Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
84.8
169.6
254 5
239 3
424.1
508.9
533-7
698.6
763-4
848.2
1696.5
2244.7
3392.9
4241.1
5089.4
5937-6
6785.8
7634-1
8482.3
16964.6
Weight
in troy
ounces.
44-76
89-53
134.29
179.06
223.82
268.58
3I3-35
358.. 1
402.87
447.64
895.28
1342.92
1790.56
2238.19
2685.83
3*33-47
3581.11
4028.75
4476.39
8952.78
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
49.16
98.31
*47-47
196.63
245.78
294.94
344.10
393-25
442.41
49*-57
9*3-*4
1474.70
1966.27
2457.84
2949.41
3440.98
3932.55
4424.12
49*5-68
983^36
23
HydrofU
Tablet
24 Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
58.90
117.81
176.71
235.62
294.52
353-43
4*2-33
47 *-24
530.14
589.05
1178.10
1767.15
2356.20
2545.25
3534-29
4123.34
4712.39
5301.44
5890.49
11780.98
Weight
in troy
ounces.
3 *.08
62.17
93.26
124.34
*55-43
186.52
217.60
248.69
279-77
310.86
621.72
932.58
1243.44
*554-30
1865.16
2176.02
2797.74
3108.60
6217.20
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
34? *4
6S.27
102.41
*36.55
170.68
204.82
238.96
273.09
307.23
34*-37
682.73
1024.10
*365-47
1706.83
2048.20
2389.57
273094
3072.30
2413.67
4827-34
3^ Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
115.4
230.9
346-4
461.8
577-3
692.7
808.2
923.6
1039.1
1154.5
2309.1
3463-6
4618.1
5772-7
6927.2
8081.7
9236.3
10390.8
IT 545.4
23090.7
Weight
in troy
ounces.
60.9
121.8
182.8
243-7
304.6
365.6
426.5
487.4
548.3
609.3
1218.6
1827.9
2437-*
3046.4
3655-7
4265.0
4874-3
5483.6
6092.0
*2185-7
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
66.9
*33-8
200.7
267.6
334-5
401.4
468.4
535-3
602.2
669.1
*338.2
2007.2
2676.3
3345-4
4014.5
4683.6
535,2-6
6021.7
6690.8
‘338*-5
HYDRO*
24
• llydroftf-tic
HYDROSTATICS.
II Y D R O S T A T I C A L TABLES.
Sea. V.
4 Inches diameter.
Solidity-
in cubic
inches.
150.8
3°i.6
452-4
<503.2
754.0
904.8
7 1055.6
8 | 1206.4
9 | 1557-2
to I 1508.0
20 j 3115.9
3° I 4523-9
40 , 6631.9
5° | 7539-8
60 | 9047.8
70 10555.8
80 ; 12063.7
90 13571-7
too 15079.7
200 30159.3
Weight
in troy
ounces.
79.6
159-2
238.7
3l8-3
397-9
477-5
557-1
636.6
716.2
795-8
1591.6
2387-4
3l83-2
3997.0
4774.8
5570-6
6266.4
7162.2
7958.0
15916.0
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
87.4
174.8
262.2
349-6
436'9
524.3
611.7
699.1
786.5
873-9
1747.8
2621.7
3495-6
4369 5
5243-4
6117.3
6991.2
7865.1
8739.0
i7478-o
5 Inches diameter.
80
90
too
2CO
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
235.6
471.
706.8
942.5
1178.
I4I3-7
i649-3
1884.9
2120.'
2356.
4712.4
7068.6
9424 8
11780.0
14137.2
16493.4
18849.6
21 205.8
23562.O
47124-0
Weight
in troy
ounces.
124.3
248.7
373-o
497-4
621.7
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
8704 1
9947-5
11191.0
12434.4
24868.8
j36-5
273.1
409.6
546.2
682.7
819.3
955.8
1092.4
x 228.9
2365-5
2730-9
4096.4
5461.9
6827.3
8192.6
9558-3
10923.7
12289.2
13654-7
2 7 309-3
44 Inches diameter.
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
190.8
381.7
572.6
763-4
954 3
1145.1
1337-9
1526.8
1717.7
1908.5
3817.0
5725.6
7634-‘
9542.6
11451.1
13359-6
15268.2
17176.7
19085.2
38170.J.
Weight
in troy
ounces.
ico.7
201.4
302.2
402.9
503.6
604.3
705.0
805.7
906.5
1007.2
2014.4
3021.6
4028.7
5035-9
6043.1
7050.3
8057.5
9064.7
10071.9
2Q143-8
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
110.6
22 1.2
33'-8
442.4
453-0
663.6
774-2
884.8
995-4
■i 106.0
2212.1
38.8.1
4424.1
5530.1
6636.2
7742.2
8848.2
9954-3
11060 3
22X20.6
54 Inches diameter.
.30
40
50
60
1 70
8°
90
ioo
■ 200-
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
285.1
570.2
855-3
1140.4
1425.5
1710.6
1995.7
2280.8
2565.9
2851.0
5702.0
8553-°
11404 o
142550
17x06.0
19957.0
22808.0
25659.0
Weight
in troy
ounces.
150.5
300.9
451-4
(xm.8
752-3
902.7
.053.2
1203.6
1354 1
1504.6
3009.1
4513-7
6018.2
7522.8
9027.4
10531.9
12036.5
1354l
29510.0 .15045.6
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
164.3
328-3
492.8
657.1
8i> 3
985.6
1149.9
1314-2
'478.4
1642.7
3255.4
4928.1
6570.8
82.3.5
9856.2
X149S.9
l3‘4’ -6
x 4784.3
16426.9
>.o I-30091.2 i 32853,
HYDR®*
HYDROSTATICS.
25
HYDRO STATICAL TABLES.
6 Inches diameter.
Solidity-
in cubic
inches.
339-3
678.6
1017.9
»3S7-2
1696.5
2035-7
2375-o
2714-3
3053-6
3392.9
6785.8
10178.8
13571-7
16964.6
20357.5
23750-5
27'43-4
30536.3
3392.92
67858.4
Weight
in troy
ounces.
179
358
537
7x6
895
1074
1253
>432
16
1790
358i
5371
7162
8952
>0743
12533
14324
16115
17905
358i
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
1966
393-3
589.9
786.5
983.1
XI79.8
>376.4
>573-0
1769.6
1966.3
3932-5
5898.8
7865.1
9831.4
11797.6
>3763-9
15730.2
17696.5
19662.7
39325-4
6y Inches diameter.
70
80
90
100
JOO
Solidity
in cubic
inches.
398.2
797-4
1195.6
>593-8
>991.9
2390.1
2788.3
3186.5
3584-7
3982.9
7965.8
11948.8
>5931.7
199.4.6
23897.6
27880.5
31863.4
35846.3
39829.3
79658.6
Weight
in troy
ounces.
420.3
630.4
840.6
1050.8
1260.9
1471.1
1681.2
1891.3
2101.5
4202.9
6304.4
8405.9
10507.4
12608.9
147x0.4
16811.8
>8913-3
21014.8
42029.6
In avoir¬
dupois
ounces.
230.7
461.4
692.1
922.8
1153.6
1384.3
1615.0
1845.7
2076.4
2307.1
4614.3
6921.4 1
9228.6
>'535-7
13842.9
16150.0
18457.2
20764.3
23071.5
46143-°
Under the article SrEjM-Engine, the reader will find Hydraulic
a particular account of that ufeful invention, with a £ngine» t
corredt defcription and plate of it in its improved (late. ^
The multiplying machine, has no dependence on the Steam-
aftion of the atmofphere ; but, by the weight of wa- engine,
ter only, and without pump-work of any kind, raifes 37
water fufficient to ferve a gentleman's feat, with an
overplus for fountains, fiih-ponds, &c. tcr by a
AB are two copper pans or buckets of unequal multiplying
weight and fize, fufpended to chains, which alternately wheel-
wind off and on the multiplying-wheel YZ; whereof
the wheel Y is fmaller in diameter, and Z larger, in fig $t
proportion to the different lifts each is defigned to per¬
form.
When the buckets are empty, they are flopped le¬
vel with the fpring at X, whence they are both filled
with water in the fame time.
The greater of the two, A, being the heavier when
full, preponderates and defcends ten feet, perhaps from
C to D ; and the leffer, B, depending on the fame
axis, is thereby weighed up or railed from E to F,
fuppofe 30 feet.
Here, by particular little contrivances, opening the
valves placed at bottom of each of thefe buckets, they
both difcharge their water in the fame time, through
apertures proportionable to their capacities; the fmall¬
er into the ciftern W, whence it is conveyed for fer-
vice by the pipe T, and the larger at D, to run wafte
by the drain below at H. The bucket B being emp¬
ty, is fo adjufted as then to overweigh; and defcending
fteadily as it rofe betwixt the guiding rods VV, brings
or weighs up A to its former level at X, where both
being again replenilhed from the fpring, they thence
proceed as before. And thus will they continue con-
ftantly moving (merely by their circumftantial differ¬
ence of water-weight, and without any other affiftance
than that of fometimes giving the iron-work a little
oil) fo long as the materials ihall laft, or the fpring
fupply water.
The fteadinefs of the motion is in part regulated by
a worm turning a jack-fly, and a little Ample wheel-
work at LM; which communicating with the multi¬
plying wheel axle at M, is thereby moved forward or
backward as the buckets either rife or defcend. But
what principally keeps the whole movement fteady, is
the equilibrium preferved in the whole operation by a
certain weight of lead, at the end of a lever of fit
length, and fixed on one of the fpindles of the wheel-
work, the numbers whereof are fo calculated as, du¬
ring the whole performance up and down, to let it
move no more than one-fourth of a circle, from G to
K 5 by which contrivance, as more or lefs of the
chains fufpending the buckets come to be wound off
their refpeclive wheels Y and Z, this weight gradu¬
ally falls in as a counterbalance, and fo continues the
motion equable and eafy in all its parts.
The water wafted by this machine is not above the
hundredth part of what a water-wheel will expend, to
raife an equal quantity. But where a fall, propor¬
tionable to the intended rife of water, cannot be had,
with a convenient fewer to carry off the wafte water
over and above, this device cannot be well put in prac¬
tice. 3s
Water may alfo be railed by means of a ftream AB The Per-
turning a wheel CDE, according to the order of thelianwhee^
D let-
Vol. IX. Part I.
26 HYDROS
Hydraulic letters, with buckets a, a, a, a, 8cc huncr upon the
, E:isrll1<;-ti | wheel by ftrong pins b, b, b b, tkc. fixed in the fide
pjatt, of :he rim : bm the wheel mull be made as high as
CCXLl the water is intended to be raifed above the level of
fig-S. that part of the dream in which the wheel is placed.
As the wheel turns, the buckets on the right hand go
down into the water, and are thereby filled, and go up
full on the ieft hand, until they come to the top at K,
where they ftrike againft the end n of the fixed trough
M, and are thereby overfet, and empty the water into
the trough ; from which it may be conveyed in pipes
to the place which it is defigned for : and as each
bucket gets over the trough, it falls into a perpendi¬
cular pofition again, and goes dawn empty, until it
comes to the water at A, where it is filled as before.
On each bucket is a fpring r, which, going over the
top or crown of the bar w, (fixed to the trough'M),
raifes the bottom of the bucket above the level of its
mouth, and fo caufes it to empty all its water intoNthe
trough.
Sometimes this wheel is made to raife water no
higher than its axis ; and then, inftead1 of buckets
hung upon it, its fpokes, C, d, e,f, g, h, are made
of a bent form, and hollow within; thefe hollows
opening into the holes C, D, E, F, in the outfide of '
the wheel, and alfo into thofe at O in the box N up¬
on the axis. So that as the holes CD, &c. dip into
the water, it runs into them; and as the wheel turns,
the water rifes in the hollow fpokes c d, &c. and runs
out in a ftream P from the holes at O, and falls into
the trough Q^from whence it is conveyed by pipes.
And this is a very eafy way of raifing water, becaufe
39 the engine requires neither men nor horfes to turn it.
Fire-en- Engines for extiriguifhing fire are either forcing or
gi..es. lifting pumps; and being made to raife water with
great velocity, their execution in great meafure de¬
pends upon the length of their levers, and the force
Plate wherewith they are wrought.
CCXLII. For example, AB is the common fquirting fire-
5* engine. D C is the frame of a lifting-pump, wrought
by the levers E and F a&ing always together Du¬
ring the ftroke, the quantity of water raifed by the pif-
ton N fpouts with force through the pipe G, made
capable of any degree of elevation by means of the
yielding leather-pipe H, or by a ball and focket, ca¬
pable of turning every way, fcrewed on the top of the
pump. Between the ftrokes on this machine the
fiream is difcontinued. The engine is fupplied by wa¬
ter poured in with buckets above ; the dirt and filth
whereof are kept from choaking the pump work by
help of the. (trainer IK.
A confiderable improvement has fince been made to
thefe machines, in order to keep them difcharging a
continual ftream. In doing whereof it is not to be
underftood that they really throw out more water than
do the fquirting ones of the fame fize and dimenfions
with themfelves ; but that the velocity of the water,
and of courfe the friftion of all the parts, being lefs
violent, the ftream is more even and manageable, and
may be dire&ed hither or thither with greater eafe
and certainty than if it came forth only by fits and
ftarts: The machine, thus improved, is therefore ge¬
nerally better adapted to the purpofe intended than
the former, efpecially in the beginning of thefe cala¬
mitous accidents.
T A T I C S. Sea.V.
The ftream is made continual from the fpring of air Hydraulic
confined in a ftrong. metal vefiel CC, in the fire engine i Engine?. ^
AB, fixed between the two forcing-pumps D and E, p|~"tev
wrought with a common double lever FG moving on CCLXII.
the centre H. The piftonsin D and E both fuck and.fig. 6.
force alternately, and are here reprefented in their dif¬
ferent adlions; as are alfo the refpe&ive valves at IK
and LM.
The water to fupply this engine, if there be no op¬
portunity of putting the end of a fucking-pipe, oc-
cafionally to be fcrewed on, into a moat or canal,
which would fpare much hurry and labour in cafe of
fire, is alfo poured into, the vefiel AB ; and being
(trained through the wire grate N, is, by the preffure
of the atmofphere, raifed through the valves K and
M into the barrels of D or E, when either of their
forcers afcend; whence again it will be powerfully pufhed
when they defcend into the air-veflel CC, through the
valves I and L by turns: by the force whereof the.
common air between the water and the top of the air-
veflel O will from time to time be forcibly crowded
into lefs room, and much comprefled; and the air
being a body naturally endowed with a ftrong and
lively fpring, and always endeavouring to dilate itfelf
every way alike in fucha circumftance, bears ftrongly
both againft the fides.of the veflel wherein ic is confi¬
ned, and the furface of the water thus injedfed; and
fo makes a conftant regular ftream to rife through the
metal pipe P into the leather one Q, fcrewed thereon ;
which being flexible, may be led about into rooms
and entries, as the cafe may require.
Should the air contained in this veflel be comprefled
into half the fpace it took up in its natural ftate, the
fpring thereof will be much about doubled ; and as
before it equalled and was able to fuftain the preffure
of a fingle atmofphere, it having now a double force*
by the power of that fpring alone will throw water
into air, of the common degree of denfity, about
thirty feet high. Andftiould this compreffure be ftill
augmented, and the quantity of air which at firft fill¬
ed the whole veffel be reduced into one-third of that *
fpace, its fpring will be then able to refift, and confe-
quently to raife the weight of a treble atmofphere ;
in which cafe, it will throw up a jet of water fixty feet
high. And (hould fo much water again be forced in*
to the veffel as to fill three parts of the capacity, it
will be able to throw it up about ninety feet high:
and wherever the fervice (hall require a ftill greater
rife of water, more water muft be thruft into this vef¬
fel; and the air therein being thus driven by main
force into a dill narrower compafs, at each cxplofion,
the gradual reftitution thereof to its firft dimenfions
is what regularly carries on the ftream between the
ftrokes, and renders it continual during the operation
of the machine.
This experiment, in little, may be either made on
the lifting or forcing pump, the nofels of which may
be left large, on purpofe for the reception of the fmall
pipe F, reaching nearly, to the valve at E, and occa-
fionally to be fcrewed in. Between this pipe and the '
fides and top of the nofel H, a quantity of air will
neceffarily be lodged, which, when the forcer adts,
will be compreffed at every ftroke by the rife of the
water; more whereof will be pufhed through E than
can immediately get away, through the pipe F, which
Sea. V. HYDROS
Hydraulic is to be always lefs in diameter, than the opening of
Engines. ^ valVe at E : the degree of which condenfation,
and that of the reftitution to its natural ftate of den-
fity, may be obferved through the glafs-machines, to
0 fatisfaftion.
The {crew Archimedes’s screw is a fort of fpiral pump, and
of Archi, receives its name from its inventor. It confifts of a long
medess. cylinder AB with a hollow pipe CD round it; and is
CCiXIlI place(l ’n an oblique pofition, with the lower end in the
tg i. water, the other end being joined to the lower end of
a the winch IK, fupported by the upright piece IR.
When this fcrew is immerfed in the water, it imme¬
diately rifes in the pipe by the orifice C to a level with
the furface of the water EF; and if the point in the fpi¬
ral, which in the beginning of the motion is coinci¬
dent with the furface of the water, happen not to be
on the lower fide of the cylinder, the water, upon the
motion of the fcrew, will move on in the fpiral till it
come to the point on the other fide that is coincident
with the water. When it arrives at that point, which
we will fuppofe to be O, it cannot afterwards pofi'efs any
other part of the fpiral than that on the lowed part of
the cylinder: for it cannot move from O toward H or
G, becaufe they are higher above the horizon; and as
tin's will be conflantly the cafe after the water in the
fpiral has attained the point O, it is plain it mud
always be on the under fide of the cylinder.
But becaufe the cylinder is in condant motion, every
part of the fpiral fcrew, from O to D, will by de¬
grees fucceed to the under part of the cylinder. The
water therefore mud fucceed to every part of it, from
O to D, as it comes on the lower fide ; that is, it mud
afcend on the lower part of the cylinder through all
the length of the pipe, till it come to the orifice at
D, where it mud run out, having nothing further to
41 fupport it.
The ba- There is a Ample and eafy method of working two
lance- pumps at once, by means of the balance AB, having
pumps. a jarge ;ron ban at each end, and placed in equilibrium
3’ 4‘ on the two fpindles C, as reprefented in the 6th fi¬
gure. On the right and left are two boards I, nailed
to two crofs pieces, fadened to the axis of the ma¬
chine. On tljefe boards the perfon who is to work
the pump dands, and fupports himfelf by a crofs piece
nailed to the two pods ED, fig. 5. At the didance
of ten inches on each fide the axis are fadened the
pidons MN.
The man, by leaning alternately on his right and
left foot, puts the balance in motion, by which the
pumps OP are worked, and the water thrown into the
pipe H, and carried to a height proportional to the
diameter of the valves and the force of the balance.
There mud be placed on each fide an iron fpring, as
F and G, to return the balance, and prevent its ac-
42 quiring too great velocity.'
The chain- The Chain-pump, A B, is ordinarily made from
pump. twelve to twenty-four feet long ; and confids of two
CCXIII collateral fquare barrels, and a chain of pidons of the
% 4/ ' fame form, fixed at proper didances thereon. The
chain is moved in thefe round a coarfe kind of wheel-
work at either end of the machine, the teeth whereof
are fo made as to receive one half of the fiat pidons,
and let them fold in ; and they take hold of the links
as they rife in one of the barrels, and return by the
other. The machine is wrought either by the turning
T A T I C S. 27
of one handle or two, according to the labour requi- Entertain-
red, depending on the height to which the water is to
be railed. A whole row of the pidons (which go *
free of the fides of the barrel by perhaps a quarter of
an inch) are always lifting when the purpp is at wmrk;
yet do they, by the general pufh in the ordinary way
of working, as it is pretty brifk, coshmonly bring up
a full bore of water in the pump. This machine is
fo contrived, that, by the continual folding in of the
pidons, dones, dirt, and whatever happens to come
in the way, may alfo be cleared ; and therefore it is
generally made ufe of to drain ponds, to empty few-
ers, and remove foul waters, in which no other pump
could work. 4?
The lad machine to be defcribed confids of five The hy.
pieces of board, forming a fort of fcoop, as B. The!?raillic
handle C is fufpended by a rope fadened to three poles,
placed in a triangle, and tied together at A. CCXLIir,
The working of this machine confids entirely infig-*'
balancing the fcoop that contains the water, and di¬
recting it in fuch manner that the water may be thrown
in any given direction. It is evident that the opera¬
tion of this machine is fo very eafy, that it may rather
be confidered as an agreeable and falutary recreation
than hard labour.
With this machine a man of moderate drength, by
two drokes in four feconds, can draw half a cubic foot
of water, that is, more than four hundred cubic feet
in an hour.
This machine is frequently ufed by the Dutch in
emptying the water from their dikes.
Sect. VI. Entertaining Experiments.
44
1. Several amufing appearances may be-produced
by difguiiing or diverfifying a fyphon. It may, for^"d *f'
example, be difguifed in a cup, from which no liquor Tantalus’s
will flow till the duid is railed therein to a certain cup, &c.
height; but when the efflux is once begun, it will
continue till the vefiel is emptied. Thus, fig. 11. is a Plate
cup, in the centre whereof is fixed a glafs pipe A,CCXXXIX’
continued through the bottom at B, over which is put
another glafs tube, made air-tight at top by means of
the cork at C ; but left fo open at foot, by holes made
at D, that the water may freely rife between the tubes
as the cup is filled. Till the fluid in the cup fhall have
gained the top of the inrnod pipe at A, no motion
will appear. The air however from between the two
pipes being in the mean time extruded, by the rife of
the denfer fluid, and palling down the inner tube, will
get away at bottom ; and the water, as foon as the
top of the inclofed tube fhall be covered thereby, will
very foon follow, and continue to rife in this machine,
as in the fyphon, till the whole is i;un off.
This is called by fome, a Tantalus's cup ; and, to
humour the thought, a hollow figure is fometimes put
over the inner tube, of fuch a length, that when the
fluid is got nearly up to.the lips of the man, the fyphon
may begin to a<ft and e'mpty the cup.
This is in effedl no other than if the two legs of the
fyphon were both within the vefiel, as in fig. 12. into
which the water poured will rife in the fhorter leg of
the machine, by its natural preflure upwards, to its
own level ; and when it fliall have gained the bend of
the fyphon, it will come away by the longer leg, as
D 2 already
The foun¬
tain at com¬
mand.
Plate
CCXLI.
fydra.
Plate
CCXLIII
fig- 7-
Hy^ro-f
water-
tlock.
Plate
C'CXLIV.
fig. 4.
HYDROS
already defcribed. An apple, an orange, or any other
folid, may be put into the veffel, to raife the water,
when it is near the bend, to fet it a-running, by way
of amufement.
Again, let the handle of the cup, fig. 11. be hol¬
low ; let the tube CD, fcrewed therein, communicate
f, cely with the water poured into the cup, that it may
rife equally in boch. Being once above the level ED,
it will overflow, and defcendinj* through the cavity
DB, will empty the cup of its liquor.
2. The device called the fountain at command, a6ts
upon the fame principle with the fyphon in the cup.
Let two vefiels A and B be joined together by the
pipe C, which opens into them both. Let A be opened
at top, B clofe both at top .and bottom (fave only a
fmall hole at b to let the air get out of the veil'd B),
and A he of fuch a fize as to hold about fix times as
much wafer as B. Let a fyphcw DEF be foldered to
the vefft-1 D, fo that the part DEe may be within the
veflel, and F without it ; the end D almoft touching
the bottom of the veflel, and the end F below the le¬
vel of D : the veflel B hanging to A by the pipe C
(foldered into both), and the whole fupported by the
pillars G and H upon the ftand I. The bore of the
pipe mull be confiderably lefs than the bore of the
fyphon.
The whole being thus conftrufted, let the veflel A
be filled with water, which will run through the pipe
C, and fill the veflel B. When B is filled above the
top of the fyphon at E, the water will run through the
fyphon, and be difcharged at F. But as the bore of
the fyphon is larger than the bore of the pipe, the fy¬
phon «ill run fader than the pipe, and will foon empty
the veffel B ; upon which the water will ceafe from
running through the fyphon at F, until the pipe C re¬
fills the veflel B, and then it will begin to run as be¬
fore. And thus the fyphon will continue to run and
flop alternately, until all the water in the veflel A has
run through the pipe C.— So that, after a few trials,
one may tafily gutfs about what time the fyphon will
flop, and when it will begin to run ; and then, to
amufe others, he may call out, “flop,” or “ run,'” ac¬
cord in idy.
3. This figure reprefents a very pretty portable foun-
-tain, which, being charged with water, and inverted,
will play a jet nearly as high’as the refervoir, till the
fluid is exhaufted ; and then turned up on the other
end, the fame thing will happen, and a real clepfydra, or
water-clock, be thereby formed.
This device confifts of two hollow veflels, A and B,
communicating with each other only by the recurved
tubes C and D ; at the ends of which, E and F, are
placed fmall adjutages to diredt the jet. G and H are
two open tubes, foldered into the bottom of the bafons
belonging to A and B, through which the water flows
in, and fills thofe veflels to a certain height, that is,
according to their length. They by their difpofition
alfo prevent the return of the water the fame way,
when the machine is turned upfide down.
4. Provide a cylindric veflel of glafs or china, ABCD,
about a foot high, and four inches diameter. Make
a hole in its bottom, in which glue a fmall glafs-tube
E, of about one-third of an inch diameter, and whofe
end has been partly clofed in the flame of a lamp, fo
that it will not fuffer the water to pafs out but by
T A T I C S. Sed. VI.
drops, and that very flowly. Cover the top of the vef- Entertain-
fel with a circle of wood F, in the centre of which in8 cxPer‘“
make a round hole about half an inch diameter. menu.^ ^
Have a glafs tube GH, a foot high, and a quarter
of an inch diameter; and at one end let it have a Imall
glafs globe I, to which you may hang a weight L, by
which it is kept in equilibrio, on or near the furface
of the water; or you may pour a fmall quantity of
mercury into the tube, for the fame purpofe. Fill the
vdfel with water; put the tube in it, and over it place
the cover F, through the hole of which the tube
mud pafs freely up and down. Now, as the water
diops gradually out of the veflel, the tube will con¬
tinue to defeend till it come to the bottom-.
Therefore, pafte on the tube a graduated paper, and
put it in the veflel when nearly full of water. Hang
a watch by it, fet to a certain hour; and as the tube
defeends, mark the hours, with the half and quarter
hours. If the vtflel be fufficiently large, with regard
to the hole at the bottom, it will go for 1 2 hours, a
day, or as much longer as you pleafe, and requires no
other trouble than that of pouring in water to a cer¬
tain height. Care muft be had, however, that the
water be clean ; for if there be any fediment, it will
in time flop the fmall hole at bottom, or atleaft render
the motion of the water irregular.
The veflel may be of tin, but the pipe at bottom
fliould be glafs, that its fmall aperture may not alter by
ufe. It is to be obferved, that the tube of one of thefe
clocks is not to be graduated by another: for though
the veflel be of the fame diameter at top, it may not
be perfeftly cylindrical throughout; nor is it tafy to
make the hole at the bottom of one veflel exadtly of
the fame dimenfion with that of another. 4g
5. The Hon. Mr Charles Hamilton has defcribed Clepfydra*
a curious clepfydra or water-clock of new conflruc- fitJ- 7-
tion. An open canal e e, fupplied with a conflant
and equal ftream by the fyphon d, has at each end
ff, open pipes of exadlly equal bores, which deliver
the water that runs along the canal e, alternately
into the veflels g 1, g Z, in fuch a quantity as to raife
the water from the mouth of the tantalus t, exa<£lly .iv
an hour. The canal ee is equally poifed by the two
pipes f 1, f i, upon a centre r, the ends of the canal
e are raifed alternately, as the cups a a are deprefled,
to which they are connetfled by lines running over
the pullies 11. The cups a a are fixed at each end of
the balance m m, which moves up and down upon its
centre v. n n 2, Are the edges of two wheels or
pullies, moving different ways alternately, and fitted
to the cylinder 0 by oblique teeth both in the cavity
of the wheel and upon the cylinder, which, when the
wheel n moves one way, that is, in the direction of
the minute hand, meet the teeth of the cylinder and
carry the cylinder with it, and, when n moves the con¬
trary way, flip over thofe of the cylinder, the teeth not
meeting, but receding from each other. One or other
of thefe wheels n n continually moves o in the fame
direftion, with an equable and uninterrupted motion.
A fine chain goes twice round each wheel,'bavin,; at
one end a weight x, always out of water, which equi¬
ponderates with_y at the other end. when kept floating
on the furface of the water in the veflel g, which y muft
always be ; the two cups z, *, one at each end of the
balance, keep it in equilibrio, till, one of them is forced
down
Hate CC'XLil
\
HTD R O S T A T ICS.
Plate VCWAU
SedV.VI. HYDROS
Entertain- down by the weight and impulfe of the water, which
ingr expert- jt reC{;;ve8 from the tantalus 11 i: each of thefe cups
z, z, has likewife a tantalus of its own A, h, which emp¬
ties it after the water has done running from g, and
leaves the two cups again in equilibria ; y is a drain to
carry off the water. The dial-plate, &c. needs no
defcription. The motion of the clepfydra is effeded
thus: As the end of the canal re, fixed to the pipe
f i, is, in the figure, the loweft, all the water fupplied
by the lyphon runs, through the pipe f i, into the veflel
g i, till it runs over the top of the tantalus t i when it
immediately rims out at i into the cup z, at the end of
the balance m, and forces it down ; the balance moving
on its centre v. When one fide of m is brought down,
the firing which conne&s it to f i, running over the
pu'tey /, raifes the end f i, of the canal e, which turns
upon its centre r, higher than f z ; confequently, all
the water which runs through the fyphon d pafies
through f z into g z, till the fame operation is per¬
formed in that veflel, and fo on alternately. As the
height the water rifes in g in an hour, viz. from s to t,
is equal to the circumference of n, the floaty rifing
through that height along with the water, lets the
weight x ad upon the pulley «, which carries with it
the cylinder o; and this, making a revolution, caufes the
index i to defcribe an hour on the dial plate. This re
volution is performed by the pulley n i ; the next is
performed by n 2, whilfi n i goes back, as the water
in ^ t runs out through the tantalus; fory mutt fol
low the water, as its weight increafes. out of it. The
axis o always keeps movmg the fame way ; the indexp
defcribes the minutes; each tantalus mutt be wider than
the lyphon, that the veflels gg may be emptied as low
49 as j, before the water returns to them.
A fountain 6. To the tube wherein the water is to rife, fit a fphe-
Jv‘' rical or lenticular head, AB, made of a plate of metal,
ter in form anc^ Perforati;A at toP with a great number of little
ofuftiower. holes. The water rifing with vehemence towards AB,
fig. z. will be there divided into innumerable little threads, and
afterwards broke, and difperfed into the finefi drops.
A fountain ’]■ To the tube AB, folder two fpherical fegments C
which and D, ahnofi touching each other; with a fcrew E,
fpreac's the tQ contra(£\ or amplify the interftice or chink at plta-
foim of a fure- Others choofe to make a fmooth, even cleft, in
tabie-cloth. a fpherical or lenticular head, fitted upon the tube.
% 3 The water fpouting through the chink, ot cleft, will
51 expand itfeif in manner of a cloth.
The globu- 8. Make a hollow globe A, of copper or lead, and of
lar fountain a plze adapted to the quantity of water that comes
CCXLM1 from the pipe to which it is to be placed. Pierce a
fig. 10. number of fmall holes thro’ this globe, that all tend
towards its centre; obferving, however, that the dia¬
meters of all thefe holes, taken together, mull not
exceed that of the pipe at the part from whence the
water flows. Annex to it a pipe B, of fuch height as
you think convenient; and let it be fcrewed at C, to
the pipe from whence the jet flows. The water that
comes from the jet rufhing with violence into the globe,
will be forced out at the holes, with the diredion in
which they are made, and will produce a very plea-
fing fphere of water.
9. Procure a little figure made of cork, as AB,
which you may paint, or drefs in a light fluff, after
your own fancy. In this figure you are to place the
Enall hollow cone C, made of thin leaf-brafs. When
T A T I C S.
29
The hy¬
draulic
the figure is placed on thejet-d’eau that plays in aEntertain-
perpendicular diredion, it will remain fufpended on in£ exPeri*
r, r r . r . -ments.
the top 01 the water, and perform a great variety ot. ^. .■»
motions.
If a hollow ball of copper, of an inch diameter, and
very light, be placed on a fimilar jet, it will, in like
manner, remain fufpended, revolving on its centre, and
fpreading the water all round it, in the manner repre-
fented by fig. 6. or Plate CCXLIV. fig. 1.—But note,
that as it is neceffary the ball, &c. when on the de-
fcent, fhould keep the fame precife perpendicular where¬
in it rofe (fince otherwiie it would mifs the fiream and
fall downright), fuch a fountain fhould only be played
in a place free from wind. 53
10. Make a hollow leaden cone A, whofe axis is one-The hemi-
third of the diameter of its bafe. The circle C, that^ejacal
forms its bafe, muff be in proportion to the furface ofpj^ p
water that flows from the jet on which it is to be pla- CCXLV,
ced, that it may flow from it equally on all fides. Tohg.
the cone join the pipe B;- which ferves not only as a
fupport, but is to be pierced with a number of holes,
that it may fupply the cone with a fuflicient quantity
of water. Screw the tube jutt mentioned to the top of
that from whence the jet proceeds.—The water that
ruflies into the cone from the pipe, will run over its
circumference, and form a hemispherical cafcade. If
this piece be fo conftrufted that it may be placed in a
reverfed pofition, it will produce a fountain in the form
of a vafe, (fee fig. 2 ); and if there be a fufficient
quantity of water, both thefe pieces may be placed on
the fame pipe, the fountain at top and the cafcade
underneath, which by their variety will produce a very
pleaiing appearance. 54
11. Let there be two portions of a hollow fphere, that The water--
are very (hallow : and let them be fo joined together,
that tire circular fpace between them may be very nar- ccx.LlV.'
row. Fix them vertically to a pipe from whence a jet fig. 3.
proceeds. In that part by which the portions of the
fphere are joined, there mutt be made a number of
holes ; then the water rulhing into the narrow cavity
will be forced out from the holes, and produce a regu-^
lar figure of the fun, as in the plate. This piece re¬
quires a large quantity and force of water to make it
appear to advantage.
Several pieces of this fort may be placed over each
other, in a horizontal diredion, and fo that the fame
pipe may fupply them all with wa^er (fee fig. 6. of
plate CCXLV.) It is proper to obferve, that the dia-
meier of thefe pieces mutt continually diminilh, in pro¬
portion to their diftance fiom the bottom. 5^-
1 z. Make a hollow circle A, the fides of which are to The revol-
be pierced with 12 or 1.5 holes, made in an inclinedv" 8wattri
diiedion : or you may place the like number of fmall pjate
tubes round the circle. Fix this circle on-the topjjxLW.
of a jet, in iuch manner that it may turn freely-round. %• 3.
The water rufhing violently into the hollow circle
will keep it it continual motion ; and at the fame time
forcing out of the holes or fmall tubes, will form a re¬
volving figure with rays in different dire&ions, as in
theplate.
13. Provide a ftrong.copper veflel A, of fuch figure asThe com-
you think convenient ; in which folder a pipe BE, of> effect jet
the fame metal. Let there be a cock at H, which mutt^ fau’
be made fo tight that ne air can pafs by it. .The pipe-1*’' lZ
BE mull go very near the bottom of the veflel, but-
no*.
30
HYDROS
The n
vel'ous vef- i
fel, fig. i
Entertain- not touch it. There muft be another pipe F, at whofe
ingexpeti- ext;reniity G there is a very fmall hole: this pipe mult
ment^ be ferewed into the former.
'' v The veflel being thus difpofed, take a good fyringe;
and placing the end of it in the hole at G, open the
cock, and force the air into the veflel ; then turn the
cock and take out the fyringe. Repeat this operation
feveral times, till the air in the veffel be Itrongly con-
denfed. Then fill the fyringe with water, and force it
into the veflel, in the fame manner as you did the air ;
and repeat this operation till you can force no more
water into the vefi'el; then flint the cock. This veffel
will be always ready to perform an extempore jet d’eau :
for, on turning the cock, the fpring of the comprefled
air will force out the water with great violence, and
the jet will continue, though conilantly decreafing in
force, till the water is all exhiufted, or the air with¬
in the vefi'el is come to the fame denfity with that
o . without.
14. Let there be made a tin veflel, about fix inches
* high, and three inches in diameter. The mouth of
this veffel muft be only one quarter of an inch wide;
and in its bottom make a great number of fmall holes
about the fize of a common fewing needle. Plunge
this veffel in water, with its mouth open ; and when
it is full, cork it up and take it out of the water.
So long as the veffel remains corked, no water what¬
ever will come out; but as foon as it is uncorked, the
water will iffue out from the fmall holes at its bottom.
You muft obferve, that if the holes at its bottom
of the veffel be more than one fixth of an inch diame¬
ter, or if they be in too great number, the water will
run out though the veffel be corked ; for then the pref-
fure of the air againft the bottom of the veffel will not
j8 be fufficient to confine the water.
A glafs full An experiment fimilar to this is made with a glafs
''f filled with water, over which a piece of paper is placed.
^ The glafs is then inverted ; and the water, by the
preffure of the air under it, will remain in the glafs.
That the paper, though the feeming, is not'the real,
fupport of the water, will appear from n° 25.
15. In this fountain, the air being compreffed by
latlng foun- the concealed fall of water, makes a jet, which, after
fame continuance, is confidered by the ignorant as a
perpetual motion; becaufe they imagine that the fame
water which fell from the jet arifes again. The boxes
CE and DYX being clofe, we fee only the bafon
ABW, with a hole at W, into which the water fpout-
ing at B falls ; but that water does not come up again;
for it runs down through the pipe WX into the box
DYX, from whence it drives out the air through the
afeending pipe YZ, into the cavity' of the box CE,
where, preffmg upon the water that is in it, it forces
it but through the fpouting pipe OB, as long as there
is any water in CE ; fo that this whole play is only
whilft the water contained in CE, having fpouted out,
falls down through the pipe WX into the cavity DYX.
The force of the jet is proportionable to the height of
the pipe WX, or of the boxes CE and DY above one
another : the height of the water, meafured from the
bafon ABW to the furface of the water in the lower
box DYX, is always equal to the height meafured
from the top of the jet to the furface of the water in
the middle cavity at CE. Now, fince the furface CE
ts always falling, and the v/ater in DY always rifing,
cf water
inverted,
and the w
ter not
fpiit,
%• IS-
59
The c
Plate
CCXLV.
fig- 4.
T A T I C S. Sea.V!,
the height of the jet muft continually decreafe, till it E^es-'auv.
is fhorter by the height of the depth of the cavity CE,
which is emptying, added to the depth of the cavity , - 1
DY, which is always filling ; and when the jet is fal¬
len fo low, it immediately ceafes. The air is repre-
fented by the points in thi$ figure. To prepare this
fountain for playing, which fhould be done unobferved,
pour in water at W, till the cavity DXY is filled;
then invert the fountain, and the water will run' from
the cavity DXY into the cavity CE, which may be
known to be full, when the water runs out at B held
down. Set the fountain up again, and, in order to
make it play, pour in about a pint of water into the
bafon A BW; and as foon as it has filled the pipe
WX, it will begin to play, and continue as long as
there is any water in CE. You may then pour back
the water left in the bafon ABW, into any veffel, and
invert the fountain, which, being fet upright again,
will be made to play, by putting back the water
poured out into ABW ; and fo on as often as you
pleafe.
The fountain fig. 3. is of the fame kind; but ha¬
ving double the number of pipes and concealed cavi¬
ties, it plays as high again. In order to underftand its
ftrudlure, fee fig. 7. The bafon is A, the four cavi¬
ties are B, C, D, and E, from which the water through
the pipe f G fpouts up to double the height of the
fountain, the air at E, which drives it, being doubly
condenfed. The water going down the pipe 1 (r. gr.
three feet long), condenfes the air that goes up into
the cavity C through the pipe z, fo as to make it
ftronger than the common air; then the water, which
falling in the pipe 3 from C to D, is capable, by the
height of its fall, of condenfing the air at E, fo as to
make it ftronger, being pulhed at C by air already
condenfed into lefs fpace, caufes the air at E to be
condenfed twice as much ; that is, to be j- ftronger
than commqn air ; and therefore it will make the wa¬
ter at G fpout out with twice the force, and rife twice
as high as it would do if the fountain had been of
the fame ftru&ure with the former. In playing this
fountain turn it upfide down, and taking out the plugs
g, h, fill the two cavities C and E, and having (hut the
holes again, fet the fountain upright, and pour feme
water into the bafon A, and the jet will play out at G;
but the fountain will begin to play too foon, and there¬
fore the beft way is to have a cock in the pipe 3,
which, being open, whilft the cavities C and E are
filled, and fhut again before the fountain is fet up, will
keep the water thrown into the bafon from going down
the pipe 1, and that of the cavity C from going down
the pipe 3, by which means the fountain will not play
before its time, which will be as foon as the cock is
opened. go
16. Procure a tin veffel ABC, five inches high andThemagl-
fbur in diameter ; and let it be clofed at top. To the cal cafcade,
bottom of this veffel let there Ke foldered the pipe DE, %• 5*
of ten inches length, and half aa inch in diameter: this
pipe muft be open at each end, and the upper end muft
be above the water in the veffel. To the bottom alfo
fix five or fix fmall tubes F, about one-eighth of an
inch diameter. By thefe pipes the-Water contained in
the veffel is to run flovvly out.
Place this machine on a fort of tin bafon GH, in
the middle of which is a hole of one quarter of an inch
$ diameter.
Sea. VI. HYDROS
Entertain- diameter. To this tube DE, fix fome pieces that may
mg expert- fUpp0rt the vefiV.l over the bafon ; and obferve that the
end D, of the tube DE, rnuil be little more than one
: quarter of an inch from the bafon. There muft be alfo
another veffel placed under the bafon, to receive the
water that runs from it.
Now, the fmall pipes difcharging more water into
the bafon than can run out at the hole in its centre, the
water will rife in the bafon, above the lower end of the
pipe DE, and prevent the air from getting into the
veffel AB ; and confequently the water will ceafe to
flow from the fmall pipes. But the water continuing
to flow from the bafon, the air will have liberty again to
enter the veffel AB, by the tube DE, and the water
will again flow from the fmall pipes. Thus they will
alternately flop and flow as long as any water remains
in the veffel AB.
As you will eafily know, by obferving the rife of the
water, when the pipes will ceafe to flow, and by the
fall of it, when they will begin to run again, you may
fafely prediA the change ; or you may command
them to run or flop, and they will feem to obey your
gj orders.
The illumi- 17. This fountain begins to play when certain can-
nated foun- dies placed round it are lighted, and flops when thofe
Plate candles are extinguifhed. It is conftrufted as follows.
CCXLIII Provide two cylindrical veffels, AB and CD. Con¬
ig. p. nedt them by tubes open at both ends, as HE, FB, Sea
fo that the air may defeend out of the higher into the
lower veffel. To thefe tubes fix candlefticks H, See.
and to the hollow cover CF, of the lower veffel, fit a
fmall tube EF, furnifiied with a cock G, and reaching
almoft to the bottom of the veffel. In G let there be
an aperture with a ferew, whereby water may be poured
into CD.
Now, the candles at H, See. being lighted, the air
in the contiguous pipes will be thereby rarified, and
the jet from the fmall tube EF will begin to play : as
the air becomes more ratified, the force of the jet will
increafe, and it will continue to play till the water in
the lower veffel is exhaufted. It is evident, that as the
motion of the jet is caufed by the heat of the candles,
if they be extinguiftied, tbe fountain mull prefently
The folar
fountain.
Plate
CCXLV..
%• 8.
18. This fountain is contrived to play by the fpring
of the air, increafed by the heat of the fun, and ferves
alfo for a dial at the fame time. GNS is a hollow
globe of thin copper, eighteen inches in diameter, fup-
ported by a fmall inverted bafon, refting on a frame
ABC, v/ith four legs, between which there is a large
bafon of iwo feet diameter- In the leg C there is a
concealed pipe, proceeding from G, the bottom of.the
infide of the globe, along HV, and joining an upright
pipe « I, for making a jet at I. 1 he fhort pipe la,
going to the bottom of the bafon, has a valve at a un¬
der the horizontal part HV, and another valve at V
T A T I C S. y
above it, and under the cock, Sc. At the north pole^ntertain-
N, there is a ferew for opening a hole, through whichin!?eJ£Feri"
the globe is fupplied with water. When the globe is ment^ f
half filled, let the machine be fet in a garden, and as
the fun heats the copper and ratifies the included air,
the air will prefs upon the water, which, defeending
through the pipe GCHV, will lift up the valve V, and
ftiut the valve «, and the cock being 'open, fpout out
at I, and continue to do fo for a long time if the fun
fhines, and the adjutage be fmall. At night, as the air
condenfes again by the cold, the outward air preffing
into the adjutage I, will flrut the valve V, but by its
preffure on the bafon D«H, puflr up the water which
has been played in the day-time through the valve «,
and the pipe wHG into the globe, fo as to fill it up
again to the fame height which it had at firft, and the
next fun-fliine will caufe the fountain to play again,
&c. . The ufe of the cock is to keep the fountain from
playing till you think proper : a fmall jet will play fix
or eight hours.
If the globe be fet to the latitude of the place, and
redified before it be fixed, with the hour-lines or me¬
ridians drawn upon it, the hours marked, and the
countries painted, as on the common globe, it will
form a good dial: the fun then fliining upon the fame
places in this globe as it does on the earth itfelf. This
fountain was invented by Dr Defaguliers. 63
19. There is a pretty contrivance, by which the fpe-T!le ^7*.
cific gravity of the body is fo altered, that it rifes anddraulic dl*
finks in water at our pleafure. Let little images of men,Ver3'
about an inch high, of coloured glafs, be befpoke at a
glafs-houfe; and let them be made fo as to be hollow
within, but fo as to have a fmall opening into this hol¬
low, either at the foie of the foot or dfewhere. Let
them be fet afloat in a clear glafs phial of water, filled
within about an inch of the mouth of the bottle ; then
let the bottle have its mouth clofed with a bladder,
clofely tied round its neck, fo as to let no air efcape
one way or the other. The images' themfelves are
nearly of the fame fpecific gravity with water, or ra¬
ther a little more light, and confequently float near the
furface. Now when we prefs down the bladder, tied
on at the top, into the mouth of the bottle, and thus
prefs the air upon the furface of the water in the bottle;
the water being preffed will force into the hollow of
the image through the little opening: thus the air
within the images will be prefled more clofely together,
and being alfo more filled with water now than before,
the images will become more heavy, and will confe¬
quently defeend to the bottom ; but, upon taking off
the preffure from above, the air within them will again
drive out the water, and they will rife to the fame
heights as before. If the cavities in fome of the ima¬
ges be greater than thofe in others, they will rife and:
fall differently, which makes the experiment more
amufing,
H Y D
HYDROTHORAX, a colleftion of water in the
breafi. See (the Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HYDRUNTUM, (anc. geog.), a noble and com¬
modious port of Calabria, from which there was a ftior-
ter paffage to Apollonia (Pliny.) Famous for its an-
H Y D
tiquity, and for the fidelity and bravery of its inhabi¬
tants. Now Otranto, a city of Naples, at the entrance
of the Gulf of Venice. E. Long. 190 15'. N. Lat.
40° i'd.
HYEMANTES, (in the primitive church), offen¬
ders
H Y G r 32 1 H Y G
'Hygeia derj who had been guilty of fuch enormities, that they
il were not allowed to enter the porch of the churches
w‘t^1 lhe other penitents, but were obliged to ftand
u—-y—j without, expo fed to all the inclemency of the wea¬
ther.
HYGE1A, in mythology. See Health.
HYGIEINE, Tytuv”, formed of uyinr, “ found,
healthy,” that branch of medicine which confiders
health, and difcovers proper means and remedies, with
their ufe, in the prefervation of that date.
The obje&s of this branch of medicine are, the non¬
naturals. See Diet, Exercise, &c.
Hygieine, more largely taken, is divided into
three parts; prophyla&ice, which forefees and pre¬
vents difeafes; fynteritice, employed in preferving
health ; and analeptice, whofe office is to cure difeafes,
and reftore health.
HYGINUS (Caiusjulius), a grammarian, the freed-
man of Auguftus, and the friend of Ovid, was born in
Spain, or, according to others, in Alexandria. He
wrote many books which are mentioned by ancient
authors ; all of which are loft, except fome fables, and
a work entitled AJlronomicon Poeticon; and even thefe
are come down to us very imperfect. The beft edition
of thefe remains is that of Munker, publifhed with
fome other pieces of antiquity in 2 vols 8vd, 1681, un¬
der the title of Mytbographi Latinu
HYGROMETER, an inftrument for meafuring
the degrees of drynefs or moifture of the atmofphere,
in like manner as the barometer and thermometer mea-
fure its different degrees of gravity or warmth.
Though every fubltance which fwells in moift, and
ffirinks in dry weather, is capable of becoming an hy¬
grometer ; yet this kind of inftrument is far from be¬
ing as yet arrived at fuch a degree of perfection as the
barometers and thermometers. There are three gene¬
ral principles on which hygrometers have been con-
ftruCfed. 1. The lengthening and fhortening of firings
by drynefs and moiflure, or their twilling and untwiil-
ing by the fame. 2. The fwelling and fhrinking of
folid fubftances by moifture or drynefs ; and, 3. By
the increafe or decreafe of the weight of particular bo¬
dies whofe nature is to abforb the humidity of the at¬
mofphere.
1. On the firfl of thefe principles Mr Smeaton hath
conftrudted an hygrometer greatly fuperior to any that
had appeared before ; and of which the following ac¬
count is given in the 6ad volume of the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions.
“ Having fome years ago attempted to make an ac¬
curate and fenfible hygrometer by means of a hempen
cord of a confiderable length, I quickly found, that,
though it was more than Efficiently fufceptible of eve¬
ry change in the humidity of the atmofphere, yet the
cord was upon the whole in a continual ftate of length¬
ening. Though this change was the greateft at firft,
yet it did not appear probable that any given time
would bring it to a certainty ; and, furthermore, it
feemed, that as the cord grew more determinate in
mean length, the alteration by certain differences of
moifture grew lefs. Now, as on confidering wood,
catgut, paper, &c. there did not appear to be a like¬
lihood of finding any fubftance Efficiently fenfible of
differences of moillure that would be unalterable under
the fame degrees thereof; this led me to coniider of a
Nf 161.
conflru&ion which would readily admit of an adjuft- HygromeJ
ment; fo that, though the cord whereby the inflrument ter- ?
is aftuated may be variable in itfelf, both as to abfa-' 'r~^t ’
lute length, and difference of length under given de¬
grees of moifture, yet that, on Eppofition of a mate¬
rial departure from its original fcale, it might be re-
dily reftored thereto ; and, in confequence, that any
number of hygrometers fimilarly conftrufted, might,
like thermometers, be capable of fpeaking the fame
language.
“ The two points of heat the more readily deter¬
minable in a thermometer, are the points of freezing
and boiling water. In like manner, to conflruft hy^
grometers which fhall be capable of agreement, it is
neceffary to ellablifh two different degrees of a moi¬
flure which fhall be as fixed in themfelves, and to which
we can have recourfe as readily and as often as poffible.
“ One point is given by making the fubftance per-
fe&Iy wet, which feems Efficiently determinable; the
other is that of perfect dry, which I do not apprehend
to be attainable with the fame precifion. A readinefs
to imbibe wet, fo that the fubftance may be foon and
fully faturated, and alfo a facility of parting with its
moiflure on being expofed to the fire to dry ; at the
fame time, that neither immerfion, nor a moderate ex-
pofition to the warmth of the fire, fhall injure its tex¬
ture ; are properties requifite to the firll mover of fuch
an hygrometer, that in a manner exclude all fubftances
that I am acquainted with, befides hempen and flaxen
threads and cords, or Ebflances compounded of them.
“ Upon thefe ideas, in the year 1758, I conftrufted
two hygrometers as nearly alike as poffible, in order
that I might have the means of examining their agree¬
ment or difagreement on fimilar or diffimilar treat¬
ment. The interval or fcale between dry and wet I
divided into too equal parts, which I call the degrees
of this hygrometer. The point of o denotes perfefl
dry; and the numbers increafe with the degrees of
moifture to 100, which denotes perfeft wet.
“ On comparing them for fome time, when hung
up together in a paffage or flaircafe, where they would
be very little affe&ed by fire, and where they would
be expofed to as free an air as poffible in the irifide of
the houfe, I found that they were generally within one
degree, and very rarely differed two degrees; but as
thefe comparifons neceffarily took up fome time, and
were frequently interrupted by long avocations from
home, it was fome years before I could form a tolerable
judgment of them. One thing I foon obferved, not
altogether to my liking, which was, that the flaxen
cords made ufe of feemed to make fo much refiftance
to the entry of fmall degrees of moiflure (Ech as is
commonly experienced within doors in the fituation
above mentioned), that all the changes were comprifed
within the firll 30® of the fcale; but yet, on expofing
them to the warm fleam of a wafh-houfe, the index
quickly mounted to 100. I was therefore defirous of
impregnating the cords with fomething of a faline na¬
ture, which fhould difpofe them more forcibly to at-
traft moifture; in order that the index might, with the
ordinary changes of the moifture in the atmofphere, tra¬
vel over a greater part of the fcale of 100. How to do
this in a regular and fixed quantity, was the fubjedt of
many experiments, and feveral years interrupted inquiry.
AtlaftItried the one hereafter deferibed, which feemed
1 to
Plate CC2LIV,
Plate rOXLV.
, r~/./3s/A'A,:„ /!„r.
H Y G [ 33 J H Y G
iHygrome' to anfwef my intention in a great meafure ; and tho’
, , tei'‘ , upon the whole it does not appear probable that ever
F" < r this inftrinnent will be made capable of fuch an accu¬
rate agreement as the mercurial thermometers are, yet
if we can reduce all the difagteements of an hygrome¬
ter within part of the whole fcale, it will pro-
bisbiy be'6f ufe in fome philofophical inquiries, in lieu
of inftrumehts which have not yet been reduced to
any common fcale at all.
I Plates “ Fig. i. and 2. ABC is an orthographic delinea-
ICGXLVI. tion of the whole inftrument feen in front in its true
®tXLVH'proportion. DE is that of the profile, or inttru-
-xnentfeen edgewife. FG in both reprefents a flaxen
1 cord about 35 inches long, fcfpendedby a turning peg
F, and attached to a loop of brafs-wire at A, which
.goes down into the box cover H, and defends the in¬
dex, &c. from injury; and by a glafs expofes the fcale
to view.
“ Fig. 3. fhows the inftrument to a larger fcale, the
■upright part being Ihortened, and the box-cover re¬
moved; in which the fame letters reprefent the fame
parts as in the preceding figures; Cl are two loops
or long links of brafs-wire, which lay hold of the in¬
dex KL, moveable upon a fmall ftud or centre K. The
cord FG is kept moderately drained by a weight
•M of about half a pound avoirdupois.—It is obvious,
that, as the cord lengthens and fhortens, the extreme
end of the index rifes and falls, and fuccefiively paffes
over N a the fcale difpofed in the arch of a circle, and
containing too equal divifions. This fcale is attached
to the brafs Aiding ruler QP, which moves upon the
•direfting piece RR, fixed by ferews to the board, which
makes the frame or bafe of the whole ; and the fcale
and ruler NQP is retained in any place nearer to or
further from the centre K, as may be required by the
ferew S.
“ Fig. 4. reprefents in profile the Aiding piece and
ftud I (fig. 3.), which traverfes upon that part of the
index next the centre K; and which can, by the two
ferews of the ftud, be retained upon any part of the
index that is made parallel ; and which is done for
three or four inches from the centre, for that purpofe.
The ftud is filed to the edges, like the fulcrum of a
feale-beam ; one being formed on the under fide, the
■other on the upper, and as near as may be to one
another. An hook formed at the lower end of the
\vire-loops Cl, retains the index, by the lowermoft
edge of the ftud ; while the weight M hangs by a fmall
hook upon the upper edge : by thefe means the index
is kept fteady, and the cords {trained by the weight,
with very little friction or burthen upon the central
ftud K.
“ Fig. 5. is a parallelogram of plate-brafs, to keep
out dull, which is attached to the upper edge of the
box-cover H; and ferves to Amt the part of the box-
cover neceAarily cut away, to give leave for the wire
GI to traverfe with the Aiding ftud nearer to or fur¬
ther from the centre of the index K; and where, in
fig. 5. a is an hole of about an inch diameter, for the
wire GI to pafs through in the rifing and falling of the
index freely without touching ; 6 is a Ait of a ItlTer
fize, fufficient to pafs the wire, and admit the cover to
come off without deranging the cord or index ; ce are
two fmall ferews applied to two Aits, by which the
plate Aides length wavs, in order to adapt the hole a
Vol. IX. Part I. '
to the wire Cl, at aiiy place of the llud I upbh the Hygrome-
index KL. ter-
“ 1. In this conftru&ion, the index KL being 12 Y ^
inches long, 4 inches from the extreme end are filed fo
narrow in the direction in which it is feen by the eye,
that any part of thefe four inches lying Over the divi¬
fions of the fcale, becomes an index thereto. The fcale
itfelf Aides four inches, fo as to be brought under any
part of the Four inches of the index attenuated as above-
mentioned.
“ 2. The pofition of the direfting piece RR is fo
determined as to be parallel to a right line drawn thro*
o upon the fcale, and the centre K of the index; con-
fequently, as the attenuated part of the index forms a
part of a radius or right line from the fame centre, it
follows, that whenever the index points to o upon the
fcale, thbugh the fcale is moved nearer to or further
from the centre of the index, yet it produces no change
in the place to which the index points.
“ 3. When the divided arch of the fcale is at 10 inches
from the centre (that is, at its mean diflance); then
the ■centre of the arch and the centre of the index are
coincident. At other diftances, the extremes of which
are eight or twelve inches, the centre of the divifions,
and the centre of the index pointing thereto, not be¬
ing coincident, the index cannot move over the fpaces
geometrically proportionable to one another in all fi-
tuations of the fcale ; yet the whole fcale not exceed¬
ing 30° of a circle, it will be found on computation,
that the error can never be fo great as ,4^ part of the
fcale, or i° of the hygrometer; which in this inftru¬
ment being confidered as indivifible, the mechanical
error will not be fenfible.
“ The cord here made ufe of is fiax, and between
and TVth of an inch in diameter; which can be
readily afeertained by meafuring a number of turns
made round a pencil or fmall ftick. It is a fort of cord
ufed in London for making nets, and is of that par¬
ticular kind called by net-makersJlaxen three-threads
laid. A competent quantity of this cord was boiled
in one pound avoirdupois of water, in which was put
two pennyweights troy of common fait; the whole
was reduced by boiling to fix ounces avoirdupois,
which was dofie in about half an hour. As this afeer-
tains a given ftrength of the brine, on taking out the
cord, it may be fuppofed that every fibre of the cord
is equally impregnated with fait. The cord being
dried, it will be proper to ftretch it; which may be
done fo as to prevent it from untwifting, by tying
three or four yards to two nails againft a wall, in an
horizontal pofition, and hanging a weight of a pound
or two to the middle, fo as to make it form an obtnfe
angle; This done fora week or more in a room, will
lay the fibres of the cord clofe together, and prevent
its ftretching fo faft after being applied to the in¬
ftrument as it would otherwife be apt to do.
, “ The hygrometer is to be adjufted in the following
manner. The box-cover being taken off to prevent its
being fpoiled by the fire, and choofing a day natu¬
rally dry, fet the inftrument nearly upright, about a
yard from a moderate fire ; fo that the cord may be¬
come dry, and the inftrument warm, but not fo near
as would fpoil the fineft linen by too much heat, and
yet fully evaporate the moifture; there let the inftru¬
ment flay till the index is got as low as it will go;
E now
Hygromc-
H Y G [ 34 ] H Y G
now and then ftroaking the cord betwixt the thumb
and finger downwards, in order to lay the fibres there¬
of clofe together ; and thereby caufing it to lengthen
as much as poffible. When the index is thus become
llationary, which will generally happen in about an
hour, more or lefs as the air is naturally more or kfs
dry, by means of the peg at top raife or deprefs the
index, till it lies over the point o. This done, remove
the inftrument from the fire ; and having ready fome
warm water in a tea cup, take a middling camel’s hair
pencil, and, dipping it in the water, gently anoint the
cord till it will drink up no more, and till the index
becomes ftationary and water will have no more effe&
upon it, which will alfo generally happen in about an
hour. If in this ftate the index lies over the degree
marked too, all is right : if not, flack the fcrew S,
and Aide the fcale nearer to or further from the centre,
till the point 100 comes under the ii}dex, and then the
inftrument is adjufted for ufe : but if the compafs of
the Aide is not fufficient to effeft this, as may proba¬
bly happen on the firft adjuftment, flack the proper
fcrews, and move the Aiding ftud I nearer to or fur¬
ther from the centre of the index, according as the
angle formed by the index between the two points of
dry or wet happens to be too fmall or too large for
the fcale.”
On this principle, a fimple hygrometer has been
made by Mr Coventry of Southwark, London. It is
not upon the moft accurate conftru&ion, yet will aft
very fenfibly in the common changes of the air. Fig. 6.
reprefents the hygrometer as applied to a wall or board.
A is a firing of whip-cord, catgut, &c. of any length
at pleafure : it is fufpended on a bracket B, and kept
extended by a weight at the bottom C. DD is a flip
of wood, which with the bracket is fixed perpendicu¬
larly to a wall or fide of a room. It has a ftraight
line E drawn down in the middle of the board, fer-
ving to point out the divifions upon the edges of the
two thin circular cards F and G. At the centre of the
bottom of each of thefe cards is glued a piece of
cork, through which the firing A is drawn: Thefe
cork-pieces ferve to preferve the horizontal pofition of
the cards. The upper card F is divided into 10 equal
parts or divifions, and the under card G into 100 equal
parts; the firing A being meafured into to equal
paHs, from the point of fufpenfion H to the furface
of tniTlow’er card I. The card F is hung at the firft
part from H, and the card G at the roth part from
the fame point : confequently, from the twilling and
untwifting of the firing A by the different changes of
the air, the lower card G, from the mechanical prin¬
ciples of motion, will defcribe 10 revolutions for one
of the upper card F ; or, when the lower card G has
made one revolution, the upper card F will have de-
fcribed but the 10th part, or one of its divifions.
From whence it appears, that by the afliftance of the
upper card F, an index is thereby obtained of the num¬
ber of revolutions the lower card G performs, which
are reckoned by the line E on the flip of wood.
Example. It muft firll be obferved what divifion
of the card F the line E is againft, fuppofe 3
and alfo what divifion of the lower card G is cut
by the fame line, fuppofe xo : it then appears, that
the ftate of the hygrometer is thus, 3 degrees and 1 o
hundredths of another. If the.whole 10 divifions of
the card F have paffed the line E, the lower card G will Hygrome-
have revolved 1 o times, or x o hundred parts, equal to te^
1000 ; the accuracy to which the principle of this' v
fimple contrivance anfwers. Before ufe, the hygromo-
ter ftiould be adjufted ; to do which, the cards F and
G are firft fet to the line E at the o of each, or com¬
mencement of the graduations: whatever direftion the
cards afterwards take, it muft evidently be from the
change to greater moifture or drynefs in the air; and
they'will accordingly point it out.
On this principle, but with a degree of ingenuity
and pains perhaps never before employed, an hygro¬
meter has been conftrufted by M. de Sauffure, pro-
feffor of philofophy at Geneva. In. his Effais fur
PHygrometrie, in 410, 1783, is an important detail on
the fubjeft of hygrometry ; from which the following
defcription of his hygrometer is taken. The au¬
thor found by repeated experiments, that the differ¬
ence between the greateft extenfion and contraftion of
improperly prepared, and that has a weight of about
three grains fufpended to it, is nearly ^ of its whole
length; that is, 31, or lines in a foot. This circum-
ftance fuggefted the idea of a new hygrometer : And,
in order to render thofe fmall variations perceptible
and ufeful, the following apparatus was conftrufted.
Fig. 7. is a reprefentation of the whole inftrument,
with the hair and other appendages complete. The
lower extremity of the hair a b is held by the chaps
of the fcrew pincers b. Thefe pincers are reprefented
afide at B : by a fcrew at its end, it fattens into the
nut ©f the bottom plate C. This nut of the plate
turns independently of the piece that fupports it, and
ferves to raife or deprefs the pincers B at pleafure.
The upper extremity a of the hair is held by the
under chaps of the double pincers a, reprefented afide
at A. Thefe pincers fatten the hair below, and above
fattens a very fine narrow flip of filver, carefully an¬
nealed, which rolls round the arbor or cylinder d, a fe-
parate figure of which is ftown at DF. This arbor,
wbich carries the needle or index ee, or E in the fepa-
rate figure, is cut in the fliape of a fcrew; and the in¬
tervals of the threads of this fcrew have their bafes
flat, and are cut fquarely fo as to receive the flip of
filver that is fattened to the pincers a, and joined in this
manner with the hair. M. Sauffure obferves, that hair
alone fixed immediately to the arbor would not do; for it
curled upon it, and acquired a ftiffnefs that the counter-
poife w-as not able to furmount. The arbor was cut in
a fcrew form, in order that the flip of filver in wind¬
ing upon it (hould not increafe the diameter of the.
arbor, and never take a fituation too oblique and vari¬
able. The flip is fixed to the arbor by a fmall pin F..
The other extremity of the arbor D is (haped like a
pulley, flat at the bottom fo as to receive a fine fupple
filken firing, to wrhich is fufpended the counterpoife,
g in the large figure, and G in the fide one. This
counterpoife is applied to diftend the hair; and afts in
a contrary direftion to that of the hair, and the move-
able pincers to vvhich the hair is fixed. If then the
hair Ihould be loaded with the weight of four grains,
the counterpoife muft w'eigh four grains more than the
pincers. The arbor at one end paffes through the cen¬
tre of the dial, and turns therein, in a very fine hole,,
on a pivot made very cylindrical and well poliftied : at
the other end is alfo a fimilar pivot, wdiich turns in an.
hole.
H Y G [ 35 ] H Y G
Kygrome hole made in the end of the arm h of the cock h i,
ter. H I. This cock is fixed behind the dial by means of
v the fcrew I.
The dial leek, divided into 360 degrees, isfupport-
ed by two arms 11; thefe are foldered to two tubes,
which inclofe the cylindrical columns mm mm. The
fetting fcrews n n move upon thefe tubes, and ferve
thereby to fix the dial and arbor to any height requi¬
red. The two columns which fupport the dial are
firmly faftened to the cafe of the hygrometer, which
reft, upon the four fcrews 0000; by the afiiftance of
thefe fcrews, the inftrument is adjufted, and placed in
a vertical fituation.
The fquare column p p, which refts upon the bafe of
the hygrometer, carries a box q, to which is fixed a
x kind of port-crayon r, the aperture of which is equal
to the diameter of the counterpoife g. When the hy¬
grometer is to be moved from one place to another ;
to prevent a derangement of the inftrument from the
ofcillations of the counterpoife, the box q, and the
port-crayon r, muft be raifed up fo as the counterpoife
may fall into and be fixed in it, by tightening the
fcrew s and the box and counterpoife together by the
fcrew t. When the hygrometer is intended for ufe, the
counterpoife muft be difengaged by lowering the box,
as may be conceived from the figure.
Laftly, at the top of the inftrument is a curved piece
of metal x,y, z, which is faftened to the three columns
juft defcribed, and keeps them together. It has a
fquare hole at y, which ferves to hang up the hygro¬
meter by when required.
The variations of which this hygrometer is capable,
are (all things befides equal) as much greater as the
arbor round which the flip of filver winds is than a
fmaller diameter, and as the inftrument is capable of
receiving a longer hair. M. Sauflure has had hygro¬
meters made with hairs 14 inches long, but he finds
one foot fufficient. The arbor is three-fourths of a
line in diameter at the bafe between the threads of
the fcrew or the part on which the flip winds. The
variations, when a hair properly prepared is applied to
it, are more than an entire circumference, the index
defcribing about 400 degrees in moving from extreme
drynefs to extreme humidity. M. Sauffure mentions
an inconvenience attending this hygrometer, •viz. its
not returning to the fame point when moved from one
place to another; becaufe the weight of three grains
that keeps the filver flip extended, cannot play fo ex¬
actly as to aft always with the fame precifion againft the
arbor round which it winds. But this weight cannot
be fenfibly increafed without ftill greater inconvenien¬
ces : he therefore obferves, that this hygrometer is
well calculated for a fixed fituation in an obfervatory,
and forvarioushygrometrical experiments; fince, inftead
of the hair, there may be fubftituted any other fub-
ftance of which a trial may' be wanted ; and it may
be kept extended by a counterpoife more or lefs heavy
as they may require : but the inftrument will not ad¬
mit of being moved, nor ferve even for experiments
which may fubjeft it to agitation.
Portable To obviate the objeftion above mentioned, M. Sauf-
tiygrome- fure has contrived another apparatus more portable
jfauflu ^ anc* conven*ent> and which, if not fo extenfive in its va-
^ ure' nations, is in faft very firm, and not in the leaft liable
to be deranged by carriage and agitation. Fig. 8. is a
reprefen tat ion of this hygrometer, which he calls the Hygromc-
portable hygrometer, in diftinftion from the preceding, ( ttr~
which he calls the great hygrometer or the hygrometer "v
with the arbor. The material part of this inftrument
is its index alee; an horizontal view of which, and
the arm that carries it, is feen in the feparate figure
GBDEF. This index carries in its centre D a thin
tube hollow throughout, and projefts out on each fide
of the needle. The axis which paffes through it, and
round which the index turns, is made thin in the
middle of its length and thick at the ends; fo that
the cylindrical tube which it pafles through touches it
only at two points, and afts upon it only at its extre¬
mities.
The part de DE of the index ferves to point out
and mark on the dial the degrees of moifture and diy-
nefs ; the oppofite part db DB ferves to fix both the
hair and counterpoife. This part, which terminates in
a portion of a circle, and is about a line in thicknefs,
is cut on its edge in a double vertical groove, which
makes this part fimilar to the fegment of a pulley
with a double neck. Thefe two grooves, which are
portions of a circle of two lines radius, and have the
fame centre with that of the index d, ferve in one of
them to contain the hair, and in the other the filk, to
the end of which the counterpoife is fufpended. The
fame index carries vertically above and below its centre
two fmall fcrew-pincers, fituated oppofite to the two
grooves:, that above at a, oppofite to the hindmoft
groove, ferves to fix the filk to which the counterpoife
is fufpended ; and that below at b, oppofite to the
hithermoft groove, ferves to hold one of the ends of
the hair. Each of thefe grooves has its partitions cut,
as feen in the feftion B, and its bottom made flat, in
order that the hair and filk may have the greateft:
freedom pofiible. The axis of the needle DD goes
thro’ the arm gf GF, and it is fixed to this arm by the
tightening fcrew /F. All the parts of the index ftiould
be in perfeft equilibrium about its centre; fo that when
it is on its pivot without the counterpoife, it will reft:
indifferently in any pofition it may be placed in.
It muft be underftood, that when the hair is fixed
by one of its extremities in the pincers e, and by the
other end on the pincers y at top of the inftrument,
it paffes in one of the necks of the double pulley
b, whilft the counterpoife to which the filk is fixed in
a paffes in the other neck of the fame pulley: the coun¬
terpoife ferves to keep the hair extended, and afts al¬
ways in the fame direftion and with the fame force,
whatever the fituation of the index may be. When
therefore the drynefs contrafts the hair, it overpowers
the gravity of the epunterpoife, and the index defeends:
when, on the contrary, the humidity relaxes the hair, /
it gives way to the counterpoife, and the index afcencE.*■
The counterpoife fhould weigh but three grains; f&
that the index ftiould be made very light and very eafy
in its motion, in order that the leaft pofiible force may
move it and bring it back again to its point when
drawn afide.
The dial heh is a circular arch, the centre of which
is the fame wdth that of the index. This arch is di¬
vided into degrees of the fame circle, or into the hun¬
dredths of the interval which is found between the li¬
mits of extreme drynefs and extreme humidity. The
interior edge of the' dial carries at the diftance h i a
E 2 kind
H T G r
Hyprome kind of proje&ing bridle or ftay it, made of brafs wire,
^ curved to the arch, and fixed in the points/j. This
^ ' _¥ bridle retains and guards the index, at the fame time
leaving it to play with the requifite freedom; The
ferew pincers in which is faltened the upper extre¬
mity of the hair, is carried by a moveable arm, which
afeends and defeends at pleafure the length of the frame
K&. This frame is cylindrical every where elfe, ex¬
cept its being here flattened at the hinder part to
about half its thicknefs, in order that the piece with
the ferew which carries the arm fhould not project out
underneath, and that the arm may not turn. The
arm may be Hopped at any defired height' by means
of the palling ferew .v. But as it is of ufe fometimes
to be able to give the inflrument a very fmalk and ac¬
curate motion, fo as to bring the index exactly to the
part that may be wanted, the Hide piece /, which car¬
ries the pincers y, to which the hair is fixed, is to be
moved by:the adjufting ferew in.
At the bafe of the inftrument is a great lever nopqj
which ferves to fix the index and its counterpoife when
the hygrometer is to be moved. The lever turns an
axis n, terminated by a ferew which goes into the
frame; in tightening this ferew, the lever is fixed in
the defired pefition. When the motion of the index
is to be Hopped, the intended pofition is given to this
lever, as reprefented in the dotted lines of the figure.
The long neck p of the lever lays hold of the double
pulley b of the index, and the Ihort neefe o of the coun¬
terpoife:.the tightening ferew q faHens the two necks
at once. In confining the index, it muH be fo placed,
that the hair be very flack; fo that, if whilfi it is
moved the hair fhould get dry, it may have room to
contrail itfelf. Afterwards, when the inflrument is
placed for ufe, the firfl thing to be dene is to relax
the ferew n, and turn back the double lever with great
care, taking equal caution at'the fame time not to
flrain the hair. It is better to apply one hand to the
index near its centre, whilfl the other hand is difenga-
ging the pulley -and the counterpoife from the lever
that holds them Heady. The hook r ferves to fufpend
a thermometer upon ; it fliould be a mercurial one,
with a very fmall naked bulb or ball, foas to fhow in the
mofl fenfible manner the changes of the air: it fhould
be mounted in metal, and guarded in fuch a manner as
not to vibrate fo as to break the hair. Laflly, a
notch is made under the top of the frame s, to mark
the point of fufpenfion, about which the inflrument is
in equilibrium, and keeps a vertical fituation.
All the inftrument fliould be made of braft : though
the axis of the index and its tube work more pleafantly
together if made of bell metal.
The extent of this hygrometer’s variations is not
more than the fourth or fifth part of the hygrometer
■with the arbor. It may be augmented by making the
fegment of the pulley to which the hair is fixed of a
frnaller diameter ; but then the hair, in moving about
it, would fret and contraft a ftiffntfs, which would caufe
it to adhere to the bottom of the neck. M. Sauflure
is of opinion, that the radius of this pulley Ihould not
lie lefs than two lines, at leaft that there fliould be
adapted a plate of frlver or fome other contrivance;
but then the hygrometer would be too difficult to con-
ftruft, and it would require too much attention and
care on the part of thole who ufe it; his objeft was,
S6 ] H Y G
to make an inftrument generally ufeful, and eafy Hj
and convenient in its ufe. The hygrometer with the
arbor may be ufed for obfervations which require an
extreme fenfibility.
The variations of this iaftrument may be augment¬
ed by making it higher, becaufe in that cafe longer hairs
might be adapted : but it would be then lefs portable.
Befidcs, if the hair is too long when obfervations are
made in the open air, the wind has too great an effect;
upon it, and thus communicates to the index in¬
convenient vibrations. It ist. not proper therefore to
make it more than a foot'in height.* When it is of
this dimenfion, an hair properly prepared can be ap¬
plied to it, and its variations from extreme drynefs to-
extreme humidity are 80 or even ipo degrees; which .
on a circle of 3 inches radius forms an extent fufficient
for obfervatrons of this kind. M. Sauflure has even
made fmaller inftruments that may be carried conve¬
niently in the pocket, and to make experiments with
under fmall receivers: they were hut feven inches high*,
by two inches of breadth; which,motwithftanding their ^
variations, were very fenfible.
Thus much for the conftru&ion of the various parts
of the inftrumenti.. The limits of this work will not:
admit of our inferting the whole of M. Sauflure’s fub- -
fequent account of the preparation of the hair, the
manner of determining the limits of extreme humidity
and of *extreme drynefs, the pyrometrical variations of
the hair, and the graduation of the hygrometer. The
following abftraft muft therefore fuffice.
In the: preparation of the hair, it was found ne-
cefi'ary to free: it* of a certain' unftuofity it always .
has in its natural Hate, which in a great meafure de¬
prives it of its hygrometrical fenfibility Anumber -
of hairs are boiled in a lye. of vegetable.alkali; and ■
among thefe are to be- chofen for ufe fuch as are -
moft tranfparent, bright, and foft: particular pre¬
cautions are neceffary for preventing the ftraining of >:
the hair, which renders it unfit for the intended ptir-
pofe.
The two fixed points of the hygrometer are the ex-:
tremes both of moifture and drynefs. The former is >
obtained by expofing the inftrument to air completely
faturated with water; and this is effe&ed by placing
it in a glafs receiver Handing in water, the fides of
which are kept continually moiltened. The point on •
the dial, at which the hand after a certain interval re¬
mains ftationary, is marked 100. The point of ex¬
treme drynefs, not abfolute drynefs, for that does not
exift, but the greateft degree of it that can be obtain¬
ed, is produced by introducing repeatedly into the fame
receiver containing the inftrument, and ftanding now
upon quickfilver, certain quantities of deliquefeent al¬
kaline falts, which abforb the moifture of the air. - The
higheft point to which the hand can be brought by
this operation, not only when it will rife no higher,
but when it becomes retrograde from the dilatation
occafioned by heat, is called o ; and the arch between
thefe two points isdivrded into 100 equal parts, being
degrees of the hygrometer. The arch pp, upon which:
the fcale is marked in the inftrument (reprefented in
fig. 2.) being part of a circle of three inches diameter;
hence every degree meafures about of a line. In
the ftationary hygrometer, fig. r. the fcale upon the
complete circular dial is fo much larger, that every
degree
H Y G l 37 3 H Y G
Mfimme. degree raeafures about five lines : but this M. Sauflure
fe,j confiders as far from being a perfection, that it is ra-
BT '' ther an inconvenience ; fince the inftrument becomes
thereby fo very fufceptible of the leafl impreffion, that
there is even no approaching it without a fenfible
variation. The thermometer, adapted as before men¬
tioned, fervee to correCt the changes of tempera¬
ture : towards the extreme drynefs, i° of the thermo¬
meter produces on the hair an effeCt of 4 deg. of the
hygrometer ; but towards the extreme of moifture, the
fame difference of temperature caufes an effedt no lefs
than 30 on the hygrometer. He conftru&ed two
tables, chat'gave the intermediate hygrometrical varia¬
tions for fingle degrees of the thermometer at different
parts of the fcale.
The whole range of the atmofpherical variations
takes in about 75? of this fcale; a drynefs of more
than 250 being always the effeft of art The fenfibi-
Iky of this inftrument is fo very great, that being ex-
pofed to the dew, he mentions that it varies above 40°
in about 20 minutes of time. Being removed from a
very moift into a very dry air, it varied in-one inftance
no lefs than 350 in three minutes. He fays that
its variations were always found uniform in diffe¬
rent inftruments fufpended in different parts of the
fame atmofphere. This hygrometer is confldered by
the author as'pofTeffed of all the properties requifite in
fuch an inftrument. Th’efe are, 1. That the degrees in
the fcale be fufhciently large, and to point out even
the leaft variation in the drynefs or moifture of the at-
xnofphere. 2. That it be quick in its indications.
3. That it be at all times confiftent with itfelf; w«.
that in the fame iUte of the hair it always points to
the fame degree. 4- That feveral of them agree with
one another. 5, That it be affefted only by the aque¬
ous vapours. 6 That its variations be ever propor¬
tionate to the changes in the air.
Not many of thefe hygrometers have yet been made
in London. A confiderable degree of trouble and <le-
li'cacy is requifite in the preparation of the hair, and
it is very fragile; circumftances which may prevent
it from; coming into general ufe among common obfe-r-
vers, although probably it may be the beft in principle
of any yet made-
II. On the fecond general principle, namely, that
of the dwelling of folid bodies by moifture, and their con-
tra&ion by drynefs, M-De Luc’s inftrument is the beft.
He makes choice of ivory for the conftruftion of his hy¬
grometer, becaufe he finds, that, being once wetted,
ivory regularly fwells by moifture) and returns exaCtly
to the fame dimenfions when the moifture is evapora¬
ted, which other bodies do not. This hygrometer is
reprefented in fig. 9. where a a £ is an ivory tube open
at the end a a, and clofe at It is made of a piece of
ivory taken at the diltance of fome inches from the top
of a pretty large elephant’s tooth, and like wife at the
fame diftanee from its furface, and from the canal
which reaches to that point. (This particular direc¬
tion is given, that the texture of the ivory in all dif¬
ferent hygrometers may be the fame, which is of great
importance.) This piece is to be bored exa&ly in the
dire&ion of its fibres ; the hole muft be very ftraight,
its dimenfions 24 lines in diameter, and 2 inches 8 lines
in depth from a a to c. Its bore is then to be exactly
filled with a brafs cylinder, which, however, muft pro.
je& fomewhat beyond the ivory tube; and thus it is to Hygrome-
be turned on a proper machine, till the thicknefs of, ter- ,
the ivory is exactly of a line, except at the two
extremities. At the bottom b the tube ends in a point {
and at the top a a it muft for about two lines be left a
little thicker, to enable it to bear the preflure of ano¬
ther piece put into it. Thus the thin or hygrometri¬
cal part of the tube will be reduced to 24 French
inches, including the concavity of the bottom. Before
this piece is ufed, it muft be put into water, fo that
the external part alone may be wetted by it ; and here
it is to remain till the water penetrates to the infide,
and appears in the form of dew, which will happen
in a few hours. The reafon of this is, that the ivory
tdie remains fomewhat larger ever after it is wetted
the tirft time.
For this hygrometer, a glafs tube mufl be provided
about 14 inches long, the lower end of which is ftiown
in d d e e. Its internal diameter is about 4 of a line.
If now the ivory tube is exa&Iy filled with mercury,
and the glafs one affixed to it, as the capacity of the
former decreases by being dried, the mercury will be
forced up into the glafs one.
The piece ffg g.w intended to join the ivory with
the glafs tube. It is of brafs, (haped as in the figure.
A cylindrical hole is bored through it, which holds
the glafs tube as tight as poffible without danger of
breaking it; and its lower part is to enter with fome
degree of difficulty into the ivory pipe. To hinder
that part of the tube which inclofes the brafs piece
from being affe&ed by the variations of the moifture,
it is covered with a brafs verrel reprefented in. b h i i.
The pieces muft be united together with gum-lac or
maftic.
The introdu&ioa of the mercury is the next opera¬
tion. For this purpofe, a flip of paper three inches
wide is firft to be rolled over the glafs tube, and tied
fall to the extremity neareft the ivory pipe. A horfe-
hair is then to be introduced into the tube, long enough
to enter the ivory pipe by an inch, and to reach three
or four inches beyond the extremity of the glafs one.
The paper which has been fhaped round the tube muft
now be raifed, and ufed as a funnel to pour the mer¬
cury into the inftrument, which is held upright* The*
pureft quickfilver is to be ufed for this purpofe, and it
will therefore be proper to -ufe that revived from cinna¬
bar. It eafily runs into the tube ; and the air efcapes
by means of the horfe-hair, affitled with Lome gentle
(hakes. Frefh mercury muft from time to time be
fupplied, to prevent the mercurial tube from being to¬
tally emptied ; in which cafe, the mercurial pellicle
which always forms by-the conta&of the air would
run in along with it.
Some air-bubbles generally remain in the tube;
they may be feen through the ivory pipe, which is thin
enough to have fome tranfparency. Thefe being col-
le&ed together by (baking, muft be brought to the
top of the tube, and expelled by means of the horfe-
hair. To facilitate this operation, fome-part of the
mercury muft be taken out of the tube, in order that
the air may be lefs obftmfted in getting out, and the
horfe-hair have a free motion to affift it. Air, how¬
ever, cannot be entirely driven out in this manner. It
is the weight of the mercury with which the tube is
for that reafon to be filled, which in time completes -
H Y G [
*Rygrome- Its expulfion, by making it pafs through the pores of
ttr t the ivory. To haften this, the hygrometers are put
' v into a proper box. This is fixed nearly in a vertical
direftion to the faddle of a horfe, which is fet a trot¬
ting for a few hours. The lhakes fometimes divide
the column of mercury in the glafs tube, but it is eafily
re-united with the horfe-hair. When, upon lhaking
the hygrometer vertically, no fmall tremulous motion
is any longer perceived in the upper part of the co¬
lumn, one may be fure that all the air is gone out.
The fcale of this hygrometer may be adjufted, as
foon as the air is gone out, in the following manner.
The inilrument is to be fufpended in a veffel of water
cooled with ice, frefh quantities of which are to be add¬
ed as the former melts. Here it is to remain till it
has funk as low as it will fink by the enlargement of
the capacity of the ivory tube, owing to the moifture
it has imbibed. This ufually happens in feven or eight
hours, and is to be carefully noted. In two or three
hours the mercury begins to afcend, becaufe the moi¬
fture paffes into the cavity, and forces it up. The
" loweft ftation of the mercury is then to be marked o;
and for the more accurate marking the degrees on the
fcale, M. De Luc always chofe to have his hygrome-
trical tube made of one which had formerly belonged
to a thermometer. The reafon of this is, that in the
thermometer the expanfion ef the mercury by heat had
b^,en already determined. The diftance between the
thermometrical points of melting ice and boiling water
at 27 French inches of the barometer was found to be
1937 P31’18, The bulb of this preparatory thermome¬
ter was broke in a baton, in order to receive carefully
all the mercury that it contained. This being weighed
in nice fcales amounted to 1428 grains. The hygro¬
meter contained 460 grains of the fame mercury. Now
it is plain, that the extent of the degrees on the hy¬
grometer, ought to be to that of the degrees on the
preparatory thermometer as the different weights of the
mercury contained in each ; confequently 1428 : 460 :
1937: 624 nearly ; and therefore the correfponding
intervals ought to follow the fame proportion : and
thus the length of a fcale was obtained, which might
be divided into as many parts as he pleafed.
Fig. 10. is a reprefentation of De Luc’s hygrome¬
ter when fully conftru<fted. In elegance it far exceeds
Smeaton’s or any other, and probably alfo in accuracy ;
for by means of a fmall thermometer fixed on the board
along with it, the expanfion of the mercury by heat
may be known with great accuracy, and of confe-
qucnce how much of the height of the mercury in the
hygrometer is owing to that caufe, and how much to
the mere moifture of the atmofphere.
M. De Luc having continued his inquiries further in¬
to the modifications of the atmofphere, mentions in his
Ideefur laMeteorohgieanothtr hygrometer, which he finds
to be the beft adapted to the meafure of local humidity.
Of all the hygrbfcopic fubftances which he tried for this
purpofe, that whichanfwers thebeft is aflip of whalebone
cut tranfverfely to the direftion of the fibres, and made
extremely thin ; for on this depends its fenfibility. A
flip of i z inches in length and a line in breadth, he has
made fo thin as to weigh only half a grain; and it may
be made ftill thinner, but is then of too great fenfibi¬
lity, being affefted even by the approach of the obfer-
j8 ] H Y G
ver. This flip is kept extended by a fmall fpring, Hygral
and the variations in its length are meafured by 'er-i
vernier divifion, or by, which is perhaps better, an index
on a dial plate: the whole variation from extreme dry-
nefs to extreme moifture is about -5 of its length.
Thefe hygrometers are made by Mr Adams, and '
Mr W. Jones, London. The flip of whalebone is mount-
cd in a frame very fimilar to that belonging to M. j
Sauffure’s hygrometer before defcribed (fee fig. 7.) The
only material difference is, that a fmall concentric
wire fpring is ufed, inftead of a counterpoife, to keep j
the flip of whalebone extended. M. Sauffure had
tried fuch a fpring applied to his hairs ; but the |
weakeft fpring he found too ftrong for the hair; and
he was further apprehenfive, that the variations which
the cold, heat, and the weather infallibly make, would |
fuffer from the force of the fprings.
M. de Luc, in the hygrometers he formerly made,
as before defcribed (made of ivory),had graduated them
from one fixed point only, that of extreme moifture, j
which is obtained by .foaking them in water. He has
now very ingenioufly contrived to fix the other ex¬
treme, that of drynefs : but this being producible only
by means of tirong fires, fuch as hygrometers cannot
fupport, he ufes an intermediate body, quicklime;
which after having been deprived, by force of fire,
of all its own humidity, has the property of flowly
imbibing humidity again from the bodies in its neigh¬
bourhood ; and whofe capacity is fuch, that all the
vapour that can be contained in a quantity of air equal
to its own bulk, can give it no fenfible humidity. Thefe
hygrometers, inclofed with a iarge_quantity of frelh
burnt lime in lumps, acquire in three weeks the fame
degree of drynefs with the lime, which cannot differ
feniibly from extreme drynefs.
M.de Sauffure makes choice of hairs, prepared by ma¬
ceration in alkaline lye. M de Luc Ihows that hairs, and
all other animal or vegetable fubftances, takcnlengthwife,
or in the direction of their fibres, undergo contrary chan¬
ges from different variationsof humidity; that, when im-
merfed in water, they lengthen at firft, and afterwards
ftiorten; that when they are near the greateft degree of
humidity, if the moifture is increafed, they ihortenthem-
felves ; if it is diminilhed, they lengthen themfelves
firft before they contraft again. Thefe irregularities,
which obvioufly render them incapable of being true
meafures of humidity, he ftiows to be the neceffary con-
fequence of their organic reticular ftrudure.
M. de Sauffure takes his point of extreme moifture
from the vapours of water under a glafs bell, keeping
the fides of the bell continually moiftened: and af¬
firms, that the humidity is there conftantly the fame
in all temperatures ; the vapours even of lolling water
having no more effect than thofe of cold. M. de
Luc ftiows, on the contrary, that the differences of
humidity under the bell are very great, though M.
Sauffure’s hygrometer was incapable of difcovering
them; and that the real undecompofed vapour of boil¬
ing water has the diredtly oppofite effedf to that of
cold, the effedl of extreme drynefs: and on this point he
mentions an-interefting fa<ft, communicated to him
by Mr Watt, viz. that wood cannot be employed in
the fteam engine for any of thofe parts where the va¬
pour of the boiling water is confined, becaufe it dries
3 fo
H Y G
Hygroma- fo as to crack, juft as if expofed to the fire.
- terj Luc’s work above mentioned there are ftriking inftances
related, in which the imperfe&ion of M. Sauflure’s,
hygrometer led him into falfe conclufions refpe&ing
phaenomena, and into erroneous theories to account
for them.
III. On the third principle, namely, the alteration of
the weight of certain fubftances by their attrafting the
f 39 I H Y G
In M. de exp i. d a few minutes in the open air ; after which it Hygrome*
may be always known by weighing them the exa£I, ter‘ ,
quantity of moifture they have imbibed. ’
“ For many years the hygrometer has (fays Mr Co¬
ventry) engroffed a confiderable fhare of my attention;
and every advantage propofed by others, either as it
refpefted the fubftances of which the inftrument was
compofed, or the manner in which its opera-
moifture of the air, few attempts have been made, nor tions were to be difeerned, has been impartially exa-
dothey feem to have been attended with much fuccefs. mined. But (adds he) I have never feen an hygrome-
Sponges dipped in a folution of alkaline falts, and ter fo Ample in itfelf, or that would aft with fuch cer-
fome kinds of paper, have been tried. Thefe are fuf- tainty or fo equally alike, as the one I have now de¬
pended to one end of a very accurate balance, and feribed. The materials of which it is compofed being
counterpoifed by weights at the other, and fhow the thin, are eafily deprived wholly of their moifture; which
degrees of moifture or drynefs by the afeent or defeent is a circumftance effentially neceflary in fixing a datum
of one of the ends. But, befides that fuch kinds of from which to reckon, and which, I think, cannot be
hygrometers are deftitute of any fixed point from faid of any fubftance hitherto employed in the con-
whence to begin their fcale, they have another incon
venience (from which indeed Smeaton’s is not free, and
which has been found to render it erroneous), namely,
that all faline fubftances are deftroyed by long conti¬
nued expofure to the air in very fmall quantities, and
ftruftion of hygrometers : with equal facility they im¬
bibe or impart the humidity of the atmofphere, and
fliovv with the greateft exaftnefs when the leaft alte¬
ration takes place.”
When the paper is prepared, as already deferibed, it
therefore can only imbibe the moifture for a certain will ferve, without the trouble of drying, as a ftandard
time. Oil of vitriol has therefore been recommended for any number of fheets intended for the fame pur-
in preference to the alkaline or neutral falts (fee pofe. But then the flreets muft be kept together in
Chemistry, n° 614.); andj indeed, forfuch as do not the open air for a few hours ; >becaufe whatever alte-
chufe to be at the trouble of cpnftrufting a hygrome- ration may take place by this expofure, the paper al¬
ter on the principles of Mr Smeaton or De Luc, this ready weighed muft have undergone the fame ; being
will probably be found the moft eafy and accurate, confequently in the fame ftate, they muft be cut ta
Fig. 1 1. reprefents an hygrometer of this kind. A is the fame weight.
a fmall glafs cup containing a fmall quantity of oil of For eafier weighing the paper, take a piece of round
vitriol, B an index counteipoifing it, and C the fcale; tin or brafs the fize of a crown-piece, through the
where it is plain, that as the oil of vitriol attrafts the centre of which drill a hole, and alfo three others round
moifture of the air, the fcale will defeend, which will it at equal diftances : then cut about one hundred
raife the index, and vlceverfa. This liquid is exceed- papers; and after putting them under the tin 01 brafs,
ingly fenfible of the ineveafe or decreafe of moifture, drive through each hole a ftrong pin into a board, in
A Angle grain, after its full increafe, has varied its order to round them to the fhape of the plate: the
equilibrium fo fenfibly, that the tongue of a balance, papers muft be then feparated and expofed to the air
only an inch and a half long, has deferibed an arch a few hours with that already weighed, and fo manv
one third of an inch in compafs (which arch would of them taken as are equal to the weight already fpe-
have been almoft three inches if the tongue had been cified. This done, threadle them together through
one foot), even with fo fmall a quantity of liquor; con- thofe holes made by the pins, putting between everv
fequently, if more liquor, expanded under a large fur- paper on each thread a fmall bead, in order to prevent
face, were ufed, a pair of feales might afford as nice the papers from touching each other, and alfo that
an hygrometer as any kind yet invented—A great in. the air may be more readily admitted. The top of
convenience, however, is, that as the air muft have the hygrometer is cohered with a card cut to the fame
full accefs to the liquid, it is impoffible to keep out fize ; and which, by reafon of its ftiffnefs, fupports all
the dull, which, by continually adding its weight, the papers, and keeps them in proper lhape. Before
muft render the hygrometer falfe ; add to this, that the papers are threaded, the beads, filk, card, and a
even oil of vitriol itfelf is by time deftroyed, and thin piece of brafs about the fize of a fixpence, which
changes its nature, if a fmall quantity of it is conti- muft be placed at the bottom, and through which the
nually expofed to the air. centre ftring paffes, muft be weighed with the greateft
The beft hygrometer upon this principle, and for exadlnefs, in order to bring them to a certain weight,
afeertaining the quantity as well as the degree of fuppofe 50 grains; now the paper in its dried date,
moifture in the variation of the hygrometer, is of the being of equal weight, they will weigh together 100
contrivance of Mr Coventry, Southwark, London, grains, confequently what they weigh more at any
The account he has favoured us with is as follsws. time is moifture.
“ Take two fheets of fine tiffue paper, fuch as is ufed by To obviate the trouble and difficulty of trying ex-
hatters ; dry them carefully at about two feet diftance periments with weights and feales, Mr Coventry con-
from a tolerably good fire, till after repeatedly weigh- trived a machine or fcale by which to determine at
ing them in a good pair of feales no moifture remains, one view the humidity or drynefs of the atmofphere.
When the Iheets are in this perfeftly dry ftate, reduce This, with its cafe, is reprefented by fig. 12. The
them to exadtly 50 grains; the hygrometer is then fit front and back of the cafe are glafs; the fides fine
£qi ufe. The Iheets muft be kept free from dull, and gauze, which excludes the dull and admits the air •
the;
H Y G [ 4« ] H Y M
Hygrome- tlie cafe Is about 10 Inches high, 8 Inches broad, and
, tgr‘ 4 inches deep. A, a brafs bracket in front, behind
v ' which, at about 34-inches diftance, is another ; thefe
fupport the axis of the index E, alfo of the beam D,
and another which fupports the ftem B, to which .the
ivory fcale of divilions C is fixed. G, a brafs fcale
fufpended in the ufual manner to the end of a beam
D, and weighing exaftly 100 grains. This fcale is an
exaft counterpoife to the papers / and the different
apparatus. The particular manner of fufpenfion in
this balance is, from the conftrufiion, as follows: The
axis of the beam^, which is made of brafs, inftead of
hanging on .pivots as in common fcales, turns with
two. fteel edges k k, fixed in the extremities of the brafs
axis : thefe edges are fhaped like the edge of a knife,
and aft on two fteel concave edges U, in order to ren¬
der the friftion as fmall as poflible. D is a fine fcale
beam fixed at right angles with the axis ^ E, the
fteel index fixed to the under fide of the fame axis.
E, a brafs Aiding weight : h is the axis that holds the
ftem B to which the fcale of divifionsC is fixed. AA,
the brafs brackets which fupport the whole by four
ferews, two of which are feen at i i, that ferevv the
Brackets to the top of the cafe. The axis of the
fcale of divifions is hung on pivots, one of which is
Teen at m, that, ftiould the cafe not Hand level, the ftem
B may always be in a perpendicular fituation.
The hygrometer, before ufe, (hould be adjufted as
Tollows: To the end of the beam where the hygro¬
meter is fufpended, hang a weight of 100 grains, which
is equal to the weight of the fcale; then move the
Aiding weight F up or down the index E, till one
grain will caufe the index to traverfe neither more nor
lefs than the whole fcale of divifions; then add half a
grain to the fcale, in order to bring the index to o;
and the inftrument, after taking off the 100 grain
weight and hanging on the papers, is fit for ufe; then
put grain weights in the fcale till the index is brought
within compafs of the fcale of divifions. Example :
H is 3 grains on the brafs fcale, and the index points
.at 10; confequently there is 3 grains and 10 hun¬
dredths of a grain of moifture in the papers. If four
grain-weights are kept, was. 1, 2, 4, and 5, they will
make any number from 1 to 9, which are as many as
will be wanted. Sometimes the index will continue
traverfing within the fcale of divifions for many days
■without (hifeing the weights; but if otherwife, they
jnuft be changed as occafion may require.
“ One great advantage of this hygrometer above all
-others that have attrafted my notice is (fays Mr Co¬
ventry), that it a&s from a ccxX.zm datum, namely, the
Bry-extreme; from which all the variations towards
moift are calculated with ceitainty: and if conftrufled
with that precifion reprefented by the drawing, it will
afford pleafure to the curious in obferving the almoft
perpetual alteration of the atmofphere, even in the
tnoft fettled weather. In winter it will be conftantly
traverfing from about eight in the morning till four or
five in the afternoon, towards dry j and in fummer,
from about four in the morning till fix or feven in the
evening, when the weather is hot and gloomy, the
hygrometer difeovers a very great change towards
moifture ; and when clear and frofty, that it contains
a much greater quantity of moifture than is generally
imagined.”
ibit
HYGROSCOPE. The fame with Hygrome¬
ter.
HYLA (anc. geog.), a river of Myfia Minor, fa¬
mous for Hylas the favourite boy of Hercules, who
was carried down the ftream and drowned. It is faid
to run by Prufa; whence it feems to be the fame with
the Rhyndacus, which runs north-weft into the Pro¬
pontis.
HYLAS, in fabulous hiftory, fon of Theodamus,
was raviftied by the nymphs of a fountain as he was
taking out fome water for Hercules, by whom he was i
beloved.
HYLOZOISTS, formed of matter, life, the
name of a feft of atheifts among the ancient Greek
philofophers, who held matter to be animated ; main¬
taining that matter had fome natural perception, with-
out animal fenfation, or refleftion in itfelf confidered ; i
but that this imperfedt life occafioned that organiza- :
tion whence fenfation and refleftion afterwards arofe.
Of thefe, fome held only one life, which they called a
plastic nature, prefiding regularly and invariably over J
the whole corporeal univerle, which they reprefented as
a kind of large plant or vegetables thefe were called the
cofmoplaftic and ftoical atheifts, becaufe the Stoics
held fuch a nature, though many of them fuppofed it i
to be the inftrument of the Deity. Others thought
that every particle of matter was endued with life, and \
made the mundane fyttem to depend upon a certain
mixture of chance and plaftic or orderly nature united
together. Thefe were called the Stratonici, from
Strato Lampfacenus, adifciple of Theophraftus, called
alfo Phyficus, (Cicero, De Nat. Deor. lib. i. cap. 13.)
who was firft a celebrated Peripatetic, and afterwards
formed this new fyftem of atheifm for himfelf. Befides
thefe two forms of atheifm, fome of the ancient philo¬
fophers were Hylopathians, or Anaximandrians, de¬
riving all things from dead and ftupid matter, in the
way of qualities and forjns, generable and corruptible ;
and others again adopted the atomical or Democri-
tical fyftem, who aferibe the produ£tion of the univerfe
to atoms and figures. See on this fubjeft Cudavorth’s
Jntelk dual Syjlem, book i. chap. 3.
HYMEN, or Hvmena;us, a fabulous divinity,
the fon of Bacchus and Venus Uraaia, was fuppofed
by the ancients to prefide over marriages; and ac¬
cordingly was invoked in epithalamiums, and other
matrimonial ceremonies, under the formula, Hymen,
or Hymeneee!
The poets generally crown this deity with a chap¬
let of rofes ; and reprefent him, as it were, diffolved
and enervated with pleafures ; dreffed in a yellow
robe, and ftioes of the fame colour; with a torch in
his hand.—Catullus, in one of his epigrams, addreffes
hina thus : J
Cinge tempora fortius,
Suelveokntis amaraci.
It was for this reafon, that the new-married couple bore
garlands of flowers on the wedding-day: which cuftom
alfo obtained among the Hebrews, and even among
Chriftians, during the iirft: ages of the church, as ap¬
pears from Tertullian, De corona militari, where he fays,
Coronant £5* nuptse fponfos.—S. Chryfoftom hkewife
mentions thefe crowns of flowers ; and to this day the
Greeks call marriage in refpeft of this crown
or garland.
z Hymek,
Hygrometer
H Y M [ 41 1 H Y M
Hyrorn- Hymen, ’TjUuv, in anatomy, A thin Membrane or fldn,
%  fometimes circular, of different breadths, more or lefs
fmooth, and fometimes femilunar, formed by the union
of the internal membrane of the great canal with that
on the infide of the alae, refembling a piece of fine
parchment. This membrane is fuppofed to be ftretch-
ed in the neck of the womb of virgins, below the
nymphae, leaving in fonie fubje&s a very fmall opening,
in others a larger, and in all rendering the external ori¬
fice narrower than the reft of the cavity, and to be
broke when they are deflowered; an effufion of blood
following the breach.
This membranous circle may likewife fuffer fome
diforder by too great a flux of the menfes, by impru¬
dence, levity, and Other particular accidents.
The hymen is generally looked upon as the teft of vir¬
ginity ; and when broke, or withdrawn, fhows that the
perfon is not in a ftate of innocence. This notion is
very ancient. Among the Hebrews, it was the cuftom
for the parents to fave the blood fhed on this occafion
as a token of the virginity of their daughter, and to
fend the (beets next day to the hufband’s relations.
And the like is faid to be ftill pra&ifed in Portugal,
■and fome other countries.
And yet authors are not agreed as to the exiftence
of fuch a membrane. Nothing, Dr Drake obferves,
has employed the curiofity of anatomifts, in diflefling
the organs of generation in women, more than this
part: they have differed not only as to its figure, fub-
ftance, place, and perforation, but even its reality ;
fome pofitively affirming, and others flatly denying it.
De Graaf himfelf, the moft accurate inquirer into the
ftru£ture of thefe organs, confeffes he always fought it
in vain, though in the moft unfufpe&ed fubjecls and
ages : all he could find was, a different degree of ftrait-
nefsor widenefs, and different corrugations, which were
greater or lefs according to the refpe£tive ages; the
aperture being ftill the lefs, and the rugofities the
greater, as the fubjedl was younger and more un¬
touched.
Dt Drake, on the other hand, declares, that in all the
fubjefts he had opportunity to examine, he does not re¬
member to have miffed the hymen fo much as once,
where he had reafon to depend on finding it. The
faireft view he ever had of it was in a maid who died
at thirty years of age; in this he found it a membrane
of fome ftrength, furnifhed with flefliy fibres, in figure
round, and perforated in the middle with a fmall hole;
capable of admitting the end of a woman's little finger,
and ficuated a little above the orifice of the urinary paf-
fage, at the entrance of the vagina of the womb.
In infants,itis a finethin membrane, not very confpi-
cuous, becaufe of the natural ftraitnefs of the paffage it-
felf, which does not admit of any great expanfion in fo
little room ; which might lead De Graaf into a notion
of its being no more than a corrugation.
This membrane, like moft others, does probably
grow more diftind, as well as firm, by age. That it
not only exifts, but is fometimes very ftrong and im¬
pervious, may be colle&ed from the hiftory of a cafe
reported by Mi Cowper. In a married woman, twenty
years of age, whofe hymen was found altogether imper¬
vious, fo as to detain the menfes, and to be driven out
by the prefiure thereof beyond the labia of the puden¬
dum, not unlike a prolaptus of the uterus; on divi-
Vol. IX. Part. I.
ding it, at leaft a gallon of grumous blood came forth. Hymense*
It feems the hufband, being denied a paffage that way, „ H
had found another through the meatus urinarius; which , yrnn' .
was found very open, and its fides extruded like the anus
of a cock.
Upon a rupture of the hymen, after the confumma-
tion of marriage, and efpecially delivery, its parts,
fhrinking up, are fuppofed to form thofe little flefhy
knots, called carvucvlje myrtiformes.
HYMENALA, the bastard locust tree : A
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the decan-
dria clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 33d order, Lomentace*. The calyx is quin-
quepartite ; there are five petals, nearly equal; the
ftyle is intorted ; the legumen full of meally pulp.
There is but one fpecies, the courbaril, which is a large
tree, growing naturally in the Spanifh Weft Indies.
The trunk is covered with a light afh-coloured bark,
is often more than 60 feet high and three in diameter.
The branches are furnifhed with dark green leaves,
which (land by pairs on one common footftalk, diver¬
ging from their bafe in manner of a pair of fhears
when opened. The flowers come out in loofe fpikes
at the ends of the branches, and are yellow, ftriped
with purple. Each confifts of five petals, placed in a
double calyx, the outer leaf of which is divided into
five parts, and the inner one is cut into five teeth at
its brim. In the centre are ten declining ftamina,
longer than the petals, furrounding an oblong ger-
men, which becomes a thick, flefliy, brown pod, four
or five inches long and one broad, with a future on
both edges, and includes three or four purplifh feeds,
fomewbat of the fhape of Windfor beans, but fmaller.
The feeds are covered with a light brown fugary fub-
ftance, which the Indians ferape off and eat with great
avidity, and which is very pleafant and agreeable.—
At the principal roots under ground, is found collec¬
ted in large lumps a yellow ilh-red transparent gum,
which diffolved in rectified fpirit of wine affords a moft
excellent varnifh, and is the gum anime of the (hops.
HYMENiEAL, fomething belonging to marriage;
fo called from Hymen. .
HYMENOPTERA (derived from membrane,
and vripov living), in the Linnaean fyftem of natural
hiftory, is an order of infedls, having four membrana¬
ceous wings, and the tails of the females are furnifhed
with flings, w'hich in fome are ufed for inftilling poi-
fon, and in others for merely piercing the bark and
leaves of trees, and the bodies of other animals, in
which they depofit their eggs.
HYMETTUS (anc. geog.), a mountain of At¬
tica near Athens, famous for its marble quarries, and
for its excellent honey. Hymettius the epithet. Pliny
fays that the orator Craffus w’as the firft who had
marble columns from this place,
t; HYMN, a fong or ode in honour of God ; or
a poem, proper to be fung, compofed in honour
of fome deity.—The word is Greek, hymn,
formed of the verb celelro, “ I celebrate.”—Ifio-
dore, on this word, remarks, that hymn is proper¬
ly a fong of joy, full of the praifes of God : by
which, according to him, it is diftinguifhed from
threna, which is a mourning fong, full of lamenta¬
tion.
St Hilary, bifltop of Poictiers, is faid to have been
F the
HYO [42 7 HYP
Hyobanche the firft that compofed hymns to be fung In churches,
II and was followed by St Ambrofe. Moft: of thofe
roideiJ" t^ie Ronian Breviary were compofed by Pruden-
u. y—tius. They have been tranflated Into French verfe
by Meflieurs de Port Royal.—In the Greek Liturgy
there are four kinds of hymns ; but the word Is not
taken in the fenfe of a pralfe offered In verfe, but
fimply of a laud or praife. The angelic hymn, or
Gloria in exceljis, makes the firft kind; the trifagion
the fecond ; the Cherubic hymn, the third ; and the
hymn of victory and triumph called the laft.
The hymns or odes of the ancients generally con¬
fided of three forts of ftanzas ; one of which, called
Jlrophe, was fung by the band as they walked from eaft
to weft ; another, called anti/lrophe, was performed as
they returned from weft to eaft ; the third part, or
epoch, was fung before the altar. The Jewifti hymns
were accompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals,
to afiift the voices of the Levites and people.
HYGBANCHE, in botany: A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belongingtothedidynamiaclafs of plants.
The calyx is heptaphyllous; the corolla ringent, with no
under lip. The capfule bilocular, and polyfpermous.
HYOIDES, in anatomy, a bone placed at the
root of the tongue. See Anatomy, n° 28.
HYOSCYAMUS, henbane : A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
28th order, Lurida. The corolla is funnel-lhaped and
obtufe ; the ftamina inclining to one fide ; the capfule
covered and bilocular. There are feveral fpecies, one
of which, ■w'z. the niger, or common henbane, is a na¬
tive of Britain. It grows on road-fides, and among
rubbifh. It is a biennial plant, with long flefhy roots
which ftrike deep into the ground, fending out feve¬
ral large foft leaves, deeply llalhed on their edges;
the following fpring the ftalks come up, which are about
two feet high, garnifhed with flowers Handing on one
fide in a double row, fitting clofe to the ftalks alter¬
nately. They are of a dark purplifti colour, with a
black bottom; and are fucceeded by roundilh cap-
fules which open with a lid at the top, and have two
cells filled with fmall irregular feeds.—The feeds,
leaves, and roots of this plant, as well as of all other
fpecies of this genus, are poifonous: and many well
attefted inftances of their bad effefts are recorded;
madnefs, convulfions, and death, being the common
confequence. In a fmaller dofe, they occafion giddi-
nefs and ftupor. It is faid that the leaves fcattered a-
bout a houfe will drive away mice.-^-The juice of
the plant evaporated to an extraft is prefcribed in fome
cafes as a narcotic; in which refpett undoubtedly it
may be a powerful medicine if properly managed.
The dofe is from half a fcruple to half a dram.
The roots are ufed for anodyne necklaces.—Goats are
not fond of the plant; horfes, cows, ftieep, and fwine,
refufe it.
HYOSERIS, in botany ; A genus of the polyga-
mia sequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compoftta. The receptacle is naked,
the calyx nearly equal; the pappus hairy, or fcarce
perceptible.
•HYQ’THYRQIDES, in anatomy, one of the
mufcles belonging to the os hyoides. See Anatomy, Hypallagi
Table of the Mufcles. 11 . \
HYPALLAGE, among grammarians, a fpecies , H!pafia~
of hyperbaton, confifting in a mutual permutation of ' -
one cafe for another. Thus Virgil fays, Dare claflibus
aujlros, for dare clajfes aujlris; and again, Necdum
illis labra admovi, for necdum ilia labris admovi.
HYPANTE, or Hyperpante, a name given by
the Greeks to the feaft of the prefentation of Jefus
in the temple.—This word, which fignifies lowly or
humble meeting, was given to this feaft from the meet¬
ing of old Simeon and Anna the prophetefs in the
temple when Jefus was brought thither.
HYPATIA, a learned and beautiful lady of anti¬
quity, the daughter of Theon a celebrated philofopher
and mathematician, and prefident of the famous Alex¬
andrian fchool, was born at Alexandria about the end of
the fourth century. Her father, encouraged by her ex¬
traordinary genius, had her not only educated in all the
ordinary qualifications of her fex, but inftrufted in the
moft abftrufe fciences. She made fuch great progrefs in
philofophy, geometry, aftronomy, and the mathema¬
tics, that fire paffed for the moft learned perfon of her
time. At length fire was thought worthy to fucceed her
father in that diftinguifhed and important employment,
the government of the fchool of Alexandria ; and to
teach out of that chair where Ammonius, Hierocles,
and many other great men, had taught before ; and
this at a time too when men of great learning abounded
both at Alexandria and in many other parts of the
Roman empire. Her fame was fo extenfive, and her
worth fo univerfally acknowledged, that we cannot
wonder if fhe had a crowded auditory. “ She ex¬
plained to her hearers (fays Socrates) the feveral
fciences that go under the general name of philofophy;
for which reafon there was a confluence to her, from
all parts, of thofe who made philofophy their delight
and ftudy.” One cannot reprefent to himfelf without
pleafure, the flower of all the youth of Europe, Afia,
and Africa, fitting at the feet of a very beautiful lady
(for fuch we are affured Hypatia was), all greedily
(wallowing inftrudlion from her mouth, and many of
them, doubtlefa, love from her eyes; though we are
not fure that fire ever liftened to any felicitations.,
fince Suidas, who talks of her marriage with Ifiodorus,
yet relates at the fame time that fhe died a maid.
Her fcholars were as eminent as they were nume¬
rous ; one of whom was the celebrated Synefius, who,
was afterwards biftrop of Ptolemais. This ancient
Chriftian Platonift every where bears the ftrongeft, as
well as the moft grateful, teftimony of the virtue of
his iutorefs ; and never mentions her without the moft
profound refpeft, and fometimes in terms of affe&ion
coming little fhort of adoration. But it was not Sy¬
nefius only, and the difciples of the Alexandrian fchool,
who admired Hypatia for her virtue and learning;
never was woman more careffed by the public, and
yet never woman had a more unfpotted charafter. She
was held as an oracle for her wifdom, which made her
confulted by the magiftrates in all important cafes;
and this frequently drew her among the greateft con,-
courfe of men, without the leaft cenfure of her manners.
In a word, when Nicephorus intended to pafs the
higheft compliment on the princefs Eudocia, he
4 thought
HYP [ 43 1 HYP
thought he could not do it better than by calling her
|| another Hypatia.
Hyper- While Hypatia thus reigned the brighteft orna*
, t>aton- ment of Alexandria, Oreftes was governor of the
^ v ' fame place for the emperor Theodofius, and Cyril was
bifhop or patriarch. Oreftes having had a liberal edu¬
cation, could not but admire Hypatia ; and as a wife
governor frequently confulted her. This, together
with an averfion which Cyril had againft Oreftes,
proved fatal to the lady. About $oo monks affem-
bling, attacked the governor one day, and would have
killed him, had he not been refcued by the townfmen;
end the refpeft which Oreftes had for Hypatia cau¬
sing her to be traduced among the Chriftian multitude,
they dragged her from her chair, tore her to pieces,
and burned her limbs. Cyril is not clear from a fuf-
picion of fomenting this tragedy. Cave indeed en¬
deavours to remove the imputation of fuch an horrid
a&ion from the patriarch ; and lays it upon the Alex¬
andrian mob in general, whom he calls kvijfimum ho-
tninum genus, “ a very trifling inconftant people.”
But though Cyril fhould be allowed neither to have
been the perpetrator, nor even the contriver of it,
yet it is much to be fufpefted that he did not difcoun-
tenance it in the manner he ought to have done :
which fufpicion muft needs be greatly confirmed by
reflefting, that he was fo far from blaming the out¬
rage committed by the monks upon Oreftes, that he
afterwards received the dead body of Ammonius, one
of the moft forward in that outrage, who had grie-
voufly wounded the governor, and who was juftly pu-
nilhed with death. Upon this riotous ruffian Cyril
made a panegyric in the church where he was laid,
in which he extolled his courage and conftancy, as
one that had contended for the truth ; and changing
his name to ’Thaumaftus, or the “Admirable,” or¬
dered him to be confidered as a martyr. “ However,
(continues Socrates), the wifeft part of Chriftians did
not approve the zeal which Cyril (howed on this man’s
behalf, being convinced that Ammonius had juftly
fuffered for his defperate attempt.”
HYPECOUM, wild cumin : A genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 24th or¬
der, Corydales. The calyx is diphyllous; the petals
four; the exterior two larger and trifid; the fruit a
pod. There are four fpecies, all of them low herbace¬
ous plants with yellow flowers. The juice of thefe
plants is of a yellow colour, refembling that of celan¬
dine, and is affirmed by fome eminent phyficians to be
as narcotic as opium. From the neftarium of the
bloflom the bees colleft great quantities of honey.
All the fpecies are eafily propagated by feeds.
HYPER, a Greek prepofition frequently ufed in
compofition, where it denotes excels; its literal fignifi-
cation being above, or beyond.
HYPERBATON, in grammar, a figurative con-
ftru&ion inverting the natural and proper order of
words and fentences. The feveral fpecies of the hy¬
perbaton are, the anaftrophe, the hyfteron-proteron,
the hypallage, fynchyfis, tmefis, parenthefis, and the
hyperbaton ftriAly fo called. See Anastrophe, &c.
Hyperbaton, ftri&ly fo called, is a long retention
of the verb which completes the fentence, as in the fol- Hyperbolx,
lowing example from Virgil: Hyperbole.
Interea Reges : ingenii mole Latinus
Quadrijugo vehitur curru, cui tempora circum
Aurati bis fex radii fulgentia cingunt,
Solis avifpecimen : bigis it Turnus in albis,
Bina manu lato crifpans haftilia ferro :
Bine Pater JEneas, Romance Jlirpis origo,
Sidereo Jlagrans clypeo et celejlibus armis ;
Etjuxta Afcanius, magnee fpes altera Rometi
Procedunt cajlris.
HYPERBOLA, a curve formed by cutting a
cone in a direction parallel to its axis. See Conic-
Sedions.
HYPERBOLE, in rhetoric, a figure, whereby the
truth and reality of things are exceffively either enlar¬
ged or diminiftred. See Oratory, n° 58.
An objeft uncommon with refpeft to fize, Elements ep
very great of its kind or very little, ftrikes us with Criticifm-
furprife ; and this emotion forces upon the mind a mo¬
mentary convidtion that the objeft is greater or lefs
than it is in reality: the fame effedl, precifely, attends
figurative grandeur or littlenefs; and hence the hy¬
perbole, which exprefles this momentary convidion.
A writer, taking advantage of this natural delufion,
enriches his defeription greatly by the hyperbole : and
the reader, even in his cooleft moments, relifhes this
figure, being fenfible that it is the operation of nature
upon a warm fancy.
It capnot have efcaped obfervation that a writer is
generally more fuccefsful in magnifying by a hyper¬
bole than in diminiihing. The reafon is, that a mi¬
nute objeft contrads the mind, and fetters its powers
of imagination ; but that the mind, dilated and in¬
flamed with a grand objed, moulds objeds for its gra¬
tification with great facility. Longinus, with refped
to a diniiniftiing hyperbole, cites the following ludi¬
crous thought from a comic poet: “ He was owner
of a bit of ground not larger than a Lacedemonian
letter.” But, for the reafon now given, the hyperbole
has by far the greater force in magnifying objeds; of
which take the following examples:
For all the land which thou feeft, to thee will I
give it, and to thy feed for ever. And I will make
thy feed as the duft of the earth : fo that if a man
can number the duft of the earth, then {hall thy feed
alfo be numbered. Gen. xiii, 15. j6.
Ilia vel intadae fegetis per fumma volaret
Gramina: nec teneras curfu laefifiet ariftas.
JEneid. vii. 808.
——  Atque imo barathri ter gurgite vaftos
Sorbet in abruptum fludus, rurfufque fub auras
Erigit alternos, et fidera verberat unda.
JEneid. iii. 42X.
— Horrificis juxta tonat iEtna ruinis,
Interdumque atram prorumpit ad sethera nubem,
Turbine fumantem piceo et candente favilla :
Attollitque globos flammarum, et fidera lambit.
JEneid. iii. 571.
Speaking of Polyphemus,
 Ipfe arduus, altaque pulfat
Sidera. JEneid. iii. 619.
F 2 —When
ri y p
Hyperbole.1 —   —When he fpeaks,
V-—v~—-J >phe air, a charter’d libertine, is ftill.
Henry V. aB I. Jc. I.
Now fhield with fhield, with helmet helmet clos’d,
To armour armour, laute to lance oppos’d.
Holt again ft hoft with lhadowy fquadrons drew,
The founding darts in iron tempells flew.
Vigors and vanquilh’d join'promifcuous cries.
And flrrilling fliouts and dying groans arife ;
With dreaming blood the flipp’ry fields are dy’d,
And flaughter’d heroes fwell the dreadful tide.
Iliad iv. 508.
Quintilian is fenfible that this figure is natural:
* For (fays he), not contented with truth, we natu¬
rally incline to augment or diminifh beyond it; and
for that reafon the hyperbole is familiar even among
the vulgar and illiterate and he adds, very juftly,
“ That the hyperbole is then proper, when the objeft
of itfelf exceeds the common meafure.” From thefe
premifes, one would not expeft the following infe¬
rence, the only reafon he can find for juftifying this
figure of fpeech, “ Conceditur enim amplius dicere,
quia did quantum eft, non poteft : meliufque ultra
quam citra flat oratio.” (We are indulged to fay
more than enough, becaufe we cannot fay enough j
and it is better to be above than under.) In the name
of wonder, why this flight and childifli reafoning,
when immediately before he had obferved, that the
hyperbole is founded on human nature ? We could not
refift this perfonal flroke of criticifm ; intended not
againft our author, for no human creature is exempt
from error; but againft the blind veneration that is
paid to the ancient claffic writers, without diftinguilh-
ing their blemifhes from their beauties.
Having examined the nature of this figure, and the
principle on which it is ere&ed ; let us proceed to the
rules by which it ought1 to be governed. And, in the
firft place, it is a capital fault to introduce an hy¬
perbole in the defcription of an ordinary objeft or
event; for in fuch a cafe, k is altogether unnatural,,
being deftitute of furprife, its only foundation. Take
the following inftance, wdiere the fubjetf is extremely
familiar, viz. fwimming to gain the fhore after a (hip-
wreck.
I faw him beat the furges under him.
And ride upon their backs: he trod the water p
Whofe enmity he flung afide, and breafted
The furge moft fwoln that met him : his bold head
’Bove the contentious waves he kept, and oar’d
Himfelf with his good arms, in lufty ftrokes
To Jhore, that o’er his wave-born bafis bow’d,
As Hooping to relieve him. Tempejl, aSi z. Jc. 1.
In the next place, it may be gathered from what is
faid, that an hyperbole can never fuit the tone of any
difpiriting paffion : forrow in particular will never
prompt fuch a figure, and for that reafon the follow¬
ing hyperboles muft be condemned as unnatural:
K. Richi Aumerle, thou weep’ft, my tender¬
hearted coufin !
We’ll make foul weather with defpifed tears;
Gur fighs, and they, (hall lodge the fummer-corn.
And make a dearth in this revolving land.
Richard II. aft fc. 6,
HYP
Draw them to Tyber’s bank, and weep your tears Hype
Into the channel, till the lowed dream
Do kifs the moft exalted (hores of all.
Julius Cafar, aft i.Jc. 1.
Thirdly, A writer, if he wi(h to fucceed, ought al¬
ways to have the reader in his eye : he ought, in par¬
ticular, never to venture a bold thought or exprefiion,
till the reader be warmed and prepared. For this rea¬
fon, an hyperbole in the beginning of a work can ne¬
ver be in its place. Example :
Jam pauca aratro jugera regise
Moles relinquent. Horat. Carm. lib. 2. ode 15.
In the fourth place, The niceft point of all, is to
afcertain the natural limits of an hyperbole, beyond
which being overftraiaed, it has a bad effe&. Longi¬
nus (chap, iii.), with great propriety of thought, ea¬
ters a caveat againft an hyperbole of this kind : he
compares it to a bow-ftring, which relaxes by over-
ftraining, and produceth an effedt dire&ly oppofite to
what is intended. To afcertain any precife boundary,
would be difficult, if not impracticable. We (hall
therefore only give a fpecimen of what may be rec¬
koned overftrained hyperboles. No fault is more
common among writers of inferior rank ; and inftan-
ces are, found even among thofe of the fined tafte j
witnefs the following hyperbole, too bold even for an
Hotfpur.
Hotfpur talking of Mortimer :
In fingle oppofition hand to hand.
He did confound the bed part of an hour
In changing hardiment with great Glendower.
Three times they breath’d, and three times did they
drink.
Upon agreement, of fwift Severn’s flood ;
Who then affrighted with their bloody looks,
Ran fearfully among the trembling reeds,
And hid his crifp’d head in the hollow bank,
Blood-ftained with thefe -valiant combatants.
Firjl Part Henry IV. aft l.Jc.Cc.
Speaking of Henry V.
England ne’er had a King until his time;
Virtue he had, deferring to command:
His brandifh’d fword did blind men with its beamss
His arms fpread wider than a dragon’s wings:
His fparkling eyes, replete with awful fire,
More dazzled, and drove back his enemies.
Than mid-day fun fierce bent againft their faces*
What (hould I fay ? his deeds exceed all fpeech :
He never lifted up his hand, but conquer’d.
Firjl Part Henry VI. aft l. Jc. t,
Laftly, An hyperbole, after it is introduced with
all advantages, ought to be comprehended within the
fevveft words poffible : as it cannot be relilhed but in
the hurry and fwelling of the mind, aleifurely view dif-
folves the charm, and difcovers the defcription to be
extravagant at lead, and perhaps alfo ridiculous. This
fault is palpable in a fonnet which paffeth for one of
the moft complete in the French language: Phillis, in-
a long and florid defcription, is made as far to out»
(hine the fun as he outfhines the ftars:
Le filence regnoit fur la terre et fur 1’onde,
L’air devenoit ferain et 1’Olimp vermeil,
4 Es
[ 44 ]
Hyperbo-
HYP L 45 ] HYP
Et Pamourex Zephir affranchi du fomei!,
Reflufcitoit les fleurs d’une hakine feconde.
L’Aurora deployoit Por de fa trefle blonde,
Eet femoit de rubis le cbemin du foleil;
Enfin ce Dieu venoit au plus grand apparell
Qu’il foil jamais venu pour eclairer le monde :
Quand la jeune Philis au vifage riant,
Sortant de fon palais plusdair que Porient,
Fit voir une lumiere et plus vive et plus belle.
Sacre Flambeau du jour, n’en foiea point jaloux,
Vous parutes alors auffi peu devant elk,
Que les feux de la nuit avoient fait devant vous.
MaUevtUe.
There is in Chaucer a thought expreffed in a Tingle
line, which fets a young beauty in a more advanta¬
geous light than the whole of this much laboured
poem :
Up rofe the fun, and up rofe Emelie.
HYPERBOREAN, in the ancient geography.
The ancients denominated thofe people and places Hy¬
perborean which were to the northward of the Scy¬
thians. They had but very little acquaintance with
thefe Hyperborean regions; and all they tell us of
them is very precarious, much of it falfe. Diodorus
Siculus fays, the Hyperboreans were thus called by
reafon they dwelt beyond the wind Boreas; fig-
nifying “ above, or beyond,” and Boreas, the
“ north wind.” This etymology is very natural and
plaufible ; notwithftanding all that Rudbeck has faid
againft it, who would have the word to be Gothic,
and to fignify nobility. Herodotus doubts whether
or no there were any fuch nations as the Hyper¬
borean. Strabo, who profefTes that he believes there
are, does not take hyperborean to fignify beyond Boreas
or the north, as Herodotus underflood it: the prepo-
fition w’T'p, in this cafe, he fuppofes only to help to
form a fuperlative; fo that hyperborean, on his prin¬
ciple, means no more than moji northern : by which it
appears the ancients fcarce knew themfelves what the
name meant.—Moll of our modern geographers, as
Hoffman, Cellarius, &c. have placed the Hyperboreans
in the northern parts of the European continent, among
the Siberians and Samoieds: according to them, the
Hyperboreans of the ancients were thofe in general
who lived fartheft to'the north. The Hyperboreans
of our days are thofe Ruffians who inhabit between
the Volga and the White fea. According to Cluvier,
the name Celtes was fynonymous with that of Hy¬
perboreans.
HYPERCATALECTIC, in the Greek and La¬
tin poetry, is applied to a verfe that has one or two
fyllables too much, or beyond the regular and. juft
meafure ; as,
Mufa for ores funt Minerva :
Alfo,
Mufe forores Palladis lugent.
HYPERCRITIC, an over-rigid cenfor or critic:
sne who will let nothing pafs, but animadverts fe-
verely on the flighteft fault. See Criticism. The
word is compounded of /'‘per, “ over, above, be¬
yond and xpihx©-, of judex, of judico, Hyperdulia
H YPERDU LIA, in the Romifh theology, is the
worfhip rendered to the holy virgin. The word is J
Greek, virtpUteix, compofed of above, and
nvorjhip, fervicc. The worfhip offered to faints is call¬
ed dulia ; and that to the mother of God, hyperdulia, as
being fupeiior to the former.
HYPERIA (anc. geog.) the feat of the Phasa-
cians near the Cyclops, (Homer): fome commentators
take it to be Camarina in Sicily ; but, according to
others, isfuppofed to be an adjoining ifland, which they
take to be Melita, lying in fight of Sicily. And this
feems to be confirmed by Apollonius Rhodius. Whence
the Phaeacians afterwards removed to Corcyra, called
Scheria, Phaacia, and Maoris; having been expelled
by the Phoenicians, who fettled in Melita for com¬
merce, and for commodious harbours, before the war
of Troy. (Diodorus Siculus.)
HYPERICUM, St John’s wort : A genus of the
polyandria order, belonging to the poiyadelphia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
20th order, Rotacea. The calyx is quinquepartite ;
the petals five; the filaments many, and coalited at the
bafe into five pencils ; the feed-veffel is a pencil.
Species. Of this genus there are 29 fpecies, moft
of them hardy deciduous fhrubs, and under-fhrubby
plants, adorned with oblong and oval Ample foliage,
and pentapetalous yellow flowers in clufters. The
moft remarkable are, 1. The hircinum, or (linking St
John’s-wort. This rifes three or four feet high, with
feveral fhrubby two-edged flalks from the root, branch¬
ing by pairs oppofite at every joint; oblong, oval,.
clofe-fitting oppofite leaves; and at the ends of all
the young fhouts, clufters of yellow flowers. Of this
there are three varieties; one with ftrong ftalks, fix
or eight feet high, broad leaves, and large flowers ;
the other with ftrong ftalks, broad leaves, and without
any difagreeable odour; the third hath variegated
leaves. All thefe varieties are fhiubby ; and flower
in June aad July in fuch numerous clufters, that
the fhrubs appear covered with them; and pro¬
duce abundance of feed in autumn. 2. The canarien-
fu hath fhrubby ftalks, dividing and branching fix or
feven feet high ; oblong, clofe-fitting leaves by pairs ;
and, at the ends of the branches, clufters of yellow
flowers appearing in June and July. 5. The afcyron,
or dwarf American St John’s-wort, hath fpreading
roots, fending up numerous, {lender, fquare ftalks, a
foot long ; oval, fpear-fhaped, clofe-fitting, fmooth
leaves by pairs oppoftte ; and, at the end of the ftalks,
large yellow flowers. 4. The androfamum, commonly
called tutfan, or park-leaves, hath an upright under-
fhrubby ftalk, two feet high, branching by pairs op¬
pofite ; and at the ends of the ftalks, clufters of fmall
yellow flowers appearing in July and Auguft, and
fucceeded by roundifh berry-like black capfules. This
grows naturally in many parts of Britain. 5. The
balearicum, or wart-leaved St John’s-wort, is a native
of Majorca ; and hath a fhrubby ftalk, branching two
feet high, with reddifh fcarified branches, .fmall oval
leaves warted underneath, and large yellow flowers
appearing great part of the year. 6. The moncgynum, ,
or one-ftyled China hypericum, hath a fhrubby purplifh,
ftalk, about two feet high; oblong, fmooth, ftiff, clofe- ■
fitting.
HYP
[ 46 1
HYP
Hypericum fitting leaves, of a {hining green above, and white gated with fpots of white, and is a very fatal kind in Hypnuwpa
II . underneath ; clufters of fmall yellow flowers, with co- its poifon ; its bite always bringing on a fleep which II <
tns0t' l°ured cups, and only one ftyle, flowering the greateft ends in death. Hypoch*^!*
^.,r—^ I part nf the year. HYPNUM, FEATHER-MOSS, in botany: A gpnno 1 _ ■ —
Culture. The four firft fpecies are hardy, and will of the natural order of mufci, belonging to the crypto- *i
grow in any foil or fituation ; the three lafl muft be gamia clafs of plants. The anther* is operculated, or
potted, in order to have fhelter in the green-houfe in covered with a lid ; the calyptra fmooth; the filament
winter. The two firft fpccies propagate very faft by lateral, and rifing oat of a perichaetium, or tuft of leaf-
fuckers, which are every year fent up plentifully from lets different from the other leaves of the plant. There
the root; and in autumn or fpring may be readily flip- are 46 fpecies, all of them natives of Great Britain ;
ped off from the old plants with roots to each, or the none of them, however, have any remarkable proper-
whole plant may be taken up and divided into as many ty, except the proliferum and parietinum. The firft
parts as there are fuckers and flips with roots, planting is of a very Angular ftrufture, one (hoot growing out
the ftrongeft where they are to remain, and the weakeft from the centre of another ; the veil is yellow and
in nurfery-rows, where they are to remain a year in Alining; the lid with a kind of long bill; the leaves
order to acquire ftrength. They may alfo be propa- not ihining; fometimes of a yellowifh, and fometimes
gated by feeds fown in autumn, in a bed of common
earth, in drills an inch deep. The other two hardy
forts are alfo propagated by flipping the roots in au¬
tumn, or early in the fpring ; and may likewife be raifed
in great plenty from feeds. The three other fpecies
are propagated by layers and cuttings, planted in pots,
and plunged in a hot bed.
of a deep green. This mofs covers the furface of the
earth in the thickeft (hades, through which the fun
never ftiines, and where no other plant can grow. The
fecond hath (hoots nearly flat and winged, undivided
for a confiderable length, and the leaves Ihining ; but
the old (hoots do not branch into new ones as in the
preceding fpecies. It grows in woods and (hady places;
Properties. The tutfan hath long held a place in and, as well as the former, is ufed for filling up the
jhe medicinal catalogues ; but its ufes are very much chinks in wooden houfes.
undetermined. The leaves given in fubftance are faid HYPO, a Greek particle, retained in the compofi-
to deftroy worms. By diftillation they yield an effen- tion of divers words borrowed from that language ; fi¬
lial oil. The flowers tinge fpirits and oils of a fine terally denoting under, beneath.—In which fenfe it
purple colour. Cows, goats, and (heep, eat the plant;
horfes and fwine refufe it. The dried plant boiled in
water with alum, dyes yarn of a yellow colour; and
the Swedes give a fine purple tinge to their fpirits with
the flowers.
HYPE RIDES, an orator of Greece, was the dif-
ciple of Plato and Ifocrates, and governed the Republic
of Athens. He defended with great zeal and courage
the liberties of Greece ; but was put to death by Anti¬
pater’s order, 322 B. C. He compofed many orations,
of which only one now remains. He was one of the
ten celebrated Greek orators.
HYPERMNESTRA, in fabulous hiftory, one of and
the 50 daughters of Danaus king of Argos. She purgation,
alone refufed to obey the cruel order Danaus had given
to all his daughters, to murder their hufbands the firft
night of their marriage ; and therefore faved the fife
of Lynceus, after (he had made him promife not to
violate her virginity. Danaus, enraged at her difobe-
dience, confined her cloftly in prifon, whence Lynceus
delivered her fome time after.
(lands oppofed to urtp fupra, “ above.”
HYPOBOLE, or subjection,(from vwo, and/5«xM»,
/ cajl), in rhetoric, a figure; fo called, when feveral
things are mentioned, that feem to make for the con¬
trary fide, and each of them refuted in order. This
figure, when complete, confifts of three parts ; a propo-
fition, an enumeration of particulars with their anfwer,
and a conclufion. Thus Cicero, upon his return from
banifhment, vindicates his conduit in withdrawing fo
quietly, and not oppofing the faition that ejeited him.
See Oratory, n® 81.
HYPOCATHARSIS (compounded of under,
medicine, a too faint or feeble
HYPOCAUSTUM, among the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, a fubterraneous place, where was a furnace to
heat the baths. The word is Greek, formed of the
prepofition va-o under; and the verb **<«, to burn.—-
Another fort of hypocauftum was a kind of kiln to
heat their winter parlours. The remains of a Roman
hypocauftum, or fweating room, were difcovered un-
HYPERSARCOS1S, in medicine and furgery, der ground at Lincoln in 1739. We have an account
an excefs of fle(h, or rather a flefhy excrefcence, fuch
as thofe generally rifing upon the lips of wounds, &c.
HYPHEN, an accent or chara&er in grammar,
implying that two words are to be joined, or con-
neiled into one compound word, and marked thus -;
as pre-ejlablijhed, five-leaved, &c. Hyphens alfo ferve
to conneft the fyllables of fuch words as are divided by
the end of the line.
HYPNOTIC, in the materia medica, fuch medi¬
cines as any way produce fleep, whether called nar¬
cotics, hypnotics, opiates, or fioporifics.
HYi NO 1ICUS serpens, the Sleep-finake, \m.oo-
logy, the name of an Eaft-Indian fpecies of ferpent,
called by the Ceylonefe nintipolong, a word importing
ri»e fame fenfe. It is of a deep blackifh brown, varie-
of thefe remains in the Philofophical Tranfadlipns,
n° 461. $ 29.—Among the moderns, the hypocauftum
is that place where the fire is kept which warms a
(love or hot-houfe.
HYPOCHiERIS, hawk’s-eye, in botany : A ge¬
nus of the polygamia jequalis order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compofita. The recep¬
tacle is paleaceous; the calyx a little imbricated ; the
pappus glumy. There are four fpecies; none of which
have any remarkable property, except the maculata, or
fpotted kawk’s-eye. It is a native of Britain, and
grows on high grounds. The leaves are oblong, egg-
(haped, and toothed ; the Item almoft naked, generally
with a Angle branch ; the bloffoms yellow, opening at
fix
HYP [ 47 1 HYP
'Hypochon- fix in the morning, and clofing at four in the after-
l; noon. The leaves are boiled and eaten like cabbage.
I Hypofce- Horfes are fond of this plant when green, but not when
inium. dry. Cows, goats, and fwine eat it j Iheep are not fond
HYPOCHONDRIA, in anatomy, a fpace on each
fide the epigaftric region, or upper part of the abdo¬
men. See Anatomy, n° 88.
HYPOCHONDRIAC passion, a difeafe in men,
fimilar to the hylleric affe&ion in women. See (the
/nJex fubjoined to) Medicine.
HYPOCISTIS, in the materia medica, an infpif-
fated juice obtained from the feffile afarum, much re-
fembling the true Egyptian acacia. They gather the
fruit while unripe, and exprefs the juice, which they
revaporate over a very gentle fire, to the confiftence
of an extraft, and then form into cakes, and ex-
pofe them to the fun to dry. It is an aftringent
of confiderable power; is good againft diarrhoeas
and haemorrhages of all kinds ; and may be ufed in
redellent gargarifms in the manner of the true aca¬
cia ; but it is very rarely met with genuine in our
fhops, the German acacia being ufually fold under its
name.
HYPOCRISY, u^oxpio-K, in ethics, denotes difiimu-
lation with regard to the moral or religious charader.
In qther words, it fignifies one who feigns to be what
he is not; and is generally applied to thofe who affume
the appearances of virtue or religion, without having
any thing in reality of either.
HYPOGiEUM, ucroj-tfov, formed of under, and
yaia earth, in the ancient architedure, is a name com¬
mon to all the parts of a building that are under
ground; as the cellar, butteries, and the like places.
The term hypogaum was ufed by the Greeks and Ro¬
mans for fubterraneous tombs in which they buried their
dead.
Hypoceum, Tjto&iov, In aftrology, is a name given
to the celeftial houfes which are below the horizon:
«nd efpecially the mum cceli, or bottom of heaven.
HYPOGASTRIC, an appellation given to the in¬
ternal branch of the iliac artery.
HYPOGASTRIUM, in anatomy, the middle part
of the lower region of the belly. See Anatomy,
n° 88.
HYPOGLOSSI, externi, or majores,inanatomy,
the ninth pair of nerves, called alfo linguales iff gufiato-
rii. See Anatomy, p. 760. col. 1.
HYPOGLOTTIS, orHypocLossis, (compofed of
vcro under, and y^urlx tongue), in anatomy, is a name
given to two glands of the tongue. There are four
large glands of the tongue ; two of them called hypo-
glottides, fituated under it, near the venae ranulares; one
on each fide of the tongue. They ferve to filtrate a
kind of ferous matter of the nature of faliva, which
they difcharge into the mouth by little duds near the
gums.
Hypoglottis, or JfypogloJ/ls, in medicine, denotes
an inflammation or ulceration under the tongue •, called
alfo ranula..
HYPOPYON, in medicine, acolledion of purulent
matter under the corner of the eye.
HYPOSCENIUM, in antiquity, a partition under
the pulpit or logeum of the Greek theatre, appointed
for the mufic.
HYPOSTASIS, a Greek term, literally fignifying Hypoftaf*
fuljlancc, or fubjijlence ; ufed in theology for perfon.— Hypothec^
The word is Greek, vTorao-ic; compounded of "
“ under and do, exiflo; “ I ftand, I exill
q. d. fuhJiJlentia. Thus we hold, that there is but
one nature or efience in God, but three hypojlafes or
perfon s.
The term hypojlajis is of a very ancient {landing in
the church. St Cyril repeats it feveral times, as alfo
the phrafe union according to hypqfla/is.. The firft time
it occurs is in a letter from that father to Neftorius,
where he ufes it inftead of rpoauvoy, the word we com.-
monly render perfon, which did not feem expreflive
enough. “ The philofophers (fays St Cyril) have
allowed three hypojlafes : They have extended the Dir
vinity to three hypojlafes: They have even fometimes
ufed the word trinity: And nothing was wanting but
to have admitted the confubftantiality of the three hy¬
pojlafes, to (how the unity of the divine nature, exclur
live of all triplicity in reipedl of diftindlion of nature,
and not to hold it neceflary to conceive any refpe&ive
inferiority of bypqjlafes ”
This term cccafioned great diffentions in the ancient
church; firft a mong the Greeks, and afterwards alfo
among the Latins. In the council of Nice, hypojlqfit
was defined to denote the fame with ejfence or fubjlance;
fo that it was herefy to fay that Jefus Chrift was of a
different hypojlafis from the Father ; but cuftom altered
its meaning. In the neceffity they were under of ex?
prelling themfelv.es llrongly againft the Sabellians, the
Greeks made choice of the word hypojlajis, and the
Latins of/er/ofltfy which change proved the occafion
of endlefs difagreement. The phrafe vrorarm, ufed
by the Greeks, fcandalized the Latins, whofe ufual
way of rendering vxos-a<nt ;n their language was by
fubjlantia. The barrennefe of the Latin tongue in
theological phrafes, allowed them but one word for
the two Greek ones, and icrsraowj-; and thus dif-
abled them from diftinguifhing ejfence from hypojlafs.
For which reafon they chofe rather to ufe the term
tres perfome, and tres hypojlafes.—An end was put to
logomachias, in a fynod held at Alexandria about the
year 362, at which St Athanafius afiifted; from which
time the Latins made no great fcruple of faying tres
hypojlafes, nor the Greeks of three perfons.
HYPOTHECA, in the civil law, an obligation,
whereby the effefts of a debtor, are made over to his
creditor, to fecure his debt. The word comes from
the Greek a thing fuhfa ta fame obligation ; of
the verb fuppomr, “lam fubje&ed of
under, and pono, “ J put.”
As the hypotheca is an engagement procured on purr
pofe for the fecurity of the creditor, various means have
been made ufe of to fecure to him the benefit of the
convention. The ufe of the pawn or pledge is the
moft ancient, which is almoft the fame thing with the
hypotheca ; all the difference confiding in this, that the
pledge is put into the creditor’s hands ; whereas, in a
fimple hypotheca, the thing remained in the poffeffioa
of the debtor. It was found more eafy and commor
dious to engage an ertate by a civil covenant than by
an a&ual delivery : accordingly the expedient was firff
pra&ifed among the Greeks; and from them the Ra¬
mans borrowed both the name and the thing : only the
Greeks, the better to prevent frauds, ufed to fix fome-
vifibk-.
H Y P [ 4S ] HYP
►Kypethe- viable mark on the thing, that the public might know
^ Ruljj> it was hypothecate or mortgaged by the proprietor;
i. ) tl0t c ls, but the Romans, looking on fuch advertifements as in¬
jurious to the debtor, forbad the ufe of them.
The Roman lawyers diilinguilhed four kinds of hy-
pothecas: the conventional, which was with the will
and confent of both parties $ the legal, which was ap¬
pointed by law, and for that reafon called tacit; the
praetor’s pledge, when by the flight or non-appearing
of the debtor, the creditor was put in pofleffion of his
effefls; and the judiciary, when the creditor was put in
pofleffion by virtue of a fentence of the court.
The conventional hypotheca is fubdivided into gene¬
ral and fpecial. The hypotheca is general, when all
the debtor’s effefls, both prefent and future, are en¬
gaged to the creditor. It is fpecial, when limited to
one or more particular things.
For the tacit hypotheca, the civilians reckon no lefs
than twenty-fix different fpecies thereof.
HYPOTHENUSE, in geometry, the longeft: fide
of a right-angled triangle, or that which fubtends the
’right angle.
HYPOTHESIS, (formed of ^ (l under,” and
S-s<r<f pojitio, of niny-i pono, “ I put”), is a propoiition
or principle which we fuppofe, or take for granted, in
order to draw conclufions for the proof of a point in
-queftion.
In difputation, they frequently make falfe hypothe-
fes, in order to draw their antagonifts into abfurdities;
and even in geometry truths are often deducible from
fuch falfe hypothefes.
Every conditional or hypothetical propofition may
be diftinguifhed into hypothefis and theiis : the firll
rehearfes the conditions under which any thing is af¬
firmed or denied; and the latter is the thing itfelfaffirmed
or denied. Thus, in the propofition, a triangle is half
of a parallelogram, if the bafes and altitudes of the
two be equal; the latter part is the hypothefis, “ if
-the bafes,” &c. and the former the thefts, “ a triangle
is half,a parallelogram.”
In ft rift logic, we are never to pafs from the hypo-
•theiis to the thefts; that is, the principle fuppofed
, mu ft be proved to be true, before we require the con-
fequence to be allowed.
Hypothesis, in phyfics, &c. denotes a kind of
fyftem laid down from our own imagination, whereby
to account for fome phenomenon or appearance of na¬
ture. Thus we have hypothefis to account for the
tides, for gravity, for magnetifm, for the deluge, &c.
The real and fcientific caufes of natural things ge¬
nerally lie very deep : obfervation and experiment, the
proper means of arriving at them, are in moft cafes ex¬
tremely flow ; and the human mind is very impatient:
hence we are frequently driven to feign or invent fome-
thing that may feem like the caufe, and which is cal¬
culated to anfwer the feveral phenomena, fo that it may
pofitbly be the true caufe.
Philofophers are divided as to the ufe of fuch fiftions
or hypothefes, which are much lefs current now than
they were formerly. The lateft and beft writers are
for excluding hypothefes, 'and Handing wholly on ob¬
fervation and experiment. Whatever is not deduced
from phenomena, fays Sir Ifaac Newton, is an hypo¬
thefis ; and hypothefes, whether metaphyfical, or phy-
fical, or mechanical, or of occult qualities, have no
f)lace in experimental philofopby.
NJ J62.
The Cartefians take upon them to fuppofe what af- Hyr>orhe{5*;f
fe&ions in the primary particles of matter they pleafe ; Hyff°Pus-j
juft what figures, what magnitudes, what motions, and * y -
what fituations, they find for their purpofe. They
alfo feign certain unfeen, unknown fluids, and endue
them with the moft arbitrary properties; give them a
fubtllty which enables them to pervade the pores of
all bodies, and make them agitated with the moft un¬
accountable motions. But is not this to fet afide the
real conftitution of things, and to fubftitute dreams in
their place ? Truth is fcarce attainable even by the
fureft. obfervationsand will fanciful conjeftures ever
come at it ? They who found their fpeculations on hy¬
pothefes, even though they argue from them regularly,
according to the ftrifteft laws of mechanics, may be
faid to compofe an elegant and artful fable; but it is
ftill only a fable.
Hypothesis is more particularly applied in aftro-
nomy to the feveral fyftems of the heavens; or the
different ways in which different aftronomers have fup¬
pofed the heavenly bodies to be ranged, moved, &c.
The principal hypotbefes are the Ptolemaic, Coper-
nican, and Tychonic. The Copernican is now become
fo current, and is fo well warranted by obfervation,
that the retainers thereto hold it injurious to call it an
hypothejis. See Astronomy.
HYPOTIPOSTS. See Oratory, n°9i.
HYPOXIS, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 10th order,
Cvronaria. The corolla is divided into fix parts, and
perfifting, fuperior; the capfule narrowing at the bafe;
the calyx a bivalved glume.
HYPSISTARII, (formed from u'f-'vor “higheft),a
feft of heretics in the fourth century; thus called from
the profefiion they made of worfliipping the moft high
God.
The do&rine of the Hypfiftarians was an affemblage
of Paganifm, Judaifm, and Chriftianity. They ado¬
red the moft high God with the Chriftians; but they
alfo revered fire and lamps with the heathens ; and ob-
ferved the fabbath, and the diftinftion of clean and un¬
clean things with the Jews.
The Hypfiftarii bore a near refemblancc to the Eu-
cbites, or Maffah’ans.
HYROANIA (anc. geog.), a country of the far¬
ther Afia, lying to the fouth-eaft of the Mai* Hyr-
canum ox Cafpium; with Media on the weft, Parthia
on the fouth, and Margrana on the weft. Famous
for its tygers (Virgil) ; for its vines, figs, and olives,
(Strabo).
Hyrcavia (anc. geog.) ; a town of Lydia, in
the campus Hyrcanus, near Thyatira; fo called from
colonifts brought from Hyrcania, a'country lying to
the fouth of the Cafpian fea. The people called Hyr-
cani Macedones, becaufe a mixed people (Pliny).—An¬
other Hyrcanja, the metropolis of the country called
Hyrcania. Thought to be the Tape of Strabo, the
Syrinx of Polybius, the Zeudracarta of Arrian, and
the Afaac of Ifidorns Characenus.— A third, a ftrong
place of Judea, built by Hyrcanus.
HYSSOP. See Hyssopus.
Hedge-Hr’tsor. See GratiolA.
HYSSOPUS, hyssop : A genus of the gymno-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants. There arc three fpecies; but only one of them,
viz.
H Y S L 49 ] H Y S
Hyfteric viz. the offitinalit, or common hyflbp, is cultivated for
H . ufe. This hath under-fhrubby, low, bu/hy ftalks,
‘ ^ ^rnc' , growing a foot and an half high ; fmall, fpear-fhaped,
clofe-fitting, oppolite leaves, with feveral fmaller ones
rifing from the fame joint; and all the ftalks and
branches terminated by ere£t whorled fpikes of flowers,
• of different colours in the varieties. They are very
hardy plants; and may be propagated either by flips
or cuttings, or by feeds. The leaves have an aromatic
fmell, and a warm pungent tafte. Befides the general
virtues of aromatics, they are particularly recommended
in humoural afthmas, coughs, and other diforders of the
breaft and lungs ; and are faid notably to promote ex¬
pectoration.
Hyffop was generally made ufe of in puriflcations
amongft the Jews by way of a fprinkler. Sometimes
they added a little wool to it of a fcarlet colour; for
example they dipped a bunch of hyffop, fome branch¬
es of cedar and red wool, in water mingled with the
blood of a bird, in the purification of lepers. Hyffop,
it is probable, grew to a confiderable height in Judaea,
fmce the gofpel informs us that the foldiers filled a
fponge v^ith vinegar, put it upon a reed (or long Item)
of hyffop, and prefented it to our Saviour upon the
crofs.
HYSTE R.1C affection, or Papon, (formed of vcf/x*
“ womb”) ; a difeafe in women, called alfofuffbeation
of the 'womb, and vulgarly Jits of the mother. It is a
fpafmodico-convulfive affeCtion of the nervous fyftem,
proceeding from the womb ; for the fymptoms and
cure of which, fee Midicine
HYSTEROM proteron, in grammar and rhe¬
toric, a fpecies of the hyperbaton, wherein the proper
order of conftruCtion is fo inverted, that the part of
any ientence which Ihould naturally come firft is placed
laft : as in this of Terence, Vaht et mint, for vivit et
•oalet; and in the following of Virgil, Moriamur, &
in media arma ruamus, for In media arma ruamus, &
moriemur.
flate HYSTRIX, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of glires, the characters of
which are thefe : They have two f re-teeth, obliquely
divided both in the upper and under jaw, befides
eight grinders ; and the body is covered with quills or
prickles. There are four fpecies, vi%.
1. The crijlata, or crefted porcupine, has four toes
on the fore feet, five toes on the hind-feet, a crefled
head, a fhort tail, and the upper lip is divided like
that of a hare. The length of the body is about two
feet, and the height about two feet and an half. The
porcupine is covered with prickles, fome of them nine
or ten inches long, and about -Jth of an inch thick.
Like the hedge-hog, he rolls himftlf up in a globular
form, in which pofition he is proof againft the attacks
of the moft rapacious animals. The prickles are ex¬
ceedingly fliarp, and each of them has five large black
and as many white rings, which fucceed one another
alternately from the root to the point. Thefe quills
the animal can ertCfc or let down at pleafure; when ir¬
ritated,. be beats the ground with his hind-feet, ereCts
his quills, (bakes his tail, and makes a confiderable
rattling noife with his quills.—Moft authors have af-
ferted that the porcupine, when irritated, darts his
quills to a confiderable diftance againft the enemy, and
that he will kill very large animals by this means. But
Voi. IX. Part I.
M. Buffon and fome other late naturalifts affure u», that Hyftrtt-
the animal poffeffes no fuch power. M. Buffon fre- » " '
quently irritated the porcupine, but never faw any
thing like this darting of his quills. He fays indeed,
that when the creature was much agitated with paf-
fion, fome of the quills which adhered but (lightly to
the (kin would fall off, particularly from the tail; and
this circumftance, he imagines, has given rife to the
miftake. The porcupine, though originally a native
of Africa and the Indies, can live and multiply in the
more temperate climates of Spain and Italy PHny,
and every other natural hiftorian fince the days of A*
riftotle, tells us, that the porcupine, like the bear, con¬
ceals itfelf during the winter, and that it brings forth
its young tu 80 days. But thefe circumftances re¬
main to this day uncertain. It is remarkable, that
although this animal be very common in Italy, no
perfon has ever given us a tolerable hiftory of it. We
only know in general, that the porcupine, in a dome-
(tic (late, is not a fierce or ill-natured animal; that
with his foreteeth, which are ftrong and (harp, he can
cut through a ftrong board ; that he ea.ts bread, fruits,
roots, &c.; that he does confiderable damage when he
gets into a garden ; that he grows fat, like moft ani¬
mals, about the end of fummer ; and that his flelh is
not bad food.
2. The prebenjilis, or Brajilian porcupine, has four
toes cm\h« fore feet, five on the hind-feet, and a long
tail. It is confiderably lefs than the former fpecies;
being only 17 inches long from the point of the
muzzle to the origin of the tail, which is nine inches
long; the legs and feet are covered with long brownifl*
hair; the reft of the body is covered with quills inter-
fperfed with long hairs; the quills are about five inches
long, and about -j^th of an inch in diameter. He feeds
upon birds and fmall animals. He deeps in the day
like the hedge-hog, and fearches for his food in the
night. He climbs trees, and fupports himCelf by twill¬
ing his tail round the branches. He is generally found
in the high grounds of America from Brafi! to Loui-
fiana, and the fouthern parts of Canada. His fldh is
efteemed very good eating.
A variety of this fpecies is the Hoitzlacnoizin, or
Mexican poreupiiK, fie Coendou de Buffon). It is of
a duiky colour, with very long briftles intermixed with
the down : the fpines three inches long, (lender, and
varied with white and yellow; fcarcely apparent ex¬
cept on the tail, which is, according to Hernandez,
thicker and (horter than that of the preceding fpecies.
He adds, that the tail from the middle to the end is
free from fpines ; and that it grows to the bulk of a
middle-fized dog. M. de Buffon fays, its length is
16 or 17 inches from the nofe to the tail; the tail 9
French meafure, but taken from a mutilated Ikin. It
inhabits the mountains of Mexico, where it lives on
the fummer fruits, and may be eafily made tame. The
Indians pulverife the quills, and fay they are very ef¬
ficacious in gravelly cafes ; and applied whole to the
forehead, will relieve the molt violent headach. They
adhere till filled with blood, and then drop off.
3. The dorfata, or Canada porcupine (I’Urfon de
Buffon), has four toes on the fore-feet, five on the
hind-feet; and has quills only on the back, which are
Ihort, and almoft hid among the long hair. He is
about two feet long. This fpecies inhabits North
G America
H Y S [ 50
Hjfltrix. America as high as Hudfon’s Bay; and makes its neft
under the roots of great trees. It will alfo climb
among the boughs, which the Indians cut down when
one is in them, and kill the animal by ftrikingit over
the nofe. They are very plentiful near Hudfon’s Bay;
and many of the trading Indians depend on them for
food, efteeming them both wholefome and pleafant.
Thefe animals feed on wild fruits and bark of trees,
efpecially juniper : eat fnow in winter, and drink wa¬
ter in fummer ; but avoid going into it. When they
cannot avoid their purfuer, they will fidle towards him,
in order to touch him with the quills, which feem but
| H Y S
weak weapons of offence; for on ftroaking the hair, Hyfttl
they will come out of the fkin, flicking to the hand. l—
The Indians flick them in their nofes and ears, to make |
holes for the placing their ear-rings and other finery : |
they alfo trim the edges of their deer-flcin habits with
fringes made of the quills, or cover with them their 1
bark boxes.
4. The macroura, has five toes both on the hind and
forefeet; his tail is very long, and the prickles are 1
elevated. He inhabits the ifles of the Indian Archi¬
pelago, and lives in the forefls.
I.
Ior t, the ninth letter and third vowel of the al-
> phabet, is pronounced by throwing the breath
fuddenly againfl the palate, as it comes out of the la¬
rynx, with a fmall hollowing of the tongue, and nearly
the fame opening of the lips and talk as in pronoun¬
cing ^ or r. Its found varies: in fome' words it is
long as high, .mind, &c. ; in others fhort, as bid, bid,
fin, &c.; in others, again, it is pronounced like y, as
in collier, onion. See.; and in a few, it founds like ee,
as in machine, maga%ine. Sec. No Englifh word ends
in i, e being either added to it, 01 elfe the i turned
intoy.
But befides the vowel, there is the jod confonant ;
which, becaufe of its different pronunciation, has like-
wife a different form, thus J, j. In Englifh, it has
the foft found of g; nor is ufed, but when^foftis
required before vowels, where g is ufually hard : thus
we fay, jack, jet, join, See. inflead of gack, get, gain,
4cc. which would be contrary to the genius of the
Englifh language.
I, ufed as a numeral, fignifies one, and ftands for
fo many unites as it is repeated times : thus I, one ;
II, two; III, three, &c. ; and when put before a
higher numeral, it fubcra&s ilfelf, as IV, four; IX,
nine, &c. But when fet after it, fo many are added
to the higher numeral as there are I’s added: thus
VI is 5+1. or fix * V1I» 5+2> or leven » VIlI> 5+3,
■or eight. The ancient Romans likewife ufed 13 for
500, CIO for 1000, 133 for 5000, CCI33 for
10,000,. 1333 for 50,000, and CCCI333 for
100,000. Farther than this, as Pliny obferves, they
did not go in their notation ; but, when neceffary,
repeated the lafl number, as CCCI333, CCCI333,
for 200,000; CCCI333, CCCI333, CCCI333,
for 300,000 ; and fo on.
The ancients fometimes changed i into u ; as decu-
mus for decimus ; maxumus for maximus, &c.
According to Plato, the vowel i is proper to exprefs
delicate, but humble things, as in this verfe in Virgil
which abounds in i’s, and is generally admired :
Jccipiunt inimicum imbrem, rimifque fatifeunt.
I, ufed as an abbreviature, is often fubflituted
for the whole word Jesus, of which it is the firtt
letter.
JABBOK, a brook on the other file of the Jordan,
the fpring whereof is in the mountains of Gilead. It
falls into Jordan pretty near the fea of Tiberias, to the
fouth of this fea. Near this brook the patriarch Ja¬
cob wreftled with the angel (Gen. xxxii. 22). The
Jabbok feparated the land of the Ammonites from
the Gaulanitis, and the territories of Og king of
Bafhan.
Jabesh, or Jabesh-gilead, was the name of a
city, in the half tribe of Manaffeh, beyond Jordan.
The feripture calls it generally Jabefh-Gilead, becaufe
it lay in Gilead, at the foot of the mountains which
go by this name. Eufebius places it fix miles from
Pella, towards Gerafa; and confequently it mull be
eaflward of the fea of Tiberias.
JABIRU. See Mycteria.
JABLONSKI (Daniel Errteft), a learned Polifh
Proteftant divine, born at Damztck in 1660. He be¬
came fucceffively minifter of Magdeburg, Eiffa, Ko-
ningiherg, and Berlin ; and was at length ecclefiaftical
counfellor, and prefident of the academy of fciences at
the latter. He took great pains to effefl an union
between the Lutherans and Calvinifts ; and wrote fome
works which are in good efteem, particularly Medita¬
tions on the origin of the Scriptures, &c. He died
in 1741.
Jablonski (Theodore), counfellor of the court of
Pruflia, and fecretary of the royal academy of fciences
at Berlin, was alfo a man of diftinguifhed merit. He
loved the fciences, and did them honour, without that
ambition which is generally feen in men of learn
ing: it was owing to this modefty that the greateft.
part of his works were publiihed without his name.
He publifhed, in 1711, a French and German Dic¬
tionary ; a Courfe of Morality, in 1713 ; a Diction¬
ary of Arts and Sciences, in 1721 ; and tranflated
Tacitus de moribus Germanorum into High Dutch, in
1724.
JABNE.
J A C
>bne JABNE ( anc. geog.), a town of Paleltine, near
It if J°PPa • called yamnia or yamnial, by the Greeks and
•' . Romans. In Joflina xv. it feems to be called yabrieel;
but in 2 Chron. xxvi. yabne. It was taken from the
Phihilines by Uzziah, who demolifhed its fortifications.
Its port, called yamnitarum partus., lay between Joppa
and Azotus.
JACAMAR, in ornithology. See Alcedo.
JACCA, an ancient town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Arragon, with a bifhop’s fee, and a fort ;
feated on a river of the fame name, among the moun¬
tains of Jacca, which are part of the Pyrenees. W.
Long, o. 19. N. Lat. 44. 22.
JACK, in mechanics, a well-known inftrument of
common ufe for railing great weights of any kind.
The common kitchen-jack is a compound engine,
where the weight is the power applied to overcome
the fri&ion of the parts and the weight with which
the fpit is charged ; and a fteady arid uniform motion
is obtained by means of the fly.
Jack, in the fea-language, a fort of flag or colours,
difplayed from a malt eredted on the outer end of a
Ihip’s bowfprit. In the Britifh navy the jack is no¬
thing more than a fmall union flag, compofed of the
interfedtion of the red and white crofles ; but in mer-
chant-lhips this union is bordered with a red field. See
the article Union.
Jack is ufed alfo for a horfe or wooden frame to
faw timber upon ; for an inftrument to pull off a pair
of boots ; for a great leathern pitcher to carry drink
in ; for a fmall bowl that ferves as a mark at the exer-
cife of bowling ; and for a young pike.
yACK-Flag, in a Ihip, that hoifted up at the fprit-
fail top-maft head.
yACK-Daiv, the Englilh name of a fpecies of cor-
vus. See Corvus.
This bird is very mifchievous to the farmer and
gardener; and is of fuch a thievilh difpofition, that
he will carry away much more than he can make ufe
of. There is a method of deftroying them by a kind
of fprings much ufed in England ; and is fo ufeful,
that it ought to be made univerfal.—A ftake of about
five feet long is to be driven firmly into the ground,
and made fo fail that it cannot move, and fo lharp in
the point that the bird cannot fettle upon it. Within
a foot of the top there muft be a hole bored through
it, of three quarters of an inch diameter; through
this hole is to be put a ftick of about eight inches
long ; then a horfe-hair fpringe or noofe is to be made
fail to a thin hazel-wand, and this brought up to the
place where the ihort ftick is placed, and carried with
it through the hole, the remainder being left open un¬
der that ftick. The other end of the hazel rod is to
be put through a hole in the ftake near the ground,
and faftened there. The ilake is to be planted among
the jack daw’s food, and he will naturally be led to
fettle on it; but finding the point too iharp, he will
defcend to the little crofs ftick. This will fink with
his weight, and the fpringe will receive his leg, and
hold him fail.
JACKALL, in zoology. See Canis.
JACKSON (Thomas), an eminent Engliih divine,
was born at Witton in the biihopric of Durham in
I579» a g°od family. He commenced doctor of
J A C
divinity at Oxford in 1622 ; and at laft was made Jac°l» ?
chaplain in ordinary, prebendary of Winchefter, and H .
dean of Peterborough. He was a very great fcholar ; Jaco 1 e*,l
and died in 1640. His performance upon the Creed
is a learned and valuable piece ; which, with his other
works, was publiihtd in 1673.
JACOB, the fon of Ifaac and Rebekah, was born
in the year of the world 2168, before Jefus Chrift
1836. The hiftory of this patriarch is given at large
in the book of Genefis. He died in Egypt in the
147th year of his age. Jofeph dire&ed that the body
Ihould be embalmed, after the manner of the Egyp¬
tians ; and there was a general mourning for him
throughout Egypt for feventy days. After this, Jo¬
feph and his brethren, accompanied with the principal
men of Egypt, carried him, with the king of Egypt’*
permifiion, to the burying-place of his fathers near
Hebron, where his wife Leah had been interred.
When they were come into the land of Canaan, they
mourned for him again for feven days; upon which
occafion the place where' they ftaid was called Abel-
mifraim, or the mourning of the Egyptians.
Jacob (Ben Hajim), a rabbi famous for the col-
It&ion of the Maforah in 1525; together with the
text of the bible, the Chaldaic paraphrafe, and Rabbi¬
nical commentaries.
Jacob (Ben Naphthali), a famous rabbi of the 5th
century : he was one of the principal mafforets, and
bred at the fchool of Tiberias in Paleftine with Ben
Afer, another principal mafforet. The invention of
points in Hebrew to ferve for vowels, and of accents
to facilitate the reading of that language, are a-
fcribed to thefe two rabbis; and faid to be done
in an affembly of the Jews held at Tiberias, A. D.
476.
Jacob (Giles), an eminent law-writer, born at
Romfey in the county of Southampton, in 1686. He
was bred under a confiderable attorney ; and is prin¬
cipally known for his Law Di&ionary in one vol.
folio, which has been often printed ; a new and im¬
proved edition having been lately given by counfellors
Ruffhead and Morgan. Mr Jacob alfo wrote two
dramatic pieces ; and a Poetical Regifter, containing
the lives and characters of Engliih dramatic poets.
The time of his death is not known.
JACOBiEUS (Oliger), a celebrated profeffor of
phyfic and philofophy at Copenhagen, was born in
1651 at Arhufen in the peninfula of Jutland, where
his father was biihop. Chriitian V. intrufted him
with the management of his grand cabinet of curio-
fities; and Frederic IV. in 1698, made him coun-
fellor of his court of juilice. He wrote many medical
works, and fame excellent poems.
JACOBINE monks, the fame with Dominicans.
JACOBITES, a term of reproach beftowed on the
perfons who, vindicating the doftrines of paflive obe¬
dience and non-reiiftance with refpeil to the arbitrary
proceedings of princes, difavow the revolution in 1688,
and affert the fuppofed rights and adhere to the in-
terells of the late abdicated King James and his fa-
mfly.
Jacobites, in church hiftory, a fe6l of Chriftiana
in Syria and Mefopotamia ; fo called, either from Ja¬
cob a Syrian who lived in the reign of the emperor
G 2 Mauritius,
i 51 i
J A D [ 52 3 JAG
Jacobui Mauritius, or from one Jacob a monk who flourilhed They are joined together by flioals or funk rocks; .are
JafLeer.thc year 55°- . crooked or bent like half a bow; and are dangerous
* The Jacobites are of two fefts, fome following the for Ihips in the night-time, becaufe there feems to be
rites of the Latin church, and others continuing fe- a paffage between them, to which while the pilots are
parated from the church of Rome. There is alfo a payingattention,theynegle&twofmallfunkrockswhich
divifion among the latter, who have two rival patri- lie almoft in the middle of the entrance in deep water,
archs. As to their belief, they hold but one nature JAFNAPATAN, a fea port town, feated at the
in Jefus Chrift ; with refpeft to purgatory and prayers north-eaft end of the ifland of Ceylon in the Eaft In¬
fer the dead, they are of the fame opinion with the dies. The Dutch took it from the Portuguefe in
Greeks and other eaftern Chri.tians: they confecrate >658, and have continued in the pofTtffion of it fince
unleavened bread at the eucharift, and are againft that time. They export from thence great quantities
confeflion, believing that it is not of divine inftitu- of tobacco, and fome elephants, which are accounted
tion. the moft docile of any in the whole world. E. Long.
JACOBUS, a gold coin, worth 25 (hillings; fo 80. 25. N. Lat. 9. 30.
called from King James I. of England, in whofe reign JAGENDORF, a town and caftle of Silefia, ca-
it was ftruck. See Coin. pital of a province of the fame name, feated on the ri-
We ufually diftinguifh two kinds of Jacobus, the old ver Oppa. E. Long. 17. 47. N. Lat. 50.4.
and the new; the former valued at 25 (hillings, weigh- JAGGE RM AUT, a black pyramidal (lone wor-
ing fix pennvweight ten grains; the latter, called alfo (hipped by the Gentoos, who pretend that it fell from
Carolus, valued at 23 (hillings, in weight five penny- heaven or was miraculoufly prefented on the place
weight twenty grains. where their temple (lands. There are many other
JACQUINIA, in botany : A genus cf the mono idols of this figure in India; which, however, are all
gynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of but accounted copies from the Jaggernaut. According
plants; and in the natural method ranking with thofe to the bell information Mr Grofe could obtain, this
of which the order is doubriul. The corolla is de- (lone is meant to reprefent the power prefiding over
cemfid; the (lamina inferted into the receptacle ; the univerfal generation, which they attribute to the ge-
feerry monofpermous. neral heat and influence of the fun adling in fubordina-
JACULATOR, or shooting-fish. See Ch-e- tion to it. Domeltic idols of the form of the Jag-
todon. gernaut. and dillinguilhed by the fame name, are made
JADDESSES is the name of an inferior order of by the Gentoos. Thefe are niched up in a kind of
priefts in Ceylon, who have the care of the chapels ap- triumphal car, decorated with gilding and tinfel;
propriated to the genii, who form a third order of which for fome days they keep in the bed apartment
gods among tbefe idolaters. Thefe priefts are applied in their houfe. During this time their devotion con-
to by the people in a time of difeafe or calamity, who fills in exhibiting the moft obfeene pollutes, and aft-
offer a cock on their behalf to appeafe the anger of the ing all manner of lafeivioufnefs, in fight as it were of
daemons. *dol, and as the mod acceptable mode of worlhip
TADE-stone, Laims K£-?HwviCV&, or Jafpachates, to that deity it reprefents ; after which they carry it
a genus of filiceous earths. It gives fire with (leel, and in its gilded car in proceffion to the Ganges, and
is femitranfparent like flint. It does not harden in the throw in all together as an acknowledgment to that
fire, but melts in the focus of a burning glafs into a river of its congenial fertilization with that of the fun.
tranfparent green glafs with fome bubbles. A kind Formerly this machine was decorated with jewels and
brought from the river of the Amazons in America, other expenfive ornaments; but the Indians are now
and called circoncifton Jione, melts more eafily in the become lefj extravagant, as they found that the Moors
focus into a brown opaque glafs, far lefs hard than the and Chriftians, watching the places where they threw
ft one itfelf. The jade-ftone is unftuous to the touch; in their idols, dived for them for the fake of the jewels
whence Mr Kirwan feems to fufpeft, that it contains with which they were adorned.
a portion of argillaceous earth, or rather magnefia. Our author conjeftures, that this pyramidal form of
The fpecific gravity is from 2.970 to 3.389; the tex- the Gentoo idol was originally taken from that of
ture granular, with a greafy look, but exceedingly flame, which always inclines to point upwards. From
hard, being fuperior in this refpeft even to quartz it- this Indian deity he fuppofes the (hape of the Paphiaa
felf. It is infufible in the fire, nor can it be diffolved Venus to have been derived, for which Tacitus could
in acids without a particular management ; though not account. This image had nothing of the human
M. Sauffure feems to have extrafted iron from it. form in it, but rofe orbicularly from a broad bafis, and
Sometimes it is met with of a whitifh milky colour in the nature of a race goal tapering to a narrow con¬
front China; but moftly of a deep or pale green from vex a-top ; which is exaftly the figure of the idol in
America. The common lapis nephriticus is of a grey, India, confecrated to fuch an office as that heathen
yellowiffi, or olive colour. It has its name from a fup- deity was fuppofed to prefide over, and to which, on
pofition of its being capable of giving eafe in nephritic the borders of the Ganges efpeciallys the Gentoo vir-
pains, by being applied externally to the loins. It gins are brought to undergo a kind of fuperficial de-
may be diftinguiftied from all other (tones by its hard- floration before they are prefented to their huibands.
nefs, femipellucidity, and fpecific gravity. (Richard), an ingenious poet, was vicar of
JAFFA, the modern name of the city of Joppa in Snitterfield in Wamickfture, and reftor of Kimcote in
jU(]ea_ Leicefterihire. He was the intimate friend and corre-
JAFFATEEN islands, the name of four ifiands fpondent of Mr Shenftone, contemporary with him at
in the Red Sea, vifited by Mr Bruce in his late travels. Oxford, and, it is believed, his fchoolfellow ; was of U-
5 niverfity
JAG [ 53 ] J A L
Jaj#. niverfityCollege} took the degree of M. A. July9.1739;
1 was author rf feveral poems in the 4th and 5th volumes
of Dodfley’s Poems; publifhed a fermon, in 1755, on
the Caufes of Impenitence confidered, preached May 4.
1755, at Harbury in Warwickfliire, where he was vi¬
car, on occafion of a converfation faid to have pafled
between one of the inhabitants and an apparition in
the church yard there; wrote “ Edge-hill,” a poem,
for which he obtained a large fubfcription in 1767;
and was alfo author of “ Labour and Genius,”, 1 768,
410 ; of “ The Blackbirds,” a beautiful elegy in the
Adventurer ; and of many other ingenious performan¬
ces. He died May 28. 1781.
St Jago, a large river of South America, which rifcs
in the audience of Quito and Peru. It is navigable;
and falls into the South Sea, after having watered a fer¬
tile country abounding in cottOn-trees, and inhabited
by wild Americans.
St Jago, the largeft, moft populous and fertile of
the Cape Verd iflands, on the coall of Africa, and the
refidence of the Portuguefe viceroy. It lies about
13 miles eaftward from the ifland of Mayo, and a-
bounds with high barren mountains; but the air, in
the rainy feafon, is very unwholefome to llrangers. Its
produce is fugar, cotton, wine, and feme excellent
fruits. The animals are black cattle, horfes, affes, deer,
goats, hogs, civet-cats, and fome very pretty green
monkeys with black faces.
St Jagg, a handfome and confiderable town of South
America, the capital of Chili, with a good harbour, a
bifliop’s fee, and a royal audience. It is feated in a
large and beautiful plain, abounding with all the ne-
ceffaries of life, at the foot of the Cordilleras, on the ri¬
ver Mapocho, which runs acrofs it from eaft to weft.
Here are feveral canals and a dyke, by means of which
they water the gardens and cool the ftreets.—It is very
much fubjeft to earthquakes. W. Long. 69. 35. S.
Lat. 33. 40.
St Jago de Cula, a town in North America, fitu-
ated on the fouthern coaft of the ifland of Cuba, in the
bottom of a bay, with a good harbour, and on a river
of the fame name. W. Long. 76. 44. N. Lat. 20. o
Jago de los Cavalier os, a town of America, and
one of the principal of the ifland of Hifpaniola. It is
feated on the river Yague, in a fertile foil, but bad air.
W. Long. 70. 5. N. Lat. 19. 40.
St Jago del Entero, a town of South America,, one
of the moft confiderable of Tucuman, and the ufual
refidence of the inquifitor of the province. It is
feated on a large river, in a flat country, where there
is game, tygers, guanacos, commonly called camel-
Jheep, &c.
Jago de la Vega, otherwife called Spanljh town, is
the capital of the ifland of Jamaica, in the Weft In¬
dies 5 and Hands in 180 it north latitude, and 76° 45'
weft longitude. It is about a mile in length, and little
more than a quarter of a mile in breadth ; and contains
between 500 and 6qo houfes, with about 4000 inhabi¬
tants of all colours and denominations. This town is
fituated in a delightful plain, on the banks of the Rio
Cobre, 13 miles from Kingfton, and 10 from Port
Royal. It is the refidence of the commander in chief:
and here the fupreme court of judicature is held, four
times in the year, viz. on the laft Tuefdays of February,
May, Auguft, and November, and fits three weeks.—
St Jago de la Vega is the county-town of Middlefex,
and belongs to the parifh of St Catharine ; in which u
parifh there are 11 fugar-plantations, 108 pens, and
other fettlements, and about 10,000 flaves.
JAGUAR, or Jaquar, a name given to the Brafi-
lian once, a fpecies of Feus. See Felis, fpec. vi.
JAGUEER, in Eaft India affairs, any penfion from
the Grand Mogul, or king of Delhi; generally fuch as
are afiigned for military (ervices.
JAGUEERDAR, the holder or poffeffor of a ja-
gueer. It comes from three Perfian words, Ja ” a
place ;” gueriftun “ to take and da/hlun “ to hold
qtiaft “ a place holder or penfioner.” In the times of
the Mo^ul empire, all the great officers of the court,
called omrahs. were allowed jagueers, either in lands of
which they colle&ed the revenues, or affignments upon
the revenues for fpecified fums, payable by the lord lieu¬
tenant of a province : which fums were for their main¬
tenance, and the fupport of fuch troops as they were
neceffitated to bring into the field when demanded by
the emperor, as the condition of their jagueers, which
were always revokable at pleafure.
JAIL-fever, a very dangerous diftemper of the
contagious kind, arifing from the putrefeent difpofi-
tion of the blood and juices. See (the Index fubjoined
to) Medicine.
JALAP, in botany and the materia medica, the
root of a fpecies of convolvulus or bind-weed. See
Convolvulus.
This root is brought to us in thin tranfverfe flices
from Xalapa, a province of New Spain. Such pieces
fhould be chofen as are moft compaA, hard, weighty,
dark-coloured, and abound moll with black circular
ftrise. Slices of bryony root are faid to be fometimes
mixed with thofe of jalap : thefe may be eafily diftin-
guilhed by their whiter colour and left compaft tex¬
ture. This root has no fmell, and very little talte upon
the tongue ; but when fwallowed, it affedls the throat
with a fenfe of heat, and occafions a plentiful difeharge
of faliva. Jalap in fubftance, taken in a dofe of about
half a dram (left or more, according to the circum-
ftances of the patient) in plethoric, or cold phlegmatic-
habits, proves an effediual, and in general a fafe purga¬
tive, performing its office mildly, feldom occaiioning
naufea or gripes, which too frequently accompany the
other flrong cathartics. In hypochondriacal diforde,rs,
and hot bilious temperaments, it gripes violently if the
jalap be good ; but rarely takes due. effedl as a purge.
An extrad made by water purges almoft univerfally,
but weakly ; and at the fame time has a confiderable ef-
fed by urine. The root remaining after this procefa-
giipes violently. The pure refin, prepared by fpirit of
wine, occafions moft violent gripings, and other diltref—
fing fymptoms, but fcarce proves at all cathartic: tri¬
turated with fugar. or with almonds into the form of
an emulfion. or diffolved in fpirit, and mixed with fy-
rups, it purges plentifully in a fmall dofe, without oc-
cafioning much diforder : the part of the jalap remain¬
ing after the reparation of the refin. yields to water an
extrad, which has no effed as a cathartic, but operates
powerfully by urine. Its officinal preparations are an
extrad made with water and fpirit, a Ample tindure,,
and a compound powder.—Frederick Hoffman parti-
calarly
JAM [ J4 1 JAM
Jaiemus cularly cautions againft giving this medicine to chil¬
li dren ; and allures us, that it will dellroy appetite, wea-
Jamaica. ken tjje body, and perhaps occafion even death. In
^ this point, this celebrated praftitioner was probably de¬
ceived : children, whole veffels are lax, and the food
foft and lubricating, bear thefe kinds of medicines, as
Geoffrey obferves, better than adults ; and accordingly
inoculators make much ufe of the tindture mixed with
Ample fyrup. The compound powder is employed in
dropfy, as a hydragogue purge ; and where ftimulus is
not contraindicated, jalap is confidered asafafe cathartic.
JALEMUS, in antiquity, a kind of mournful
fong, ufed upon occafion of death, or any other af¬
fecting accident. Hence the Greek proverbs had their
original, oixgoTtpoft or j. e. more fad or
colder than a jaiemus, “( r»f icc/uMf lylgarrioc, worthy to
be ranked among jalemufes.
JAMADAR: An officer of horfe or foot, in Hin-
dollan. Alfo the head or fuperintendant of the Peons
in the Sewaury, or train of any great man.
JAMAICA, an ifland of the Weft Indies, the largeft
of the Antilles, lying between i f and 190 N. Lat. and
between 76° and 790 W. Long. > in length near 170
miles, and about 60 in breadth. It approaches in its
figure to an oval. The windward paffage right before
it hath the ifland of Cuba on the weft, and Hifpaniola
on the eaft, and is about 20 leagues in breadth.
This ifland was difeovered by admiral Chriftopher
Columbus in his fecond voyage, who landed upon it
May 5. 1494 ; and was fo much charmed with it, as al¬
ways to prefer it to the reft of the iflands: in confe-
quence of which, his fon chofe it for his dukedom. It
was fettled by Juan d’ Efquivel A. I). 1509, who built
the town, which, from the place of his birth, he called
Seville, and 11 leagues farther to the eaft flood Me-
lilla. Orifton was on the fouth fide of the ifland, feated
on what is now called Blue Fields River. All thefe
are gone to decay ; but St Jago, now Spanilh Town,
is ftill the capital. The Spaniards held this country
160 years, and in their time the principal commodity
was cacao; they had an immesfe flock of horfes, afles,
and mules, and prodigious quantities of cattle. The
Englifh landed here under Penn and Venables, May
11. 1654, and quickly reduced the ifland. Cacao was
alfo their principal commodity till the old trees decay¬
ed, and the new ones did not thrive ; and then the
planters from Barbadoes introduced fugar-canes, which
hath been the great ftaple ever fince.
The profpeA of this ifland from the fea, by reafon
of its conftant verdure, and many fair and fafe bays, is
wonderfully pleafant. The coaft, and for fome miles
within, the land is low ; but removing farther, it rifes
and becomes hilly. The whole ifle is divided by a
ridge of mountains running eaft and weft, fome rifing
to a great height: and thefe are compofed of rock, and
a very hard clay ; through which, however, the rains
that fall inceffantly upon them have worn long and
deep cavities, which they call gullies. Thefe moun¬
tains, however, are far from being unpleafant, as they
are crowned even to their fummits by a variety of fine
trees. There are alfo about a hundred rivers that iffue
from them on both fides; and, though none of them
are navigable for any thing but canoes, are both plea-
fing and profitable in many other refpe&s, The cli¬
mate, like that of all countries between the tropics, is
very warm towards the fea, and in marfhy places un¬
healthy ; but in more elevated fituations, cooler; and,
where people live temperately, to the full as wholefome
as in any part of the Weft Indies. The rains fall hea¬
vy for about a fortnight in the months of May and
O&ober; and, as they are thecaufe of fertility, are ftyled
feafons. Thunder is pretty frequent, and fometimes
(howers of hail: but ice or fnow, except on the tops of
the mountains, are never feen ; but on them, and at no
very great height, the air is exceedingly cold.
The moft eaftern parts of this ridge are famous un¬
der the name of the Blue Mountains. This great
chain of rugged rocks defends the fouth fide of the
ifland from thofe boifterous north-weft winds, which
might be fatal to their produce. Their ftreams, though
fmall, fupply the inhabitants with good water, which
is a great blelfing, as their wells are generally brackifti.
The Spaniards were perfuaded that thefe hills abounded
with metals: but we do not find that they wrought any
mines ; or if they did, it was only copper, of which they
faid the bells in the church of St Jago were made.
They have feveral hot fprings, which have done great
cures. The climate was certainly more temperate be¬
fore the great earthquake ; and the ifland was fuppofed
to be out of the reach of hurricanes, which fince then
it hath feverely felt. The heat, however, is very much
tempered by land and fea breezes ; and it is afierted,
that the hotteft time of the day is about eight in the
morning. In the night, the wind blows from the land
on all fides, fo that no (hips can then enter their ports.
In an ifland fo large as this, which contains above
five millions of acres, it may be very reafonably con¬
ceived that there are great variety of foils. Some of
thefe are deep, black, and rich, and mixed with a kind
of potter’s earth; others (hallow and fandy; and fome of
a middle nature. There are many favannahs, or wide
plains, without ftones, in which the native Indians had
luxuriant crops of maize, which the Spaniards turned
into meadows, and kept in them prodigious herds of
cattle. Some of thefe favannahs are to be met with
even amongft the mountains. All thefe different foils
may be juftly pronounced fertile, as they would cer¬
tainly be found, if tolerably cultivated, and applied to
proper purpofes. A fufficient proof of this will arife
from a very curfory review of the natural and artificial
produce of this fpacious country.
It abounds in maize, pulfe, vegetables of all kinds,
meadows of fine grafs, a variety of beautiful flowers,
and as great a variety of oranges, lemons, citrons, and
other rich fruits. Ufeful animals there are of all forts,
horfes, affes, mules, black cattle of a large fize, and flieep,
the flefh of which is well tailed, though their wool is
hairy and bad. Here are alfo goats and hogs in great
plenty ; fea and river fifli; wild, tame, and water-fowl.
Amongft other commodities of great value, they have
the fugar-cane, cacao, indigo, pimento, cotton, ginger,
and coffee; trees for timber and other ufes, fuch as
mahogany, manchineel, white wood, which no worm
will touch, cedar, olives, and many more. Befides
thefe, they have fuftick, red wood, and various other
materials for dyeing. To thefe we may add a multi¬
tude of valuable drugs, fuch as guaiacum, china, farfa-
parilla, caffia, tamarinds, vanellas, and the prickle-pear
jam [55
or opuntia, which produces the cochineal 5 with no in-
J confickrable number of odoriferous gums. Near the
cdafl they have falt-ponds, with which they fupply
their own confumption, and might make any quantity
they pleafed.
As this ifland abounds with rich commodities, it is
happy likewife in having a number of tine and fafe
ports. Point Morant, the eaftern extremity of the
ifland, hath a fair and commodious bay. Faffing on
to the fouth, there is Port Royal : on a neck.of land
which forms one fide of it, there flood once the faireft
town in the ifland ; and the harbour is as fine a one as
can be withed, capable of holding a thoufand large
veflels, and ftill the ftation of our fquadron. Old
Harbour is alfo a convenient port, fo is Maccary Bay ;
and there are at lead twelve mo.re between this and
the weftern extremity, which is point Negrillo, where
our ihips of war lie when there is a war with Spain.
On the north fide there is Grange Bay, Cold Harbour,
Rio Novo, Montego Bay, Port Antonio, one of the
fineft in the ifland, and feveral others. The north-
1 JAM
The honourable the council confifts of a prefident Jamaica,
and 10 members; with a clerk, at L.270, chaplain
L. 100, ulher of the black rod and meflenger L. 250.
The honourable the afiembly confifts of 43 members,
one of whom is chofen fpeaker. To this affembly be;
long a clerk, with L. 1000 falary ; a chaplain, L. 150 ;
meflenger, L. 700 ; deputy, L. 140 ; and printer,
L. 200.
The number of members returned by each parifh and
county are, for Middlefex 17, viz. St Catharine 3, St
Dorothy 2, St John 2, St Thomas in the Vale 2, Cla¬
rendon 2, Vere 2, St Mary 2, St Ann 2 : For Surry
16, viz. Kingfton 3, Port Royal 3, St Andrew 2, St
David 2, St Thomas in the Eaft 2, Portland 2, St
George 2 : For Cornwall IQ, viz. St Elizabeth 2,
Weftmoreland 2, Hanover 2, St James 2, Trelaw-
ney 2.
The high court of chancery confifts of the chancel¬
lor (governor for the time being), 25 mafters in ordi¬
nary, and 20 mafters extraordinary; a regifter, and
clerk of the patents ; ferjeant at arms, and mace-bear-
weft winds, which fometimes blow furioufly on this er. The court of vice admiralty has a foie judge, judg(
coaft, render the country on that fide lefs fit for canes,
but pimento thrives wonderfully ; and certainly many
other ftaples might be raifed in fmall plantations, which
are frequent in Barbadoes, and might be very advan¬
tageous here in many refpeCts.
The town of Port Royal flood on a point of land
running far out into the fea, narrow, fandy, and inca-
furrogate, and commiflary, King’s advocate, principal
regifter, marlhal, and a deputy-marlhal. The court of
ordinary, confifts of the ordinary (governor for the time
being), and a clerk. The fupreme court of judicature,
has a chief juftice, L. 120, and 16 affiftant judges; at¬
torney-general, L. 400 ; clerk of the courts, L. 100;
clerk of the crown, E. 350; folicitor for the crown ;
pable of producing anything. Yet the excellence of 33 commiffioners for taking affidavits; a provoft-mar-
the port, the convenience of having Ihips of feven hun¬
dred tons coming clofe up to their wharfs, and other
advantages, gradually attrafted inhabitants in fuch a
manner, that though many of their habitations were
built on piles, there were near two thoufand houfes in
the town in its moft flourilhing ftate, and which let at
high rents. The earthquake by which it was over-
thrown happened on the 7th of June >692, and num¬
bers of people periftied in it. This earthquake was
dial-general, and eight deputies; J 8 barrifters, befides
the attorney-general and advocate-general; and upward
of 120 praftifing attornies at law.
The commerce of Jamaica is very confiderable, not
only with all parts of Great Britain and Ireland, but
with Africa, North and South America, the Weft In«
dia iflands, and the Spanifti main. The fliips annually
employed are upwards of 500 fail.
The following account of the exports of this ifland"
followed by an epidemic difeafe, of which upwards of in 1770, as given by Abbe Raynal, but which in feve-
three thoufand died : yet the place was rebuilt; but the ral particulars appears to be under rated, will contri-
greateft part was reduced to allies by a fire that hap- bute more than all that hath been faid, to fliow the
pened on the 9th of January 1703, and then the. inha- importance of Jamaica. They conlifted in 2249 bales
bitants removed moftly to Kingfton. It was, however, of cotton, which at 10 pounds per bale, the price in
rebuilt for the third time; and was raifing towards its the ifland, amountsto 22,490!. ; 1873 hundredweight
former grandeur, when it was overwhelmed by the fea, of coffee, at three pounds five ftiillings per hundred,
Auguft 28. 1722. There is, notwithftanding, a fmall 6088 I ; 2753 bags of ginger, at two pounds five
town there at this day. Hurricanes fince that time
have often happened,andoccafionedterrible devaftations.
The ifland is divided into three counties, Middlefex,
Surry, and Cornwall; containing zoparifhes, over each
of which prefides a magiftrate ftyled a cu/los; but thefe
parilhes in point of fize are a kind of hundreds. The
fhilhngs per bag, 6194I. ; 2211 hides, at feven Ihil-
lings per hide, 773 1. ; 16,475 puncheons of rum, at
10I. per puncheon, 164,7501.' Mahogany, 15,282
pieces and 8500 feet, 50,000 L Gf pimento, 2,089,734
pounds weight, 52,243 1. Sugar, 57,675 hoglheadsr-
6425 tierces, 52 barrels, at feventeen pounds ten Ihil-
whole contain 36 towns and villages, 18 churches and lings per hoglhead; twelve pounds per tierce, and four
chapels, and about 23,000 white inhabitants. pounds per barrel; amounting in the whole to
The adminiftratiou of public affairs is by a gover- 1,086,620 1. Sarfaparilla, 305 bags, at ten pounds
nor and council of royal.appointment, and the repre- per bag, 22501. Exports to Gfeat Britain andlre-
fentatives of the people in the lower houfe of affembly. land, 1,391,210!. To North • America, 146,324!.
They meet at Spanilh Town, and things are conduced To the other iflands, 595 1. Total of the exports,
with great order and dignity. The lieutenant-gover- 1,538,730!.
nor and commander in chief has L. 5000 currency, or The following is a general view of the property and'
L. 35571 : 8 : 6^, Sterl. befides which, he has a houfe in chief produce of the whole ifland in 1786, as prefixed.
Spanilh-town, a pen or a farm adjoining, and a polink or by Mr Beckford to his deferintive account of Ja-
mountain for provifions ; a fecretary, an under-fecreta- matca f
ry, and a. domeftic chaplain. Counties.
f JntroiJ
P 2^*
Jamaica
lanbic
Counties.
Sugar
Eftates.
Middlefex
Surry -
Cornwall
Total
A M
Other
Settle
Ptents,
917
540
56f
2018
iProdace,
Slaves. Hhds. of
j Sugar.
87100 ( 31500
75600 | 34900
90000 39000
255700 105400
[ 56 J
JAM
It fhould be here obferved, that where two hogs- Jamaica
Cattle. heads of fugar are made, there is at lealt one puncheon . .
of rum ; but the proportion has been of late years■* ,
——  more confiderable: the quantity of the latter will
75000 therefore be 52,700 puacheona.
80000
69500
22450a
A comparative view between the years 1768 and 1786.
Middlefex
jj Surry
in in
1768 1786 1768 1786
Sugar Eltates; 239
Sugar Hhds. j 24050
Negroes
Cattle
66744
323
31500
87100
146
15010
39542
Cornwall
in
1768 1786
350}) 266
34900 J: 29100
388
39000
75600 jj 60614 93000
59510 75000 21465 80000 ji 54775 69500
From the above fcheme it appears, how confider-
able has been the increafe of fugar-eftates, and confe-
quently of produce of negroes and cattle m eighteen
years: and in the fame portion of time (it is faid),
if proper encouragement were given, they might be
augmented in a threefold proportion.
The common valuation of an eftate in Jamaica as
follows :
Cane land (the canes upon it valued Sterling
feparately) at - - ^ 22 per acre.
Total in
1768 1786
651
68160
1061
105400
166900 255700 88800
135750 224500
Amount
of
Increale.
41a
3724a
88750
1 ratoons and young plants 15
4
14
57
Plants
Cane land, i:
Failure land
Wood land
Provifions
Negroes
Mules
Steei s
Breeding cattle, &c.
Works, water, carts, &c. - - from 7 to 10,000
If a planter would wiih to leafe his eilate for a num¬
ber of years, his income would be large if he could
get only led. fterling a day for his negroes (the lofs
made good), without requiring any thing for his land
or works.
ditto.
ditto.
ditto.
ditto.
ditto.
ditto.
ditto.
ditto.
ditto.
JAMBI, or Jambis, a fea-port town and fmall
kingdom of Afia, on the eaftern coaft of the iiland of
Sumatra. It is a trading place. The Dutch have a
fort here; and export pepper from thence, with the
beft fort of canes. E. Long. 103. 55. S. Lat. o. 30.
JAMBIA Vicus. See Yambo.
IAMBIC, in ancient poetry, a fort of verfe, fo
called from its cor.fifting either wholly, or in great
part, of iambus’s. See Iambus.
Ruddiman makes two kinds of iambic, viz. dimeter
and trimeter ; the former containing four feet, and the
latter fix. And as to the variety of their feet, they
N° 162.
con fill wholly of iambus’s, as in the two following vor-
fes of Horace :
1234 5 6
Dim. Inar\fit a\Jluo\fius\
Trim. Suis\ iff i\pfa Ro\ma vi\ribus\ruit.
Or, a dadtylus, fpondeus, anapeltus, and fometimes
tribrachys, obtain in the odd places; and the tri-
brachys alfo in the even places, excepting the laft.
Examples of all which may be feen in Horace ; as.
Dimeter.
1.2 3.4 5 6
Canieli\a tra\£lavit\dapes\
Vide\re prope\rantes domum\
Trimeter.
Quo qub\fcek\Jli rui\tis\aut\cur dex\teris.
Prius\que ca\lumin\ferius\mari.
Jlliti\bus at\que cant\bus hoini\cid' He\£lofvm-.
Pavidum\que lepo\r' aut ad\venam laqueo\gruem.
JAMBLICUS, the name of two celebrated Plato*
nie philofophers, one of whom was of Colchis, and the
other of Apamea in Syria. The firft., whom Julian
equals to Plato, was the difciple ol Anatolius and
Porphyry, and died under the reign of the emperor
Conftantine.—The fecond alfo enjoyed great reputa¬
tion. Julian wrote feveral letters to him, and it is
faid he was poifoned under the reign of Valens. It is
not known to which of the two we ought to attribute
the works we have in Greek under the name of Jam-
blicus, viz. 1. The hiftory of the life of Pythagoras,
and the feft of the Pythagoreans. 2. An exhortation
to the (ludy of philofophy. 3. A piece againft Por¬
phyry’s letter on the myfteries of the Egyptians.
JAMBOLIFERA, in botany: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the o&andria cl afs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The calyx is quadri-
dented ; the corolla tetrapetalous, and funnel-lhaped ;
the filaments a little plane ; the ftigma fimple.
IAMBUS,
JAM t J7 . 3 JAM
lamkis IAMBUS, in the Gteek and Latin profody, a
James, poetical foot, confifting of a fliort fyllable followed by
a long One ; as in
9fw s-t.ya, £)ci, meas.
Syllaba longa Irevi fuljeHa vacatur iambus, as Horace
exprefles it; who alfo calls the iambus a fwift, rapid
foot, pcs citus.
The word, according to feme, took its rife from
iambus, the fon of Pan and Echo, who invented this
foot; or, perhaps, who only ufed {harp-biting expref-
•fions to Ceres, when afllifted for the death of Profer-
’pine. Others rather derive it from the Greek ve-
netmm “ poifon or from malcdico “ I rail,
or revile becaufe the verfes compofcd of iambus’s
•were at firft only ufed in fatire.
JAMES (St.) called the Greater, the fon of Zebe-
idee, and the brother of John the evangelift, was born
at Bcthfaida, in Galilee. He was called to be an
apoftle, together with St John, as they were mending
their nets with their father Zebedee, who was a filher-
man ; when Chrift gave them the name of Boanerges^
or Sons of Thunder. They then followed Chrift, were
witneffes with St Peter of the transfiguration on mount
Tabor, and accompanied our Lord in the garden of
‘‘olives. It is believed that St James firft preached the
•gofpel to the difperfed Jews ; and afterwards returned
\o Judea, where he preached at Jerufalerr, when the
Jews raifed up Herod Agrippa againft him, who put
him to a cruel death about the year 44. Thus St
James was the firft of the apoftles who fuffered martyr¬
dom. St Clement of Alexandria relates, that his ac-
'cufcr was fo ftruck with his conftancy, that he became
converted and fuffered with him. There is a magni¬
ficent church at Jerufalem which bears the name of St
James, and belongs to the Armenians. The Spa¬
niards pretend, that they had St James for their a-
’pofile, and boaft of pofleffing his body ; but Baronius,
•in his Annals, refutes their pretenfions.
James (St.), called the Lefs, an apoflle, the brother
of Jude, and the fon of Cleophas and Mary the fifter
of the mother of our Lord, is called in Scripture the
JuJl, and the brother of Jefus, who appeared to him
in particular after his refurre&ion. He was the firft
hifhop of Jerufalem, when Ananias II. high prieft of
the Jews, caufed him to be condemned, and delivered
him into the hands of the people and the Pharifees,
who threw him down from the fteps of the temple,
■when a fuller dafhed out his brains with a club, about
the year 6a. His life was fo holy, that jofephus con-
fiders the ruin of -Jerufalem as a punifhment infli&ed
on that city for his death. He was the author of the
epiftle which bears his name.
St James of the Sword, (San Jago del EfpadaJ,
a military order in Spain, inftituted in i 170, under
the reign of Ferdinand II. king of Leon and Gallicia.
Its end was to put a ftop to the incurfions of the
Moors; three knights obliging themfelves by a vow to
fecure the roads. An union was propofed and agreed
to in n 70 between thefe and the canons of St Eloy ;
and the order was confirmed by the pope in 1175. The
higheft. dignity in that order is that of grand mafter,
■which lias been united to the crown of Spain. The
knights are obliged to make proof of their defeent from
families that have been noble for four generations on
both fides; they mull alfo make it appear, that their
Vox,. IX. Part I.
faid anceftors have neither been Jews, Saracens, nor
heretics ; nor even to have been called in queftion by the
inquifition. The novices are obliged to ferve fix months
in the galleys, and to live a month in amonaftery. Here¬
tofore they were truly religious, and took a Vow of celi¬
bacy ; but Alexander HI. gave them a permiffion to
marry. They now make no vows but of poverty, obe¬
dience, and conjugal fidelity ; to which, fince the year
1652, they have added that of defending the immacu¬
late conception of the holy Virgin. Their habit is a
white cloak, with a red crofs on the breaft. This is
efteemed the moft confiderable of all the military or¬
ders in Spain : the king carefully preferves the office
of grand mafter in his own family, on account of the
rich revenues and offices, whereof it gives him the dif
pofal. The number of knights is much greater now*
than formerly, all the grandees choofing rather to be
received into this than into the order of the golden
fleece ; inafmuch as this puts them in a fair way of at¬
taining to commands, and gives them many confider¬
able privileges in all the provinces of Spain, but efpe-
cially in Catalonia.
James, the name of feveral kings of Scotland
and of Great Britain. See {Hijlaries of) Scotland
and Britain.
James I. king of Scotland in 1425, the firft of the
houfe of Stuart, .was not only the moil learned king,
•but the moft learned man of the age in which he
flourilhed. This ingenipns and amiable prince fell in¬
to the hands of the enemies? of his country in his ten¬
der youth, when he was flying from the fnares of his
unnatural ambitious uncle, who governed his domi¬
nions, and was fufpefted of defigns againft Iris life.
Having fecretly embarked fijr France, the fhip was ta¬
ken by an Engliih privateer off Flamborough-head;
and the prince and his attendants (among whom was
the earl of Orkney) were confined in a neighbouring
caftle until they were fent to London. See (Hijlory of)
Scotland.
The king of England knew the value of the prize
he had obtained, and kept it with the moft anxious
care. The prince was conduced to the Tower of
London immediately after he was foized, April 12.
A. D. 1405, in the 13th year of his age ; and there
kept a clofe prifoner till June 10. A. D. 1407, when
he was removed to the caftle of Nottingham, from
whence he was brought back to the Tower, March 1.
A. D. 1414, and there confined till Auguft 3. in the
fame year, when he was conveyed to the caftle of
Windfor, where he was detained till the fummer of
A. D. 1417; when Henry V. for political reafons,
carried him with him into France in his fecond expe¬
dition. In all thefe fortrelfes, his confinement, from
his own account of it, was fo fevere and ftridl, that he
was not fo much as permitted to take the air. In this
melancholy fituation, fo unfuitable to his age and
rank, books were his chief companions, and ftudy his
greateft pleafure. He rofe early in the morning, im¬
mediately applied to reading, to divert him from pain¬
ful refleftions on his misfortunes, and continued his
ftudies, with little interruption, till late at night.
James being naturally fenfible, ingenious, and fond of
knowledge, and having received a good education in
his early youth, under the direction of Walter Ward-
law bifhop of St Andrew’s, by this clofe application
to ftudy, became an univerfal fcholar, an excellent
H poet.
J A M
C 58 ]
JAM
James, poet, and exquilite mufician. That he wrote as well life. In the monuments of his genius, he hath been James4
as read much, we have his own tellimony, and that of almoft equally unfortunate. No veftiges are now r
all our hiftorians who lived near his time. Bowma-
ker, the continuator of Fordun, who was his con-
maining of his Mil in architecture, gardening, and
painting ; though we are affured by one who was well
temporary, and perfonally acquainted with him, acquainted with him, that he excelled in all thefe arts
fpends ten chapters in his praifes, and in lamenta¬
tions on his death ; and, amongft other things, fays,
Many of the productions of his pen have alfo perilh-li,>’ l6‘ ,
ed ; for he tells us himfelf that he wrote much f ; and ^King's *
that his knowledge of the fcriptures, of law, and we know of only three of his poems that are now ex- Quc
philofophy, was incredible. HeCtor Boyfe tells , us,
that Henry IV. and V. furnithed their royal pri-
foner with the beft teachers in all the arts and fcien-
ces; and that, by their afliftance, he made great pro¬
ficiency in every part of learning and the line arts;
that he became a perfeCt mafter in grammar, rhetoric,
poetry, mufic, and all the fecrets of natural philofo¬
phy, and was inferior to none in divinity and law. He
©bferves further, that the poems he compofed in his
aative tongue were fo beautiful, that you might eafily
perceive he was born a poet ; but that his Latin
poems were not fo faultlefs ; for though they abounded
in the moft fublime fentiments, their langrfege was not
fo pure, owing to the rudenefs of the times in which
he lived. This prince’s fie ill in mufic was remarkable.
■Walter Bower abbot of Inch-colm, who was intimate¬
ly acquainted with that prince, affures us, that he ex¬
celled all mankind in that art both vocal and inftru-
mental; and that he played on eight different
tant, viz. Chrift’s Kirk on the Green—Peebles at the Cant0 1
Play—and the King’s Quair, which was lately difco* ftaiK r3*
vered by Mr Warton, and hath been publifhed by ano¬
ther gentleman J. But flender as thefe remains are, 1See PeeL
they afford fufficient evidence, that the genius of th\scaj~ema,%
royal poet was not inferior to that of any of his con-
temporaries; and that it was equally fitted for the and War-1
gayeft or the graveft ftrains. ton’s
James II. king of Scotland, 1457, fucceeded biSp0^vol,|
father, being then not feven years of age ; and was^
killed at the fiege of Roxburgh in 1460, aged 29.
James III. king of Scotland, fucceeded his father,
in 1460, in the 7th year of his age. The moll ftriking
feature in the character of this prince, unjuftly repre-
fented as tyrannical by feveral hiftorians, was his fond-
nefs for the fine arts, and for thofe who excelled in
them, on whom he beftowed more of his company,
confidence, and favour, than became a king in his
circumftances. This excited in his fierce and haugh-
ftruments (which he names), and efpecially on the ty nobles diflike and contempt of their fovereign, and
harp, with fuch exquifite fkill, that he feemed to be
* Seethren. infpired *. King James was not only an excellent
Hi. performer, but alfo a capital compofer, both of facred
9.48. and fecular mufic; and his fame on that account was
extenfive, and of long duration. Above a century af¬
ter his death, he was celebrated in Italy as the inven¬
tor of a new and pleafing kind of melody, which had
been admired and imitated in that country. This
appears from the following teftimony of Aleffandro
Tafibni, a w'riter who was well informed, and of un¬
doubted credit. “ We may reckon among us mo¬
derns, James king of Scotland, who not only compo¬
fed many facred pieces of vocal mufic, but alfo of him-
indignation againft the objefts of his favour^; which
produced the moft; pernicious confequences, and ended
in a rebellion that proved fatal to James, who was flain
in 1488, aged 36.
James IV. king of Scotland, fucceeded his father
in 1488. He was a pious and valiant prince ; fub-
dued his rebellious fubjefts ; and afterwards, taking
part with Louis XII. againft Henry VIII. of Eng¬
land, he was flain in the battle of Flouden-Field in
1513, aged 41.—This king is acknowledged to have
had great accomplilhments both of mind and body.
His Latin epiftles are claffical, compared with the bar¬
barous ftyle of the foreign princes with whom he cor-
felf invented a new kind of mufic, plaintive and melan- refponded. Like his father, he had a tafte for the fine
choly, different from all other ; in which he hath been arts, particularly that of fculpture. The attention
'mitated by Carlo Gefualdo prince of Venofa, who, in he paid to the civilization of his people, and his diltri-
our age, hath improved mufic with new and admi
table inventions. ”f As the prince of Venofa imitated
bution of juftice, merit the higheft praife. After all,.
the virtues of James appear to have been more fliining
^TaJJ^Pen- king James, the other muficians of Italy imitated the than folid ; and his charadler was that of a fine gentle-
"Hb. 10.Sir ’
John Haw-
kin’s, vo). 4.
P.5,6.
J Id. vol. 3.
jp. a 13.
.prince of Venofa. “ The moft noble Carlo Gefual¬
do, the prince of muficians of our age, introduced fuch
a ftyle of modulation, that other muficians yielded the
preference to him ; and all fingers and players on _ u
ftringed inftruments, laying afide that of others, every fome, vigorous, and active,
where embraced his J. All the lovers, therefore, of not appear, that either he,
Italian or of Scotch mufic, are much indebted to the
admirable genius of king James I. who, in the gloom
-and folitude of a prifon, invented a new kind of mufic,
plaintive indeed, and.fuited to his fituation, but at the
fame time fo fweet and fopthing, that it hath given
pleafure to millions in every fucceeding age.
As James I. of Scotland was one of the moft ac-
complilhed princes that ever filled a throne, he was
alfo one of the moft unfortunate. After fpending al-
moft 20 years in captivity, and encountering many
difficulties on his return into his native kingdom, he
man and a brave knight, rather than a wife or a great
monarch. At the time of his death, he was only in
his forty-firft year. Like all the princes of his family (to
his great grandfon James VI-) his perfon was hand-
From their coins it does
• any of his predeceflbrs
of the Stuart race, wore their beards, as did all hi».
fuccefibrs, to the reign of Charles II.
James V. king of Scotland, in 1513, was bnt 18
months old when his father loft his life. When of age,
he affifted Francis I. king of France againft the em¬
peror Charles le Quint; for which fervice Francis gave
him his eldeft daughter in marriage, in 1535, This
princefs died in two years ; and James married Mary of
Lorraine, daughter of Claud duke of Guife, and wi¬
dow of Louis d’Orleans, by whom he had only one
child, the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, born on-
was murdered by barbarous affaffins in the prime of ly eight days before his death, which happened De
3. cembev
JAM [ 59 ] JAM
James, eember 13. 1542, in the 35th year of his age. This
 1 was the firft prince of his family who died a natural
death, fince its elevation to the throne. He died,
m however, of a broken heart, occafioned by differences
with his barons. He was formed by nature to be the
ornament of a throne and a blefling to his people ; but
his excellent endowments were rendered in a great
meafure ineffeftual by an improper education. Like
moft of his predeceffors, he was born with a vigorous,
graceful perfon, which, in the early part of his reign,
was improved by all the manly exercifes then in ufe.
This prince was the author of a humourous compofx-
tion in poetry, whiclvgoes by the name of the Gaber-
lun’z.te Man*
James VI. king of Scotland in 1567, and of Eng¬
land in 1603, was fonof Mary queen of Scots; whomhe
fucceeded in Scotland, as he did Elizabeth in England.
Strongly attached to the Proteftant religion, he figna-
lized himfelf in its fupport; which gave rife to the
horrid confpiracy of the Papifts to dellroy him and
all the Englifh nobility by the Gunpowder Plot, dif
covered November 5. J605. The following year, a
political left of loyalty was required, which fecured
■ the king’s perfon, by clearing the kingdom of thofe
difaffeded Roman-Catholic fubjeds who would not
fubmit to it. The chief glory of this king’s reign con-
hfted in the eftablifhment of new colonies, and the
introdudion of fome manufadures. The nation enjoy¬
ed peace, and commerce flourifhed during his reign.
Yet his adminiftration was defpifed both at home and
abroad : for, being the head of the Proteflant caufe in
Europe, he did not fupport it in that great crifrs, the
war of Bohemia ; abandoning his fon-in-law the eledor
Palatine ; negotiating when he fhould have fought,
deceived at the fame time by the courts of Vienna and
Madrid 5 continually fending illuftrious ambaifadors to
foreign powers, but never making a Angle ally. He
valued himfelf much upon his polemical writings ; and
fo fond was he of theological difputations, that to
keep them alive, he founded, for this exprefs purpofe,
Chelfea-college ; which was converted to a much bet¬
ter ufe by Charles II. His Bafilicon Doron, Com¬
mentary on the Revelation, writings againft Bellar-
mine, and his Damonologia, or dodrine of witchcraft,
are fufficiently known. There is a colledion of his
writings and fpeeches in one folio volume. Several
other pieces of his are extant; fome of them in the
Caballa, others in manufcnpt in the Britifh Mufeum,
and others in Howard’s colledion. He died in 1625,
in the 59th year of his age, and 23d of his reign.
James II. king of England, Scotland, &c. 1685,
grandfon of James I. fuccteded his brother Char. II.
It is remarkable, that this prince wanted neither cou¬
rage nor political abilities whilil he was duke of York ;
on the contrary, he was eminent for both : but when
he afcended the throne, he was no longer the fame
man. A bigot from his infancy to the Romilh reli¬
gion and to its hierarchy, he facrificed every thing to
eflablifh them, in dired contradidion to the experi¬
ence he had acquired, during the long reign of his
brother, of the genius and charader of the people he
was to govern. Guided by the Jefuit Peters his con-
feffor, and the infamous chancellor Jeffries, he violated
every law enaded for the fecurity of the Proteftant re¬
ligion ; and then, unable to face the refentment of his
injured fubjeds, he fled like a coward, inftead of dif- Jatfies.
arming their rage by a difmiffion of his Popilh mini- -v—
fters and priefts. He rather chofe to live and die a bi¬
got, or, as he believed, a faint, than to fupport the
dignity of his anceftors, or perifh beneath the ruins of
his throne. The confequence was the revolution in
1689. James IL died in France in 1710, aged 68.
He wrote Memoirs of his own life and campaigns to
the reftoration; the original of which is preferved in
the Scotch college at Paris. This piece is printed at
the end of Ramfay’s life of Marihal Turenne. 2. Me¬
moirs of the Englilh affairs, chiefly naval, from the
year 1660 to 1673. 3- The ro>'al fufferer, king
James II. confiding of meditations, foliloquies, vows,
&c. faid to be compofed by his majefty at St Ger¬
mains. 4. Three letters ; which were publilhcd by
William Fuller, gent, in 1702, with other papers re¬
lating to the court of St Germains, and are faid in the
title-page to be printed by command.
James (Thomas), a learned Englifli critic and di¬
vine, born about the year 1571. He recommended
himfelf to the office of keeper of the public library at
Oxford, by the arduous undertaking of publiihing a
catalogue of the MSS in each college library at both
univerfities. He was ele&ed to this office in 1602,
and held it 18 years, when he refigned it to profecute
his (Indies with more freedom. In the convocation
held with the parliament at Oxford in 1625, of which
he was a member, he moved to have proper commif-
fioners appointed to collate the MSS of the fathers in
all the libraries in England, with the Popiflt editions,
in order to deteft the forgeries in the latter ; but this
propofal not meeting with the defired encouragement,
he engaged in. the laborious talk himfelf, which he
continued until his death in 1629. He left behind
him a great number of learned works.
James (Richard), nephew of the former, entered
into orders in 1615 : but, being a man of humour, of
three fermons preached before the univcrfity, one con¬
cerning the obfervation of Lent was without a text,
according to the moft ancient manner; another againft
the text; and the third befide it. About the year
1619, he travelled through Wales, Scotland, Shet¬
land, into Greenland and Ruffia, of which he wrote
obfervations. He affifted Selden in compofing his
Marmora Arunddiana; and was very ferviceable to
Sir Robert Cotton, and his fon Sir Thomas, in dif-
pofing and fettling their noble library. He died in
1638 ; and has an extraordinary chara&er given him
by Wood for learning and abilities.
James (Dr Robert), an Engliftr phyfician of great
eminence, and particularly diftinguifhed by the prepa¬
ration of a moft excellent fever-powder, was born at
Kinverfton in Staffordffiire, A. D. 1703 : his father a
major in the army, his mother a filter of Sir Robert
Clarke. He was of St Jbhn’s-college in Oxford,
where he took the degree of A. B. and afterwards
pradtifed phyfic at Sheffield, Lichfield, and Birming¬
ham fucceffively. Then he removed to London, and
became a licentiate in the college of phyficians; but in
what years we cannot fay. At London he applied
himlelf to writing as well as praftifing phyfic ; and in
1743, publifhed a Medicinal Didtionary, 3 vols folio.
Soon after he publiflied an Engliftr tranflation, with a
Supplement by himfdf, of Ramazzini de morbis artifi-
1
JAM f 60 ] JAM
James'* cum; to wHich he alfo prefixed a piece of Frederic
Powder. ^ Hoffman upon Endemial Dillempers, 8vo. In 1746,
* The Praftice of Phyfic, 2 vols 8vo; in 1760, On Ca¬
nine Madnefs, 8vo; in 1764, A Difpenfatory, 8vo.
June 2J. 1755* when the king was at Cambridge,
James was admitted by mandamus to the do&orfhip
of phyfic. In 1778, were publifhed, A Differtation
upon Fevers, and A Vindication of the Fever-Powder,
8vo; with A fhort Treatife on the Diforders of Chil¬
dren, and a very good print of Dr James. This was
the 8th edition of the Differtation, of which the firfl
was printed in 17515 and the purpofe of it was, to
fet forth the fuccefs of this powder, as well as to de-
fcribe more particularly the manner of adminiftering
it. The Vindication was pofthuraous and unfiniihed:
for he died March 23. 1776, while he was employed
upon it.— Dr James was married, and left feveral fons
and daughters.
James's Powder, a medicine prepared by the late Dr
Robert James, of which the bafishas been long known
to chemifts, though the particular receipt for making
it lay concealed in Chancery till made public by Dr
f Vol. I. Monro in his Medical and Pharmaceutical Chemijlry {-.
J>. 366* The following (Dr Monro informs us) is a copy of the
receipt, extracted from the Records of Chancery ; the
inventor, when he took out a patent for felling his pow¬
der, having fworn, in the mod folemn manner, that
it was the true and genuine receipt for preparing it:
‘ Take antimony, calcine it with a continued pro-
trafted heat, in a flat, unglazed,earthen veffel, add¬
ing to it from time to time a fufficient quantity of
any animal oil and fait, well dephlegmated ; then
boil it in melted nitre for a coniiderable time, and
feparate the powder from the nitre, by diffolving
it in water.’
This extraft Dr Monro accompanies with the fol¬
lowing obfervations. “ When the Doftor firlt admi-
niftered his powder, he ufed to join one grain of the
following mercurial preparation to thirty grains of his
antimonial powder ; but in the latter part of his life
Le often declared that he had long laid aiide the addi¬
tion of the mercurial. His mercurial, which he called
a pill, appears by the records of chancery to have
been made in the following manner: ‘ Purify quickiilver,
by diftilling it nine times from an amalgam, made with
martial regains of antimony, and a proportional quan¬
tity of fal ammoniac ; diffolve this purified quicklilver
ta fpirit of nitre, evaporate to drynefs, calcine the
powder till it becomes of a gold colour ; burn fpirits
of wine upon it, and keep it for ufe.’ Dr James, at
the end of the receipt given into chancery, fays, ‘ The
dofe of thefe medicines is uncertain ; but in general
thirty grains of the antimonial and one grain of the
mercurial is a moderate dofe. Signed and fworn to,
by Robert James.’
“ I have frequently direffed this powder to be gi¬
ven, and have often feen Dr James himfelf as well as
other praftitioners adrainifter it, in fevers and in other
complaints. Like other aftive preparations of anti¬
mony, it fometimes operates with great violence, even
when given in fmall dofes ; at other times a large dofe
produces very little vifible effe&s. I have feen three
grains operate briikly, both upwards and downwards ;
and I was once called to a patient to whom Dr James
had himfelf given five grains of it, and it purged and
vomited theTady for twenty-four hours, and in that James’s 1
time gave her between twenty and thirty flools ; at o- ^owj'ler ^
ther times I have feen a. fcruple produce little or no Tameibne. L
vifible effect. j
“ So far as I have obferved,. I think that the dofe
of this powder to an adult, is from five to twenty
grains ; and that, when it is adminiflered, one ought
to begin by giving fmall dofes.
“ Where patients are ftrong, and a free evacuation
is wanted, this is a ufeful remedy tand it may be given
in fmall repeated dofes as an alterative itv many cafes j
but where patients are weakly and in, low fevers, it of¬
ten a&s with too great violence ; and I have myfelf
feen inilances, and have heard of others from other
pra&itioners, where patients have been hurried to their
graves by the ufe of this powder in a very fhort.
time.
“ It has been called Dr James’s Fever-Powder ; and
many have believed it to be a certain remedy for fe¬
vers, and that Dr James had cured molt of the patients
whom he attended, and who recovered, by the ufe of
this powder. But the bark, and not the antimonial-
powder, was the remedy which Dr James almoft al¬
ways trufted to for the cure of fevers : he gave his
powders only to clear che ftomach and bowels ; and
after he had effected that, he poured in the bark as
freely as the patient could fwallow it. The Dodtor
believed all fevers to be more or lefs of the intermit¬
ting kind; and that if there was a poffibility of curing,
a fever, the bark was the remedy to effectuate the
cure ; for if the fever did not yield to that, he
was fure that it wouli yield to no other remedy what¬
ever, as he has more than once declared to me when
I have attended patients in fevers along with him.”
James Town, a borough and fair-town of Ireland,
in the county of Leitrim, and province of Connaught ;
fituated 5 miles north-weft of Carrick, on Shannon,
and 73 north-weft of Dublin, in north lat. 53. 44. weft
long. 8. 15. It has a barrack for a company of foot,,
and returns two members to parliament; patronage in
the family of King.—It has three fairs.
St James Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,,
obferved on the 25th of July, in honour of St James
the greater, fon of Zebedee.
Epijlle of St James, a canonical book of the New
Teftament, being the firft of the catholic or general
epiflles ; which are fo called, as not being written to
one but to feveral Chriftian churches.
This general epiftle is addreffed partly to the belie¬
ving and partly to the infidel Jews ; and is defigned to-
corredl the errors, foften the ungoverned zeal, and re¬
form the indecent behaviour of the latter ; and to com¬
fort the former under the great hardihips they then
did, or fhortly were to fuffer, for the fake of Chrif-
tianity.
JAMESONE (George), an excellent painter, juft-
ly termed the Vandyck of Scotland, was the Con of An¬
drew Jamefone, an architect; and was born at Aber¬
deen, in 1586. He ftudied under Rubens, at Ant¬
werp ; and, after his return, applied with indefati¬
gable induftry to portraits in oil, though he fometimes ,
pra&ifed in miniature, and alfo in hiftory and land-
fcapes. His largeft portraits were fo me what lefs than
life. His earlieft works are chiefly on board, after¬
wards oa a fine linca cloth fxaoothly primed with a
prow*
JAN
JaiByn, proper tone to help the harmony of his fhadows. His
, excellence is faid to confiil in delicacy and foftnefs,
with a clear and beautiful colouring; his (hades not
charged, but helped by varnifh, with little appearance
pf the pencil. When king Charles I. vifited Scotland
in 1633, the magiltrates of Edinburgh, knowing his
majeily’s tafte, employed this artilt to make drawings
of the Scottifh monarchs; with which the king was
fo pleafed, that, inquiring for the painter, he fat to
him, and rewarded him with a diamond-ring from his
own finger. It is obfervable, that Jamefone always
drew himfelf with his hat on, either in imitation of
hi$ mafter Rubens, or on having been indulged in that
Liberty by the king when he fat to him. Many of
Jamefone’s works are in both the colleges of Aber¬
deen ; and the Sybils there he is faid to have drawn
from living beauties in that city. His bell works are
from the year 1630 to bis death, which happened at
Edinburgh in 1644.
JAMYN (Amadis), a celebrated French poet in
the 16th century. He is eileemed the rival of Ron-
fard, who was his cotempurary and friend. He was
k cretary and chamber-reader in ordinary to Char. IX.
and died about if&y. He wrote, 1. Poetical works,
7 vols. 2. Philofophical difeoutfes to Paficharis and
Rodantbe, with feven academical dilbourfes. 3. A
tranflation of the Iliad of Homer, begun by Hugh
Sabel, and finiflied by Jamyn ; with a tranflation into
French verfe of the three firll books of the Odyffey.
JANE o/Tla.mders, a remarkable lady, who feems
to have pofl'efled in her own perfon all the excellent qua¬
lities of both fexes,. was the wife of John de Mountfort,
a competitor for the dukedom of Brittany upon the
death of John III. This duke, dying without iffue,
left his dominions to his niece Jane, married to Charles
de Blois nephew to the king of France; but John de
Mountfort, brother to the late duke though ly a fecond
marriage, claimed the duchy, and was received as fuc-
pdTor by the people of Nantes. The greateft part of
the nobility fwore fealty to Charles de Blois, thinking
him bed fupported. This difpute occafioned a civil
war ; in the courfe of which John was taken prifoner,
and fentto Paris. This misfortune would have entire¬
ly ruined his party, had not his intereft been fupport¬
ed by the extraordinary abilities of his wife, Jane of
Flanders. Bold, daring, and intrepid, fhe fought like
a warrior in the field; fhrewd, fenfible, and fagacious,
fhe fpoke like a politician in the council ; and endow¬
ed with the moll amiable manners, and winning addrefs,
fhe was able to move the minds of her fubjefts by the
force of her eloquence, and mould them exactly accord¬
ing to her pleafure. She happened to be at Rennca
when fhe received the news of her hufband’s captivity;
but that difafler, inftead of depreffing her fpirits, ferved
only to roufe her native courage and fortitude. She
forthwith affembled the citizens ; and, holding in her
arms her infant fon, recommended him to their care
andprote&ion in the moft pathetic terms, as the male
heir of their ancient dukes, who had always governed
them with lenity and indulgence, and to whom they
had ever profefled the moll zealous attachment. She
declared herfelf willing to run all hazards with them in
fo juft a caufe; pointed out the refources that flill re¬
mained in the alliance of England ; earneftly befeech-
ing them to make one vigorous effort agalnft an ufur-
JAN
per, who being forced upon them by the intrigues of J-m*
France, would, as a mark of his gratitude, facrifice the .V
liberties of Brittany to his prote&or. The people, Jlnu^rie*'
moved by the affeftiug appearance, and animated by
the noble coudu6l of tfic princefs, vowed to live and die
with her in defending the rights of her family ; and
their example was followed by almoft all the Bretons.
The conntefs went from place to place, encouraging
the garrifons of the feveral fortreffes, and providing
them with every thing neceffary for their fobliilence ;
after which (lie (hut herfelf up with her fon in Hennc-
bon, where (he refolved to wait for the fuccours which
the king of England (Edward III.) had promiied to
fend to her afliilance. Charles de Blois, accompanied
by the Dukes pf Burgundy and Bourbon, and many
other nrblemen, took the field with a numerous army,
and having reduced Rennes, laid fiege to Hennebon,
which was defended by the couutefs in perfon. This
heroine repulfed the affailants in all their attacks with
the moll undaunted courage, and obferving one day
that their whole army had left the camp to join in a
general dorm, (he ruftied forth at a poilern-gate, with
three hundred horfe, fet fire to their tents and baggage,
killed their futlers and fervants, and raifed fuch a ter¬
ror and confternation through all their quarters, that the
enemy gave over their affault, and getting betwixt her
and the walls, endeavoured to cut off her retreat to
the city. Thus intercepted, (he put the fpurs to her
horfe, and, without halting, galloped diredly to Breft,
which lay at thediftance of two-and twenty miles from'
the feeae of a&ion. There being fupplied with a bo¬
dy of five hundred horfe, (lie immediately returned,
and fighting her way through one part of the French
camp, was received into Hennebon, amidft the accla¬
mations of the people. Soon after this the Englifli
fuccours appeared, and obliged the enemy to raife the
fiege.
JANEIRO, a province of Brafil in South Ameri¬
ca, feated between the tropic of Capricorn and 220
of S’. Lat. It is bounded on the north by the province
of Spirito San&o, on the call and fouth by the At¬
lantic Ocean, and on the weft by the mountains which
feparate it from Guiara, in Spanifh America. This is
the moft valuable province which the Portuguefe are
mailers of; for they import from thence yearly great
quantities of gold and precious ftones, which they find
in the mountains, to a prodigious value.
JANICULUM, or Janicularis, a hill of ancient
Rome, added by Ancus Martius; the burial-place of
Noma, and of Statius Csecilius the poet: to the eaft and
fouth, having the Tiber ; to the weft, the fields; to the
north, a part of the Vatican. So called, either from
an ancient city, (Virgil) ; or becaufe it was a janua,
or gate, from which to iffue out and make incurliona
on the Tufcans, (Verrius Flaccus.) Now called Mans
Aureut corruptly Mont onus, from its fparkling fands.
From this hill, on account of its height, is the moft
extenfive profpeil of Rome : but it is lefs inhabited,
becaufe of its grofs air ; neither is it reckoned among
the feven hills. Hither the people retired, and were
hence afterwards recalled by Hortenfias the di&a-
tor, (Pliny.)
JANIZARIES, an order of infantry in the Turkifla a
armies; reputed the grand feignior’s foot guards.
Vo thus derives the word ft am genizers, which in the
Turkifc
t 6l ]
JAN f 64 1 JAN
Turk ifh language; figriifies rwvi homines or mi Ikes, third of janizaries ; who are a kind of correftors and Janfcn,
D’ Herbelot tells us, that jeuitcberi fignifies a new bank, revifors of the pope’s bulls. Janfenitls.
or troop; and that the name was firft given by Amu- JANSEN (Cornelius), bilhop of Ypres, one of the V
rath I. called the Conqueror, who chobfing out one fifth moft learned divines of the 17th century, and princi-
part of the Chriftian prifoners whom he had taken pal of the fe& called from his name JanfeniJls. He
from the Greeks, and inftru&ing them in the difcipline was born in Holland of Catholic parents, and (ludied
of war and the do&rinesof their religion, fent them to at Louvain. Being fent to tranfadl fome bufinefs of
Hagi Bektafche (a perfonwhofe ptetended piety render- confequence relating to the univerfity, into Spain,; the
ed him extremely revered among the Turks), to the Catholic king, viewing with a jealous eye the intriguing
end that he might confer his bleffing on them, and at policy of France, engaged him to write a book to
the fame time give them fome mark to diftinguifh them expofe the French to the pope as no good Catholics,
from the reft of the troops.—Bektafche, after blefiing fince they made no fcruple of forming alliances with
them in his manner. Cut off one of the fleeves of the Proteftant Hates. Janfen performed this talk in his
fur-gown which he had on, and put it on the head of Mars Gallicus ; and was rewarded with a mitre, being
the leader of this new rtiilitia ; from which time, viz. promoted to the fee of Ypres in 1635. He had, a*
’the year of Chrift 1361, they have Hill retained the mong other writings, before this, maintained a con-
name jenitchert, and the fur-cap. tnverfy againft the Proteftants upon the points of
As, in the Turkifh army, the European troops are grace and predeftination 5 but his Augujlinus was the
diftinguifhed from thofe of Afia; the janizaries are al- principal labour of his life, on which he fpent above 20
fo diftinguifhed into jdnizarks of Conjiantmople, and of years. See the next article.
Damafcus. Their pay is from two afpers to twelve JANSENISTS, in church-hiftory, a feft of the
per diem ; for when they have a child, or do any fig- Roman Catholics in France, who followed the opinions
nal piece of fervice, their pay is augmented.—Their of Janfenius, bifhop of Ypres, and dodtor of divinity
drefs confifts of a dolyman, or long gown, with fhort of the univerfitieS of Louvain and Douay, in rdation
fleeves, which is given them annually by the grand to grace and predeftination.
feignior on the firft day of Ramazan. They wear no In the year 1640, the two oniverfities juft mentlon-
turbeau ; but, in lieu of that, a kind of cap, which ed, and particularly father Molina and father Leonard
they call %arcola, and a long hood ©f the fame fluff Celfus, thought fit to condemn the opinions of the Je-
hanging on their (boulders. On folemn days they are fuits on grace and free-will. This having fet the con-
adorned with feathers, which are ftuck in a little cafe troverfy on foot, Janfenius oppofed to the dodtrine of
on the fore-part of the bonnet.—Their arms,in Europe, the Jefuits the fentiments of St Auguftine; and wrote
in time of war, are a fabre, a carabine or mu(ket, a treatife on grace, which he intitled Augujlinus.
and a cartouch-box hanging on the left fide. At Con- This treatife was attacked by the Jefuits, who accufed
ftantinople, in time of peace, they wear only a long Janfenius of maintaining dangerous and heretical opU
ftaff in their hand. In Afia, where powder and fire- nions ; and afterwards, in 1642, obtained of pope Un¬
arms are more uncommon, they wear a bow and ar- ban VIII. a formal condemnation of the treatife wrote
rows, with a poingard, which they call haniare.— by Janfenius: when the partifans of Janfenius gave
Though the janizaries are not prohibited marriage, out that this bull was fpurious, and compofed by a per-.
yet they rarely marry, nor then but with the confent fon entirely devoted to the Jefuits. After the death
of their officers ; as imagining a married man to make of Urban VIII, the affair of Janfenifm began to be
a worfe foldier than a bachelor.—It was Ofman, or more warmly controverted, and gave birth to an infi-
'Ottoman, or, as others will have it, Amurath, who nite number of polemical writings concerning graced
firft inftituted the order of janizaries. They were at And what occafioned fome mirth, was the titles which
firft called jaja, that is, footmen, to diftingiiiftt them each party gave to their writings: one writer publilh-
from the other Turks, the troops whereof confided ed The torch of St Augujline, another found Snujferi
moftly of cavalry. The number of janizaries is gene- for St Augufline’s torch, and father Veron formed A gag
rally above 40,000; divided into 162 companies or for the JanfeniJls, &c. In the year 1650, 68 bifhops
chambers called odas, in which they live together at of France fubfcribed a letter to pope Innocent X. to
Conftantinople as in a convent. They are of a fupe- obtain an inquiry into and condemnation of the five
rior rank to all other foldiers, and are alfo more arro- following propofitions, extra6ted from Janfenius’s Au-
gant and factious, and it is by them that the public guftinus; 1. Some of God’s commandments are im-
tranquillity is moftly difturbed. The government may poffible to be obferved by the righteous, even though
therefore be faid to be in the hands of the janizaries, they endeavour with all their power to accomplilh
They have, however, fome good qualities : they are them. 2. In the ftate of corrupted nature, we are in-
employed to efcort travellers, and efpecially ambaf- capable of refifting inward grace 3. Merit and de-
fadors and perfons of high rank, on the road ; in which merit, in a ftate of corrupted nature, does not depend
cafe, they behave with the utmoft zeal and fidelity. on a liberty which excludes neceffity, but on a liberty
Janizaries, at Rome, are officers or penfioners of which excludes eonftraint. 4. The Semipelagians ad-'
the pope, called alfo participantes, on account of certain mitted the neceffity of an inward preventing grace for
rites or duties which they enjoy in the annates, bulls, the performance of each particular ad, even for the
or expeditions, and the Roman chancery.—Moft beginning of faith; but they were heretics in main*
authors are miftaken in the nature of their office : taining that this grace was of fuch a nature, that the
'the truth is, they are officers of the third bench or will of man was able either to refift or obey it. It is
college of the Roman chancery. The firft bench Semipelagianifm to fay, that Jefus Chrift died, or (hed
confifts of writers, the fecond of abbrcviators, and the his blood, for all mankind in general.
In
J A N
[ 63 ]
J A N
JanfFens. In the year 1652, the pope appointed a congrega- Janflens compofcd hiftorical fubje&s, both in a fniall Jaflffens,
1 1 tion for examining into the difpute in relation to grace, and a large fize ; but he found the demand for his Januar*us
In this congregation Janfenius was condemned ; and fmall pidlures fo confiderable, that he was induced to v '
the bull of condemnation, publifhed in May 1653, fill- paint mofi frequently in that fize. During 11 years
ed all the pulpits in Paris with violent outcries and he continued at Rome, which barely fufficed for his
alarms againft the herefy of the Janfenifts. In the year
1656, pope Alexander VII. iffued out another bull,
in which he condemned the five propofitions of Janfe-
finifhing thofe pictures for which he was engaged ;
could he have been even then at his liberty, had he not
limited himfelf to a number, and determined not to v
thus. However, the Janfenifts affirm, that thefe pro- dertakemore.—Returning to Bnffftls,.his performances
pofitions are not to be found in this book ; but that were as much admired there as they had before been
fome of his enemies having caufed them to be printed in Italy ; but having married, and gradually become
on a ffieet, inferted them in the book, and thereby de- the father of 11 children, he was compelled to change
ceived the pope. At laft Clement XL put an end to the his manner of painting in fmall, and to undertake on-
difpute by his conftitution of July 17. 1.705; in which, ly thofe of the large kind, as being more lucrative,
after having recited the conftitutions of his predecef- more expeditious, and alfo more agreeable to his ge-
r.._„ ; j—1—— «’T’u,.. nius and inclination. He adorned moft of the churches-
and palaces of his own country with his compofitions.
—The invention of this artift was fruitful; he defign-
fors in relation to this affair, he declares, “ That
order to pay a proper obedience to the papal conftitu¬
tions concerning the prefent queftion, it is neceffary to
receive them with a refpe&ful filence.” The clergy of ed corre&ly, his colouring is natural and pleafing, hiV
Paris, the fame year, approved and accepted this bull,
and none dared to oppofe it.
This is the famous bull Unigenitus, fo called from
pencil free, and the airs of his heads have beauty and
elegance. As to the difference between his large and
fmall paintings, it is obferved,. that in correftnefs and.
its beginning with the words Unigenitus Dei Filmst tafte they had an equal degree of merit; but the c
&c. which has occafioned fo much confufion in louring of the former appears more raw and cold than
France. the colouring of the latter and it is agreed, that for
JANSSENS(Abraham),hiftory-painter, was born at fmall hiftorical pidfures, he was preferable to all the
Antwerp in 1569. He was cotemporary with Rubens, painters of his time,
and alfo his competitor, and in many of the fineft parts
of the art was accounted not inferior to that celebrated
mailer. It is reported, that having wafted his time
Janssen (Cornelius), called Johnfon, an eminent
painter of portraits, was born at Amfterdam (though
in the Chronological tables, and in Sandrart, it is inl¬
and his fubftance by a life of diffipacion and pleafure, properly afferted, that he was born in London), and-
and falling into neceffitous circumftances, which he he refided in England for feveral years ; where he was
imputed more to ill fortune than to his own negledt of engaged in the fervice of king James I. and painted
his bufinefs, he grew envious at the grandeur fh which
Rubens appeared, and impatient at his merit and fuc-
cefs; and with peevifh infolence challenged him to
feveral excellent portraits of that monarch, as alfo of
his children and of the principal nobility of his court.
He had not the freedom of hand, nor the grace of
paint a pidture with him only for fame, which he was Vandyck ; but in other refpedls he was accounted his
willing to fubmit to impartial judges. But Rubens equal, and in the finifhing his pictures fuperior. His
rejedted the propofal, anfwering with modefty, that he paintings areeafily diftinguifhed by their fmooth, clear.
freely fubmitted to him, and the world would certain¬
ly do juftice to them both.
Sandrart, who had feen feveral of his works, allures
and delicate tints, and by that charadler of truth and
nature with which they are ftrongly marked. He ge¬
nerally painted on board ; and, for the moft part, his
us, that he not only gave a fine roundnefs and relief draperies are black ; probably becaufe the opposition
to his figures, but alfo fuch a warmth and clearnefs to of that tint made his flefh colours appear more beauti-
the carnations, that they had all the look of real flefh; fully bright, efpecially in his female figures. It is faid
and his colouring was as durable as it was beautiful, that he ufed a quantity of ultra marine in the black
retaining its original luftre for a number of years. His colours, as well as in his carnations; which may be
moft capital performance is faid to be a refurreftion of one great caufe of their preferving. their original luftre
Lazarus, which is in the cabinet of the ele&or Pala- even, to this day. Frequently he painted in a fmall fize
tine, and is an obje£ of admiration to all who behold in oil, and often copied his own works in that man-
k. ner. His fame began to be fomewhat obfcured, on the
Janssens (Vidlor Honorius), hiftory-painter, was arrival of Vandyck in England ; and the civil war
born at Bruflels in 1664, an<^ was a difciple of one breaking out fome time after, induced him to return-
Volders, under whofe dire&ion he continued for feven to his own country, where his paintings were in the
years; in which time he gave many proofs of a geni- higheft efteem. He died in 1685.
us far fuperior to thofe who were inftrufted in the
fame fchwol. He afterwards went to Rome, where
he attended particularly to the works of Raphael; he
St JANUAR1US, the patron-faint of Naples,
where his head is occafionally carried in proceffion, in
order to flay the eruption of Vefuvius. The lique-
defigned after the antiques, and fketched the beauti- faction of his blood is a famous miracle at Naples,
ful fcenes around that city; and in a fhort time his The faint fuffered martyrdom about the end of the
paintings rofe in efteem, and the principal nobility of third century. When he was beheaded, a pious lady
Rome were defirous to employ him. He affociated . of Naples caught about an ounce of his blood, which
with Tempefta, the celebrated landfcape painter, for has been carefully preferved in a bottle, ever fince,
feveral years, and painted the figures in the works of without having loft a Angle grain of its weight. This ■
that great mafter as long as they refided together, of itfelf, were it equally demonftrable, might be coa-
jhfcrfC:-
JAN t 64 ] JAN
'J^niiarhis fidertd as a greater miracle than the circumftance on
January. ^ wycj! tjie Neapolitans lay the whole ftrefs, viz. that
v the blood which has congealed, and acquired a folid
form by age, is no fooner brought near the head of
the faint, than, as a mark of veneration, it immediate¬
ly liquefies. This experiment is made three different
times every year, and is confidered by the Neapoli¬
tans as a miracle of the firft magnitude.
The fubftance in the bottle, which fs exhibited for
the blood of the faint, has been fuppofed to be fome-
thing naturally folid, but -which melts with a fmall
degree of heat. When it is firft brought out of the
cold chapel, it is in its natural folid ftate ; but when
brought before the faint by the pried, and rubbed be¬
tween his warm hands, and breathed upon for fome
time, it melts; and this is the whole my fiery. But
Dr Moore *, though he confefles himfelf unable to ex-
•P-179 U’ plain on what principle the liquefaction depends, is
convinced that it muft be fofnething different from
this : “ For he had it (he informs us) from the moft
fatisfaftory authority, from thofe who had opportuni¬
ties of knowing, and who believe no more in the mi¬
racle than the ftauncheft Proteftant, that this con¬
gealed mafs has fometimes been found in a liquid ftate
in cold weather, before it was touched by the prieft,
or brought near the head of the faint; and that, on
other occafions, it has remained folid when brought
before him, notwrthftawding all the efforts of the prieft
to melt it. When this happens, the fuperftitious,
which, at a very moderate calculation, comprehends
'-99 in too of the inhabitants of this city, are thrown
into the utmoft cortfternation, and are fometimes
wrought up by their fears into a ftate of blind which
is highly dangerous both to their civil and ecclefiaftical
governors. It is true, that this happens but feldom :
for, in general, the fubftance in the phial, whatever it
may be, is in a-folid form in the chapel, and becomes li¬
quid when brought before the faint: but as this is not
-always the cafe, it affords reafonto believe, that what¬
ever may have been the cafe when this miracle or
trick, call it which you pleafe, was firft exhibited, the
principle on which it depends has fomehow or other
been loft, and is not now underftood fully even by the
priefts themfelves; or elfe they are not now fo expert
as formerly, in preparing the fubftance which repre-
■fents the faint’s blood, fo as to make it remain fohd
when it ought, and liquefy the inftant it is required.”
For the principle *on which this pretended miracle is
performed, or the compofition by which it is or may
-be performed, fee Chemistry, n°Soo.
The head and blood of the faint are kept in a kind
cf prefs, withholding doors of filver, in the chapel of
'St Januarius belonging to the cathedral church. The
real head is piobably not fo frefit, and well preferved,
as the blood. On that account, it is not expofed to
the eyes of the public ; but is ihclofed in a large filver
bull, gilt and enriched with jewels of high value. This
being what-appears to the people, their idea of the
faint’s features and complexion are taken entirely from
the bull.—The blood is kept in a fmall repofitory by
itfelf.
JANUARY, the name of the firft month of the
year, according to the computation now ufed in the
weft. The word is derived from the Latin Januarrus,
.a name given it by the Romans from Janus, one of
162.
their divinities, to whom they attributed! two faces, January,
becaufe on the one fide the firft day of January looked
towards the new year, and on the other towards the v~mi
old one. The word Jamtarius may alfo be derived
from janua t( gate ;” in regard this month being the
firft, is, as it were, the gate of the year.
January and February were introduced into the year
ftjy Numa Pompilius; Romulus’s year beginning in the
month of March.—The kalends, or firft day of this
month, was under the prote&ion of Juno, and in a
peculiar manner confecrated to Janus by an offering
of a cake made of new meal and new fait, with new
frankincenfe and new wine. On the firft day of Ja¬
nuary a beginning was made of every intended work,
the confuls cleft took poffeffion of their office, who,
with the flamens, offered facrifices and prayers for the
profperity of the empire. On this day all animofities
were fufpended, and friends gave and received new-
year’s gifts, called Streme. On this day too the Ro¬
mans above all things took care to be merry and divert
themfelves, and oftentimes fuch a feene of drnnkennefs
was exhibited, that they might with propriety enough
have diftinguifhed it with the name at Allfook-dayS
The Chriftians heretofore fafted on the firft day of
January, by way of oppofition to the fupetftitions and
debaucheries of the heathens.
JANUS, in heathen worfhip, the firft king of Italy,
who, it is faid, received Saturn into his dominions, after
his being driven from Arcadia by Jupiter. He tem¬
pered the manners of his fubjefts, and taught them civi¬
lity ; and from him they learned to improve the vine,
to fow corn, and to make bread. After his death, he
was adored as a god.
This deity was thought to prefide over all new un¬
dertakings. Hence, in all facrifices, the firft libations
of wine and wheat were offered to Janus, all prayers
prefaced with a ffiort addrefs to him ; and the firft
month of the year was dedicated to and named from
him. See Janu ary.
Janus was reprefented with two faces, either to de¬
note his prudence, or that he views at once the pa It
and approaching years; he had a feeptre in his right
hand, and a key in his left, to fignify his extenlive an
thority, and his invention of locks.
Though this is properly a Roman deity, the abbe la
Pluche reprefents it as derived from the Egyptians,
who made known the riling of the dog-ftar, which o»
pened their folar year, with an image with a key in
its hand, and two feces, one old and the other young,
to tipify the old and new year.
Temple of Janus, in ancient hiftory, a fquare build
ing at Rome (as fome fay) of entire brafs, erefted by
Romulus, and fo large as to contain a ftatue of Janus
five feet high, with brazen gates on each fide, which
were always kept open in time of war, and /hut in time
of peace. But the Romans were fo much engaged in
war, that this temple was (hut only twice from the
foundation of Rome till the reign of Auguilus, and fix
times afterwards. It was firlt fhnt during the long reign
of Numa, who inflituted this ceremony. 2. In the
year of the city 519, after the end of the firft Punic
war. 3. By Augullus after the battle of Aftium, in
the year of Rome 725. ^ On Auguftus’s return from
the war which he had againft the Cantabrians in Spain, ^
in the year of Rome 729. 5. Under the fame emperor, in
2 744?
TAP r 65 3 JAP
Janus, 744, about five years before the birth of Chrift, when
Japan, there was a general peace throughout the whole Ro-
man empire, which lafted 12 years. 6. Under Nero,
811. 7. Under Vefpafian, 824. 8. Under Conftan-
tius, when, upon Magnentius’s death, he was left
foie poffeffor of the empire, 1105. Some difpute the
authority on which it is faid to have been fhut by Con-
ftantius, and fay that the laft time of its being Ihut
was under Gordian, about the year of Rome 994.
Virgil gives us a noble defcription of this cuftom,
JEn. lib. iii. ver. 607, &c. The origin of this cultom
is not certainly known.
Janus was alfo the name of a ftreet in Rome,ina-
bited for the moft part by bankers and ufurers. It was
fo called from two flatues of Janus which were ere&ed
there, one at the top, the other at the bottom, of the
flreet. The top of the ftreet was thetefore called Ja¬
nus Summus, the bottom Janus Imus, and the middle
Janus Medius. Hence Horace, lib. i. Epift. 1,
H<ec Janus fummus ab imo perdocet.
and Sat. 3. Lib. 2. Pojiquam
omnis res mea Janum
Ad mediam fraQa eji. 
JAPAN, a general name for a great number of
iflands lying between the eaftern coaft of Afia and the
weftern one of America, and which all together form a
large and potent empire. They extend from the 30th
to the 41 ft degree of latitude, and from the 130th to
the 147th of eaft longitude.
Were South and North Britain divided by an arm of
the fea, Japan might be moft aptly compared to Eng¬
land, Scotland, and Ireland, with their refpe&ive fmaller
iflands, peninfulas, bays, channels, &c. all under the
fame monarch.
The Europeans call the empire Japan ; but the in¬
habitants Niphon, from the greateft ifland belonging
to it; and the Chineie Ciphcn, probably on account of
its eaftern fituation ; thefe names fignifying, in both
languages, the Bafts or Foundation of the Sun. It was
firft difcovered by the Portuguefe about the year of
Chrift 1542-
Moft ol the iflands which compofe it are furtounded
with fuch high craggy mountains, and fuch fltallow
and boifterous feas, that failing about them is extreme¬
ly dangerous ; and the creeks and bays are choaked
up with fuch rocks, ihelves, and fands. that it fooks
as if Providence had defigned it to be a kind of little
world by itfelf. Thefe feas have likewife many dan¬
gerous whirlpools, which are very difficult to pafs at
low water, and will fuck in and fwallow up the largeft
veflels, and all that comes within the reach of their
vortex, daftiing them againft the rocks at the bottom ;
infomuch that fome of them are never feen again, and
others thrown upon the furface at fome miles diftance.
Some of thefe whirlpools alfo make a noife terrible to
hear.
The Chinefe pretend that the Japan iflands were
firft peopled by themfelves: but it is more probable
that the original inhabitants were a mixture of differ¬
ent nations, driven thither by thofe tempeftuous feas,
and at different times.
As thefe iflands lie in the fifth and fixth climates,
they would be much hotter in fummer than England,
were not the heats refreffied by the winds which conti¬
nually blow from the fea around them, and to which
they, are much expofed by the height of their fitua*
Y:ol. IX. Part I.
tion : this circumftance, however, not only renders Japan*
their winters exceffive cold, but the feafons more in-
conftant. They have great falls of fnow in winter,
which are commonly followed by hard frofts. The
rains in fummer are very violent, efpecially in the
months of June and July, which on that account are
called fat fuki, or water months. The country is al¬
fo much fubjeft to dreadful thunders and lightnings,
as well as ftorms and hurricanes, which frequently do
a great deal of damage.
The foil, though naturally barren and mountainous,
by the induftry of the inhabitants, not only fupplies
them with every neceffary of life, but alfo furnifhes
other countries with them ; producing, befides corn,
the fineft and whiteft rice and other grains, with a
great variety of fruits, and vaft numbers of cattle of
all forts. Befides rice, and a fort of wheat and bar¬
ley, with two forts of beans, they have Indian wheat,
millet, and feveral other kinds in great abundance.
Their feas, lakes, and rivers, abound with fiflr; and
their mountains, woods, and forefts, are well ftocked
with horfes, elephants, deer, oxen, buffaloes, fheepi
hogs, and other ufeful animals. Some of their moun¬
tains alfo are enriched with mines of gold, lilver, and
copper, exquifitely fine, befides tin, lead, iron, and
various other minerals and foffils ; whilft others abound
with feveral forts of marble and precious ftones. Of
thefe mountains, fome may be jultly ranked among
the natural rarities of this country ; one, in partiem-
lar, in the great ifland of Niphon, is of fuch prodi¬
gious height as to be eafily feen forty leagues off at
fea, though its diftance from the fhore is about eigh*
teen. Some authors think it exceeds the famous Peak
of Teneriffe ; but it may rather be called a clufter or
group of mountains, among which are no lefs than
eight dreadful volcanoes, burning with incredible fury,
and often laying wafte the country round about thenvr
but, to make fpfne ‘amends, they afford great variety1
of medicinal waters, of different degrees of heat; one
of thefe, mentioned by Varenius, is faid to be as hot as
burning oil, and to fcorch and confume every thing
thrown into it.
The many brooks and rivers that have their fources
among the mountains, form a great number of delight¬
ful cafcades, as well as fome dreadful catara&s. A-
mong the great variety of trees in the forefts here,
the cedars exceed all of that kind through India, fofr
ftraightnefs, height, and beauty. They abound itt
moft of the iflands, efpecially the largeft.
_ Their feas, befides fifli, furnifli them with great quan¬
tities of red and white coral, and fome pearls of great
value, befides a variety of fea-plants and (hells ; which
laft are not inferior to thofe that are brought from Am-
boyna, the Molucca and other eafterly iflands.
The vaft quantity of fulphur with which moft of
the Japan iflands abound, makes them fubjeft to fre¬
quent and dreadful earthquakes. The inhabitants arc
fo accuftomed to them, that they are fcarcely alarmed
at any, unlefs they chance to be very terrible indeed,-
and lay whole towns in ruins, which very often proves
the cafe. On thefe occafions, they have recourfe to
extraordinary facrifices, and afts of worfhip, to their
deities or demons, according to the different notions
of each feft, and fometimes even proceed to offer hut-
man vidlims: but in this cafe they only take fome of
the vileft and moft .abandoned fellows they can meet
I with}
JAP
Japan, with, becaufe they are only facrificed to the malevo-
   lent deities.
The religion throughout Japan, it is well known, is
Pagan, fplit into feveral fe£ts. who live together in the
greateft harmony. Every fe6t has its own temples and
priefts. The fpiritua! emperor the Dairi, is the chief
of their religion. They acknowledge and honour a
Supreme Being. The author of this relation (Dr
Thunberg) faw two temples of the God of gods of a
majeftic height. The idol that reprefented this god
[ 66 ]
JAP
their converts a perfecution which hath not its parallel
in hiftory, whereby the religion they preached, and all
thofe that profefled it, were in a few years time entirely
exterminated.”—The fathers had made a progrefs fo
great, that the princes of Bungu, Arima, and Omura,
who had been baptized, “ fent, in the year 1582, fome
of their neared relations, with letters and prefents, to
pay homage to the then pope, Gregory XIII. and to
affure his holinefs of their filial fubmifiion to the church;
an account of which mod celebrated embafly hath been
of gilded wood, and of fo prodigious a fize, that given in the works of that incomparable hidorian
upon his hands fix perfons might fit in -the Japanefe
fafhion ; his fhoulders were five toifes broad. In the
other temple, the infinite power of this god was repre¬
fented by little gods to the number of 33,333, all dand-
ing round the great idol that reprefented God. The
prieds, who are numerous in every temple, have nothing
to do but to clean the pavement, light the lamps, and
drefs the idol with flowers. The temples are open to
every body, even to the Hollanders; and in cafe they
are in want of a lodging in the fuburbs, when they go
to the court of Jedo, they are entertained with hofpi-
tality in thefe temples.
Chridianity, if Popery deferves that name, had once
made a confiderable progrefs in this country, in confe-
quence of a miffion conduced by the Portuguefe and
Spanifh Jefuits; amongd*whom the famous faint Fran¬
cis Xavier was employed, but foon relinquiflied the fer-
There were alfo fome Francifcan friars of Spa'“
Thaunus, and by many other Roman catholic writers.”
But notwithdanding this pleafing profpe£t, the em¬
peror, anno 1586, iffued proclamations for the fuppref-
fion of the religion, and the perfecution began. This,
however, at fird had not that effeft which the govern¬
ment expefted ; for though, according to the letters of
the Jefuits, 20,570 perfons fuffered death for the faith
of Chrid in the year 1590 only, yet in 1591 and 1592,
when all the churches were a (dually fhut up, they made
12,000 new converts. The bufinefs was finally con¬
cluded by the maffacre at Simabara, about the year
1640. The reafons of the emperor’s proclamations,
making it death to embrace the religion, were as
follows: x. The new religion occafioned confider¬
able alterations in the Japanefe church, and was preju¬
dicial in the highed degree to the heathen clergy. 2. It
was feared the innovation in religion might be attended
with fatal confequences even in regard to the lick; but
engaged at lad. The Jefuits and friars were fupplied what more immediately gave rife to them was, as the
#* ✓"i XT. -  J a.1 AT "11  Afc /X -.I, , T„   ^ . T.. /T,, J T~\ _ T.7",, „ C   ‘1   1
from Goa, Macao, and the Manilhas. At fird the urn
dertaking proceeded with the mod rapid fucccfs, but
ended at lad in the mod tragical manner, all owing to
the pride and haughtinefs, the mifeonduft, rapacity,
and fenfelefs extravagant confpiracy of thefathers againd
the date. This folly and madnefs produced a perfecu¬
tion of 40 years duration, terminated by a mod hor¬
rible and bloody mafiacre, not to be paralleled in hif-
tory. After this the Portuguefe, as likewife the Chri-
ftian religion, were totally expelled the country, and
the mod effe&ual means taken for preventing their re¬
turn. The natives are for this purpofe prohibited from
going out of the country ; and all foreigners are exclu¬
ded from an open and free trade; for as to the Dutch
and Chinefe, under which lad name fome other eadern
nations go thither, they are fhut up whild they remain
there, and a mod drift watch is fet upon them, infomuch
that they are no better than prifoners j and the Dutch,
it is faid, to obtain a privilege even fo far, declared
themfelves to le no Chriftians, bat Dutchmen. This ca¬
lumny, however, Dr Kempfer has endeavoured to wipe
©ff, but not altogether to fatisfafton.
It was about the year of Chrid 1549, or fix years af¬
ter the fird difeovery, that the fathers of the fociety ar¬
rived there, being induced by the favourable reprefen-
tations of a young Japanefe who had fled to Goa.
Till the year 1625, or near 1630, the Chridian reli¬
gion fpread through mod of the provinces of the em¬
pire, many of the princes and lords openly embracing it;
and “ there was very good reafon to hope, that within
8 fhort compafs of time the whole empire would have
been converted to the faith of our Saviour, had not the
ambitious views, and the impatient endeavours of the
fathers to reap the temporal as well as the fpiritual
fruits of their care and labour, fo provoked the fupreme
xnajedy of the empire aa to raife agaiiift themfelvea and
Japanefe of credit confeffed to Dr Kempfer, pride and
covetoufnefs ; pride among the great ones, and cove-
toufnefs in people of lefs note ; the fpiritual fathers
aiming not only at the falvation of their fouls, but ha¬
ving an eye alfo to their money and lands, and the mer¬
chants difpofing of their goods in the mod ufurious and
unreafonable manner. To confine ourfelves to the cler¬
gy here : they “ thought it beneath their dignity to walk
on foot any longer ; nothing would ferve them but they
mud be carried about in dately chairs, mimicking the
pomp of the pope and his cardinals at Rome. They not
only put themfelves on an equal foot with the greated
men of the empire, but, fwelled with eccletiadical pride,
fancied that even a fuperior rank was nothing but their
due. It one day happened, that a Portuguefe bifhop
met upon the road one of the counfellors of date on his
way to court. The haughty prelate would not order
his chaife to be flopped, in order to alight and to pay
his refpefts to this great man, as is ufual in that coun¬
try ; but, without taking any notice of him, nay indeed
without flxowing him fo much as common marks of. ci¬
vility, he very contemptuoufly hid his men carry him
by. The great man, exafperated at fo fignal an affront,
thenceforward bore a mortal hatred to the Portuguefe,
and, in the height of his jud refentment, made his com¬
plaint to the emperor himfelf, with fuch an odious pier
ture of the infolence, pride, and vanity of this nation,
as he expefted could not but raife the emperor’s utmofl
indignation.” This happened in 1566. The next year
the perfecution began anew, and 26 perfons, of the nunv
ber whereof were two foreign Jefuits, and feveral other
fathers of. the Francifcan order, were executed on the
crofs. The emperor Jiojas had ufurped the crown on
his pupil Tidajori, who, as likewife the greater part of
his court and party, had been either Chridians them-
felves, or at lead very favourably inclined to that relj-
6 gion 1
JAP [ 67 J JAP
Japan, glon, fo that reafons of date mightily co-operated to
-—v ' forward the perfecution.
Some Francifcan friars, whom the governor of the
Manilhas had fent as his ambafladors to the emperor of
Japan, were guilty at this time of a moft imprudent
ftep : they, during the whole time of their abode in the
country, preached openly in the ftreets of Macao where
they i efided ; and of their own accord built a church,
contrary to the imperial commands, and contrary to the
advice and earned folicitations of the Jefuits.
Some time after, a difcovery of a dangerous confpi-
racy, which the fathers, and the yet remaining adhe¬
rents of their religion, entered into againd the perfon
of the emperor, as a heathen prince, put a finifhing
droke to the affair, and hadened the fentence which
was pronounced foon after, that the PortuguefeJhouldfor
ever be banifhed the emperor’s dominions } for till then the
Hate feemed defirous to fpare the merchants and fecular
perfons, for the purpofe of continuing trade and com¬
merce with them, which was looked upon as an affair
independent of religion. The affair of the confpiracy
was as follows: the Dutch had had an eye to the trade
of Japan before 1600, and in 16x1 had liberty of a
free commerce granted them by the imperial letters
patent, and had actually a faftory at Firando. The
Dutch were then at war with Spain, which was then
fovereign of the Portuguefe dominions ; fo that it was
natural for them to be trying to fupplant them. The Por¬
tuguefe, on their part, made ufe of all malicious in¬
ventions to blacken their charadlers, calling them re¬
bels and pirates, whence it was natural for the Dutch
to endeavour to clear, and even to revenge, themfelves.
Now they “ took an homeward-bound Portuguefe fhip
near the Cape of Good Hope, on board of which they
found fome traiterous letters to the king of Portugal,
written by one captain Moro, who was chief of the
Portuguefe in Japan, himfelf a Japanefe by birth, and
a great zealot for the Chriftian religion. The Dutch
took fpecial care to deliver the faid letters to their pro¬
testor the prince of Firando, who communicated them
without lofs of time to the governor of Nagafaki, a
great friend to the Portuguefe. Captain Moro having
been taken up, boldly, and with great affurance, denied
the fa£t, and fo did all the Portuguefe, then at Nagafa¬
ki. However, neither the governor’s favour, nor their
conftant denial, were able to clear them, and to keep off
the cloud which was ready to break over their heads.
Hand and feal convinced them 5 the letter was Tent up
to court, and captain Moro fentenced to be burnt alive
on a pale, which was executed accordingly. This let¬
ter laid open the whole plot which the Japanefe Chri-
ftians, in conjun&ion with the Portuguefe, had laid
again ft the emperor’s life and throne; the want they
flood in of fhips and foldiers, which were promifed them
from Portugal; the names of the Japanefe princes con¬
cerned in the confpiracy; and laftly, to crown all, the
expe&ation of the papal bleffing. This difcovery made
by the Dutch was afterwards confirmed by another let¬
ter written by the faid captain Moro to the Portu¬
guefe government at Macao, which was intercepted and
brought to Japan by a Japanefe (hip.”
Confidering this, and the fufpicions which the court
had then already conceived againft the Portuguefe, it
wras no difficult matter thoroughly to ruin live little cre¬
dit and favour they had as yet been able to preferve ;
and the rather, fince the drift imperial orders notwith-
ftanding, they did not leave off privately to bring over'"
more ecclefiaftics. Accordingly, in the year 1637, an
imperial proclamation was fent to the governors of Na¬
gafaki, with orders to fee it put in execution. It was
then the empire of Japan was (hut for ever both to fo¬
reigners and natives.
Now, although the governors of Nagafaki, on receipt
of thefe commands, took care they (hould be obeyed,
yet the direftors of the Portuguefe trade maintained
themfelves in Japan two years longer, hoping to obtain
leave to ftay in the ifland of Defima, and there to con¬
tinue their trade. But they found themfelves at laft
wholly difappointed ; for the emperor was refolved to
get rid of them ; and on affurance given him by the
Dutch Eaft India company that they would fupply for
the future what commodities had been imported by the
Portuguefe, he declared the Portuguefe and the Cafti-
lians, and whoever belonged to them, enemies of the
empire, forbidding the importation of even the goods
of their country, Spanifh wines only excepted, for the
ufe of the court. And thus the Portuguefe loft their
profitable trade and commerce with Japan, and were
totally expelled the country before the latter end of the
year 1639 or 1640 ; and thus ended the fruitlefs popilh
miffion in this empire, for the Portuguefe have never been
able to reftore themfelves; and the Dutch have it not in
their power to do any one thing in favour of religion,
were they fo inclined; but, as it appears, they are very
indifferent as to that, and are in but little credit with
the Japanefe.
According to Dr Thunberg’s refearches, the Japa¬
nefe have never been fubdued by any foreign power,
not even in the moft remote periods ; their chronicles
contain fuch accounts of their valour, as one would ra¬
ther incline to confider as fabulous inventions than ac¬
tual occurrences, if later ages had not furniffied equal
ftriking proofs of it. When the Tartars, for the firft
time in 799, had over-run part of Japan, and when, af¬
ter a confiderable time had elapfed, their fleet was de-
ftroyed by a violent florin in the courfe of a Angle
night, the Japanefe general attacked, and fo totally de¬
feated his numerous and brave enemies, that not a fingle
perfon furvived to return and carry the tidings of fuch
an unparalleled defeat. In like manner, when the Ja¬
panefe were again, in 1281, invaded by the warlike Tar¬
tars, to the number of 240,000 fighting men, they gain¬
ed a viftory equally complete. The extirpation of the
Portuguefe, and with them of the Chriftian religion,
towards the beginning of the 17th century, as already
mentioned, was fo complete, that fcarce a veftige can
now be difcerned of its ever having exifted there.
With refpeft to the government of thefe iflands, it
is and has been for a long time monarchical; though
formerly it feems to have been fplit into a great num¬
ber of petty kingdoms, which were at length all fwal-
lowed by one. The imperial dignity had been en¬
joyed, for a confiderable time before the year 1 yoo,
by a regular fucceffion of princes, under the title of
dairos, a name fuppofed to have been derived from
Dairo the head of that family. Soon after that
epoch, fuch a dreadful civil war broke out, and laded
fo many years, that the empire was quite ruined. Du¬
ring thefe diftraftions and confufions, a common fol-
dier, by name Tayckoy, a perfon of obfcure birth,
I 2 but
JAP [68
but of an enterprifing genius, found means to raife
^ himfelf to the imperial dignity ; having, in little more
than three years time, by an uncommon (hare of good
fortune, fubdued all his competitors and opponnets,
and reduced all their cities and caftles. The dairo,
cot being in a condition to obftru& or put a ftop
to his progrefs, was forced to fubmit to his terms ;
and might perhaps have been condemned to much
harder, had not Tayckoy been apprehenfive left his
foldiers, who ftill revered their ancient natural mo¬
narch, fhould have revolted in his favour. To prevent
this, he granted him the fupreme power in all religious
matters, with great privileges, honours, and revenues
annexed to it ; whilft himfelf remained inverted with
the whole civil and military power, and was acknow¬
ledged and proclaimed king of Japan. This great re¬
volution happened in 1517, and Tayckoy reigned fe-
veral years with great wifdom and tranquillity ; during
which he made many wholefome laws and regulations,
which ftill fubfift, and are much admired to this day.
At his death, he left the crown to his fon Tayckof-
fama, then a minor; but the treacherous prince under
whofe guardianfhip he was left deprived him of his
life before he came of age. By this murder, the
crown parted to the family of Jejaffama, in which it
flill continues. Tayckoy and his fucceffors have con¬
tented themfelves with the title of cubo. which, under
the dairos, was that of prime minifter, whofe office is
now fuppreffed ; fo that the cubo, in all fecular con¬
cerns, is quite as abfolute and defpotic, and has as
extenfive a power over the lives and fortunes of all his
fubjetfts, from the petty kings down to the loweft per-
fons, as ever the dairos had. The dairo refides con
ftantly at Meaco, and the cubo at Jeddo.
The inhabitants of Japan are well-grown, agile, and
aftive, and at the fame time flout limbed, though they
do not equal in ftrength the northern inhabitants of
Europe. The colour of the face is commonly yellow;
which fometimes varies to brown, and fometimes to
white. The inferior fort, who during their work in
fummer have often the upper parts of the body naked,
are fun-burnt and browner; women of diftinftion, who
never go uncovered into the open air, areperfe&ly white.
The national chara&er confifts in intelligence and
prudence, franknefs, obedience, and politenefs, good¬
nature and civility, curiofity, induftry, and dexterity,
economy and lobriety, hardinefs, cleanlinefs, juftice,
and uprightnefs, honefty and fidelity ; in being alfo
miftruftful, fuperftitious, haughty, refentful, brave, and
invincible.
In all its tranfaftions, the nation fhows great intel¬
ligence, and can by no means be numbered among the
favage and uncivilized, but rather is to be placed a^
mong the polifhed. The prefent mode of government,
admirable fkill in agriculture, fparing mode of life,
way of trading with foreigners, manufactures, &c.
afford convincing proofs of their cunning, firmnefs,
and intrepid courage. Here there are no appearances
of that vanity fo common among the A fiatics and A-
fricans, of adorning themfelves with (hells, glafs-beads,
and polifhed metal plates: neither are they fond of
the ufelefs European ornaments of gold and filver lace,
jewels, &c. but are careful to provide themfelves from
the productions of their own country with neat cloaths
well tailed ibod, and .good weapons.
] . JAP
Their curiofity is exceffive ; nothing imported by Japan,
the Europeans efcapes it. They afk for information —v""
concerning every article, and their queftions continue
till they become wearifome. It is the phyfician, ’a-
mong the traders, that is alone regarded as learned,
and particularly during the journey to court and the
refidence at Jeddo, the capital of the empire, that he
is* regarded as the ojacle, which they trull can give re-
fponfes in all things, whether in mathematics, geo¬
graphy, phyfics, chemiftry, pharmacy, zoology, bo¬
tany, medicine, &c.
Economy has its peculiar abode in Japan. It is a
virtue admired as well in the emperor’s palace as in the
meaneft cottage. It makes thole of fmall poffelfions
content with their little, and it prevents the abundance
of the rich from overflowing in excefs and voluptuouf-
nefs. Hence it happens, that what in other countries
is called fcarcity and famine, is unknown here; and
that, in fo very populous a flate, fcarce a perfon in ne-
ceffity, or a beggar, fhould be found.
The names of families, and of lingle perfons, are
under very different regulations from ouis. The fa¬
mily name is never changed, but is never ufed in or¬
dinary converfation, and only when they lign fome
writing ; to which they alfo for the moft part affix
their leal. There is alfo this peculiarity, that the
furname is always placed firft ; juft as in botanical
books the generic name is always placed before the
fpecific name. The prsenomen is always ufed in ad-
dreffing a perfon ; and it is changed feveral times in
the courfe of life. A child receives at birth from its
parents a name, which is retained till it has itfelf a
fon arrived at maturity. A perfon again changes his
name when he is inverted with any office; as alfo when
he is advanced to an higher trull: fome, as emperors
and princes, acquire a new name after death. The
names of women are lefs variable ; they are in general
borrowed from the moft beautiful flowers.
After marriage, the wife is confined to her own
apartment, from whence fhe hardly ever ftirs, except
once a-year to the funeral-rites of her family ; nor is
fhe permitted to fee any man, except perhaps fome
very near relation, and that as feldom as can be. The
wives, as well as in China and other parts of the eaft,
bring no portion with them, but are rather bought by
the hufband of their parents and relations. The bride¬
groom moft commonly fees hit- bride for the firft time
Upon her being brought to his houfe from the place of
the nuptial ceremony: for in the temple where it is
performed fhe is covered over with a veil, which reaches
from the head to the feet. A hufband can put his wives
to a more or lefs fevere death, if they give him the kaft
caufe of jealoufy, by being feen barely to converfe with
another man, or fuftering one to come into their apart¬
ment.
The drefs of the Japanefe deferves, more than that
of any other people, the name of national; fince they
are not only different from that of . all other men, but
are alio of thx fame form in all ranks, from the mo-*
narch to his meaneft fubjefit, as well as in both fexes; .
and what exceeds all credibility, they have not been
altered for at leaft 2444 years. They univerfally. con-
fift of night-gowns, made long and wide, of which fe¬
veral are worn at once by all ranks and all ages. The
more diftinguifhed and the rich have them of the
finell.
JAP t 69 ] JAP
fineft filk ; the poorer fort of cotton. Thofe of the
women reach down to the ground, and fometimes
have a train ; in the men, they reach down to the
heels: travellers, foldters, and labourers, either tuck
them up, or wear them only down to the knees. The
habit of the men is generally of one colour ; the wo¬
men have theirs variegated and frequently with flowers
of gold interwoven. In fummer, they are either with¬
out lining, or have but a thin one ; in winter they are
fluffed to a great thicknefs with cotton or filk. The
men feldom wear a great number; but the women
thirty, fifty, or more, all fo thin, that they fcarce to¬
gether amount to five.pounds. The undermoft ferves
for a fhirt, and is therefore either white or blue, and
for the mod part thin and tranfparent. All thefe
gowns are fallened round the waift with a belt, which
in the men are about a hand’s-breadth, in the women
about a foot; of fuch a length that they go twice
round the waift, and afterwards are tied in a knot with
many ends and bows. The knot, particularly among
the fair fex, is very confpicuous, and immediately in¬
forms the fpeClator whether they are married or not.
The unmarried have it behind, on their back ; the
married before. In this belt the men fix their fabres,
fans, pipe, tobacco, and medicine boxes. In the neck
the gowns are always cut round, without a collar ;
they therefore leave the neck bare ; nor is it covered
with cravat, cloth, or any thing elfe. The fleeves are
always ill-made, and out of all proportion wide : at
the opening before, they are half fewed up, fo that
they form a fack, in which the hands can be put in
cold weather ; they alfo ferve for a pocket. Girls in
particular have their fleeves fo long that they reach
down to the ground. Such is the fimplicity of their
habit, that they are foon drefled ; and to undrefs,
they need only open their girdle and draw in their
arms.
As the gowns, from their length, keep the thighs
and legs warm, there is no occafion for (lockings;
por do they ufe them in ail the empire. Among
poorer perfons on a journey, and among foldiers, who
have not fuch long gowns, one fees bufkins of cotton.
Shoes, or, more properly fpeaking, flippers, are, of all
that is worn by the Japanefe, the fimplcft, the mean-
eft, and the moft mifcrable, though in general ufe a-
mong high and low, rich and poor. They are made
of interwoven rice-draw; and fometimes, for perfons
of diftindlion, of reeds fplit very thin. They confiil
only of a foie, without upper-leathers or quarters.
Before, there paffes over, tranfverfely, a bow of linen,
of a finger’s breadth : from the point of the (hoe to
this bow goes a thin round band, which running with¬
in the great toe, ferves to keep the ftroe fixed to the
foot. The (hoe being without quarters. Aides, during
walking, like a flipper. Travellers have three bands
of twifted ftraw, by which they fatten the (hoe to the
foot and leg, to prevent its falling off. The Japanefe
pever enter their houfes with (hoes, but put them off
in the entrance. This precaution is taken for the
fake of their neat carpets. During the time the
Dutch refide in Japan, as they have fometimes occa¬
fion to pay the natives vifits in their houfes, and as
they have their own apartment at the fadlory covered
with the fame fort of Carpets, they do not wear Euro-
^an fhoes, but have in their Head red, green, ox black
flippers, which can eafily be put off at entering in. Japan.
They, however, wear ftockings, with fhoes of cotton,“-v—
faftened by buckles. Thefe fhoes are made in Japan,
and may be wafhed whenever they become dirty.
The way of drefling the hair is not lefs peculiar to
this people, and lefs univcrfally prevalent among them,
than the ufe of their long gowns. The men (have the
head from the forehead to the neck ; and the hair re¬
maining on the temples, and in the nape, is well be-
fmeared with oil, turned upwards, and then tied with
a white paper thread, which is wrapped round feveral
times. The ends of the hair beyond the head, are
cut crofsways, about a finger’s length being left.
This part, after being palled together with oil, is bent
in fuch a manner that the point is brought to the
crown of the head ; in which fituation it is fixed by
pafling the fame thread round it once. Women, ex¬
cept fuch as happen to be feparated from their huf-
bands, (have no part of their head.
The head is never covered with hat or bonnet in
winter or in fummer, except when they are on a jour¬
ney ; and then they ufe a conical hat, made of a fort
of grafs, and fixed with a ribband. Some travelling
women, who are met with on the roads, have a bonnet
like a (having bafon inverted on the head, which is
made of cloth, in which gold is interwoven. On other
occafions, their naked heads are preferved, both from
rain and the fun, by umbrellas. Travellers, moreover,
have a fort of riding-coat, made of thick paper oiled.
They are worn by the upper fervants of princes, and
the fuite of other travellers. Dr Thunberg and his
fellow-travellers, during their journey to court, were
obliged to provide fuch for their attendants when they
pafled through the place where they are made.
A Japanefe always has his arms painted on one or
more of his garments, efpecially on the long and fhort
gowns, on the fleeves, or between the fhoulders ; fo
that nobody can fleal them ; which otherwife might
eafily happen in a country where the clothes are fo
much alike in fluff, fhape, and fize.
The weapons of the Japanefe confift of a bow and
arrow, fabre, halbert, and mufket. The bows are
very large, and the arrows long, as in China. When
the bows are to be bent and difeharged, the troop al¬
ways reftson one knee, which hinders them making a
fpeedy difeharge. In the fpring, the troops affemble
to pra&ife (hooting at a mark. Mufkets are not ge¬
neral; Dr Thunberg nmly faw them , in the hands of
perfons of diftin&ion, in a feparate and elevated part
of the audience room. The barrel is of the common
length ; but the flock is very fhort, and there is a
match in the lock. The fabre is their principal and .
bell weapon, which is univerfally worn, except by the
peafants. They are commonly a yard long, a little
crooked, and thick in the back. The blades are of an
incomparable goodnefs, and the old ones are in very
high elteem. They are far fuperior to the Spanifh
blades fo celebrated in Europe. A tolerably thick-
nail is eafiiy cut in two without any damage to the
edge; and a man, according to the account of the Ja¬
panefe, may be cleft afunder. A feparate fafli is never
ufed, but the fword is (luck in the belt, on the left1;
fide, with the edge upwards, which to a European ap-
pears ridiculous. All perfons in office wear two fuch
fabres, one of their own, and the other the/etW q/1
4.
JAP [ 70 1 JAP
Japan, office, as it is called; the latter is always the longer.
Both are worn in the belt on the fame fide, and fo
difpofed as to crofs each other. When they are fit¬
ting, they have their fword of office laid on one fide
or before them.
The fciences are very far from having arrived at the
fame height in Japan as in Europe. The hiftory of
the country is, notwithftanding, more authentic,
perhaps, than that of any other country ; and it is
fludied, without diftinftion, by all. Agriculture,
which is confidered as the art mod necefiary, and
mod conducive to the fupport and profperity of
the kingdom, is no where in the world brought to
fuch perfe&ion as here ; where neither civil nor foreign
war, nor emigration, diminifhes population ; and where
a thought is never entertained, either of getting pof-
feffion of ether countries, or to import the ufelefs and
often hurtful produdtions of foreign lands ; but where
the utmod care is taken that no turf lies uncultivated,
and no produce of the earth unemployed. Adronomy
is purfued and refpe&ed ; but the natives are unable,
without the aid of Chinefe, and fometimes of Dutch al¬
manacks, to form a true kalendar, or calculate an e-
clipfe of the fun or moon within minutes and feconds.
Medicine has neither arrived, nor is it likely to arrive,
at any degree of perfedlion. Anatomy is totally un¬
known ; the knowledge of difeafes imperfeft, intri¬
cate, and often fabulous. Botany, and the knowledge of
medicines, conditute the whole of their {kill. They
ufe only fimples ; and thefe generally in diuretic and
diaphoretic decodlions. They are unacquainted with
compound medicines. Their phyficians always indeed
feel the pulfe ; but they are very tedious, not quitting
it for a quarter of an hour ; befides, they examine fird
one, and then the other arm, as if the blood was not
driven by the fame heart to both pulfes. Befides thofe
difeafes which they have in common with other coun¬
tries, or peculiar to themfelves, the venereal difeafe is
very frequent, which they only underdood how to al¬
leviate by decoftions, thought to purify the blood.
Salivation, which their phyficians have heard mention¬
ed by the Dutch furgeons, appears to them extremely
formidable, both to conduct and to undergo ; but they
have lately learned the art of employing the fublimate
with much fuccefs.—Jurifprudence is not an extenfive
ftudy in Japan. No country has thinner law-books,
or fewer judges. Explanations of the law, and advo¬
cates, are things altogether unknown ; but no where,
perhaps, are the laws more certainly put in force,
without refpeft to perfons, without partiality or vio¬
lence. They are very drift, and law-fuits very drort.
The Japanefe know little more of phyfics or chemi-
ftry than what they have learned of late years of the
Europeans.
Their computation of time takes its rife from Min-o,
or 660 years before Chrid. The year is divided ac¬
cording to the changes of the moon ; fo that fome
years confid of twelve, and others of thirteen months 5
and the beginning of the year falls out in February
or March. They have no weeks confiding of feven
days, or of fix working days and a holiday ; but the fird
and fifteenth day of the month ferve for a holiday.
On thefe days no work is done. On new-year’s-day
they go round to wifh one another a new year, with
their whole families, clad in white and blue chequered,
their holiday drefs ; and they red almod the whole of Japan,
the fird month. The day is divided only into twelve >
hours ; and in this divifion they are direfted the whole
year by the rifing and fetting of the fun. They reckon
fix o’clock at the rifing, and fix likewife at the fetting
of the fun. Mid-day and mid-night are always at
nine. Time is not meafured by clocks or hour-
glaffes, but with burning matches, which are twided
together like ropes, and divided by knots. When the
match is burnt to a knot, which indicates a certain
portion of time elapfed, notice is given during the
day, by driking the bells of the temples; and in the
night, by the watchmen driking two boards againft
one another. A child is always reckoned a year old
at the end of the year of his birth, whether this hap¬
pen at the beginning or the clofe. A few days after
the beginning of the year, is performed the horrid
ceremony of trampling on images reprefenting the
crofs and the Virgin Mary with her child. The
images are of melted copper, and are faid to be fcarce
a foot in height. This ceremony is intended to im-
prefs every individual with hatred of the Chridian
doftrine, and the Portuguefe, who attempted to in¬
troduce it there ; and alfo to difeover whether there
is any remnant of it left among the Japanefe. It is
performed in the places where the Chrittians chiefly
refided. In Nagafaki it lafts four days ; then the
images are conveyed to the circumjacent places, and
afterwards are laid afide againft the next year. Every
perfon, except the Japanefe governor and his atten¬
dants, even the fmallell child, muft; be prefent; but
it is not true, as fome have pretended, that the Dutch
are alfo obliged to trample on the image. Overfeers
are appointed in every place, which aflemble the peo¬
ple in companies in certain houfes, call over the name
of every one in his turn, and take care that every
thing goes on properly. The children, not yet able
to walk, have their feet placed upon it; older per¬
fons pafs over it from one fide of the room to the other.
The Japanefe are much addifted to poetry, mufic,
and painting ; the firft is faid to be grand as to the
ftyle and imagery, loftinefs, and cadence; but, like
that of the Chinefe, is not eafily underftood or relifh-
ed by the Europeans. The fame may be faid of their
mufic, both vocal and inftrumental 3 the belt of which,
of either kind, would hardly be tolerable to a nice
European ear.
They pretend, like the Chinefe, to have been the
inventors of printing from time immemorial, and their
method is the fame with theirs, on wooden blocks ; but
they excel them in the neatnefs of cutting them, as
well as in the goodnefs of their ink and paper. They
likewife lay claim to the invention of gunpowder ; and
are vaftly fuperior to the Chinefe in the ufe of all forta
of fire-arms, efpecially of artillery, as well as the curi-
oufnefsof their fire works.
Their manner of writing is much the fame as that
of the Chinefe, viz. in columns from top to bottom,
and the columns beginning at the right and ending at
the left hand. Their charafters were alfo originally
the fame, but now’ differ coniiderably.
Their language hath fome affinity with the Chinefe,
though it appears from its various dialefts to have been
a kind of compound of that and other languages, de¬
rived from the various nations that fiift peopled thofe
iflandg.
JAP [ 71 3 JAP
Japan. Jflands. It is not only very regular, polite, elegant,
—* 1 and copious, but abounds with a great variety of fy-
nonyma, adapted to the nature of the fubjeft they are
’ upon, whether fublime, familiar, or low ; and to the
quality, age, and fex, both of the fpeaker and perfon
fpoken to.
The Japanefe are commonly very ingenious in moft
handicraft trades ; and excel even the Chinefe in fe-
veral manufa&ures, particularly in the beauty, good-
nefs, and variety of their filks, cottons, and ether
ftuffs, and in their japan and porcelain wares. No
eaftern nation comes up to them in the tempering and
* fabricating of feymitars, fwords, mufkets, and other
fuch weapons.
The Japanefe architecture is much in the Tame tafte
and ftyle as that of the ChineTe, efpecially as to their
temples, palaces, and other public buildings; but in
private ones they affeft more plainnefs and neatnefs
than fhow. TheTe lall are of wood and cement,
confifting of two {lories: they dwell only in the lower;
the upper chamber ferving for wardrobes. The roofs
are covered with rufh-mats three or four inches thick.
In every houfe there is a fmall court, ornamented with
trees, flrrubs, and flower-pots ; as like wife with a place
for bathing. Chimnies are unknown in this country,
although fire is needed from the cold month of O6I0-
ber till the end of March. They heat their rooms
with charcoal contained in a copper ftove, which they
fit round. Their cities are generally fpacious, having
each a prince or governor refiding in them. The ca¬
pital of Jedo is zi French leagues in circumference;
Its ftreets are ftraight and large. There are gates at
little diftances, with an extremely high ladder, which
they afeend to difeover fires. Villages differ from
cities in having but one ftreet; which often extends
•feveral leagues. Some of them are fituated fo near
each other, that they are only feparated by a river or
a bridge. The principal furniture of the Japanefe
confitls in draw-mats, which ferve them for feats and.
beds; a fmall table for every one who choofes to eat
is the only moveable. The Japanefe fit always upon
their hams. Before dinner begins, they make a pro¬
found bow and drink to the health of the guefts.
The women eat by tbemfelves. During the courfes,
they drink a glafs of fakki, which is a kind of beer
made of rice kept conftantly warm; and they drink at
each new morfel. Tea and fakki are the moil favou¬
rite drink of this people ; wine and fpirits are never
ufed, nor even accepted when offered by the Dutch.
Sakki, or rice beer, is clear as wine, and of an agree¬
able talle : taken in quantity, it intoxicates for a few
moments, and caufes headach. Both men and women
are fond of tobacco, which is in univerfal vogue and
limoked continually. The gardens, about their houfes-
are adorned with a variety of flowers, trees, verdure,
baths, terraces, and other embelliihments. The furni¬
ture and decorations of the houfes of perfons of diftinc-
tion confiil in japan-work of various colours, curious
paintings, beds, couches, Ikreens, cabinets, tables, a
variety of porcelain jars, vafes, tea-equipage, and other
veffels and figures, together' with fwords, guns, fey¬
mitars, and other arms. Their retinues are more or
lefs numerous and fplendid according to their rank;
but there are. few of the lords who have lefs than 50 or
6cynen richly dad and armed, fome on foot, but moft
on horfeback. As for their petty kings and princes,
they are feldom feen without 300 or 200 at leaft, when
they either wait on the emperor, which is one half of
the year, or attend him abroad.
When a prince or great man dies, there are comw
monly about 10, 20, or more youths of his houfehold,
and fuch as were his greateft favourites, who putthem-
felves to a voluntary death, at the place where the bo¬
dy is but ied or burned: as foon as the funeral pile,,
confifting of odoriferous woods, gums, fpices, oils,
and other ingredients, is fet on fire, the relations and
friends of the deceafed throw their prefents into it,
fuch as cloaths, arms, vifluals, money, fweet herbs,,
flowers, and other things which they imagine will be of
ufe to him in the other world. Thofe of the middle
or lower rank commonly bury their dead, without any
other burning than that of fome odoriferous woods,
gums, &c. The fepulchres into which the bones andf
alhes of perfons of rank are depofited, are generally
very magnificent, and fituated at fome diftance from
the towns.
The Dutch and Chinefe are the only nations al¬
lowed to traffic in Japan. The Dutch at prefent
fend but two flrips annually, which are fitted out at
Batavia, and fail in June, and return at the end of-
the year. The chief merchandife is Japanefe copper
and raw camphor. The wares which the Dutch com¬
pany import are, coarfe fugar, ivory, a great quantity
of tin and lead, a little caff iron, various kinds of fine,
chintzes, Dutch cloth of different colours and'finenefs,
ferge wood for dyeing, tortife-fliell, and cojlus Arabicus.
The little merchandife brought by the officers on-,
their own account, confifts of faffron, theriaca, fealing-
wax, glafs-beads, watches, &c. &c. About the time
when the Dutch {hips are expe&ed, fereral outpofts are
ilationed on the higheft hills by the government; they,
are provided with telefcopes,.and long before their ar¬
rival give the governor of Nagafaki notice. As foon
as they anchor in the harbour, the upper and under of¬
ficers of the Japanefe immediately betake themfelves on¬
board, together with interpreters; to whom is delivered-
a chell, in: which all the failors books, the muffer-roll
of the whole crew, fix fmall barrels of powder, fix bar¬
rels of balls, fix. mufkets, fix bayonets, fix piftols, and
fix fwords, are depofited ; this is fuppofed to be the
whole remaining ammunition after the Imperial garri-
fon has been fainted. Thefe things are conveyed on
{bore, and preferved in a feparate warehoufe, nor are
they returned before the day the fhip quits the harbour.-
Duties are quite unknown as well in the inland parts-
as on the coaft, nor are there any cuftoms required
either for exported or imported goods ; an advantage
enjoyed by. few nations. But, to prevent the impor¬
tation of any forbidden wares, the utmoll vigilance is
obferved ; then the men and things are examined with,
the eyes of Argus. When any European goes on
Ihore, he is examined before he leaves the Pnip, and
afterwards on his landing. This double fearch is ex¬
ceedingly Uriel-; fo that not only the pockets and
cloaths are ftroaked with the hands, but the pudendm.
of the meaner fort are preffed, and the hair of the
flaves. All the Japanefe who come on board are
fearched in like manner, except only their fuperiop
officers : fo alfo are the wares either exported or im-.
ported, firft on board, and then at the factory, except
JAP
Japan, the great chefts, which are opened at the factory, and
Japanning. f0 carefully examined that they ftrike the very fidesleft
they ihould be hollow. The bed clothes are often o-
pened, and the feathers examined : rods of iron are run
into the pots of butter and confedtions: a fqUare hole
is made in the cheefe, and a long-pointed iron is thruft
into it in all diredtions. Their fufpicion h carried fo
far, that they take out and break one or two of the
eggs brought from Batavia.
The interpreters are all natives 5 they fpeak Dutch
in different degrees of purity. The government per¬
mits no foreigner to learn their language, left they
ftiould by means of this acquire the knowledge of the
manufadtures of the country ; but forty or fifty inter¬
preters are provided to ferve the Dutch in their trade,
or on any other occafion.
The interpreters are very inquifitive after European
books, and generally provide themfelves with fome
from the Dutch merchants. They perufe them with
care, and remember what they learn. They befides
endeavour to get fnftrudtion from the Europeans; for
which purpofe they afk numberlefs queftions, particu¬
larly refpedting medicine, phyfics, and natural hiftory.
Moft of them apply to medicine, and are the only
phyficians of their nation who pradtife in the European
manner, and with European medicines, which they
procure from the Dutch phyficians. Hence they are
able to acquire money, and to make themfelves re-
fpedted.
Japan Earth. See Mimosa and Terra Japonica.
JAPANNING, the art of varnilhing and drawing
figures on wood, in the fame manner as is done by the
natives of Japan in the Eaft Indies.
The fubltances which admit of being japanned are al-
moft every kind that are dry and rigid, or not too flexi¬
ble ; as wood, metals, leather, and paper prepared.
Wood and metals do not require ahy other prepara¬
tion, but to have their furface perfectly even and clean:
but leather ftiould be fecurely ftrained either on frames
or on boards ; as its bending or forming folds would
otherwife crack and force off the coats of varnifti: and
paper fhould be treated in the fame manner, and have
a previous ftrong coat of fome kind of fize ; but it is
rarely made the fubjedt of japanning till it is converted
into papier macbe, or wrought by other means into fuch
form, that its original ftate, particularly with refpedt
to flexibility, is loft.
One principal variation from the method formerly
ufed in japanning is, the ufing or omitting any priming
or undercoat on the work to be japanned. In the ol¬
der pra&ice, fuch priming was always ufed 5 and is
at prefent retained in the French manner of japan¬
ning coaches and fnuff-boxes of the papiermache ; but
in the Birmingham manufadture here, it has been al--
ways rejedted. The advantage of ufing fuch priming
or undercoat is, that it makes a faving in the quantity
of varnifh ufed ; becaufe the matter of which the
priming is compofed fills up the inequalities of the
body to be varnilhed; and makes it eafy, by means
of rubbing and water-pohftiing, to gain an even fur-
face for the varnifti: and this was therefore fuch a
convenience in the cafe of wood, as the giving a hard-
nefs and tirmnefs to the ground was alfo in the cafe of
leather, that it became an eftabliftied method ; and is
N°. 162.
J A P
therefore retained even in the inftance of the Japar.nlng
mache by the French, who applied the received me-1 v***-
thod of japanning to that kind of work on its intro-
dudtion. There is neverthelefs this inconvenience al¬
ways attending the ufe of an undercoat of fize, that
the japan ooats of varnifti and colour will be conftaritly
liable to be cracked and peeled off by any violence,
and will not endure near fo long as the bodies japan¬
ned in the fame manner, but without any fuch prim¬
ing j as may be eafily obferved in comparing the wear
of the Paris and Birmingham fnuff-boxes ; which lat¬
ter, when good of their kind, never peel or crack, or
fuffer any damage, unlefs by great violence, and fuch
a continued rubbing as waftes away the fubftance of
the varnifti; while the japan coats of the Parifian £rack
and fly off in flakes, whenever any knock or fall, par¬
ticularly near the edges, expofe them to be injured.
But the Birmingham manufa&urers, who originally
pra&ifed the japanning only on metals, to which the
reafon above given for the ufe of priming did not ex¬
tend, and who took up this art of themfelves as an
invention, of courfe omitted at firft the ufe of any
fuch undercoat ; and not finding it more neceffary in
the inftance of papier mache, than on metals, continue
ftill to reject it. On which account, the boxes of
their manufadture are, with regard to the wear, great¬
ly better than the French.
The laying on the colours in gum-water, inftead of
varnifti, is alfo another variation from the method of
japanning formerly pradtifed : but the much greater
ftrength of the work, where they are laid on in varniftt
or oil, has occafioned this way to be exploded with
the greateft reafon in all regular manufadlures : how¬
ever, they who may pradtice japanning on cabinets, of
other fuch pieces as are not expofed to much wear and
violence, for their ahiufement only, and confequently
may not find it worth their while to encumber them¬
felves with the preparations neceffary for the other
methods, may paint with water-colours on an under¬
coat laid on the wood or other fubftance of which the
piece to be japanned is formed ; and then finifti with
the proper coats of varnifli, according to the methods
below taught : and if the colours are tempered with
the ftrongeft ifinglafs fize and honey, inftead of gum-
water, and laid on very flat and even, the work will
not be much inferior in appearance to that done by
the other method, and will laft as long as the old
japan.
Of Japan Grounds.—The proper grounds are either
fuch as are formed by the varnifti and colour, where
the whole is to remain of one fimple colour; or by
the varnifti either coloured or without colour, on'
which fome painting or other decoration is afterwards
to be laid. It is neceffary, however, before we pro¬
ceed to fpeak of the particular grounds, to ftiow the
manner of laying on the priming or undercoat, where
any fuch is ufed.
This priming is of the fame nature with that called
dear coating, or vulgarly clear-coaling, praftifed erro-
neoufly by the houfe-painters; and confifts only in
laying on and drying in the moft even manner a com-
pofition of fize and whiting, or fometimes lime inftead
of the latter. The common fize has been generally
ufed for this purpofe ! but where the work is of a.nicer1
kind;
[ ]
'frj Japan,
'Janijxaii
JAP E 73 .1 ,
ktn^, i't U better to employ the glover’s or the parch- mains hither a defideratumj
; ment fsze ; and if a third of ifinglafs be added, it will
be ft ill better, and, if not laid on too thick, much lefs
liable to peel and crack. The work ftiould be pre¬
pared for this priming, by being well fmoothed with
the fifh (kin .or glafs-fhaver ; and, being made tho¬
roughly clean, (hould be brufhed over once or twice
with hot fize, diluted with two thirds of water, if it
be of the common ftyength. The priming {hould
then be laid on with a bruftx as even as poffible ; and
{hould be formed of a fize whofe confidence is be¬
twixt the common kind’and glue, mixed with as much
W’hiting as will give it a fufficient body of colour to
hide the furface of whatever it is laid upon, but not
more.
If the furface be very clean on which the priming
is ufed, two coats of it laid on in this manner will be
fufficient ; but if, on trial with a fine wet rag, it will
not receive a proper water polifti on account of any
inequalities not Efficiently filled up and covered, two
or more coats muft be given it ; and whether a greater
or lefs number be ufed, the work (hould^ be fmoothed,
after the laft coat but one is dry, by rubbing it with
the Dutch nifties. When the laft coat is dry, the water
polifti ftionld be given, by paffing over every part of der, in about a quart of fpirit of
it with a fine rag gently moiftened, till the whole ap- the clear varnifti,"
pear perfectly plain and even. The priming will then
be completed, and the work ready to receive the
painting or coloured varnifti ; the reft of the proceed¬
ings being the fame in this cafe as where no priming is
ufed.
When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no
priming is ufed, the beft preparation is to lay two or
three coats of coarfe varnifti compofed in the following
JAP
or matter fought for, inr
the art of japanning, as there are no fubftances which u
form a very hard varnifti but what have too much co¬
lour not to deprave the whitenefs, when laid on of a
due thicknefs over the work.
The neareft approach, however, to a perfect whit£
varnifti, already known, is made by the following com-
pofition.
“ Take flake white, or white lead, wafhedover and
ground up with a fixth of its weight of llarch, and
then dried ; and temper it properly for fpreading with
the maftich varnifli prepared as under the article Var¬
nish.
“ Lay thefe on the body to be japanned, prepared
either with or without the undercoat of whiting, in
the manner as above ordered ; and then varnifti it over
with five or fix coats of the following varnifti :
“ Provide any quantity of the beft feed lac ; and
pick out of it all the cleared and whiteft: grains, re-
ferving the more coloured and fouler parts for the
coarfe varnifties, fuch as that ufed for priming or pre¬
paring wood or leather. Take of this picked feed-lae
two ounces, and of gum animi three ounces ; and dif-
folve them, being previoufly reduced to a grofs pow-
and ftrain off
manner :
The feed-lac will yet give a flight tinge to this com-
pofition ; but cannot be omitted where the varnifti is
wanted to be hard; though, when a fofter will anfwer
the end, the proportion mAy be diminiftied, and a lit*
tie crude turpentine added to the gum-animi to take
off the brittlenefs.
A very good varnifti, free entirely from all brittlenefs,
may be formed by diffolving as much gum-animi as the
oil will take, in old nut or poppy oil; which muft: be
“ Take of rectified fpirit of wine one pint, and of made to boil gently when the gum is put into it. The
" ' ' ground of white colour itfelf may be laid on in this
varnifh, and then a coat or two of it may be put over
the ground; but it muft be well diluted with oil of
turpentine when it is ufed. This, though free from
brittlenefs, is neverthelefs liable to fuffer by being in¬
dented or bruifed by any flight ftrokes; and it will
not well bear any polifti, but may be brought to a very
fmooth furface with#ut, if it be judicioufly managed
in the laying it on. It is likewife fomewhat tedious
in drying, and will require fome time where feveral
coats are laid on ; as the laft ought not to contain much
oil of turpentine.
Blue Japan Grounds.—Blue japan grounds may be
formed of bright Pruffian blue, or of verditer glazed
over by Pruffian blue, or of fmalt. The colour may
be beft mixed with fhell-lac varnifli, and brought to a
polifhing ftate by five or fix coats of varnifti of feed-
hen alfo other means muft be lac : but the varnifti, neverthelefs, will fomewhat in¬
jure the colour by giving to a true blue a caft of green,
and fouling in fome degree a warm blue.by the yellow
here^ therefore, a bright blue is requi-
coarfe feed-lac and refin each two ounces- Diffolve the
feed-lac and refin in the fpirit; and then ftrain off the
varnifti.”
This varnifti, as well as all others formed of fpirit of
wine, muft be laid on in a warm place ; and, if it can
be conveniently managed, the piece of work to be
varniftied (hould be made warm likewife ; and for the
fame reafon all dampnefs {hould be avoided ; for either
cold or moifture chills this kind of varnifli, and pre¬
vents its taking proper hold of the fubftance on which
it is laid.'
When the work is fo prepared, or by the priming
with the compofition of fize and whiting above de-
feribed, the proper japan ground muft be laid on,
which is much the beft formed of ftiell-lac varnifti,
and the colour defired, if white be not in queftion,
which demands a peculiar treatment, or great bright-
nefs be not required,
purfued.
The colours ufed with the {hell-lac varnifli may be
any pigments whatever which give the teint of the
ground defired ; and they may be mixed together to red, and a lefs degree of hardnefs can be difpenfed
form browns or any compound colours.
As metals never require to be undercoated with
whiting, they may be treated in the fame manner as
wood or leather, when the undercoat is omitted, ex¬
cept in the inftances particularly fpoken of below.
White Japan Grounds —The forming a ground per-
feftly white, and of the firft degree of hardnefs, re-
Von.IX. Parti.
with, the method before dire&ed in the cafe of white
grounds muft be purfued.
Red Japan Grounds.—-For a fcarlet japan ground,
vermilion may be ufed : but the vermilion has a glaring
effeft, that renders it much lefs beautiful than the
crimfon produced by glazing it over with carmine or
fine lake ; or even with rofe-pink, which has a very
K good
JAP [ 74 1 JAP
Japan, good effeft ufed for this ptirpofe. For a very bright
  1 crimfon, neverthelefs, inftead of glazing with carmine,
the Indian lake (hould be ufed, diffolved in the fpirit
©f which the varnifh is compounded, which it readily
admits of when good: and, in this cafe, inftead of
glazing with the ftiell-lac varnifh, the upper or polifh-
ing coats need only be ufed ; as they will equally re¬
ceive and convey the tinge of the Indian lake, which
may be actually diflblved by fpirit of wine : and this
will be found a much cheaper method than the ufing
carmine. If, neverthelefs, the higheft degree of bright-
nefs be required, the white varnifhes muft be ufed.
Yellow Javan Grounds. For bright yellow
grounds, the king’s yellow, or the turpeth mineral,
fhould be employed, either alone or mixed with fine
Dutch pink : and the effeft may be ftill more height¬
ened by diffolving powdered turmeric-root in the fpirit
of wine of which the upper or polifhing coat is made ;
which fpirit of wine muft be ftrained from off the dregs
before the feed-lac be added to it to form the varnifh.
The feed-lac varnifh is not equally injurious here,
and with greens, as in the cafe of other colours; be-
caufe, being only tinged with a reddifh yellow, it is
little more than an addition to the force of the colours.
Yellow grounds maybe likewife formed of the Dutch
pink only ; which, when good, will not be wanting in
brightnefs, though extremely cheap.
Green Japan Grounds.—Green grounds may be
produced by mixing the king’s yellow and bright Pruf-
fian blue, or rather the turpeth mineral and Pruffian
blue ; and a cheap, but fouler kind, by verdegris
with a little of the abovementioned yellows, or Dutch
pink. But where a very bright green is wanted, the
cryftals of verdegris, called diftilled verdegris, fhould
be employed; and to heighten the effeft they fhould
be laid on a ground of leaf-gold, which renders the co¬
lour extremely brilliant and pleafing.
They may any of them be ufed fuccefsfully with
good feed-lac varnifh, for the reafon before given ; but
will be ftill brighter with white varnifh.
Orange-coloured Japan Grounds.—Orange-coloured
japan grounds may be formed by mixing vermilion or
red-lead with king’s yellow, or Dutch pink; or the
orange-lac, which will make a brighter orange ground
than can be produced by any mixture.
Purple Japan Grounds.—Purple japan grounds may
be produced by the mixture of lake and Pruffian blue ;
or a fouler kind, by vermilion and Pruffian blue. They
may be treated as the reft with refpedt to the varnifh.
Black Japan Grounds to be produced without Heat.—-
Black grounds may be formed by either ivory-black of
lamp-black : but the former is preferable where it is
perfeflly good.
Thefe may be always laid on with fhell-lac varnifh ;
and -have their upper or polifhing coats of common
feed-lac varnifh, as the tinge or foulnefs of the varnifh
can be here no injury.
Common Black Japan Grounds on Iron or Copper,
produced by means of Heat. For forming the common
black japan grounds by means of heat, the piece of
work to be japanned muft be painted over with dry¬
ing oil ; and, when it is of a moderate drynefs, muft be
put into a ftove of fuch degree of heat as will change
the oil to black, without burning it fo as to deftroy or
weaken its tenacity. The ftove fhould not be too hot
when the work is put into it, nor the heat increafed Japan,
too faft ; either of which errors would make it blifter :
but the flower the heat is augmented, and the longer
it is continued, provided it be reftrained within the
due degree, the harder will be the coat of japan.
This kind of varnifh requires no polifh, having re¬
ceived, when properly managed, a fufficient one from
the heat.
The fine Tortoife-Jhell Japan Ground produced by means
of Heat.—The beft kind of tortoife-fhell ground pro¬
duced by heat is not lefs valuable for its great hardnefs,
and enduring to be made hotter than boiling water
without damage, than for its beautiful appearance. It
is to be made by means of a varnifh prepared in the
following manner:
“ Take of good linfeed-oil one gallon, and of umbre
half a pound: boil them together till the oil become
very brown and thick : ftrain it then through a coarfe
cloth, and fet it again to boil; in which ftate it muft:
be continued till it acquire a pitchy confiftence ; when
it will befit forufe.”
Having prepared thus the varnifh, clean well the
iron or copper plate or other pieces which is to be ja¬
panned ; and then lay vermilion tempered with fhell-
lac varnifh, or with drying-oil diluted with oil of tur¬
pentine, very thinly, on the places intended to imitate
the more tranfparent parts of the tortoife-fhell. When
the vermilion is dry, brufh over the whole with the
black varnifh, tempered to a due confiftence with oil
of turpentine; and when it is fet and firm, put the
work into a ftove, where it may undergo a very
ftrong heat, and muft be continued a confiderable
time ; if even three weeks or a month, it will be the
better.
This was given amongft other receipts by Kunckel;
but appears to have been neglected till it was revived
with great fuccefs in the Birmingham manufactures,
where it was not only the ground of fnuff-boxes, drefs-
ing-boxes, and other fuch leffer pieces, but of thofe
beautiful tea-waiters which have been fo juftly efteemed
and admired in feveral parts of Europe where they
have been fent. This ground may be decorated with
painting and gilding, in the fame manner as any other
varnifhed furface, which had beft be done after the
ground has been duly hardened by the hot ftove ; but
it is well to give a fecond annealing with a more gentle
heat after it is finifhed.
Method of painting Japan Work.—Japan work ought
properly to be painted with colours in varnifh; though,
in order for the greater difpatch, and, in fome very
nice works in fmall, for the freer ufe of the pencil, the
colours are fometimes tempered in oil; which fhould
previoufly have a fourth part of its weight of gum-
animi difiblved in it; or, in default of that, of the
gums fandarac or maftich. When the oil is thus ufed,
it fhould be well diluted with fpirit of turpentine, that
the colours may be laid more evenly and thin ; by
which means, fewer of the polifhing or upper coats of
varnifh become neceffary.
In fome inftances, water-colours are laid on grounds
of gold, iu the manner of other paintings ; and are
beft:, when fo ufed, in their proper appearance, without
any varnifh over them ; and they are alfo fometimes fo
managed as to have the effeCt of emboffed work. The
colours employed in this way, for painting, are heft
pre-
Japan.
JAP r 75 ] JAP
prepared by means of ifinglafs fize corre&ed with ho¬
ney or fugar-candy. The body of which the emboffed
work is raifed, need not, however, be tinged with the
exterior colour; but may be bell formed of very ftrong
gum-water, thickened to a proper confillence by bole-
armenian and whiting in equal parts ; which being laid
on the proper figure, and repaired when dry, may be
then painted with the proper colours tempered in the
ifinglafs fize, or in the general manner with Ihell-lac
varnilh.
Manner of Varnijhing Japan Work—The lad and
finilhing part of japanning lies in the laying on and
polishing the outer coats of varnilh ; which are necef-
fary, as well in the pieces that have only one Ample
ground of colour, as with thofe that are painted. This
is in general beft done with common feed-lac varnilh,
except in the inftances and on thofe occafions where
we have already Ihown other methods to be more ex¬
pedient : and the fame reafons which decide as to the
fitnefs or impropriety of the varnilhc-s, with refpedt to
the colours of the ground, hold equally with regard to
thofe of the painting : for where brightnefs is the
moft material point, and a tinge of yellow will injure
it, feed-lac mull give way to the whiter gums; but
where hardnefs, and a greater tenacity, are mod eflfen-
tial, it mud be adhered to ; and where both are fo ne-
celfary, that it is proper one fhould give way to the
other in a certain degree reciprocally, a mixed varnilh
mud be adopted.
This mixed varnilh, as we have already obferved,
fhould be made of the picked feed lac. The com¬
mon feed-lac varnilh, which is the mod ufeful pre¬
paration of the kind hitherto invented, may be thus
made:
“ Take of feed-lac three ounces, and put it into
water to free it from the dicks and filth that are fre¬
quently intermixed with it ; and which mud be done
by fiirring it about, and then pouring off the water,
and adding frefh quantities in order to repeat the ope¬
ration, till it be freed from all impurities, as it very
effe&ually may be by this means Dry it then, and
powder it grofsly, and put it, with a pint of re&ified
fpirit of wine, into a bottle, of which it will not fill
above two-thirds. Shake the mixture well together ;
and place the bottle in a gentle heat, till the feed
appear to be diffolved ; the disking being in the mean
time repeated as often as may be convenient: and
then pout off all that can be obtained clear by this
method, and drain the remainder through a coarfe
cloth. The varnilh thus prepared mult be kept for ufe
in a bottle well dopt.”
When the fpirit of wine is very drong, it will dif
folve a greater proportion of the feed lac : but this
will iaturate the common, which is feldom of a drength
fufficient for making varnilhes in perfeftion. As the
chilling, which is the mod inconvenient accident at¬
tending thofe of this kind, is prevented, or produced
more frequently, according to the drength of the
fpirit ; we lhall therefore take this opportunity of
fhowing a method by which weaker rectified fpirits
may with great eafe, at any time, be freed from
the phlegm, and rendered of the fird degree of
drength.
“ Take a pint of the common reftified fpirit of
wine, and put it into a bottle, of which it will not fill
above three parts. Add to it half an ounce of pearl-
alhes, fait of tartar, or any other alkaline fait, heated
red-hot, and powdered, as well as it can be without
much lofs of its heat. Shake the mixture frequently
for the fpace of half an hour ; before which time, a
great part of the phlegm will be feparated from the
fpirit, and will appear, together with the undiffolved
part of the falls, in the bottom of the bottle. Let the
fpirit then be poured off, or freed from the phlegm
and falls, by means of a tiitorium or feparating funnel;
and let half an ounce of the pearl-alhes, heated and
powdered as before, be added to it, and the fame
treatment repeated. This may be done a third time,
if the quantity of phlegm feparated by the addition of
the pearl alhes appear conliderable. An ounce of
alum reduced to powder and made hot, but not burnt,
mult then be put into the ipiric, and fuffered to remain
fome hours ; the bottle being frequently lhaken : after
which, the fpirit, being poured off from it, will be fit
for ufe.”
The addition of the alum is neceffary, to neutralize
the remains of the alkaline fait or pearl-alhcs ; which
would otherwife greatly deprave the fpirit with re pe£t
to varnilhes and laquer, where vegeta >le colours are
concerned; and mud. confequently render another ditlil-
lation neceffary.
The manner of ufing the feed lac or white var-
nifhes is the fame, except with regard to the fubdance
ufed in polilhing ; which, where a pure white or great
clearnefs of other colours is in quedion, Ihould be it-
felf white : whereas the browner forts of polilhing dud,
as being cheaper, and doing their buiinefs with greater
difpatch, may be ufed in o her cafes. The pieces of
work to be varnilhed Ihould be placed near a fire, or
in a room where there is a dove, and made perfetdly
dry ; and then the varnilh may be rubbed over them
by the proper brulhes made for that purpofe, begin¬
ning in the middle, and palling the brulh to one end ;
and then with another droke from the middle, palling
it to the other. But no part Ihould be eroded or
twice paffed over, in forming one coat, where it can
poflibly be avoided. When one coat is dry, another
mud be laid over it; and this mud be continued at
lead hve or fix times, or more, if on trial there be not
fulficient thicknefs of varnilh to bear the polilh,
without laying bare the painting or the ground colour
underneath.
When a fufficient number of coats is thus laid on,
the work is fit to be polilhed : which mult be done, in
common cafes, by rubbing it with a rag dipped in
Tripoli or pumice-Aone, commonly called rotten jlonet
finely powdered: but towards the end of the rubbing,
a little oil of any kind (h.iuld be ufed along with the
powder; and when the work appears fufficirntly bright
and gloffy, it Ihould bts well rubbed with the oil alone,
to clean it from the powder, and give it a dill brighter
luilre.
In the cafe of white grounds, inftead of the Tripoli
or pumice-done, fine putty or whiting mult be ufed ;
both which Ihould be walhed over to prevent the dan¬
ger of damaging the work from any fand or other
gritty matter that may happen to be commixed with
them.
It is a great improvement of all kinds of japan
woik, to harden the vaniilh by means 01 heae; winch.
J A Q [ 76 ] JAR
Japheth In every degree that it can be applied ihort of what
M ' would burn or calcine the matter, tends to give it a
j.:<pie,ot. more grm an(j |{rong texture. Where metals form
the body, therefore, a very hot ftove may be ufed,
and the pieces of work may be continued in it a
confiderable time ; efpecially if the heat be gradually
increafed: but where wood is in que{lion,heat mult be
fparingiy ufed, as it would otherwife warp or fhrink
the body, fo as to injure the general figure.
JAPHETH, the fon of Noah. His defcendants pof-
fefl'ed all Europe and the ifles in the Mediterranean, as
well thofe which belong to Europe, as others which
depend on Alia. They had all Afia Minor, and the
northern parts of Afia above the fources of the Tigris
and Euphrates. Noah, when he blelfed Japheth, faid
to him, “ God lhall enlarge Japheth, and he lhall dwell
in the tents ofShem; and Canaan lhall be his fervant.”
This bleffing of Noah was accomplilhed, when the
Greeks, and after them the Romans, carried their con-
quefts into Alia and Africa, where were the dwelling
and dominions ofShem and Canaan.
The Ions of Japheth were Gomer, Magog, Madai,
Javan, Tubal, Melhech, and Tiras. The feripture
fays, “ that they peopled the ifles of the Gentiles,
and fettled in different countries, each according to his
language, family, and people.” It is fuppofed, that Go¬
mer was the father of the Cimbri, or Cimmerians;
Magog of the Scythians ; Madai of the Macedonians
or Medes; Javan of the lonians and Greeks; Tubal of
the Tibarenians ; Melhech of the Mufcovites or Ruf¬
fians ; and Tiras of the Thracians. By the ifles of
■ the Gentiles, the Hebrews under Hand the ifles of the
Mediterranean, and all the countries feparated by the
fea from the continent of Paleftine ; whither alfo the
Hebrews could go by fea only, as Spain, Gaul, Italy,
Greece, Alia Minor.
Japheth was known by profane authors under the
name of Japetus. The poets make him the father of
heaven and earth. The Greeks believe that he was
the father of their race, and ackowledged nothing more
ancient than him. Befides the feven fons of Japheth
above mentioned, the Septuagint, Eufebius, the Alex¬
andrian Chronicle, and St Auftin, give him an eighth
called Eliza, who is not mentioned either in the He¬
brew or Chaldee, and the eaftern people affirm that
Japheth had eleven children.
JAPYDIA (anc. geog.j, a wefterh diftrift of Ulyri-
cum anciently threefold; the firfij^yr/wextending from
the fprings of the Timavus to Iltria ; the fecond, from
the river Arfia to the river Tedanius ; and the third,
called Inalfina, fituated in mount Albius and the other
Alps, which run out above Illria. Japodes, or Japydes,
the people. Now conftituting the fouth part of Car-
niola, and the weft of Auftrian Croatia.
JAPYGIA, Calabria, anciently fo called by the
Greeks. JapygtSi the people.
J A P Y GIUM (anc. geog.) ,a promontory of Calabria;
called alfo Salentmum. Now Capo di S.Maria di Leuca-
JAQUELOT (Ifaac), a celebrated French Pro-
teftant divine, born in 1647, at Valfy in Champagne,
where his father was minifter. ' The revocation of the
edift of Nantz obliging him to quit France, he took
refuge firft at Heidelberg, and then at the Hague,
where he procured an appointment in the Walloon
church. Here he continued till that capital was taken
by the king of Pruffia, who, hearing him preach, made J*r
him his French minifter in ordinary at Berlin ; to jj
which city he removed in 1702. While he lived at, •Jarch11,
Berlin, he entered into a warm controverfy with M.
Bayle on the dodlrine advanced in his didtionary-fa*
vouring manichasifm, which continued until death im-
pofed iilence on both parties: and it was in this dif*
pute that M. Jaquelot openly declared in favour of the
Remonftrants. tie wrote, among other works, I.
Dijj'ertations fur /’ exjjlence de Dieu. 2. Dffsrtations
fur le Mejfie. 3. Lett res a Meffieures les Prelats de
i’Eglife Gallicane. He was employed in finifhing an
important work upon the divine authority of the holy
feriptures, when he died fuddenly in 1708, aged 61.
JAR, orjARR, an earthen pot or pitcher, with a
big belly and two handles.—The word comes from
the Spanilh jarra or jam, which fignify the fame.
Jar is ufed for a fort of meafui* or fixed quantity
of divers things.—The jar of oil is from 18 to 26
gallons ; the jar of green ginger is about xoo pounds
weight.
JARCHI (Solomon), otherwife Rafchi and Ifaaki
Solomon, a famous rabbi, born at Troyes in Cham¬
pagne, who flourilhed in the 12th century. He was
a perfedf mailer of the talmud and gemara; and he
filled the poftils of the bible with fo many talmudical
reveries, as totally extinguifhed both the literal and
moral fenfe of it. A great part of his commentaries
are printed in Hebrew, and fome have been tranflated
into Latin by the Chrillians. They are all greatly
efteemed by the Jews, who have bellowed on the au¬
thor the title of prince of commentators.
JARDYN, or Jardin, (Karel du), painter of con-
verfations, landfcapes, &c. was born at Amfterdam in
1640, and became a difciple of Nicholas Berchem. He
travelled to Italy whilft he was yet a young man; and ar-
rivingat Rome,hegave himfelf up alternatelytoftudyand
diffipation. Yet, amidftthis irregularity of condutt, his
proficiency in the art was furprifing 5 and his paintings
rofe into fuch high repute, that they were exceedingly
coveted in Rome, and bought up at great prices. With
an intention to vifit his native city he at laft left Rome;
but paffing through Lyons, and meeting fome agree¬
able companions, they prevailed on him to ftay there
for fome time, and he found as much employment in
that city as he could poffibly undertake or execute.
But the profits which arofe from his paintings were not
proportionable to his profulion; and in order to extri¬
cate himfelf from the encumbrances in which his extra¬
vagance had involved him, he was induced to marry his
holtefs, who was old and difagreeable, but very .rich.
Mortified and affiamed of that adventure, he returned
as expeditioufly as poffible to Amfterdam, accompanied
by his wife, and there for fome time followed his pro-
feffion with full as much fuccefs as he had met with in
Italy or Lyons. He returned to Rome the fecond
time; and after a year or two fpent there in his ufual
extravagant manner, he fettled at Venice. In that city
his merit was well known before his arrival, which pro¬
cured him a very honourable reception. He lived there
highly carefled, and continually employed ; but died ae
the age of 38. He was fumptuoufly interred, out of
refpeft to his talents; and although a Proteftant, permit¬
ted to be laid in confecrated ground. This painter,,
in his colouring and touch, refembled his mailer Ber¬
chem :
J A S [ 77 ] J A S
chem : but he added to that manner a force which di-
ftinguifhes the great mailer* of Italy ; and it is obfer-
ved, that moil of his piftures feem to exprefs the
warmth of the fun, and the light of mid day. His pic-
lures are not much encumbered ; a few figures, fome
animals, and a little landfcape for the back-grounds, ge¬
nerally comprife the whole of his compofition. How¬
ever, fome of his fubje&s are often more extenfive, con¬
taining more objefts, and a larger defign. His'works
are as much fought after, as they are difficult to be
met with,
JARGON, a kind of precious (lone, of the nature
of the diamond, but fofter ; found in Brafil according
to M. de Bomare ; but in Ceylon, according to M.
Rome de L’lfle. Its fpecific gravity is nearly equal to
that of the ponderous fpar, being 44.16. Its cryftals
confift of two tetrahedral pyramids of equal fides, fepa-
rated by a (hort prifm ; fo that the jargon is properly
of a dodecahedral form. According to fome lapidaries,
thejargon comes neareft to the fapphire in hardnefs;
and as they have when cut and polifhed a great refem-
blance to the diamond, they are alfo called by fome foft
diamonds; and one may be eafily impofed upon in pur-
chafing thefe for the true kind, when they are made up
in any fort of jewellery work. On expofing this ftone
to a violent fire, M. D’Arcot found the furface a little
vitrified where it ftuck to the porcelain left in which
it was fet ; whence it appears, that the jargon has not
the leaft refemblance to the diamond, which is deftruc-
tible by fire. See Diamond.
JARIMUTH, Jarmuth, or Jerimoth, Jfofh. xv.
a town reckoned to the tribe of Judah, four miles from
Eleutheropolis, weft ward, (Jerome). Thought to be
the fame with Ramoth and Remeth, Jofhua xix. and
Nehem. x. 2. (Reland).
JARNAC, a town of France, in Orleanois and
in Angumois, remarkable for a viftory gained by
Henry III. over the Huguenots in 1569. It is feated
on the river Charente, in W. Long. o. 13. N. Lat.
45. 40.
JAROSLOW, a handfome town of Poland, in
the palatinate of Ruffia, with a ftrong citadel. It is
remarkable for its great fair, its handfome buildings,
and a battle gained by the Bwedes in 1656, after
which they took the town. It is feated on the river
Saine, in E. Long. 22. 23. N. Lat. 49. 38.
JASHER (The book of). This is a book which
Joftiua mentions, and refers to in the following paf-
fage : “ And the fun flood ftill, and the moon flayed,
until the people had avenged themfelves upon their
enemies: is not this written in the book of Jafher ?”
It is difficult to determine what this look of JaJher,
or “ the upright,” is. St Jerom and the Jews be¬
lieved it to be Genefis, or fome other book of the
Pentateuch, wherein God foretold he would do won¬
derful things irt favour of his people. Huetius fup-
pofes it was a book of morality, in which it was laid
that God would fubvert the courfe of nature in fa¬
vour of thofe who put their truft in him. Others
pretend, it was public annals, or records, which were
ftyled jujlice or upright, becaufe they contained a
faithful account of the hiftory of the ffraelites. Gro-
tius believes, that this book was nothing elfe but a'
fong, made to celebrate this miracle and this victory.
This feems the more probable opinion, becaufe the
word* cited by Jofhua as taken from this work,
“ Sun, ftand thou ItiH upon Gibeon, and thou moon
in the valley of Ajalon,” are fuch poetical exprefiions
as do not fuit with hiftorical memoirs; befides that
in the zd book of Samuel (i. 18.) mention is made of
a book under the fame title, on account of a fong
made on the death of Saul and Jonathan.
JASIONE, in botany : A genus of the monogamia
order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of plants j and
in the natural method ranking under the 29th order,
Campanacex, The common calyx is ten-leaved; and
the corolla has five regular petals; the capfule beneath,
two celled
JASMINE. SccJasminum.
ylrabian Jasmine. See Nyctanthes.
JASMINUM, Jasmine, or JeJfamine-tree, in bo¬
tany : A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to
the diandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 44th order, Seplariea. The corolla
is quinquefid, the berry dicoccous ; the feeds arillated,
the antherse within the tube.
Species. 1. The officinalis, or common white jaf-
mine, hath fhrubby long flender ftalks and branches,
rifing upon fupport 15 or 20 feet high, with nume¬
rous white flowers from the joints and ends, of a very
fragrant odour. There is a variety with white-ftri-
ped, and another with yellow-ftriped leaves. 2. The
fruticans, or fhrubby yellow jafmine, hath fhrubby,
angular, trailing ftalks and branches, rifing upon fup¬
port eight or ten feet high ; trifoliate and Ample al¬
ternate leaves; with yellow flowers from the fides and
ends of the branches, appearing in June ; frequently
producing berries of a black colour. This fpecies is
remarkable for fending up many fuckers from its roots;
often fo plentifully as to overfpread the ground, if not
taken up annually. 3. The humilis, or dwarf yellow
jafmine, hath fhrubby firm ftalks, and angular bran¬
ches, of low, fomewhat robufl and bufhy growth ;
broad, trifoliate, and pinnated leaves ; and large yel¬
low flowers in July, fometimes fucceeded by berries.
4. The grandiflorum, or great-flowered Catalonian
jafmine, hath a fhrubby firm upright flem, branch¬
ing out into a fpreading head from about three to fix
or eight feet high, with large flowers of a blufh-red
colour without, and white within, appearing from
July to November. Of this there is a variety with
femi-double flowers, having two feries of petals.
5. The azoricum, or azorian white jafmine, hath
fhrubby, long flender ftalks and branches, rifing up¬
on fupport 15 or 20 feet high, with pretty large
flowers of a pure white colour ; coming out in loofe
bunches from the ends of the branches, and appear¬
ing moft part of the fummer and autumn. 6. The
odoratiffimum, or moft fweet-feented yellow Indian
jafmine, hath a fhrubby upright ftalk branching eredk,
without fupport, fix or eight feet high, with bright
yellow flowers in bunches from the ends of the bran¬
ches ; flowering from July till October, and emitting
a moft fragrant odour.
Culture. The three firft fpecies are fufficiently
hardy to thrive in this climate without any fhelter.
They may be eafily propagated by layers and cuttings;
and the ftriped varieties by grafting or budding on
flocks of the common kind.—The other three fpecies,
which are tender, may alfo be increafed by layers, or
5 feeda,
Jafione
H
Jafminum.
J A S [ 78 ] J A T
Jafon feeds, or by grafting and budding them upon the
II common white and ihrubby yellow jafmine. They
, require Ihelter in a green houfe in winter, and there¬
fore muft. always be kept in pots to move them out
and in occafionally. The pots mult be filled with
light, rich earth, frequently watered in fummer, and
about once a week in winter, but always moderately
during that feafon. Prune off all the decayed wood
at any time when it appears, and ihorten or retrench
the rambling ihoots as you fee occafion, to preferve
the heads fomewhat regular ; managing them in other
refpe&s as the common green-houfe plants.
JASON, the Greek hero who undertook the Ar-
gonautic expedition, the hiltory of which is obicured
by fabulous traditions, flourilhed about 937 B. C. See
Argonauts.
JASPACHATES. See Jade-stone.
JASPER, in natural hiftory, a genus of Hones be¬
longing to the filiceous clafs. According to Cronftedt,
all the opaque flints are called by this name whofe tex¬
ture refembles dry clay, and which cannot be any
other way ditlinguiflied from flints, except that they
are more eafily melted ; which perhaps may alfo pro¬
ceed from a mixture of iron. The fpecies are,
1. Pure jafper ; which, Cronftedt informs us, cannot
be decompounded by any means hitherto known ; tho’
Mr Kirwan fays that it contains 75 per cent, of filex ;
20 of argil, and about five of calx of iron. The fpe-
cific gravity is from 2680 to 2778. It is found of dif¬
ferent colours ; viz. green with red dots from Egypt,
called alfo the heliotrope, or bloodJlone ; quite green from
Bohemia ; red from Italy, called there diafpro rojfo, or
yellow, called melites by the ancients ; a name, accord¬
ing to Pliny, of the fame import with male colons. It
is alfo found red with yellow fpots and veins, in Sicily,
Spain, and near Conftantinople, called by the 'ralians
diafpro forido ; or black from fome places in Sweden,
called by the Italians paragons antico.
2. Jafpis martialis, or iinople, containing iron. This
is a dark red ftone containing 18 or 20per cent, of me¬
tal. Near Chemnitz, where it forms very confiderable
veins, as Brunnich informs us, it has frequently fpecks
■of marcafite, cubic lead ores, and blend . It has like-
wife fo much gold as to be worth working : there is
likewife a ftriped finople of various colours. There are
feveral varieties differing in the coarfenefs and finenefs
of their texture, as well as the fhade of their colour ;
varying from a deep brown to a yellow. The latt is at¬
tracted by the magnet after calcination.
Cronftedt obferves that jafper, when frefh broken, fo
nearly refembles a bole of the fame colour, that it can
only be diftinguiftied by its hardnefs. In the province
of Dalame in Sweden, it is found in a kind of hard
fand-ftone ; in other places it is found within fuch unc¬
tuous clefts as are ufually met with in Colnilh clay, red
chalk, and other fubftances of that kind. There are
likewife fomejafpers that imbibe water; from whence,
and other confiderations, our author is of opinion that
they have clay for their bafis, notwithftandine their
hardnefs. According to Magellan, it refills the blow¬
pipe perfe, and is only partially foluble with the mineral
alkali; feparating intofmall particles with effervefcence:
with borax or microcofmic fait it melts without any ef¬
fervefcence. Bergman, in his Sciagraphia, informs
its, that it is compoled of filiceous earth united to a
clay very full of iron. The mineral acids have no ef- Jafponyt,
feCt upon it in a Ihort time, but corrode it by fome Jatropha. 1
months immerfion. On treating a fmall piece of green
jafper with vitriolic acid, fome cryftals of alum and
green vitriol were obtained ; which Ihows that iron and
clay are ingredients in its compofition. M. Dauben-
ton mentions 15 varieties of this fubftance, 1. Green,
from Bohemia, Silefia, Siberia, and the (hores of the
Cafpiati fea ; which feems to be thepavonium of Aldro-
vandus. 2. I'he diafpro roffo, or red jafper ; lefs com¬
mon, and in fmaller maffes, than the green. 3. Yellow
from Freyberg and Rochtliz ; fometimes of a citron
colour, and appearing as if compofed of filky filaments;
commonly called the filk jafper. 4. Brown from Dale-
carlia in Finland and Sweden. 5. The violet from Si¬
beria. 6. The black from Sweden, Saxony, and Fin¬
land. 7. The bluifti-grey, a very rare fpecies. 8. The
milky white mentioned by Pliny, and found in Dale-
carlia. 9. The variegated with green, red, and yel¬
low clouds. 10. The blood ftone, green with red
fpecks, from Egypt, which was fuppofed to ftop the
blood. 11. The veined with various colours. Some¬
times thefe veins have a diftant refemblance to various
letters, and then the jafper is named by the French
jafpe grammatique. Some of thefe found near Rochelle
in France, on account of their curious variety in this re-
fpeef, are named polygrammatiques. 12. fhe jafper with
various coloured zones. 13. That calledforito by the
Italians ; which has various colours mixed promifeu-
oufly without any order. 14. When the jafper has
many colours together, it is then (very improperly)
called univerfal. 15. When it contains fome particles
of agate, it is then called agatifed)ddptr.
JASPONYX, in natural hiftory, the pureft horn-
coloured onyx, with beautiful green zones, which are
compofed of the genuine matter of the fineft jafpers.
See Jasper and Onyx
JAPROPHA, the cassada plant: A genus of
the monodelphia order, belonging to the monoecia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 38th order,TWwcrrt. There is no male calyx ;
the corolla is monopetalous, and funnel-ftiaped; there
are ten ftamina, one alternately longer than the other.
There is no female calyx ; the corolla is pentapetalous,
and patent; there are three bifid ftyles ; the capluie is
trilocular, with one feed in each cell. There are nine
Species. Of thefe the molt remaikable are the fol¬
lowing: 1. The curcas, or Englilh phyfic-nut, with
leaves cordate and angular, is a knotty Ihrub growing
about 10 or 12 feet high. The extremities of the
branches are covered with leaves ; and the flowers,
which are of a green herbaceous kind, are let on
in an umbel fafliion round the extremities of the
branches, but efpecially the main (talks. Thefe are fuc-
cetded by as many nuts, whole outward tegumen- Is
green and bulky; which being p ehd off, diic v. • - die
nut, whofe fhcil is black, and eafiiy cracked : Thi con¬
tains an almond like kernel, divided into two parts, be¬
tween which fepararionlie two milkwhite thin mr-mbra-
naceous leaves, eafily feparable from each other. Thefe
have not only a bare refemblance of perfect leaves, but
have, in particular, every part, the ftalk, the middle rib,
and tranfverfe ones, as vifible as any leaf whatfoever.
2. The goffypifolia. cotton-leaved jatropha or bdly-ach
buffi, the leaves of which are quinquepartite, with lobes
ovate
JAT [79] JAV
^Jatrnpha. OVate and entire, and glandular branchy briftles. The grated into a tub or trough : after this they are put Java.
ftem, which is covered with a light greyifli bark, into a hair bag, and ftrongly prefled with a view to'—-v-—
grows to about three or four feet high, foon dividing fqueeze out the juice, and the meal or farina is dried
into feveral wide extended branches. Thefe ate neither in a hot ftone-bafon over the fire : it is then made in¬
decorated with leaves nor flowers till near the top, to cakes. It alfo makes excellent puddings, equal to
which is then furrounded by the former : Their foot- millet.—The fcrapings of frefh bitter caflada are
{talks, as well as the young buds on the extremity of fuccefsfully applied to ill-difpofed ulcers. Caflada
the branches, are guarded round with ftiff hairy roots yield a great quantity of ftarch, which the Bra-
briftles, which are always tipt with glutinous liquid filians export in little lumps under the name of tapioca.
dropis. From among thefe rife feveral fmall deep-red According to Father Labat, the fmall bits of manioc
pentapetalous flowers, the piftil of each being thick fet which have efcaped the grater, and the clods which
at the top with yellow farinaceous dull which blows have not pafled the fieve, are not ufelefs. They are
off- when ripe : thefe flowers are fucceeded by hexa- dried in the ftove after the flour is roafted, and then
gonal bulky blackilh berries, which when ripe open pounded in a mortar to a fine white powder, with which
by the heat of the fun, emitting a great many fmall they make foup. It is likewife ufed for making a kind
dark-coloured feeds, which ferve as food for ground- of thick coarfe caflada, which is roafted till almoft
doves. The leaves are few; but feldom or never drop burnt; of this, fermented with molafles and Weft-In-
off, nor are eaten by vermin of any kind. 3. The mul- dia potatoes, they prepare a much efteemed drink or
tifida, or French phyfic-nut, with leaves many parted beverage called oaycott. This liquor, the favourite drink
and polilhed, and ftipules briftly and multifid, grows of the natives, is fometimes made extremely ftrong,
to be ten feet high. The main ftalk divides into very
few branches, and is covered with a greyifn white
bark. The leaves Hand upon fix-inch footftalks, fur¬
rounding the main ftalk, generally near the top, in an
irregular order. The flowers grow in bunches, um¬
bel fafhion, upon the extremities of each large ftalk,
very much refembling, at their firft appearance, a
bunch of red coral: thefe afterwards open into fmall
five leaved purple flowers, and are fucceeded by nuts,
which refemble thofe of the firft fpecies. 4. The ma-
nihot, or bitter caflada, has palmated leaves ; the lobes
efpecially on any great occafion, as a feaft : with this
they get intoxicated, and, remembering their old
quarrels, maffacre and murder each other. Such of
the inhabitants and workmen as have not wine, drink
ouycou. It is of a red-colour, ftrong, nourifhing,
refrdhing, and eafily inebriates the inhabitants, who
foon accuftom themfelves to it as eafily as beer.
The. 6th fpecies is the Hevea Guianenjis of Aublet -j-, j. fj-n .
or tree which yields the elaftic refin called caoutchouc Places
or India rubber ; fora particular account of which, fee * Guiana
     , r , ,  the article Caoutchouc. Our figure is copied from ^ran°'!Ser-
lanceolate, very entire, and polifhed. 5. The jani- Aublet’s tab. 335. and not from the erroneous plate ^‘8^’
pha, or fweet caflada, has palmated leaves, with lobes given in the Abla Pariftana-
very entire ; the intermediate leaves lobed with a finus JAVA, a large ifland of the Eaft Indies, lying be¬
tween 105° and 116° E. Long, and from 6° to 8° Si
Lat. extending in length 700 miles, and in breadth
about 100. It is fituated to the fouth of Borneo, and
fouth eaft from the peninfula of Malacca, having Su¬
matra lying before it, from which it is feparated by ;
on both fides. 6. The elaftica, with ternate leaves, ellip¬
tic, very entire, hoary underneath, and longly petioled.
See figures of the two laft on Plates CCXLVIII. and
CCXL1X. which renders a more particular defcrip-
tion unneceffary.
Properties., &c. The firft fpecies, a native of the narrow paflage, ■ now fo famous in the world by the
Weft Indies, is planted round negro gardens. A de- name of the Straits of Sunda. The country is moun-
co&ion of the leaves of it, and of the fecond fpecies
(which grows wild), Dr Wright informs us, is often
ufed with advantage in fpafmodic belly-ach, attended
with vomiting : it fits eafier on the ftomach than any
thing elfe, and feldom fails to bring about a difchaige
by ftool. The third fpecies, a native of the fame
countries, is cultivated there as an ornamental flirub.
The feeds of all the three are draftic purgatives and
tainous and woody in the middle; but a flat coaft, full
of bogs and marlhes, renders the air unhealthful. It
produces pepper, indigo, fugar, tobacco, rice, coffee,
cocoa-nuts, plantains, cardamoms, and other tropical
fruits. Gold alfo, but in no great quantities, hath
been found in it. It is divertified by many mountains,,
woods, and rivers; in all which nature has very boun¬
tifully bellowed her treafures. The mountains are
emetics ; and they yield, by deco&ion, an oil of the many of them fo high as to be feen at the diftance of
fame ufes and virtues as the oleum ricini. See Rici- three or four leagues. That which is called the Blue
mus. Mountain is by far the higheft of them all, and feen
The 4th and 5th fpecies, the janipha and manihot, the fartheft off, at fea. They have freqpent and very
are natives of Africa and the Weft Indies, where they terrible earthquakes in this ifland, which fhake the city
are cultivated as articles of food. It is difficult, Dr of Batavia and places adjacent, to fuch a degree, that
Wright fays, to diftmguilh the bitter from the fweet
caflada by the roots : but it will be beft to avoid thofe
of the, caffada that bears flowers, as it is the bitter,
which is poifonous when raw.
the fall of the houfes is expected every moment. The
waters in the road are exceffively agitated, infomuch
that their motion refembles that of a boiling pot ;
! fome places the earth opens, which affords a.
The root of bitter caffada has no fibrous or woody ftrange and terrible fpe&acle. The inhabitants are of
filaments in the heart, and neither boils nor roafts foft.
The fweet caftada has all the oppofite qualities. The
bitter, however, may be deprived of its noxious quali¬
ties (which refide in the juice) by heat. Caffada
bread, therefore, is‘made of both the bitter and.fweet,
thus r—The roots are wafhtd and fcraped clean ; then.
opinion, that thefe earthquakes proceed from the moun¬
tain Parang,, which is full of fulphur, faltpetre, and;:
bitumen. The fruits and plants of this ifland are ail
in their feveral kinds excellent, and almoft out of num¬
ber. There are abundance of forefts fcattered over it,
in which are all kinds of wild hearts, fuch as buffaloes.
J A V
trgers, rhinocerofes, and wild horfes, with an infinite
variety of ferpents, fome of them of an enormous fize.
Crocodiles are p^odigioufly large in Java, and are found
chiefly about the mouths of rivers; for, being amphi¬
bious animals, they delight moftly in marfhes and fa-
vannahs. This creature, like the tortoife, lays its eggs
in the hot fands, without taking any further care of
them ; and the fun hatches them at the proper feafon,
when they run inftantly into the water. There is, in
fliort, no kind of animal wanting here : fowls they
have of all forts, and exquifitely good, efpecially pea¬
cocks, partridges, pheafants, wood-pigeons : and, for
curiofity, they have the Indian bat, which differs little
in form from ours ; but its wings, when extended,
meafure a full yard, and the body of it is of the fize of
a rat. They have fifliin great plenty, and very good;
fo that for the value of three pence there may be e-
nough bought to dine fix or feven men. They have
like wife a multitude of tortoifes, the flefh of which is
very little inferior to veal, and there are many who
think it better.
It is faid, that there are in the ifland upwards of
40 great towns, which, from the number of their in¬
habitants, would, in any other part of the world, me¬
rit the title of cities; and more than 4500 villages,
befides hamlets, and ftraggling houfes, lying very
near each other, upon the fea-coaft, and in the neigh¬
bourhood of great towns: hence, upon a fair and
moderate computation, there^are within the bounds
of the whole ifland, taking in perfons of both fexes,
and of all ranks and ages, more than thirty millions
of fouls; fo that it is thrice as populous as France,
which, though twice as big, is not computed to have
more than twenty millions of inhabitants.
There are a great many princes in the ifland, of
which the mod confiderable are, the emperor of Ma-
teran, who refides at Katafura, and the kings of Ban¬
tam and Japara. Upon the firft of thefe many of the
petty princes are dependant; but the Dutch are ab¬
solute mafters of the greateft part of the ifland, parr
ticularly of the north coaft, though there are fome of
the princes beyond the mountains, on the fouth coaft,
who ftill maintain their independency. The natives
of the country, who are eftahlifhed in the neighbour¬
hood of Batavia, and for a traff of about 40 leagues
along the mountains of the country of Bantam, are
immediately fubjeft to the governor-general. The
company fend droffards, or commiffaries, among them,
who adminifter juftice and take care of the public re¬
venues.
The city of Batavia is the capital not only of this
ifland but of all the Dutch dominions in India. It
is an exceeding fine city, fituated in the latitude of
6° fouth, at the mouth of the river Jucatra, and in
the bofom of a large commodious bay, which may be
confidcred not only as one of the fafeft harbours in
India, but in the world. The city is furrounded by
a rampart 21 feet thick, covered on the outfide with
ftone and fortified with 22 baftions. This rampart is
environed by a ditch 45 yards over, and full of water,
efpecially when the tides are high, in the fpring. The
avenues to the town are defended by feveral forts,
each of which is well furniftied with excellent brafs
cannon : no perfon is fuft'ered to go beyond thefe forts
without a paffport. The river Jucatra paffes through
N° 162.
J A V
the midft of the town, and forms 15 canals of run-
nin wat. r, all faced with fre -ftone, and adorned
with trees that are ever gret n: over thefe canals are
56 bridges, befides thofe which he without the town.
The ftreets are all perfe<ftly ftraight, and each, ge¬
nerally fpeaking, 30 feet broad. The houfes are
built of ftone, after the manner of thofe in Holland.
The city is about a league and a half in circumference,
and has five gates ; but there are ten times the num¬
ber of houfes without that there are within it. There
is a very fine town-houfe, four Calvinift churches, be¬
fides other places of worfhip for all forts of religions,
afpin-huysor houfe of correftion, an orphan-houfe,
a magazine of fea-ftores, feveral for fpices, with
wharfs and cord-manufaftures, and many other pub¬
lic buildings. The garrifon confifts commonly of be¬
tween 2000 and 3000 men. Befides the forts men-
tianed above, there is the citadel of Batavia, a very
fine regular fortification, fituated at the mouth of the
river, and flanked with four baftions ; two of which
command the fea, and the other two the town. It
is in this citadel that the governor general of the In¬
dies has his palace ; over-againll which is that of the
direftor general, who is the next perfon to the gover¬
nor. The counftllors, and other principle officers of
the company, have alfo their apartments there; as
have likewife the phyfician, the furgeon, and the a-
pothecary. There are in it, befides, arfenals and ma¬
gazines furnilhed with ammunition for many years.
The city of Batavia is not only inhabited by Dutch,
French, Portugutfe, and other Europeans, eftablilhed
here on account of trade ; but alfo by a vaft number
of Indians of different nations, Javanefe, Chinefe,
Malayans, Negroes, Amboynefe, Armenians, native*
of the ifle of Bali, Mardykers or Topaffes, Macaffers,
Timors, Bougis, &c. Of the Chinefe, there are, it is
faid, about 160,ooo in the ifland; of which near
30,000 refided in the city till the year 1740, when
the Dutch, pretending that they were in a plot againft
them, fent a body of troops into their quarter, and
demanded their arms, which the Chinefe readily de¬
livered up ; and the next day the governor fent another
body, with orders to murder and maffacre every one of
the Chinefe, men, women, and children. Some relate
there were 20,000, others 30,000, that were put to
death, without any manner of trial: and yet the bar¬
barous governor, who was the inftrument of this cruel
proceeding, had the affurance to embark for Europe,
imagining he had amaffed wealth enough to fecure
him againft any profecution in Holland : but the
Dutch, finding themfelves detefted and abhorred by
all mankind for this piece of tyranny, endeavoured to
throw the odium of it upon the governor, though he
had the hands of all the council of Batavia, except one,
to the order for the maffacre. The ftates, therefore,
difpatched a packet to the Cape of Good Hope, con¬
taining orders to apprehend the governor, and fend
him back to Batavia to be tried. He was according¬
ly apprehended at ihe Cape ; but has never been heard
of fince. It is fuppofed he was thrown over-hoard in
his paffage to Batavia, that there might be no farther
inquiries into the matter ; and it is faid, all the wealth
this merciful gentleman had amaffed, and fent over
before him in four Ihips, was call away in the
paffage.
1 80 ]
Befides
Plate CCXLTX.
tr.
J A Z [
Befides the g:rrifon here, the Dutch, it is faid.
have about ij,oco men in the ifland, either Dutch,
j or formed out of the feveral nations they have en-
flaved; and they have a fleet of between 20 and 30
men of war, with which they give law to every power
on the coaft of Aiia and Africa, and to all the Euro^-
pean powers that vifit the Indian Ocean, unlefs we
fhould now except the Britiih : it was, howevei, but
a little before the revolution that they expelled us
from our fettlement at Bantam.
JAVELIN, in antiquity, a fdrt of fpear five feet
«nd an half long ; the fliaft of which was of wood,
with a fteel point.—Every foldier in the Roman ar¬
mies had feven of thefe, which were very light and
Bender.
JAVELLO (Chryfoftome), a learned Italian Do¬
minican of the 16th century, taught philofophy and
theology at Bologna, and died about the year 1540.
He wrote a work on philofophy, another on politics,
and another on Chriilian ceconomy, which are efteem-
ed ; with notes on Pomponatius, and other works,
printed in 3 vols folio.
JAWER, a city of Silefia, capital of a province of
the fame name, with a citadel, and a large fquare
furrounded with piaxzas. It is 12 miles fouth-eart of
Lignitz, 30 fouth-weft of Breflau, and 87 ead of
Prague. E. Long. 16. 29. N. Lat. 50. 56.
JAUNDICE (derived from the French jauniffe
“ yellovvnefs,” of janne “ yellow”); a difeafe confid¬
ing in a fuffufion of the bile, and a rejection thereof
to the furface of the body, whereby the whole exte¬
rior habit is difcoloured. Dr Maclurg is of opinion,
that the bile returns into the circulation in this difor-
der by the courfe of the lymphatics. See Medicine-
Jtulex.
JAWS. See Maxilla.
Locked Jaw, is 4 fpafmodic contra&ion of the low-
•er jaw, commonly produced by fome external injury
affefting the tendons or ligaments. See Medicine-
Index.
JAY, in ornithology. See Corvus.
Jay (Guy Michael le), a French gentleman, who
'didinguilhed himfclf by caufing a polyglot bible to be
printed at his own expence in 10 vols folio: but he
ruined himfclf by that impreffion, fird becaufe he
would not differ it to appear under the name of cardi¬
nal Richelieu, who, after the example of cardinal Xi-
mcnes, was ambitious of eternizing his name by this
means ; and next, becaufe he made it too dear for the
Englifh market; on which Dr Walton undertook his
polyglot bible, which, being more commodious, redu¬
ced the price of M. le Jay’s. After the death of his
wife, M. le Jay took orders, was made dean of Veze-
lay in the Nivernois, and Louis XIV. gave him the
pod of counfellor of date.
JAZER, or Jaser (anc. geog.), a Levitical city
in the territory of the Amorrhites beyond Jordan, io
miles to the wed, or rather fouth-wed, of Philadelphia,
and 15 miles from Efebon; and therefore fituated be¬
tween Philadelphia and Hefiibon, on the ead border of
the tribe of Gad, fuppofed to be the Jtnorem of Jo-
fephus. In Jeremiah xlviii. mention is made of the fea
of Jazer, that is a lake; taken either for an effufion
or overflowing of the Arnon, or a lake through which
it paffes, or from which it takes its rife,
Vou. IX. Part I.
Si ] t B Y
IBERIA (Spain), fo called by the ancients from Ihfti
the river Iberus. Iberes the people, from the nomi- I!
native Iber. See Hispania. ^cu'c* f
Iberia was alfo the name of an inland country of
Afia, having Colchis to the wed, with a part of Poa-
tus; to the north mount Caucafus; on the ead Alba¬
nia; and on the fouth Armenia Magna: Now the
wedern part of Georgia (fee Georgia). Iberia, ac¬
cording to Jofephus, was fird peopled by Tubal, the
brother of Gomer and Magog. His opinion is con¬
firmed by the Septuagint; for Mefiiech and Tubal are
by thefe interpreters rendered Mofchi and Iberians,
We know little of the hidofy of the country till the
reign of Mithridates, when their king, named Artocist
fiding with that prince againd Lucullus, and after¬
wards againd Pompey, was defeated by the latter with
great daughter; but afterwards obtained a peace, up¬
on delivering up his fons as hodages. Little notice is
taken of the fucceeding kings by the ancient hidori-
ans. They were probably tributary to the Romans
till that empire was overturned, when this, with the
other countries in Afia bordering on it, fell fucceffive-
ly under the power of the Saracens and Turks.
IBERIS,sciATiCACREssES,or Candy-tufl: Agenus
of the filiquofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method n.n^ ig un¬
der the 39th order, SUiquifx. The corolla is irregular;
the two exterior petals larger than the interior ones;
the filicula polyfpermous, emarginated.
Species. 1. The umbellata, or common candy-tuft,
hath herbaceous, Ihort, round, and very branchy dalks
of tufty growth, from about fix to eight or ten inches
high; fmall fpear-(haped leaves, the lower ones ferra-
ted, the upper entire; and all the dalks and branches
terminated by umbellate cluders of flowers of different
colours in the varieties. 2. The amara, or bitter can¬
dy-tuft, hath dalks branching like the former, which
rife from eight to ten or twelve inches high ; fmall,
fpear-fhaped, and (lightly indented leaves; and all the
branches terminated by racemofe bunches of white
flowers in June and July. 3. The fempervirens, com¬
monly called tree candy-tuft, hath low underflirubby
dalks, very branchy and bufliy, riling to the height of
to or 12 inches, with white flowers in umbels at the
ends of the branches, appearing great part of the dim¬
mer. 4. The femperflorens, or ever-flowering (hrubby
iberis, hath low underflirubby ftalks very branchy,
growing to the height of 18 inches, with white flowers
in umbels at the ends of the branches, appearing at all
times of the year.
Culture. The two fird kinds, being hardy annuals,
may be fowed in any common foil in the month of
March, or from that time till midfummer, and will
thus afford a fucceflion of flowers from June to Sep¬
tember, which are fucceeded by great plenty of feeds.
The other two are fomewhat tender; and therefore
mud be planted in pots, in order to be (heltered from
the winter-frods. They areealily propagated by flips
or cuttings.
IBEX, in zoology. See Capra.
IBIS, in ornithology. See Tantalus.
1BYCUS, a Greek lyric poet, of whofe works
there are only a few fragments remaining, flouriftied
550 B. C. It is faid, that he was affaflinated by
robbers; and that, when dying, he called upon fome
L cranes
ICE [82
cranes he faw flying to bear witnefs. Some time after,
one of the murderers feeing fome cranes, faid to his
companions, “ There are the witneffes of Ibycus’s
death:” which being reported to the magiftrates, the
affaffins were put to the torture, and having confeffed
the fail, were hanged. Thence arofe the proverb
I byci Grues.
ICE, in phyfioiogy, a folid, tranfparent, and brittle
body, formed of fome fluid, particularly water, by
means of cold. See Frost.
The younger Lemery obferves, that ice is only a
re-eftablilhment of the parts of water in their natural
Hate; that the mere abfence of fire is fufficient to ac¬
count for this re-eftablifhment; and that the fluidity
of water is a real fufion, like that of metals expofed to
the fire; differing only in this, that a greater quan¬
tity of fire is neceflery to the one than the other. Gal-
lileo was the firft that obferved ice to be lighter than
the water which compofed it: and hence it happens,
that ice floats upon water, its fpecific gravity being to
that of water as eight to nine. This rarefaction of ice
feems to be owiiig to the air-bubbles produced in wa¬
ter by freezing ; and which, being confiderably large
in proportion to the water frozen, render the body fo
miW / fpecificali'y lighter : thefe air-bubbles, during
th • odu&ion, acquire a great expanfive power, fo
a j srif the containing veffels, though ever fo ftrong.
Set; Congelation, Cold.
M. Mairan, in a differtation on ice, attributes the
increafe of its bulk chiefly to a different arrangement
of the parts of the water from which it is formed; the
icy fkin on the water being compofed of filaments
which, according to him, are found to be conflantly
and regularly joined at an angle of 6oQ; and which,
by this angular difpofition, occupy a greater volume
than if they were parallel. Fie found the augmenta¬
tion of the volume of water by freezing, in different
trials, a 14th, an 18th, a 19th, and when the water
was previoufly purged of air, only a 2zd part: that
ice, even after its formation, continues to expand by
cold ; for, after water had been frozen to fome thick-
nefs, the fluid part being let out by a hole in the bot¬
tom of the veffel, a continuance of the cold made the
ice convex ; and a piece of ice, which was at firll only
a 14th part fpecifically lighter than water, on being
expofed fome days to the froft, became a 12th part
lighter. To this caufe he attributes the burfling of ice
on ponds.
Wax, refins, and animal-fats, made fluid by fire, in-
flead of expanding like wateiy liquors, (brink in their
return to folidity: for folid pieces of the fame bodies
fink to the bottom of the refpe&ive fluids ; a proof
that thefe bodies are more denfe in their folid than in
their fluid ftate. The oils which congeal by cold, as
oil-olive, and the effential oil of anifeeds, appear alfo
to fhrink in their congelation. Hence, the different
difpofitions of different kinds of trees to be burft by,
or to refill, ftrong frofts, are by fome attributed to the
juices with which the tree abounds ; being in the one
cafe watery, and in the other refinous or oily.
Though it has been generally fuppofed that the na¬
tural cryftals of ice are flars of fix rays, forming angles
of 6o° with each other, yet this cryftallization of wa¬
ter, as it may properly be called, feems to be as much
affe&ed by circuna fiances as that of falts. I fence w.e
] ICE
find a confiderable difference in the accounts of thofe Ice*
who have undertaken to defcribe thefe cryftals. M.— y—■
Mairan informs us, that they are ftars with fix radii;
and his opinion is confirmed by obferving the figure
of froft on glafs. M. Rome de L’lfle determines the
form of the folid cryftal to be an equilateral odlaedron.
M. Haffenfratz found it to be a prifmatic hexaedron;
but M. d’Antic found a method of reconciling thefe
feemingly oppofite opinions. In a violent hail-ftorm,
where the hailftones were very large, he found they
had (harp wedge-like angles of more than half an inch;
and in thefe he fuppofed it impoffible to fee two
pyramidal tetraedra joined laterally, and not to con¬
clude that each grain was compofed of o&aedrons con¬
verging to a centre. Some had a cavity in the middle;
and he faw the oppofite extremities of two oppofite
pyramids, which conflitute the oflaedrpn; he like-
wife faw the odlaedron entire united in the middle ;
all of them were therefore fimilar to the cryftals form¬
ed upon a thread immerfed in a faline folution. On
thefe principles M. Antic conftrufted an artificial odla-
edron refembling one of the largeft hailftones ; and
found that the angle at the fummit of the pyramid
was 45°, but that of the jundtion of the two pyra¬
mids 1450. It is not, however, eafy to procure regu¬
lar cryftals in hailftones where the operation is con¬
duced with fuch rapidity: in fnow and hoar-froft,
where the cryftallization goes on more (lowly, our
author is of opinion that he fees the rudiments of
oCaedra.
Ice, as is explained under the article Frost, forms
generally on the furface of water : but this too, like
the cryftallization, may be varied by an alteration in
the circumftances. In Germany, particularly the nor¬
thern parts of that country, it has been obferved that
there are three kinds of ice. 1. That which forms on
the furface. 2. Another kind formed in the middle
of the water, refembling nuclei or fmall hail. 3. The
ground -ice which is produced at the bottom, efpecially
where there is any fibrous fubftance to which it may
adhere. This is full of cells like a wafp’s neft, but lefs
regular; and performs many ftrange effedts in bringing
up very heavy bodies from the bottom, by means of it*
inferiority in fpecific gravity to the water in which it
is formed. The ice which forms in the middle of the
water rifes to the top, and there unites into large
mafles; but the.formation both of this and the ground*-
ice takes place only in violent and fudden colds, where
the water is (hallow, and the furface difturbed in fuch
a manner that the congelation cannot take place.' The
ground-ice is very deftrudlive to dykes and other aqua¬
tic works. In the more temperate European climates
thefe kinds of ice are not met with.
In many countries the warmth of the climate ren¬
ders ice not only a defirable, but even a neceflary
article; fo that it becomes an objedl of fome confe-
quence to fall upon a ready and cheap method of pro¬
curing it. Though the cheapeft method hitherto difco-
vered feems to be that related under the article Cold,
by means of fal ammoniac or Glauber’s fait, yet it
may not be amifs to take notice of fome attempts
made by Mr Cavallo to difcover a method of produ¬
cing a fufficient degree of cold for this purpofe by the
evaporation of volatile liquors. He found, however,
in the courfe of thefe experiments, that ether was in-
com-
ICE [ 83 j ICE
comparably fuperior to any other fluid in the degree
of cold it produced. The price of the liquor natu¬
rally induced him to fall upon a method of ufing it
with as little walle as poffible. The thermometer he
made ufe of had the ball quite detached from the ivory
piece on which the fcale was engraved. The various
fluids was then thrown upon the ball through the ca¬
pillary aperture of a fmall glafs veflel lhaped like a
funnel; and care was taken to throw them upon it fo
flowly, that a drop might now and then fall from the
under part, excepting when thofe fluids were uted,
which evaporate very flowly ; in which cafe it was
fufiicient barely to keep the ball moiit, without any
drop falling from it. During the experiment the
thermometer was kept very gently turning round its
axis, that the fluid made ufe of might fall upon every
part of its ball. He found this method preferable to
that of dipping the ball of the thermometer into the
fluid and taking it out again immediately, or even of
anointing it conftantly with a feather. The evapora¬
tion, and confequently the cold, produced by it, may
be increafed by blowing on the thermometi r with a
pair of bellows ; though' this was not ufed in the ex¬
periments now to be related, on account of the diffi¬
culty of its being performed by one perfon, and like¬
wise becaufe it occafions much uncertainty in the re-
fults.
The room in which the experiments were made was
heated to 64° of Fahrenheit; and with water it was
reduced to 56°, viz. tt1' btlow ihat of tfn rqom or of
the water employed. The effi Ct took place in about
two minutes; but though the operation was continued
for a longer time, it did not link lower. With tpirit_
of wine it funk to 48 . i he cold was greater with
highly re&ified fpirit than with the wt aker fort; but
the difference is Ids than would be expe&ed by one
who had never feen the experiment made. The pure
fpirit produces its effidt much more quickly. On
ulbig various other fluids which were either compound
ed of water and fpintuous liquors or puredfences, he
found that the o ld produced by their evaporation was
generally fome intermediate degree between that pro-,
duced by water and the fpirit of wine. Oil of turpen¬
tine funk the mercury three degrees ; but olive oil and
others, which evaporate very flowly, or not at all, did
not fenfibly affedt the thermometer.
To obferve how much the evaporation of fpirit of
wine, and conftquently the cold produced by it, would
be inoeafed by eltdtricity, he put the tube containing
it into an infulating handle, and connedted it with the
conductor of an eledtricai machine, which was kept in
adlion during the time of making the experiment ; by
which means one degree of cold feemed to be-gained,
as the mercury now funk to 47° initead of 48 , at
which it had flood formerly. On trying the three
mineral acids, he found that they heated the thermo¬
meter inread of cooling it; which effedl he attri¬
butes to the heat they themlelves aequired by uniting
with the moifture of the atmofphere. The vitriolic
acid, which was very ftrong and tranfparent, railed
the mercury to i<_20, thefmoking nitrous acid to 720,
and the marine to 66°.
Tnt apparatus f r ufing the leaft poffible quantity
©f ether for fieezing water confifts in a glals tube
(fig. 1.), terminating in a capillary aperture, which is Tc«‘
to be fixed upon the bottle containing the ether.
Round the lower part of the neck at A fome thread qql.
is wound, ih order to let it fit the neck of the bottle.
When the experiment is to be made, the ftopper of the
bottle containing the ether is to be removed, and the
tube juft mentioned put in its room. The thread
round the tube ought alfo to be previoufly moiftened
with water or fpittie before it is put into the neck of
the bottle, in order the more effedually to prevent the
efcape of the ether betwixt the neck of the vial and
tube. Holding then the bottle by its bottom FG
(fig. 2 ), and keeping it inclined as in the figure, the
fm;dl ft ream of ether iffuing out of the aperture D of
the tube DE, is direfted upon the ball of the ther¬
mometer, or upon a tube containing water or other li¬
quor that is required to be congealed. As ether is
very volatile, and has the remarkable property of in-
creafing the bulk of aV, there is no aperture requifite
to allow the air to enter the bottle while the liquid
flows out. The heat of the hand is more than fuffi-
cient to force out the ether in a continued ftream at
the aperture D.
In this manner, throwing the ftream of ether upon
the ball of a thermometer in fuch a quantity that a
drop might nowand then, every" 10 feconds ( r in-
ftance, fall from the bulb of the thermometer, Mr Ca-
vallo brought the mercury down to 30, or 29° below
the freezing point, when the atmofpherc was fomewhat
hotter than temperate. When the ether is very good,
i. e. capable of difiblving elaftic gum, and has a fmall
bulb, not above 20 drops of it are required to pro¬
duce this effedf, and about two minutes of time ; but
the common fort mull be ufed in greater quantity, and
for a longer time; though at laft the thermometer is
brought down by this very nearly as low as by the
bell fort.
To freeze water by the evapotai.-m of ether, Mr
Cavallo takes a thin glafs tube about four inches long,
and one-hfth of an inch diameter, hermetically fealed
at one end, with a little water in it, fo as to take up
about half an inch of the cavity, as is (hown at CB in
fig. 3. Into this tube a flender wire H is alfo intro¬
duced, the lower extremity of which is twilled into a
fpiral, and ferves to draw up the bit of ice when form¬
ed. He then holds the glafs tube by its upper part
A with the fingers of the left hand, and keeps it conti¬
nually and gently turning round its axis, firft one way
and then the other ; whilft with the right hand he
holds the phial containing the ether in fuch a man¬
ner as to direct the ftream on the outfide of the tube,
and a little above the furtace of the water contained in
it. The capillary aperture D fhould be kept alirolt
in contadt with the lurface of the tube, containing the
water; and by continuing >he operation for two or
three minutes, the water will be frozen as it were in
an in'tant; and the opacity will afeend to C in lefs
than half a fecondof time which makes a beautiful ap¬
pearance. This congelation, however, is only fuper-
fioial ; and in order to congeal the whole quantity of
water, the operation mulf be continued a minute or
two longer; after which the wire H will be found
kept very tight by the ice. The hand mull then be
applied to the outfide of the tube, in order to fuften
L 2 the
1 C E
Ice. the furface of the ice ; which wouhl otherwise adhere
very firmly to the glafs ; but when this is done, the
wire H eafily brings it out.
Sometimes our author was accuftomed to put into
the tube a {mail thermometer inftead of the wire H ;
and thus he had an opportunity of obferving a very
curious phenomenon unnoticed by others, viz. that in
the winter time water requires a fmaller degree of cold
to congeal it than in the fummer. In the winter, for
inftance, the water in the tube AB will freeze when
the thermometer Hands about 30c$ but in the fummer,
or even when the thermometer Hands at 6o2, the quick-
fdver mull be brought down 10, 15, or even more de¬
grees below the freezing point before any congelation
can take place. In the fummer time therefore a
greater quantity of ether, and more time, will be re¬
quired to congeal any given quantity of water than in
winter. When the temperature of the atmofphere has
been about 40s, our author has been able to congeal a
quantity of water with an equal quantity of good
ether; but in fummer two or three times the quantity
are required to perform the efifedl. “ There feems
(fays he) to be fomething in the air, which, befides
beat, interferes with the freezing of water, and per¬
haps of all fluids t though I cannot fay from my own
experience whether the above mentioned difference
between the freezing in winter and fummer takes place
with other fluids, as milk, oils, wines,” &c.
The proportion of ether requifite to congeal water
feems to vary with the quantity of the latter ; that
is, a large quantity of water feems to require a prc-
portionably lefs quantity of ether to freeze it than a
fmaller one. “ In the beginning of the fpring (fays
Mr Cavallo), I froze a quarter of an ounce of water
with about half an ounce of ether ; the apparatus be¬
ing larger, though fimilar to that defcribed above.
Now as the price of ether, fufficiently good for the
purpofe, is’generally about i8d. or 2s. per ounce, it is
plain, that with an expence under two {hillings, a
quarter of an ounce of ice, or ice cream, may be made,
in every climate, and at any time, which may afford
great fatisfaftion to thofe perfons, who, living in thofe
places where no natural ice is to be had, never faw or
tailed any fuch delicious refrefhment. When a ftnall
piece of ice, for inftance, of about ten grains weight,
is required, the neceffary apparatus is very fmall, and
the expence not worth mentioning. I have a fmall
box four inches and a half long, two inches broad, and
one and a half deep, containing all the apparatus ne-
^effary for this purpofe; viz. a bottle capable of con¬
taining about one ounce of ether ; two pointed tubes,
in cafe one Ihould break; a tube in which the water
is to be frozen, and a wire. With the quantity of
ether contained in this fmall and very portable appa¬
ratus, the experiment may he repeated about ten times.
A peifon who wilbes to perform fuch experiments in
hot climates, and in places where ice is not eafily pro¬
cured, requires only a larger bottle of ether befides the
whole apparatus defcribed above.” Electricity in-
creafes the cold produced by means of evaporating
ether but very little, though the effeft is perceptible.
Having thrown the electrified and alfo the unele&ri-
fied ftream of ether upon the bulb of a thermometer,
the mercury was brought down, two degrees lower in
the former than in the latter cafe.
I G E
Our author obferves, for the fake of thofe who may*
be inclined to repeat this experiment, that a cork con¬
fines this volatile fluid much better than a glafs {topple,,
which it is almoft impoflible to grind with fiich exatft-
nefs as to prevent entirely the evaporation of the ether.
When a ftopple, made very nicely out of an uniform
and clofe piece of cork, which goes rather tight, is-
put upon a bottle of ether, the finell of that fluid can¬
not be perceived through it ; but he never faw a glafs
Hopple which could produce that effed. In this man¬
ner, ether, fpirit of wine, or any other volatile fluid,
may be preferved, which does not corrode cork by its
fumes. When the Hopple, however,.is very often taken
ouE', it becomes loofe, as it will alfo do by long keep¬
ing; in either of which cafes it mull be changed.
Blink of the Ice, is a name given by the pilots to a
bright appearance near the horizon occaiioned by the
ice, and obferved before the ice itfclf is feen.
Ice-Boats, boats fo c-.mHructed as to fail upon ice,,
and which are very common in Holland, particularly
upon the river Maefe and the lake Y. See Plate CCL.
They go with incredible fwiftnefs, fometimes fo quick
as to affeft the breath, and are found very ufeful in.
conveying goods and paffengera over lakes and great
rivers in that country. Boats of different lizes are pla¬
ced in a tranfverfe form upon a 2^ or 3 inch deal board;
at the extremity of each end are fixed irons, which
turn up in the form of flcaits ; upon this plank the boat
refls, and the two ends feem as out-riggers to prevent
overfetting ; whence ropes are fafiened that lead to the
head of the mail in the nature of Ihrowds, and others
paffed through a block acrofs the bowfprit: the rudder
is made Comewhat like a hatchet with the head placed
downward, which being preffed down, cuts the ice,
and ferves ail the purpofes of a rudder in the water, by
enabling the helmfman to Heer, tack, &c.
Method of making Ice-Cream. Take a fufficient
quantity of cream, and, when it is to be mixed with
rafpberry, or currant, or pine, a quarter part as much-
of the juice or jam as of the cream: after beating and
ffraining the mixture through a cloth, put it with a
little juice of lemon into the mould, which is a pewter
veffel, and varying in fizeand (hape at pW’afiue; cover
the mould and place it in a pail about two-thirds full of
ice, into which two handfuls of fait have been thrown ;
turn the mould by the hand-hold with a quick motion,
to and fro, in the manner ufed for milling chocolate, for
eight or ten minutes; then let it reff as long, and turn
it again for the fame time; and having left it to Hand
half an hour, it is fit to be turned out of the mould and
to be fent to table. Lemon juice and fugar, and.
the juices of various kinds of fruits, are frozen with¬
out cream ; and when cream is ufed, it fliouki be well,
mixed.
Ics-HUhy a fort of Hru&ure or contrivance common,
upon the river Neva at Peterlburgh, and which afford
a perpetual fund of amufement to the populace. They
are conffrunted in the following manner. A fcaffolding;
is raifed upon the river about 30 feet in height, with a
landing place on the top, the afeent to which is by a.
ladder. From this fummit a Hoping plain of boards,
about four yards broad and 30 long, defeends to.
the fuperficies of the river: it is fupported by ffrong
poles gradually decreafing in height, and its fides are
defended by a parapet of planks. Upon thefe boards are
[ 84 1
Plate CCL .
I C E
Tee. laid {qiiare mafTes of ice about four inches thick, which
r~~~l being hr ft fmoothed with the axe and laid clofe to each
other, are then fprinkled with water: by thefe means
they coalcfce, and, adhering to the boards, immediate¬
ly form an inclined plain of pure ice. From the bot¬
tom of this plain the fnow is cleared away for the length
of zoo yards and the breadth of four, upon the level
bed of the river; and the fides of this courfe, as well as
the fides and top of the fcaffolding, are ornamented with
firs and pines. Each perfon, being provided with a
fledge, mounts the ladder; and having attained the
fuinmit, he lets himfelf upon his fledge at tl*e upper
extremity of the inclined plain, down which he fufftrs
it to glide with coniiderable rapidity, poifing it as he
goes down; when the velocity acquired by the de-
feent carries it above too yards upon the level ice of the
river. At the end of this courfe, there is ufually a fim’-
lar ice-hill, nearly parallel to the former, which begins
where the other ends ; fo that the perfon immediately
mounts again, and in. the fame manner glides down
tlie other inclined plain of ice. This diverfion he re¬
peats as often as he pleafes. The boys alfo are conti¬
nually employed in Ikaiting down thefe hills : they
glide chiefly upon one Ikait, as they are able to poife
themfelves better upon one leg than upon two. Thefe
ice-hills exhibit a pleafing appearance upon the river,
as well from the trees with which they are ornamented,
as from the moving obje&s which at particular times
of the day are defeending without intermiflion.
IcR-Houfe, a repofitory for ice during the ftimmer
months. The afpe& of ice houfes fliould be towards
theeaft or fouth-eaii, for the advantage of the morning
fun to expel the damp air, as that is more pernicious
than warmth; for which reafon trees in the vicinity of
an ice-houfe tend to its difadvantage.
The bell foil for an ice-houfe to be made in is chalk,
as it conveys away the wafte water without any artifi¬
cial drain ; next to that, ioofe ftony earth or gravelly
foil. Its fituation fhouid' be on the fide of a hill, for the
advantage of entering the cell upon a level, as in •the
drawing, Plate CCL.
To conftruCt an ice-houfe, firft choofe a proper place
at a convenient difiance from the dwelling-houfe or
itoufes it is to ferve : dig a cavity (if for one family, of
the dimenfions fpecified in the defign) of the figure of
an inverted cone, finking the bottom, concave, to form
a refervoir for the wafte water till it can drain off; if
the foil requires it, cut a drain to a confiderable di-
ftance, or fo far as will come out at the fide of the hill,
©r into a well, to make it communicate with the
fprings, and in that drain form a ftink or air-trap, mark¬
ed/, by finking the drain fo much lower in that place
as it is high, and bring a partition from the top an inch
or more into the water, which will confequently be in
the trap ; and will keep the well air-tight. Work up
a fufficient number of brick piers to receive a cart*
.wheel, to be laid with its convex fide upwards to re*
ceive the ice; lay hurdles and ttraw upon the. wheel,,
which will let the melted ice drain through, and ferve
as a floor. The fides and dome of the cone are to be
nine inches thick—the fides to be done in fteened
brickwork, i. e. without mortar^ and wrought at right
angles to the face of the work: the filling in behind
fliould be with gravel, loofe ftones, or brick-bats, that
the water which duio* through the fides may the more
i c E
eafily efcape into the well. The doors of the ice-
houfe fhouid be made as clofe as poffilde, and bandies
of flraw placed always before the inner door to keep out
the air.
Defcription of the parts referred to by the letters.
a The line firft dug out. b The brick circumference
of the cell, c The diminution of the cell downwards.
d The Idler diameter of the cell, e The cart wheel
or joifts and hurdles. / The piers to receive the wheel
or floor, g The principal receptacle for draw, h The
inner paffage, i the firft entrance, i the outer door,
paffages having a feparate door each. / An air trap.
m The well, n The profile of the piers, o The ice
filled in. p The height of the cone, q The dome
worked in two half brick arches, r The arched paf¬
fage. s The door-ways inferted in the walls, t The
floor ®f the paffage. u An aperture through which the
ice may be put into the cell; this mufl be covered next
the crown of the dome, and then filled in with earth*
* The Hoping door, againtl which the ftraw fhouid be
laid.
The ice when to be put in fhouid be collefled du¬
ring the froft, broken into fmall pieces, and rammed
down hard in ftrata of not more than a foot, in order
to make it one complete body ; the care in putting itc
m, and well ramming it, tends much to its preferva-
tion. In a feafon when ice is not to be had in fufficient
quantities fnow may be fubftituted.
Ice may be preferved in a dry place under ground,
by covering it well with chaff, ftraw, or reeds.
Great ufe is made of chaff in fome places of Italy to
preferve ice : the ice-houfe for this purpofe need only
be a deep bole dug in the ground on the fide of a hill,
from the bottom of which they can eafily carry out a
drain, to let out the water which is feparated at any
time from the ice, that it may not melt and fpoil the
reft. If the ground is tolerably dry, they do not line
the fides with any thing, but Wave them naked, and on¬
ly make a covering of thatch over the top of the hole
this pit they fill either with pure fnow,, or elfe with ice
taken from the purell and cleareft water; becaufethey
do not ufe it as we do in England, to fet the bottles
in, but really mix it with the wine. They firft cover
the bottom of the hole with chaff, and then lay in the
ice, not letting it any where touch the fides, but ram¬
ming in a large bed of chaff all the way between : they-
thus carry on the filling to the top, and then cover
the furface with chaff; and in this manner it wilW
keep as long as they pleafe. When they take any
of it oat for ufe, they wrap the lump up in chaff, and
it may then be carried to any diftant place without
wafte or running.
IcE-IJland, a name given by failors -to a great quan¬
tity of ice collected into one huge folid mafs, and float¬
ing about upon the feas near er within the Polar circles.
— Many of thefe fluctuating iflands are met with on
the coafts of Spitzbergen, to the great danger of the
flapping employed in the Greenland fifhery. In themidft
of thofe tremendous maffes navigators have been arrett¬
ed and frozen to death. In this manner the brave Sic
Hugh Willoughby perifhed with all his crew in 1555;
and in the year 1773, Lord Mulgravc, after every ef¬
fort which the moft finifhed feaman could make to ac-
complifb the end of his voyage, was caught in the ice,,
and was near experiencing the fame unhappy fate. See-
thev
[ S5 1
'
ICE [ 85 ] ICE
ttifi account at large in Phipps’s Voyage to the North are continually increafed in height by the freezing of fse
Pole. As there defcribed, the fcene, diverted of the the fpray of the fea, or of the melting of the fnow, II ’ j
horror from the eventful expectation of change, was which falls on them. Thofe which remain in this fro- . f
the moll beautiful and pidurefque :— Two large fhips zen climate receive continual growth; others are gra- *
becalmed in a yaft bafon, furrounded on all iides by dually wafted by the northern winds into fouthern la-
iflands of various forms: the weather clear : the fun titudes. and melt by degrees, by the heat of the fun,
gilding the circumambient ice, which was low, fmooth, till they wafte away, or difappear in the boundlefs
and even; covered with fnow, excepting where the element.
pools of water on part of the furface appeared cryftal- The collifion of the great fields of ice, in high lati-
line with the voting ice : the fmall fpace of fea they tudes, is often attended with a noife that for a time
were confined in perfe&ly fmooth. After fruitlefs at- takes away the fenfe of hearing anything elfe ; and the
tempts to force a way through the fields of ice, their leffer with a grinding of unfpeakable horror. The wa-
limits were perpetually contracted by its clofing ; till at ter which dafhes againft the mountainous ice freezes in¬
length it befet each veflel till they became immoveably to an infinite variety of forms ; and gives the voyager
fixed. The fmooth extent of furface was foon loft : ideal towns, ftreets, churches, fteeples, and every lhape
the prefiure of the pieces of ice, by the violence of the which imagination can frame,
fwell, caufed them to pack ; fragment rofe upon frag- IcR-Plant. See Mesembryanthemum.
ment, till they were in many places higher than the ICEBERGS, are large bodies of ice filling the val-
main-yard. The movements of the (hips were tremen- leys between the high mountains in northam latitudes,
dous and involuntary, in conjunction with the fur- Among the moft remarkable are thofe of the eaft coart
ronnding ice, aduated by the currents. The water of Spitzbergen ; (fee Greenland, n° 10.) They are
ftioaled to 14 fathoms. The grounding of the ice or feven in number, but at confiderable diftances from
of the (hips would have been equally fatal: The force each other: each fills the valleys for trafts unknown,
of the ice might have crufhed them to atoms, or have in a region totally inacceffible in the internal parts,
lifted them out ot the water and overfet them, or have The glaciers * of Switzerland feem contemptible to» «;ee
left them fufpended on the fummits of the pieces of ice thefe ; but prefent often a fimilar front irtto fome lower tiers.
at a tremendous height, expofed to the fury of the valley. The laft exhibits over the fea a front 300 feet
winds, or to the nik of being darted to pieces by high, emulating the emerald in colour : cataraCfs of
the failure of their frozen dock. An attempt was made melted fnow precipitate down various parts, and black
to cut a paflage through the ice ; after a perfeverance fpiring mountains, (freaked with whi'e, bound the
worthy of Britons, it proved fruitlefs. The comman- fides, and rife crag above crag, as far as eye can reach ^
der,.at all times mafter of himfelf, directed the boats in the back ground. See Plate CCLI. Attimesim-
to be made ready to be hauled over the ice, till they menfe fragments break off, and tumble into the water,
arrived at navigable water (a talk alone of feven days), with a molt alarming darting. A piece of this vivid
and :n them to make their voyage to England. The green fubftanee has fallen, and grounded in 24 fathoms
boats were drawn progreffively three whole days. At water, and fpired above the (urtace 50 feet f. Simr-f "lipps'k
length a wind fprung up, the ice feparated (ufficiently lar icebergs are frequent in all the Arctic regions; and V°yug‘t
to yield to the preffure of the (ull-lailtd (hips, whleh, to their lapfes is owing the folid mountainous ice whichP'
after labouring againft the refifting.fields of tee, arrived in felts thofe feas. — Froit fports wonderfully with thefe
on the 10th of Augult in the harbour of Smeeringberg, icebergs, and gives them majellic as well as other moft
at the writ end of Spitzbergen. between it and Hack- lingular forms. Maffes have been feen affuming the
luyt’s Headland. ftape of a Gothic church, with arched windows and
The forms affumed by the ice in this chilling cli- doors, and all the rich drapery of that ftyle, compofed
mate are extremely pleating to even the molt incu- of what an Arabian tale would fcarcely dare to relate,
rious eye. The furface of that which is congealed of cryllal of the richeft fapphinne blue : tables with
from the fea water (for we mult allow it two origins) one or more feet ; and often immenfe flat-roofed tem-
is flat and even, hard, opake, refemblipg whi'.e fugar, pies, like thofe of Luxxor on the Nile, fupported by
and incapable of being (lid on, like the Britirt ice. The round tranfparent columns of ccerulean hue, float by
greater pieces, or fields, are many leagues in length : the altonifted fpedtator.—Thtfe icebergs are the crea-
the leffer are the meadows of the teals on which thofe tion of ages, and receive annually additional height by
animals at times frolic by hundreds. The motion of the falling of fnows and of rain, which often inttantly
the hffer pieces is a« rapid as the currents: the greater, freezes, and more than repairs the lofs occafioned by
which are f metimes 200 leagues long, and 60 or 80 the influence of the melting fun.
broad, move flow and majtttiCally; often fix for a time, ICELAND, a large illand lying in the northern
immoveable by the power of the ocean, and then pro- part of the Atlantic Ocean, between 63 and 68 de¬
duce near the lv r zan that bright white appearance cal- grees of north latitude, and betw een 10 and 26 degrees
ledtheM’ni. The approximation of two great fields pm- of weft longitude, its greateft length being about 70O
duces a moft. lingular phenomenon ; it forces the leffer miles, and its breadth 300. j
(if the term can be applied to pieces of feveral acres This country lying partly within the frigid zone, and Genrral at.
fqjare) out of the .vater, and adds them to their fur- being liable to be furrounded with vaft quantities of ice count of
face : a fecond an often a third fucceeds ; fo that the which come from the polar feas, is on account of the1^ c0'®-
whole forms an aggregate of a tremendous height, co’dnefs of its climate very inhofpitable ; but muchtr^*
Thefe float in the lea like fo Inany rugged mountains, more fo for other reafons. It is exceedinely fubjett to
and are fometimes 500 or 600 yards thick ; but the earthquakes ; and fo full of volcanoes, that the little
far greater part is concealed beneath the water. Thefe part of it which appears fit for the habitation of man
3 feems
Account
©f the cli-
a nm-
I C E [ ?7 ] . . ICE
feems almoft totally laid wafte by them. The beft ac- tatojaii in height; and partly of field-ice, which is Iceland*
count that hath yet appeared of the ifland of Iceland is neither fo thick nor fo much dreaded. Sometimes
in a late publication intitled, “ Letters on Iceland, thefe enormous maffes are grounded in (hoal-water; and
&c. written by Uno Von Troij, D. D. firtl chaplain in thefe cafes they remain for many months, nay years,
to his Swedilh majefty.” This gentleman failed from undiflblved. chilling the atmofphere for a great way
London on the 12th of July 1772, in company with round. When many fuch bulky and lofty ice-mafles are
Mr Banks, Dr Solander, and Dr James Lind of E- floating together, the wood which is often found drift-
dinburgh, in a fhip for which L. too Sterling was paid ing between them, is fo much chafed, and prefled with
every month. After vifitingthe weftern ifles of Scot- fuch violence together, that it fometimes takes fire:
land, they arrived on the 28th of Auguft at Iceland, which circumftance has occafioned fabulous accounts of
where they call anchor at Befi’eftedr or Beffaftadr, ly- the ice being in flames.
ing in about 64° 6' N. Lat. in the weftern part of the In 1753 and 1754, this ice occafioned fuch a vio-
ifland. The country had to them the moft difmal ap- lent cold, that horfes and fheep dropped down dead by
pearance that can be conceived. “ Imagine to your- reafon of it, as well as for want of food ; horfes were
felf (fays Dr Troil) a country, which from one end obferved to feed upon dead cattle, and the ftieep eat of
to the other prefents to your view only barren moun- each other’s wool. In 1755, towards the end of the
tains, whofe fummits are covered with eternal fnow, month of May, the waters were frozen over in one
and between them fields divided by vitrified cliffs, whole night to the thicknefs of an inch and five lines. In
high and fharp points feem to vie with each other to 1756, on the 26th of June, fnow fell to the depth of
deprive you of the fight of a little grafs which fcantily a yard, and continued falling through the months of
fprings up among them. Thefe fame dreary rocks July and Auguft. In the year following it froze very
like wife conceal the few fcattered habitations of the hard towards the end of May and beginning of June,
natives, and no where a Angle tree appears which might in the fouth part of the ifland, which occafioned a
afford flicker to friendfhip and innocence. The profpeft great fcarcity of grafs. Thefe frofts are generally fol-
before us, though not pleafing, was uncommon and lowed by a famine, many examples of which are to be
furprifing. Whatever prefented itfelf to our view bore found in the Icelandic chronicles. Befides thefe calami-
the marks of devaftation ; and our eyes, accuftomed to ties, a number of bears annually arrive with the ica,
behold the pleafing coafts of England, no faw nothing which commit great ravages among the fheep. The
but the veftiges of the operation of a fire, Heaven Icelanders attempt to deftroy thefe intruders as foon as
knows how ancient! they get fight of them. Sometimes they aflemble toge-
The climate of Iceland, however, is not unwhole- ther, and drive them back to the ice, with which they
■ fome or naturally fubjeft to exceffive colds, notwith- often float off again. For want of fire-arms, they are
Handing its northwardly fituation. I here have been obliged to ufe fpears on thefe occafions. The govern-
inftances indeed of Fahrenheit’s thermometer finking ment alfo encourage the deftrudfion of thefe animals,
to 240 below the freezing point in winter, and rifing to by paying a premium of 10 dollars for every bear that
I04J in fummer. Since the year 1749, obfervations is killed, and purchafing the fkin of him who killed it.
have been made on the weather ; and the refult of thefe Notwith Handing this difmal pidlure, however, taken
obfervations hath been unfavourable, as the coldnefs of from Von Troll’s letters, fome tra&s of ground, in
the climate is thought to be on the increafe, and of iig/t cultivation, are mentioned as being covered by the
confequence the country is in danger of becoming un- great eruption of lava in 1783. It is poffible, there-
fit for the habitation of the human race. Wood, which fore, that the above may have been fomewhat exag-
formerly grew in great quantities all over the ifland, gerated.
cannot now be raifed. Even the hardy firs of Norway Thunder and lightning are feldom heard in Iceland,
cannot be reared in this ifland. They feemed indeed except in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. Aurora
to thrive till they were about two feet high ; but then Borealis is very frequent and ftrong: It moft com-
their tops withered, and they ceafed to grow. This monly appears in dry weather; though there are not
is owing chiefly to the ftorms and hurricanes which wanting inftances of its being feen before or after rain,
frequently happen in the months of May and June, and or even during the time of it. The lunar halo, which
which are very unfavourable to vegetation of every prognofticates bad weather, is likewife very frequent
kind. In 1772, governor Thodal fowed a little bar- here; as are alfo parhelions, which appear from one
ley, which grew very brifkly ; but a ftiort time before to nine in number at a time. Thefe parhelions are ob¬
it was to be reaped, a violent ftorm fo effedtually de- ferved chiefly at the approach of the Greenland ice,
ftroyed it, that only a few grains were found fcattered when an intenfe degree of froft is produced, and the
about. Befides thefe violent winds, this ifland lies un- frozen vapours fill the air. Fire-balls, fometimes round
der another difadvantage, owing to the floating ice al- and fometimes oval, are obferved, and a kind of Z£-
ready mentioned, with which the coafts are often befet. nis fatuus which attaches itfelf to men and beafts ; and
This ice comes on by degrees, always with an eafterly comets are alfo frequently mentioned in their ehro-
wind, and frequently in fuch quantities as to fill up all nicies. This laft circumftance deferves the attention of
the gulphs on the north-weft fide of the ifland, and aftronomers.
even covers the fea as far as the eye can reach ; it alfo Iceland, befides all the inconveniencies already men-
fometimes drives to other (bores. It generally comes in tioned, has two very terrible ones, called by the na-
January, and goes away in March. Sometimes it only tivesJhrida and fniojlodi: the name of the firft imports-
reaches the land in April; and, remaining there for a large pieces of a mountain tumbling down and deftroy-
Ipng time, does an incredible deal of mifehief. It con- ing the lands and houfes which lie at the foot of it :;
fills partly of mountains of ice, laid to be fometiaies Co this happened in 1554; when a whole farm was ruined,
and.
ICE [ 83 ] ICE
and 13 people buried alive. The other word fignifies whatever nature has of beautiful and terrible, united Iceland.
the effe&s of a prodigious quantity of fnow, which in one pifture, by delineating this furprifing pheno*
covers the tops of the mountains, rolling down in im- ' menon. Reprefent to yourfelf a large field, where
menfe malics, and doing a great' deal of damage : of you fee on one fide, at a great drftance, high moun-
this there was an inilance in 1699, during the night, tains covered with ice, whofe fummits are generally
wrapped in clouds, fo that their fharp and unequal
points become invifible. This lofs, however, is cotti-
-penfated by a certain wind, which caufes the clouds to
'fink, and cover the mountain itfelf when its fummit
appears as it were to reft on the clouds. On the other
the hot of which fpout up into the air to a furprifing height, fide Hecla is feen, with its three points covered with
Knd°f AIlthejets d’eau which have been contrived with -fo ice, rifing above the clouds, and, with the fmokc which
ygn much art, and at fuch an enormous expence, cannot afcends from it, forming other clouds at fome diilance
■r La- by any-means be compared with thefe wonders of na- from the real ones : and on another fide is a ridge of
Account <5f
when two farms were buried, with all their inhabitants
and cattle. This laft accident Iceland has in common
with all very mountainous countries, particularly Swit¬
zerland.
Iceland abounds with hot and boiling fprings, fome
tccwytvi.
ture in Iceland. The water-works at Herenhaufcn high rocks, at the foot of which boiling water from
throw up a fingle column of water of half a quarter of time to time iffues forth; and further on extends a
a yard in circumference to a height of about 70 feet;
thofe at the Winterkaften at Caffel throw it up, but in
,a much thinner column, <130 feet ; and the jet d’eau
at St .Cloud, which is thought the greateft of all the
Trench water-works, calls up a thin ‘column Bo
feet into the air ; but fome fprings in Iceland pour
marlh of about three Englilh miles in circumference,
where are 40 or 50 boiling fprings, from which a va¬
pour afcends to a prodigious height.—In the midft of
thefe is the greatell fpn'ng geyjtr, which deferves a
more exa6l and particular account. In travelling to
the place about an Englifh mile and an half from the
-forth columns of water feveral feet in thicknefs to the hver, from which the ridge of rocks Hill divided us, we
height of many fathoms ; and -many affirm of feveral
-hundred feet.
“ Thefe fprings are unequal in their degrees of heat;
=but we have obferved none under 188 degrees of Fah¬
renheit’s thermometer; in fome it is 192, 193, 212,
and in one fmall vein of water 213 degrees. From
feme the water Hows gently, and the fpring is then
heard a loud roaring noife, like the rufhing of a tor¬
rent precipitating itfelf from ftapendous rocks. We
sliced our guide what it meant; he anfwered, it was
geyfer roaring ; and we foon faw with our naked eyes
what before feemed almolt incredible.
“ The depth of the opening or pipe from which
the water gullies cannot well be determined; for fome-
JA particu-
called laugy “ a bath;” from others it fpouts with a times the water funk down feveral fathoms, and fome
great noife, and is then called Hues, or kit tel. It is feconds palled before a Hone which was thrown into
very common for fome of thefe fpouting fprings to the aperture reached the furface of the water. The
dole up, and others to appear in their Head. All opening itfelf was perfectly round, and 19 feet in dia-
thefediot waters have an incrufting quality ; fo that we meter, and terminated in a bafon 59 feet in diameter,
very commonly find the exterior furface from whence Both the pipe and the bafon were covered with a
-.it burfts forth covered with a kind of rind, which al- rough llalaftic rind, which had been formed by the
kinoft refembles.chafed work, and which we at firli took force of the water : the outermoft border of the bafon
-for lime, but which was afterwards found by Mr Berg- is nine feet and an inch higher than the pipe itfelf.
man to be of a filiceous or flinty nature. In fome pla- The water here fpouted feveral times a-day, but always
ces the water taltes of fulphur, in others not; but by Harts, and after certain intervals. The people who
when drank as foon as it is cold, taftes like common lived in the neighbourhood told us, that they rofe
boiled water. The inhabitants ufe it at particular higher in cold and bad weather than at other times;
times for dyeing; and were they to adopt proper re- and Egbert Olafsen and federal others affirm, that it has
gulations, it might be of Hill greater ufe. Viduals fpouted to the height of 60 fathoms. Moll probably
rnay alfo be boiled in it, and milk held over its Hearn they guefled only by the eye, and on that account their
Becomes fwett; owing, moll probably, to the exceffive calculation may be a little extravagant; and indeed it
heat of the water, as the fame effect is produced by boil- is to be doubted whether the water was ever thrown
ing it a long time over the fire. They have begun to up fo high, though probably it fometimes mounts
make fait by boiling fea-water over it, which when it is higher than when we obferved it. The method we
refined, is very pure and good. The cows which drink took to obferve the height was as follows. Every one
this hot water yield a great deal of milk. Egbert O- in company wrote down, at each time that the water
Efsen relates, that the water does not become turbid fpouted, how high it appeared to him to be thrown,
when alkali is thrown into it, nor does it change the and we afterwards chofe the medium. The firfi column
colour of fyrup of violets. Horrebow afierts, that if marks the fpoutings of the water, in the order in
you fill a bottle at one of the fpouting fprings, the which they followed one another; the fecond, the
water will btXl over two or three times while the fpring time when thefe effufions happened; the third, the
throws forth its water ; and if corked too foon, the height to which the water rofe; and the lad, how
bottle will burfi. long each fpouting of water continued.
; Among the many hot fprings to be met with in
dar deferip- Iceland, feveral bear the name of geyfer .*■ the follow-
•oam°d0ne *n6’s a fiefeription of the moH remarkable of that
4^.
name, and in the whole ifland. It is about two days
journey from Hecla, near a farm called HaukaduL
Here a poet would have an opportunity of painting
N° 163.
N° Time
1 At VI 42 m.
2  5,
3  VII 16
4  3I
5 
Height
30 feet
6
6
Duration
o 20 feconds
o 20
69
'5
o 6
I
N° Time
' 6—VIII. 17
7 29
^  36
C E t 89 1 ICE
Height Deration from fix inches to otie foot in height, and they are fcelsnd.
24 o 30 then very regular, infomuch that they are fometimes w‘—/■**w
18 o 40 made ufe of for windows and door-pofts. In fome
12 0 4° places they only peep out here and there among the
The pipe was now for the firft time full of water, which lava, or more frequently among the tufa ; in other
ran flowly into the bafon. places they are quite overthrown, and pieces of broken
9 IX. zy 48 1 10 pillars only make their appearance. Sometimes they
jo X. 16 24 1 co extend without interruption for two or three miles in
“ At 35 minutes after twelve we heard as it were length. In one mountain they have a Angular ap-
three difcharges of a gun under ground, which made pearance : on the top the pillars lie horizontally, in
it (hake : the water flowed over immediately, but in- the middle they are floping ; the loweft are perfe&ly
ftantly funk again. At eight minutes after two, the perpendicular; and in fome parts they are bent into a
wrater flowed over the border of the bafon. At 15 mi- femicircular figure. The matter of the Iceland bafaltes
nutes after three, we again heard feveral fubterranean feems to be the fame with that of Staffa; though in
noifes, though not fo ftrong as before. At 43 mi- fome it is more porous, and inclines to a grey. Some
mites after four, the water flowed over very ftrongly we obferved which were of a blackifh grey, and com-
during the fpace of a minute. In fix minutes after, pofed of feveral joints. Another time we obferved a
we heard many laud fubterraneous difcharges, not on- kind of porous glafly ftone, confequently a lava, which
ly near the fpring, but alfo from the neighbouring was fo indiftinftly divided, that we were for fome time
ridge of rocks where the water fpouted. At 51 mi- at a lofs to determine whether it was bafaltes or not,
nutes after fix, the fountain fpouted up to the height though at lafl: we all agreed that it was.”
of 92 feet, and continued to do fo for four minutes. Iron ore is found in fome parts of the ifland, and
After this great effort, it funk down very low into the that beautiful copper ore called Malachites. Horrebow
I- P*Pe> and was entirely quiet during feveral minutes; fpeaks of native filver. A ftratum of lulphur is found
but foon began to bubble again: it was not, how- neariMy vatu from nine inches to two feet in thicknefs;
ever, thrown up into the air, but only to the top of partly of a brown colour, and partly of a deep orange,
the pipe. Immediately over the fulphur is a blue earth ; above
“ The force of the vapours which throw up thefe that a vitriolic and aluminous one ; and beneath the ful-
waters is exceflive ; it not only prevents the ftones phur a reddifh bole. ^
which are thrown into the opening from finking, but At what time the ifland of Iceland was firft peopled Hiftory o*
even throws them up to a very great height, together is uncertain. An Englifli colony indeed is faid tothe iilan<3,
with the water. When the bafon was full, wfe placed have been fettled there in the beginning of the fifth
ourfelves before the fun in fuch a manner that wfe century ; but of this there are not fufficient proofs,
could fee our fhadows in the water; when every one There is, however, reafon to fuppofe that the Englifh
obferved round the fliadow of his own head (though and Irifli were acquainted with this country under
not round that of the heads of others,) a circle of al- another name, long before the arrival of the Norwe-
moft the fame colours which compofe the rainbow, and gians; for the celebrated Bede gives a pretty accurate
round this another bright circle. This moft pr®- defcription of the ifland. But of thefe original inhabi-
bably proceeded from the vapours exhaling from the tants we cannot pretend to fay any thing, as the Ice-
water. land chronicles go no farther back than the arrival of
“ Not far from this place, another fpring at the the Norwegians. What they relate is to the following
foot of the neighbouring ridge of rocks fpouted water purpofe
to the height of one or two yards each time. The Naddodr, a famous pirate, was driven on the coafl
opening through which this water iffued was not fo of Iceland in 861, and named the country Snio-land^
wide as the other: we imagined it pofiible to flop up “ Snow-land,” on account of the great quantities of
the hole entirely by throwing large itones into it, and fnow with which he perceived the mountains covered,
even flattered ourfelves that our attempts had fuc- He did not remain there long ; but on his return ex¬
ceeded : but, to our aftonifliment, the water gufhed tolled the country to fuch a degree, that one GardeF
forth in a very violent manner. We haftened to the Suafarfon, an enterprifing Swede, was encouraged by
. pipe, and found all the ftones thrown afidc, and the his account to go in fearch of it in 864. He failed
water playing freely through its former channel. In quite round the ifland, and gave it the name of Gar-
thefe large fprings the waters were hot in the higheft dalJholmury or Carder’s-ifland. Having remained in
degree, and tafted a little of fulphur ; but in other Iceland during the winter, he returned in the fpring to
refpefts it was pure and clear. In the fmaller Norway, where he defcribed the new-difcovered ifland
fprings of the neighbourhood the water was tainted: as a pleafant well-wooded country. This* excited a
in fome, it was as muddy as that of a clay-pit: in defire in Floke, another Swede, reputed the greatell
others, as white as milk; and in fome few, as red as navigator of his time, to undertake a voyage thither,
i: blood. As the compafs was then unknown, he took three
Account of <« Iceland abounds with pillars of bafaltes, which ravens on board to employ them on the difcovery. By
piltars3 &cC t^ie ^ower ^ort People imagine have been piled upon the ivay he vifited his friends at Ferro ; and having
’ each other by the giants, who made ufe of fuperna- failed farther to the northward, he let fly one of his
tural force to effeft it. They have generally from ravens, which returned to Ferro. Some time after, he
three to feven fides; and are from four to fix feet in difmifled the fecond, which returned to the fliip again,
thicknefs, and from t2 to 16 yards in length, without as he could find no land. The laft trial proved more
any horizontal divifions. But fometimes they are only fuccefsful; the third raven took his flight to Iceland,
j Vol. IX. Part. I. M where
ICE [ 9© 1 ICE
Iceland, where the (h!p arrived a few days after. Floke ftaid
""'■”V““nere the whole winter with his company; and, be-
caufe he found a great deal of floating ice on the north
fide, he gave the country the name of Iceland^ which
it has ever fmce retained.
When they returned to Norway in the following
fpring, Floke, and thofe that had been with him,
made a very different defcription of the country. Floke
defcribed it as a wretched place ; while one of his com¬
panions, named Thorulfr, praifed it fo highly, that
he affirmed butter dropped from every plant; which
extravagant commendation procured him the name of
'Thorulfr-ftnior, or Butter-Thorulfr.
From this time there are no accounts of any voyages
to Iceland, till Ingolfr and his friend Leifr undertook
one in 874. They fpent the winter on the ifland, and
determined to fettle there for the future. Ingolfr
returned to Norway, to provide whatever might be
neceffary for the comfortable eftabliffiment of a colony,
and Leifr in the mean time went to aflift in the war
in England. After an interval of four years, they
again met in Iceland, the one bringing with him a
confiderable number of people, with the neceffary tools
and inftruments for making the country habitable ; and
the other imported his acquired treafures. After this
period many people went there to fettle; and, in the
fpace of 60 years, the whole ifland was inhabited.
The tyranny of Harold king of Norway contributed
not a little to the population of Iceland ; and fo great
was the emigration of his fubje&s, that he was at laft
obliged to iffue an order, that no one (hould fail from
Norway to Iceland without paying four ounces of
fine filver to the king.
Befides the Norwegians, new colonies arrived from
different nations, between whom wars foon commen¬
ced ; and the Icelandic hiftories are full of the accounts
of their battles. To prevent thcfe confli&s for the future,
a kind of chief was chofen in 928, upon whom great
powers were conferred. This man was the fpeaker in
all their public deliberations ; pronounced fentence in
difficult and intricate cafes; decided all difputes ; and
publiffied new laws, after they had been received and
approved of by the people at large: but he had no
power to make laws without the approbation and con-
fent of the reft. He therefore affembled the chiefs,
whenever the circumftances feemed to require it; and,
after they had deliberated among themfelves, he repre-
fented the opinion of the majority to the people, whofe
affent was neceffary before it could be confidered as a
law. His authority among the chiefs and leaders,
however, was inconfiderable, as he was chofen by them,
and retained his place no longer than while he prefer-
ved their confidence.
This inftitution did not prove fufScient to reftrain
the turbulent fpirit of the Icelanders. They openly
waged wav with each other; and, by their inteftine
conflifts, fo weakened all parties, that the whole be¬
came at laft a prey to a few arbitrary and enterprifing
men ; who, as is too generally the cafe, wantonly
abufed their power to the oppreffion of their country¬
men, and the difgrace of humanity. Notwithftanding
thefe troubles, however, the Icelanders remained free
from a foreign yoke till 1261 ; when the greateft part
of them put themfelves under the prote&ion of Hakans
king of Norway, promifing to pay him tribu upon
certain conditions agreed on between them; and the Iceland.
reft followed their example in 1264. Afterwards,' 
Iceland, together with Norway, became fubjeft to
Denmark. For a long time the care of the ifland
was committed to a governor, who commonly went
there once a-year ; though, according to his inftruc-
tions, he ought to have refided in Iceland. As the coun¬
try fuffered incredibly through the abfence of its go¬
vernors, it was refolved a few years ago that they
fhould refide there, and have their feat at Beffefftedr,
one of the old royal domains. He has under him a
bailiff, two laymen, a ftieriff, and 21 fyjfelmen, or ma-
giftrates who fuperintend fmall diftri&s ; and almoft
every thing is decided according to the laws of Den¬
mark.
At the firft fettlement of the Norwegians in Iceland, Manners, •
they lived in the fame manner as they had done in their &c. of the
own country, namely, by war and piracy. Their Icelandci*‘
fituation with regard to the kings of Norway, however,
foon obliged them to apply to other ftates, in order to
learn as much of the knowledge of government and
politics as was neceffary to preferve their colony from
fubjugation to a foreign yoke. For this purpofe they
often failed to Norway, Denmark, Sweden, England,
and Scotland. The travellers, at their return, were
obliged to give an account to their chiefs of the ftate
of thofe kingdoms through which they paffed. For
this reafon, hiftory, and what related to fcience, was
held in high repute as long as the republican form of
government lafted ; and the great number of hiftories
to be met with in the country, ftiow at leaft the defire
of the Icelanders to be inftrudled. To fecure them¬
felves, therefore, againft their powerful neighbours,
they were obliged to enlarge their hiftorical knowledge.
They likewife took great pains in ftudying perfeftly
their own laws, for the maintenance and prote&ion
of their internal fecurity. Thus Iceland, at a time
when ignorance and obfcurity overwhelmed the reft of
Europe, was enabled to produce a confiderable number
of poets and hiftorians. When the Chnftian religion
was introduced about the end of the 10th century,
more were found converfant in the law than could have
been expe&ed, confidering the extent of the country,
and the number of its inhabitants. Filhing was fol¬
lowed among them ; but they devoted their attention,
confiderably more to agriculture, which has fince en¬
tirely ceafed.
Two things have principally contributed towards
producing a great change both in their chara&er and
way of life, viz. the progrefs of the Chriftian religion,
and their fubje&ion firft to Norway, and afterwards to
Denmark. For if religion, on one fide, commanded
them to defift from' their ravages and warlike expedi¬
tions ; the fecular power, on the other, deprived them
of the neceffary forces for the execution of them:
and, fince this time, we find no farther traces of their
heroic deeds, except thofe which are preferved in their
hiftories.
The modern Icelanders apply themfelves to fiftiing
and breeding of cattle. They are middle-fized and
well-made, though not very ftrong ; and the women
are in general ill-featured. Vices are much lefs com¬
mon among them, than in other parts where luxury
and riches have corrupted the morals of the people.
Though their poverty difables them from imitating
ICE [ 9
Iceland, the hofpltality of their anceftors in all refpe&s, yet
they continue to (how their inclination to it: they
cheerfully give away the little they have to fpare, and
exprefs the utmoft joy and fatisfaftion if you are plea-
fed with their gift. They are uncommonly obliging
and faithful, and extremely attached to government.
They are very zealous in their religion. An Icelander
never palfes a river or any other dangerous place, with¬
out previoufly taking off his hat, and imploring the
divine proteftion ; and he is always thankful for the
prote&ion of the Deity when he has paffed the dan¬
ger in fafety. They have an inexpreffible attachment
to their native country, and are nowhere fo happy.
An Icelander therefore rarely fettles in Copenhagen,
though ever fuch advantageous terms fhould be offered
him. On the other hand, we cannot afcribe any great
induttry or ingenuity to thefe people. They work on
in the way to which they have all along been accuf-
tomed, without thinking of improvements. They are
not cheerful in converfation, but fimple and credulous ;
and have no averfion againft a bottle, if they can find
an opportunity. When they meet together, their
chief paftime confifts in reading their hiftory. The
mafter of the houfe makes the beginning, and the reft
continue in their turns when he is tired. Some of
them know thefe ftories by heart; others have them
in print, and others in writing. Befides this, they are
great players at chefs and cards, but only for their a-
mufement, fince they never play for money : which,
however, feems to have been formerly in ufe among
them ; fince, by one of their old laws, a fine is im-
8 pofed upon thofe who play for money.
Their drefs. The modern Icelanders have made very little alte¬
ration in their drefs from what was formerly in ufe.
The men all wear a linen Ihirt next to the Ikin, with
a fhort jacket, and a pair of wide breeches over it.
When they travel, another fliort coat is put over all.
The whole is made of coarfe black cloth, called ivad-
mal; but fome wear clothes of a white colour. On
their head they wear large three-cornered hats, and on
their feet Iceland (hoes and worded {lockings. Some
of them indeed have fhoes from Copenhagen ; but, as
they are rather too dear for them, they generally make
their own {hoes, fometimes of the hide of oxen, but
more frequently of {beep's leather. They make them
by cutting a fiquare piece of leather, rather wider than
the length of the foot; this they few up at the toes
and behind at the heel, and tie it on with leather
thongs. Thefe {hoes are convenient enough where the
country is level; but it would be very difficult for us
who are not accuftomed to walk with them amongft the
rocks and ftones, though the Icelanders do it with
great eafe.
The women are likewife dreffed in black wadmal.
They wear a bodice over their (Tufts, which are fewed
up at the bofom ; and above this a jacket laced be¬
fore with long narrow fleeves reaching down to the
wrifts. In the opening on the fide of the fleeve, they
have buttons of chafed filver, with a plate fixed to
each button ; on which the lover, when he buys them
in order to prefent them to his miftrefs, takes care to
have his name engraved along with hers. At the top
of the jacket a little black collar is fixed, of about
three inches broad, of velvet or filk, and frequently
trimmed with gold cord. The petticoat is likewife of
i ] ICE
wadmal, and reaches down to the ankles. Round the Iceland..
top of it is a girdle of filver or fome other metal, to u—v—^
which they fallen the apron, which is alfo of wadmal,
and ornamented at top with buttons of chafed filver.
Over all this they wear an upper-drefs nearly refem-
bling that of the Swediffi peafants ; with this differ¬
ence, that it is wider at bottom : this is clofe at the
neck and wrifts, and a hand’s-breadth ffiorter than the
petticoat. It is adorned with a facing down to the
bottom, which looks like cut velvet, and is generally
wove by the Icelandic women. On their fingers they
wear gold, filver, or brafs rings. Their head-drefs
confifts of feveral cloths wrapped round the head al-
moft as high again as the face. It is tied fall with a
handkerchief, and ferves more for warmth than orna¬
ment. Girls are not allowed to wear this head-drefs
till they are marriageable. At their weddings they
are adorned in a very particular manner : the bride
wears, clofe to the face, round her head-drefs, a crown
of filver gilt. She has two chains round her neck,
one of which hangs down very low before, and the
other refts on her {boulders. Befides thefe, {he wears
a leffer chain, from whence generally hangs a little
heart, which may be opened to put fome kind of per¬
fume in it. This drefs is worn by all the Icelandic
women without exception : only with this difference,
that the poorer fort have it of coarfe wadmal, with
ornaments of brafs; and thofe that are in caller cir-
cumftances have it of broad cloth, with filver orna¬
ments gilt.
The houfes of the Icelanders are very indifferent, fjoufel
but the worft are faid to be on the fouth fide of the *
ifland. In fome parts they are built of drift-wood, in
others of lava, almoft in the fame manner as the ftone-
walls we make for inclofures, with mofs Huffed be¬
tween the pieces of lava. In fome houfes the walls are
wainfcotted on the infide. The roof is covered with
fods, laid over rafting, or fometimes over the ribs of
whales ; the walls are about three yards high, and the
entrance fomewhat lower. Inftead of glafs, the win¬
dows are made of the chorion and amnios of ftieep, or
the membranes which furround the womb of the ewe.
Thefe are ftretched on a hoop, and laid over a hole in
the roof. In the poorer fort of houfes they employ
for the windows the inner membrane of the ftomach
of animals, which is lefs tranfparent than the others.
As the ifland of Iceland produces no kind of grain,
the inhabitants of confequence have no bread but what
is imported ; and which being too dear for common
ufe, is referved for weddings and other entertainments.
The following lift of their viands is taken from Troil’s
Letters.
(( I. Flour of Jtalgras, (lichen iflandicus, or rock-
grafs. The plant is firft walhed, and then cut into
fmall pieces by fome ; though the greater number dry
it by fire or in the fun, then put it into a bag in which
it is well beaten, and laftly work it into a flour by
{lamping.
“ 2. Flour of komfyrg, (polygonum biftorta), is
prepared in the fame manner, as well as the two other
forts of wild corn melur (Arundo arenana, and Arundo
foliorum lateribus convolutis), by feparating it from the
chaff, pounding, and laftly grinding it.
“ 3- Surt fmoer, (four butter). The Icelanders
feidom make ufe of frelh or fait butter, but let it grow
M 2 four
ICE [ 92 1 ICE
four before they eat it. In this manner it may be On the eoafts the men employ themfelves in ftfli- Iceland*
kept for 20 years, or even longer ; and the Icelanders ing, both fummer and winter. On their return home, *
look upon it as more wholefome and palatable than the when they have drawn and cleaned their fifh, they give i»
butter ufed among other nations. It is reckoned bet- them to their wives, whole care it is to dry them. InEmPloy‘
ter the older it grows; and one pound of it then is va- the winter, when the inclemency of the weather pre-
lued as much as two of freih butter. vents them from fifhing, they are obliged to take care &c.
“ 3. String, or whey boiled to the confidence of of their cattle, and fpin wool. In fummer, they mow
four milk, and preferved for the winter. the grafs, dig turf, provide fuel, go in fearch of !heep
“ 4. Filh of all kinds, both dried in the fun and and goats that were gone aftray, and kill cattle. They,
in the air, and either faked or frozen. Thofe prepared prepare leather with the fpiraca ulmaria indead of
in the lad manner are preferred by many. bark. Some few work in gold and diver ; and others
“ 5. The flefli of bears, dieep, and birds, which are indrudled in mechanics, in which they are tolerable
is partly failed, partly hung or fmoked, and feme prodcients. The women prepare the <iih, take care
preferred in calks with four or fermented whey poured of the cattle, manage the milk and wool, few, fpin,.
over it. and gather eggs and down. When they work in
“ 6. or whey boiled to cheefe, which is very the evening, they ufe, indead of an hour-glafs, a
good. But the art of making other kinds of good lamp with a wick made of epilobium dipt in train
cheefe is lod, though fome tolerably palatable is fold in oil, which is contrived to burn four,- dx, or eight
the ead quarter of Iceland. hours.
“ 7. BeinaJlriug, bones and cartilages of beef and Among the common people of Iceland, time is not
mutton, and hkewife bones of cod, boiled in whey till reckoned by the courfe of the fun, but by the work
they are quite didblved : they are then left to ferment, they have done, and which is preferibed by law. Ac¬
cording to this prefeription, a man is to mow as muck
hay in one day as grows on 30 fathoms of manured
and are eat with milk,
! 8. Skyr. The curds from which the whey is
fqueezed are preferved in calks or other veflels; they foil, or 40 fathoms of land which has not been ma-
are fometimes mixed with black crow-berries or juni¬
per berries, and are like wife eat with new milk.
1 9. Syra, is four whey kept in calks, and left to
nured ; or he is to dig 700 pieces of turf eight feet
long and three broad. If as much fnow falls as reaches
to the horfes bellies, a man is required daily to clear
ferment; which, however, is not reckoned fit for ufe a piece of ground fuflkient for 100 Iheep. A wo-
till a year old. man is to rake together as much hay as three men can
“ 10. Blanda, is a liqiror made of water, to which mow, or to weave three yards of wadmal a-day.
a twelfth part of fyra is added. In winter, it is The wages of a man are fixed at four dollars and
mixed with the juice of thyme and of the black crow- 12 yards of wadmal; and thofe of a woman at two
berries.. dollars and five yards of wadmal. When men are
“ 11. They likewife eat many vegetables, fome of fent a-filhing out of the country, there is allowed to
which grow wild, and fome are cultivated ; alfo Ihell- each man, by law, from the 25th of September to the-
filh and mulhrooms.” . 14th of May, fix pounds of butter, and 18 pounds
The Icelanders in general eat three meals a-day, at of dried filh every week. This may feem to be too
ftven in the morning, two in the afternoon, and nine great an allowance ; but it muft be remembered tk i
at night. In the morning and evening they common- they have nothir g elfe to live upon. When they are
ly eat curds mixed with new milk, and fometimes with at home, and can get milk, &c. every man receives
juniper or crow berries. In fome parts, they alfo have only five pounds of dried filh and three quarters of a
pottage made of rock-grafs, which is very palatable, pound of butter a-week. 1S_
or curdled milk boiled till it becomes of a red colour, The food and manner of life of the Icelanders by no Difeafes.
or new milk boiled a long time. At dinner, their food means contribute to their longevity, It is very rare
confifts of dried filh, with plenty of four butter ; they indeed to fee an inhabitant of Iceland exceed the age
alfo fometimes eat frelh fifh, and,, when poffible, a lit- of 50 or 60; and the greater part are attacked by
tie bread and cheefe with them. It is reported by grievous difeafes before middle age. Of thefe the
fome, that they do not eat any filh till it is quite rot- feurvy and elephantiafis or leprofy are the word. They
ten; this report perhaps proceeds from their being are alfo fubjedl to the gout in their hands, owing to
fond of it when a little tainted: they however fre- their frequent employment in filhing, and handling
quently eat filh which is quite frefh, though, in the the wet filhing-tackle in cold weather. St Anthony’s
fame manner as the reft of their food, often without fire, the jaundice, pleurify,. and lownefs of fpirits, are
fait. frequent complaints in this country. The fmall-pox
Their common beverage is milk, either warm from alfo is exceedingly fatal, and not long ago deftroyed
the cow or cold, and fometipies boiled : they likewife 16,000 perfons. By thefe difeafes, and the frequent
ufe butter-milk with or without water.. On the coafts famines with which the country has been afHi&ed, the
they generally drink blanda and four milk ; which is inhabitants are reduced to a much fmaller number than
fold after it is Ikimmed at two-fifths of a rixdollar- they formerly were, infbmuch that it is computed they
per calk : fome likewife fend for beer from Copenha- do not in all exceed 60,000.
gen, and fome brew their own. A few of the princi- The exports of Iceland confift of dried filh, failed Commerce
pal inhabitants alfo have claret and coffee. The com-.- mutton and lamb, beef, butter, tallow, train-oil,and re-
mon people fometimes drink a kind of tea, which they ' coarfe woollen cloth, ftockings, gloves, raw wool,venue
make from the leaves of the dryas oclopdala, and the fheepfkins, lamb-lit ins, fox-{urs of various colours, ei-
•aeronica officinalis. . der down, feathers, and formerly fuiphur; but there is
i.:) Iceland-
Volcanoes
cf Iceland.
ICE [ 93 ] ICE
no longer a demand for this mineral. On the other
hand, the Icelanders import timber, filhing-lines and
hooks, tobacco, bread, horfe-lhoes, brandy, wine, fait,
linen, a little filk, and a few other neceffaries, as well
as fuperfluities for the better fort- The whole trade
of Iceland is engroffed by a monopoly of Dames, in¬
dulged with an excluiive charter. This company
maintains fa&ories at all the harbours of Iceland,
where they exchange their foreign goods for the mer¬
chandize of the country ; and as the balance is in fa¬
vour of the Icelanders, pay the overplus in Danilh
money, which is the only current coin in this ifland.
All their accounts and payments are adjulled accord¬
ing to the number of filh: two pounds of fifh are
worth two drillings in fpecie, and 48 filh amount to
one rixdollar. A Danilh crown is computed at 30
fiih : what falls under the value of 12 fifh cannot be
paid in money ; but mull be bartered either for filh
or roll-tobacco, an ell of which is equal to one filh.
The weights and meafures of the Icelanders are nearly
the fame with thofe ufed in Denmark. The Icelan¬
ders being neither numerous nor warlike, and altoge¬
ther unprovided with arms, ammunition, garrifons, or
fleets, are in no condition to defend themfelves from
invafion, but depend entirely on the protection of his
Danilh majelly, to whom they are fubjedt. The re
venues which he draws from this illand confill of the
income of divers eftates, as royal demefne, amounting
to about 8000 dollars per annum ; of the money paid
by the company for an exclufive trade, to the value of
20,000 dollars ; and of a fixed proportion in the
tythes of filh paid in fome particular diftiidls.
Iceland is noted for the volcanoes with which it
abounds, as already mentioned, and which feem to be
more furious than any yet difcoveredin the other parts
of the globe. Indeed, from the lateft accounts, it
would feem that this miferable country were little
other than one continued volcano. Mount Heck has
been commonly fuppofed to be the only burning
mountain, or at leall the principal one, in the illand:
(fee Hecla), It has indeed been dnore taken notice of
than many others of as great extent, partly from its
having had more frequent eruptions than any Angle
one, and partly from its fituation, which expofes-u to
the fight of Ihips failing to Greenland and North
America. But in a liil of eruptions publilhed in the
appendix to Pennant’s Ardtic Zoology, it appears, that
cut of 5 1 remarkable ones, only one third have pro¬
ceeded from Hecla, the other mountains it feems being
no lefs a&ive in the work of deftrudtion than this
celebrated one. Thefe eruptions take place in the
mountains covered with ice, which the inhabitants
call Jokuls. Some of thefe, as appears from a large
map of Iceland made by order of his Danilh Majdty
in 1734, have been fwallowed up. Probably the great
lakes met with in this country may have been occa-
fioned by the finking of fuch mountains, as feveral
inltances of a fimilar nature are to be met with in other
parts of the world. The great Icelandic lake called
Myvatu may probably have been one. Its bottom is
entirely formed of lava, divided by deep cracks, which
flicker during winter the great quantity of trouts
which inhabit this lake. It is now only feet deep;
but originally was much deeper ; being nearly filled up
in, the year 1728 by an eruption of the great mountain
Krqfle. The fiery ftream took its courfe towards Iceland.
Myvatu, and ran int > it with an horrid noife, which ""“v 4
continued till the year 1730.
“ The mountains of Iceland (fays Mr Pennant) are
of two kinds, primitive and polierior. The former
confill of llrata ufually regular, but fometimes confu-
fed. They are formed of different forts of Hone without
the lead appearance of fire. Some are compofed of
fand and free done, petrofilex or chirt, flaty or fiflile
done, and various kinds of earth or bole, and deaths ;
different forts of breccia or conglutinated dones ; jaf-
pers of different kinds, Iceland crydal; the common
rhomboid fpathum, chalcedonies dratified, and botryoid?
zeolites of the mod elegant kinds ; crydals, and va¬
rious other fubilances that have no relation to vol¬
canoes. Thefe primitive mountains are thofe called
Jokuls. and are higher than the others. One of them,
called JEfian or Rias, is 6000 feet high. It feems to
be compofed of great and irregular rocks of a dark
grey colour, piled on each other. Another, called
Enneberg, is about 3000 feet high; the Snafeld Jokul,
2287 yards; the SnajiAdnas xsx promontory of Snafield
is from 300 to 400 fathoms- Hornjlrand or the coad
by the north Cape Nord is very high, from 300 to
400 fathoms. The rocks of Drango are feven in
number, of a pyramidal figure, rifing out of the fea at
a fmall didance from the cliffs, four of which are of a •
vad height, and have a mod magnificent appearance.
“ Eadward from the Stiafield begins the Eifberge,
foaring to a vad height; many parts of which have
felt the effedls of fire, and in fome of the melted rocks
are large cavities. Budda-kkhur, a rock at one end of
this mountain, is alfo volcanic, and has in it a great
cavern hung withJlalattita. The name of Solvahamar
is given to a tremendous range of volcanic rocks, com¬
pofed entirely of flags, and covered in the feafon with
fea-fowl. It would be endlefs, however, to mention
all the places which bear the marks of fire in various -
forms, either by having been vitrified, changed into a
fiery colour, ragged and black, or bear the marks of
having run for miles in a doping courfe towards the
fea.”
Thefe volcanoes, though fo dreadful in their effe&s,
feldom begin to throw out fire without giving warning.
A fubterraneous rumbling noife heard at a confider-
able didance, as in other volcanoes, precedes the erup¬
tion for fevefal days, with a roaring and cracking in
the place from whence the fire is about to burd forth ^
many fiery meteors are obferved, but generally unat¬
tended with any violent concuflion of the earth,
though fometimes earthquakes, of which feveral in-
dances are recorded, have accompanied thefe dreadful
conflagrations. The drying up of fmall lakes, dreams,
and rivulets, is alfo confidered as a fign of an impend¬
ing eruption ; and it is thought to haden the eruption
when a mountain is fo covered with ice, that the holes
are dapped up through which the exhalations former¬
ly found a free paffage, The immediate fign is the
burding of the mafs of ice with a dreadful naife ;
flames then iffue forth from the earth, and lightning
and fireballs from-the fmoke; dones, allies, &c. are
thrown out to vad didances. Egbert Olaflsen relates,
that, in an eruption of Kattle giaa in 1755, a done
weighing 290 pounds was thrown to the didance of 24
Englifii miles. A quantity of white pumice done is
4. thrown.'.
ICE [ 94 1 ICE
Iceland, thrown up by the boiling waters ; and it is conjeftured
1 with great probability, that the latter proceeds from
the fea, as a quantity of fait, fufficient to load feveral
horfes, has frequently been found after the mountain
has ceafed to burn.
To enumerate the ravages of fo many dreadful
volcanoes, which from time immemorial have contri¬
buted to render this dreary country ftill lefs habitable
1$ than it is from the climate, would greatly exceed our
tP^alnroft he fufficient to give an account of that
defolated which happened in 1783, and which from its violence
by an erup-fecms to have been unparalleled in hiftory.
jtion in Its hrft ligns were obferved on the ill of June by
a trembling of the earth in the weftern part of the
province of Shapterfiall. It increafed gradually to the
1 ith, and became at laft fo great that the inhabitants
quitted their houfes, and lay at night in tents on the
ground. A continual fmoke or tteam was perceived
rifing out of the earth in the northern and un¬
inhabited parts of the country. Three jire-fpouts,
as they were called, broke out in different places, one
in Ulfarfdal, a little to the call of the river Skapta; the
other two were a little to the weftward of the river
called Iliverjisjliot. The river Skapta takes its rife in
the northeall, and running firft weftward, it turns to
the fouth, and falls into the fea in a foutheaft diredlion.
Part of its channel is confined for about 24 Englifh
miles in length, and is in fome places 200 fathoms
deep, in others 100 or 150, and its breadth in fome
places 100,50, or 40 fathoms. Along the whole of this
part of its courfe the river is very rapid, though there
are no confiderable catara&s or falls. There are feve¬
ral other fuch confined channels in the country, but
this is the moft confiderable.
The three fire-fpouts, or ftreams of lava, which
bad broke out, united into one, after having rifen a
confiderable height into the air, arriving at laft at fuch
an amazing altitude as to be feen at the diftance of
more than 200 Englifh miles; the whole country, for
double that diftance, being covered with a fmoke or
fleam not to be defcribed.
On the 8th of June this fire firft became vifible.
Vaft quantities of fand, afhes, and other volcanic
matters were eje&ed, and fcattered over the country
by the wind, which at that time was very high. The
atmofphere was filled with fand, brimftone, and afhes,
in fu;h a manner as to occaiion continual darknefs ;
and confiderable damage was done by the pumice
ftones which fell, red hot, in great quantities. Along
with thefe a tenacious fubttance like pitch fell in vaft
quantity ; fometimes rolled up like balls, at other
times like rings or garlands, which proved no lefs
deftruclive to vegetation than the other. This fhower
having continued for three days, the fire became very
vifible, and at laft arrived at the amazing height already
mentioned. Sometimes it appeared in a continued
ftream, at others in fiafhes or flames feen at the dif¬
tance of 30 or 40 Danifh miles (180 or 24c of ours),
with a continual noife like thunder, which lafted the
whole fummer.
The fame day that the fire broke out there fell a
vaft quantity of rain, which running in ftreams on the
hot ground tore it up in large quantities, and brought
it down upon the lower lands. This rain-water was
much impregnated with acid and other falts, fo as to be
highly corrofive, and occafion a painful fenfation when Iceland,
it fell on the hands or face. At a greater diftance from i——y—«
the fire the air was exceffively cold. Snow lay upon
the ground three feet deep in fome places; and in
others there fell great quantities of hail, which did
very much damage to the cattle and every thing with¬
out doors. Thus the grafs and every kind of vege¬
tation in thofe places neareft the fire was deftroyed,
being covered with a thick cruft of fulphureous and
footy matter. Such a quantity of vapour was railed
by the conteft of the two adverfe elements, that the
fun was darkened and appeared like blood, the whole
face of nature feeming to be changed; and this ob-
feurity feems to have reached as far as the ifland of
Britain; for during the whole fummer of 1783, an
obfeurity reigned throughout all parts of this ifland ;
the atmofphere appearing to be covered with a con¬
tinual haze, which prevented the fun from appearing
with his ufual fplendor.
The dreadful feene above defcribed lafted in Iceland
for feveral days; the whole country was laid wafte,
and the inhabitants fled every where to the remoteft
parts of their miferable country, to feck for fafety from
the fury of this unparalleled tempeft.
On the firft breaking out of the fire, the river
Skapta was confiderably augmented, on the eaft fide of
which one of the fire fpouts was fituated ; and a fi-
milar overflow of water was obferved at the fame time
in the great river Piorfa, which runs into the fea a
little to the eaftward of a town called Orrebakka, and
into which another river called Tuna, after having run
through a large tra£l of barren and uncultivated land,
empties itfelf. But on the 1 ith of June the waters of
the Skapta were leflened, and in lefs than 24 hours
totally dried up. The day following, a prodigious
ftream of liquid and red-hot lava, which the fire-fpout
had difeharged, ran down the channel of the river.
This burning torrent not only filled up the deep chan¬
nel above mentioned, but, overflowing the banks of
it, fpread itfelf over the whole valley, covering all
the low grounds in its neighbourhood ; and not ha¬
ving any fufficient outlet to empty itfelf by, it rofe to a
vaft height, fo that the whole adjacent country was
overflowed, infinuating itfelf between the hills, and
covering fome of the lower ones. The hills here are
not continued in a long chain or feries, but are fepara-
ted from one another, and detached, and between
them run little rivulets or brooks ; fo that, befides
filling up the whole valley in which the river Skapta
ran, the fiery ftream fpread itfelf for a confiderable
diftance on each fide, getting vent between the above
mentioned hills, and laying all the neighbouring coun¬
try under fire.
The fpouts ftill continuing to fupply frefh quanti¬
ties of inflamed matter, the lava took its courfe up the
channel of the river, overflowing all the grounds above,
as it had done thofe below the place whence it iffued.
The river was dried up before it, until at laft; it was
Hopped by the hill whence the Skapta takes its rife.
Finding now no proper outlet, it rofe to a prodigious
height, and overflowed the village of Buland, confu-
ming the houfes, church, and every thing that Hood in
its way ; though the high ground on which this village
flood feemed to enfure it from any danger of this
kind.
The
ICE [
The fiery lake Hill increafing, fpread itfelf out in
'length and breadth for about 36 Englifli miles ; and
having converted all this traft of land into a fea of fire,
it ftretched itfelf towards the fouth, and getting vent
again by the river Skapta rulhed down its channel
with great impetuofity. It was ftill confined be¬
tween the narrow banks of that river for about fix
miles (Englifli); but coming at laft into a more open
place, it poured forth in prodigious torrents with
amazing velocity and force ; fpreading itfelf now to¬
wards the fouth, tearing up the earth, and carrying
on its furface flaming woods and whatfoever it met
with. In its courfe it laid wafte another large diftrift
of land. The ground where it came was cracked, and
fent forth great quantities of fleam long before the
fire reached it ; and every thing near the lake was
either burnt up or reduced to a fluid ftate. In this
fituation matters remained from the 12th of June to
the 1 3th of Auguft ; after which the fiery lake no
longer fpread itfelf, but neverthelefs continued to burn ;
and when any part of the furface acquired a cruft by
cooling, it was quickly broken by the fire from below;
and this tumbling down among the melted fubftance,
was rolled and tofled about with prodigious noife and
crackling ; and in many parts of its furface, fmall
fpouts or at leaft ebullitions were formed, which con¬
tinued for fome length of time.
In other dire&ions this dreadful inundation proved
no lefs deftruftive. Having run through the narrow
part of the channel of Skapta as early as the 12th of
June, it ftretched out itfelf towards the weft and fouth-
weft, overflowing all the flat country, and its edge
being no lefs than 70 fathoms high at the time it got
out of the channel of the river. Continuing its de-
ftru&ive courfe, it overflowed a number of villages,
running in every diredtion where it could find a vent.
In one place it came to a great cataraft of the river
Skapta, about 14 fathoms in height, over which it
was precipitated with tremendous noife, and thrown in
great quantities to a very confiderable diftance. In a-
nother place it flopped up the channel of a large river,
filled a great valley, and deftroying two villages by
approaching only within too fathoms of them. Others
were overflowed by inundations of water proceeding
from the rivers which had been flopped in their cour-
fes; until at laft all the paffages on the fouth, eaft,
and weft, being flopped, and the fpouts ftill fending up
incredible quantities of frefli lava, it burft out to the
north and northeaft, fpreading over a tract of land 48
miles long and 36 broad. Here it dried up the rivers
Tuna and Axafyrdi; but even this vaft effufion being
infufficient to exhauft the fubterraneous refources of
liquid fire, a new branch took its courfe for about
eight miles down the channel of the river Ilwerfisfliot,
when coming again to an open country, it formed
what our author calls afmall lake of fire, about twelve
miles in length and fix in breadth. At laft, however,
this branch alfo flopped on the 16th of Auguft ; the
fiery fountains ceafed to pour for thnew fupplies, and
this moft aftonilhing eruption came to a period.
The whole extent of ground covered by this dread¬
ful inundation was computed at no lefs than 90 miles
long and 42 in breadth; the depth of the lava being
from 16 to 20 fathoms. Twelve rivers were driedup,20
cr 3i villages were deftroyed, and 224 people loft
95 1 I C E
their lives. The extent above mentioned, however, is
that only on the fouth, eaft, and weft; for that towards
the north being over uninhabited land, where no body
cared to venture themfelves, was not exactly known.
Some hills.were covered by this lava; others were
melted down by its heat; fo that the whole had the
appearance of a fea of red-hot and melted metal.
After this eruption two new iflands were thrown up^
from the bottom of the fea. One, about three miles
in circumference, and about a mile in height, made its
appearance in the month of February 1784, where
there was formerly 100 fathoms water. It was about
100 miles fouthweft from Iceland, and 48 from a cluf-
ter of fmall iflands called Gierfugla. It continued for
fome time to burn with great violence, fending forth
prodigious quantities of pumice ftones, fand, See. like
other volcanoes. The other lay to the northweft, be¬
tween Iceland and Greenland. It burnt day and night
without intermiflion for a confiderable time ; and was
alfo very high, and larger than the former. Since
that time, however, one or both of thefe iflands have
been fwallowed up.
All the time of this great eruption, and for a con¬
fiderable time after, the whole atmofphere was loaded
with fmoke, fleam, and fulphureous vapours. The
fun was fometimes wholly invifible; and when it could
be feen was of a reddifli colour. Moft of the fifhe-
ries were deftroyed; the banks where the fifh ufed to
refort being fo changed, that the fifhermen could not
know them again ; and the finoke was fo thick, that
they could not go far out to fea. The rain water,
falling through this fmoke and fleam, was fo impreg¬
nated with fait and fulpbureous matter, that the hair
and even the fltin of the cattle were deftroyed ; and the
whole grafs of the ifland was fo covered with foot and
pitchy matter, that what had efcaped the deftrudive
effeds of the fire became poifonous ; fo that the cattle
died for want of food, or perilhed by eating thofe-
unwholefome vegetables. Nor were the inhabitants
in a much better fituation ; many of them having loft
their lives by the poifonous qualities of the fmoke and
fteam with which the whole atmofphere was filled;
particularly old people, and fuch as had any complaint
in the bread and lungs.
Before the fire broke out in Iceland, there is faid to
have been a very remarkable eruption in the uninha¬
bited parts of Greenland ; and that in the northern
parts of Norway, oppofite to Greenland, the fire was
vifible for a long time. It was alfo related, that when
the wind was in the north, a great quantity of aftres,
pumice, and brimftone, fell upon the north and weft
coafts of Iceland, which continued for the whole fumr
mer whenever the wind was in that quarter; and the
air was always very much impregnated with a thick
fmoke and fulphureous fmell.
During the fall of the (harp rain formerly mention¬
ed, there was obferved at Trondheim, and other places
in Norway, and likewife at Faw, an uncommon fall of
ftiarp and fait rain, which totally deftroyed the leaves
of the trees, and every vegetable it fell upon, by
fcorching them up, and caufing them to wither. A.
confiderable quantity of allies, fand, and other volcanic
matters, fell at Faro, which covered the whole furfaca
of the ground whenever the wind blew from Iceland^
though the diftance between the two places is not
lefs
ICE [96
lefs than 480 miles. Ships that were failing betwixt
I C H
16
Vhorke-
lyn's ac¬
count of
the an¬
cient ftate
of this
lifland.
, . u By the laws of Iceland, the poor were committed 'IcelatnJ |i
Copenhagen and Norway were frequently covered to the prote&ion of their neared kindred, who had a, - ^ 1
with afhes and fulphureous matter, which ftuck to the right to their labour as far as they were able to work, ,c eumon
mafts, fails, and decks, befmearing them all over with and afterwards to indemnification if the poor perfon
a black and pitchy fubftance. In many parts of fhould acquire any property. Children were obliged
Holland, Germany, and other northern countries, a to maintain their parents in their old age; but if the
fulphureous vapour was obferved in the air, accom- latter had neglefted to give them good education, they
panied with a thick fmoke, and in fome places a light were abfolved from this duty,
grey-coloured fubftance fell upon the earth every While the republic of Iceland continued free and \
night; which, by yielding a bluifti flame when thrown independent, {hips were fent from the ifland to all parts
into the fire, evidently {bowed its fulphureous nature, of the world. Till very lately, however, not a {hip
On thofe nights in which this fubftance fell in any belonged to it, the little commerce it enjoyed being
quantity, there was little or no dew obferved. Thefe monopolized by a Danifli company, until in 1786 it
appearances continued, more or lefs, all the months of was laid open to all the fubje&s of Denmark. “ There
July, Auguft, and September. is at prefent (fays Mr Pennant *) a revival of the cod ' '
Some curious particulars relative to the ancient ftate fifhery on the coaft of Iceland from our kingdom. A-t0 Ar£i•• Jj
of this ifland have lately been publiftied by a Mr bout a dozen of veffels have of late failed from the ifl-fj
Vhorkelyn, a native of the country. From his work of Thanet, and a few from other parts of Great Bri-
it appears that Iceland, for a very confiderable fpace of tain. They are either {loops or brigs from 50 to 80
time, W*. from the beginning of the 10th to the tons burden. A lugfail boat, fuch as is ufed in the
middle of the 13th century, was under a republican herring-filhery, failed laft feafon from Yarmouth thus I
form of government. At firft the father, or head of equipped. The crew confifted of five men from the
every family, was an abfolute fovereign ; but in the town, and five more taken in at the Orkneys. They had
progrefs of population and improvement, it became ne- twelve lines of 120 fathoms each,and 200 orjoo hooks;
ceffary to form certain regulations for the fettlement of fix heading knives, twelve gutting and twelve fplitting
difputes concerning the frontiers of different eftates. knives. They take in x 8 tons of fait at Leith, at the
For this purpofe the heads of the families concerned af- rate of three tons to every thoufand fifh ; of which
fembled themfelves, and formed the outlines of a re- fix or feven thoufand is a load for a veffel of this kind,
public. In the mean time they carried on a profpe- They go to fea about the middle of April; return by
X'ous trade to different parts ; fending {hips even to the the Orkneys to land the men ; and get into their port
Levant, and to Conftantinople, at that time celebra- in the latter end of Auguft or beginning of Septem-
ted as the only feat of literature and humanity in the her. Pytheas fays, that Iceland lies fix days failing
world. Deputies were likewife fent from this ifland from Great Britain. A veffel from Yarmouth was, in
over land to that capital, for the improvement of their the laft year, exa&ly that time in its voyage from the
laws and civilization ; and this a whole century before Orkneys to Iceland. With a fair wind it might be
the firft crufade. In thefe ancient Icelandic laws, there- performed in far lefs time ; but the winds about the
fore, we meet with evident traces of thofe of the Greeks Ferroe ifles are generally changeable.”
and Romans. For example, befides a body of written Iceland Jlgate ; a kind of precious ftone met with
laws which were written every third year to the people, in the iflands of Iceland and Afcenfion, employed
they had two then chofen annually by the heads of fa- by the jewellers as an agate, though too foft for the
milies, with confular power, not only to enforce the purpofe. Ic is fuppofed to be a volcanic produft;
laws then in being, but when thefe proved deficient, to being folid, black, and of a glaffy texture. When
aft as neceflity required. held between the eye and the light, it is femitranfpa-
Thefe laws do not appear to have inflifted capital rent and greenifh like the glafs bottles which con-
puniftiments upon any perfon. Murderers were banifh- tain much iron. In the iflands which produce it,
ed to the wood; that is, to the interior and uncultiva- fuch large pieces are met with that they cannot be
ted parts of the ifland ; where no perfon was allowed equalled in any glafs-houfe.
to approach them within a certain number of fathoms. Iceland (or IJland) Cryjlal. See Crystal [Ice-
In cafes of baniflrment for leffer crimes, the friends of land).
the offender were allowed to fupply him with neceffa- ICENI, the ancient name of the people of Suffolk,
ries. The culprit, however, might be killed by any Norfolk, Cambridgeflure, and Huntingdonfliire, in
perfon who found him without his bounds ; and he England.
might even be hunted and deftroyed in his fanftuary, ICH-dien. See Heraldry, chap. iv. feft. 2.
provided he did not withdraw himfelf from the ifland ICHNEUMON in zoology. See Viverra.
within a twelvemonth after his fentence, which it was Ichneumon, is alfo the name of a genus of flies of
fuppofed he might accomplifli by means of the annual the hymenoptera order. The mouth is armed with
arrival and departure of fhips. Every man’s perfon jaws, without any tongue; the antennae have above
was free until he had forfeited his rights by fome crime 30 joints; the abdomen is generally petiolated, join-
againft fociety; and fo great was their refpeft for in- ed to the body by a pedicle or ftalk ; the tail is armed
dependence, that great indulgence was allowed for the with a fting, which is inclofed in a double-valved cylin-
power of pafiion. If any provoking word or beha- drical {heath ; the wings are lanceolated and plain,
viour had been ufed, no punifliment’ was inflifted on This genus is exceedingly numerous. In Gmdin’a
the party who refented it, even though he fliould have or the 13th edit, of the Syjlema Natura, no fewer than
killed his adverfary. 415 fpecies are enumerated. They are divided into
N0 163. • fa-
I C H [
union, families, from the colour of their fcutellum and an-
rf’—-'' tennas, as follow : i. Thofe with a whitiih fcutcheort,
and antennae annulated with a whitilh band. 2. Thofe
which have a white efcutcheon, and antennae entirely
black. 3. With a fcutcheon of the fame colour as
the thorax; the antenna; encompaffed with a fillet*
4. With a fcutcheon of the fame colour as the thorax;
and antennae black and fetaceous. 5. With fetaceous
clay-coloured antennae. 6. With fmall filiform an¬
tennae, and the abdomen oval and flender.
One diftinguilhing and ftriking charafter of thefe
fptcies of flies is the almoft continual agitation of
their antennae. The name of Ichneumon has been ap¬
plied to them, from the fervice they do us by deftroy-
ing caterpillars, plant-lice, and other infetts; as the
ichneumon ormangoufte dettroys the crocodiles. The
variety to be found in the fpecies of ichneumons is
prodigious : among the fmaller fpecies there are males
who perform their amorous preludes in the moft paf-
fionate and gallant manner. The pofterior part of the
females is armed with a wimble, vifible in fome fpe¬
cies, no ways difcoverable in others; and that inftru-
ment, though fo fine, is able to penetrate through mor¬
tar and plafter: the ftru&ure of it is more eafily feen
in the long-wimbled fly. The food of the family to
be produced by this fly is the larva of wafps or mafon-
bees: for it no fooner efpies one of thofe nefts, but it
fixes on it with its wimble, and bores through the
mortar of which it is built. The wimble itfelf, of an
admirable ftrudture, confifts of three pieces ; two col¬
lateral ones, hollowed out into a gutter, ferve as a
{heath, and contain a compaft, folid, dentated ftem,
along which runs a groove that conveys the egg from
the animal, who fupports the wimble with its hinder
legs, left it ftiould break, and by a variety of move¬
ments, which it dexteroufly performs, it bores through
the building, and depofits one or more eggs, according
to the fize of the ichneumon, though the largeft drop
but one or two. Some agglutinate their eggs upon
caterpillars ; others penetrate through the caterpillar’s
eggs, though very hard, and depofit their own in the
infide. When the larva is hatched, its head is fo fi-
tuated, that it pierces the caterpillar, and penetrates to
its very entrails. Thefe larvae pump out the. nutritious
juices ot the caterpillar, without attacking the vitals
of the creature ; who appears healthy, and even fome-
times transforms itfelf to a chryfalis. It is not un¬
common to fee thofe caterpillars fixed upon trees, as
if they were fitting upon their eggs, and it is after¬
wards difcovered that the larva:, which were within
their bodies, have fpun their threads, with which, as
with cords, the caterpillars are faftened down, and fo
perifh miferably. The ichneumons performed fpecial
fervice, in the years 1731 and 1732 ; by multiplying
in the fame proportion as did the caterpillars, their
larvae deftroyed more of them than could be effedted by
human induftry. Thofe larvae, when on the point of
turning into chryfalids, fpin a filky cod. Nothing is
more furprifing and Angular, than to fee thofe cods
leap when placed on the table or hand. Plant-lice,
the larvae of the curculiones, and fpider’s eggs, are al-
fo fometimes the cradle of the ichneumon-fly. Car-
cafes of plant-lice, void of motion, are often found on
rofe-tree leaves; they are the habitation of a fmall
larva, which, after having eaten up the entrails, de-
Vo n. IX. Part I.
97 1 1 C H
ftroys the fprings and inward economy of the plant- Iehnog*a-
loufe, performs its metamorphofis under ftrelter of the
pellicle which enfolds it, contrives itfelf a fmall cir- ichthyo-
cular outlet, and fallies forth into open air. There colla.
are ichneumons in the woods, who dare attack fpiders,—v ■
run them through with their fting, tear them to pieces,
and thus avenge the whole nation of flies of fo formi¬
dable a foe : others, deftitute of wings (and thofe are
females), depofit their eggs in fpiderg nefts. The ich¬
neumon of the bedeguar, or fweet-briar fponge, and
that of the rofe-tree, perhaps only depofit their eggs
in thofe places, becaufe they find other infefts on
which they feed. The genus of the ichneumon-flies
might with propriety be termed a race of diminutive
canibals.
ICHNOGRAPHY, in perfpeftive, the view of
any thing cut off by a plane, parallel to the horizon,
juft at the bafe of it.—The word is derived from the
Greek footflep, and Jpap® I write, as being a
defcription of the footfteps or traces of a work.
Among painters it fignifies a defcription of images
or of ancient ftatues of marble and copper, of buds
and femi-bufts, of paintings in frefco, mofaic works,
and ancient pieces of miniature.
ICHOGLANS, the grand fignior’s pages ferving
in the feraglio. Thefe arc the children of Chriftian
parents, either taken in war, purchafed, or fent in
prefents from the viceroys and governors of diftant
provinces ; they are the moft fprightly, beautiful, and
well-made that can be met with ; and are always re¬
viewed and approved of by the grand fignior himfelf
before they are admitted into the feraglios of Pera,
Conftantinople, or Adrianople, being the three col¬
leges where they are educated, or fitted for employ¬
ments, according to the opinion the court entertains
of them.
ICHOR, properly fignifies a thin watery humour
like ferum ; but is fometimes ufed for a thicker kind
flowing from ulcers, called alfa fanies.
ICHTHYOCOLLA, Isinglass, a preparation
from the fifti known by the name of hufo. See
Accipenser. The word is Greek, formed of
«XSu< fijhy ar.d *o\Aa glue.—The method of making
Ifinglafs was long a fecret in the hands of the Ruf¬
fians; but hath lately been difcovered, and the following
account of it publifhed by Humphrey Jackfon, Efq;
in the 63d volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions.
“ All authors who have hitherto delivered pro-
ceflTes for making ichthyocolla, fifti-glue, or ifinglafs,
have greatly miftaken both its conftftuent matter and
preparation.
“ To prove this aflertion, it may not be improper
to recite what Pomet fays upon the fubje&, as he ap¬
pears to be the principal author whom the reft have co¬
pied. After deferibing the fifti, and referring to a
cut engraved from an original in his cuftody, he fays;
‘ As to the manner of making the ifinglafs, the finewy
parts of the fifti are boiled in water till all of them be
diflblved that will diflblve ; then the gluey liquor is
drained, and fet to cool. Being cold, the fat is care¬
fully raken off, and the liquor itfelf boiled to a juft
confiftency, then cut to pieces, and made into a twill,
bent in form of a crefcent, as commonly fold; then
hung upon a firing, and carefully dried.’
“ Prom this account, it might be rationally eon-
N eluded,
I C H C 98 ] I C H
Ichthyo- eluded, that every fpecies of firti which contained ge- fpecifie gravity, arranged themfelves accordingly, and tAthy*.
col|^ i latinoue principles would yield ifinglafs: and this pa- fell in a combined ftate to the bottom, through the ^
rity of reafoning feems to have given rife to the halty well-known laws of gravitation ; for, in this cafe, ' v
conclufions of thofe who ftfenuoudy vouch for the there is no eleftivefattradlion, as fonae have imagined,
extraction of ifinglafs from fturgeon ; but as that fifti which bears the leaft affinity with what frequently oc-
is eaiily procurable, the negligence of afeertaining the curs in chemical decompofitions.
fact by experiment feems inexcufable. “ If what is commercially termed Jong or/iortjtap/ed
“ In my iirft attempt to difeover the conftituent ifinglafs be fteeped a few hours in fair cold water, the
parts and manufacture of ifinglafs, relying too much entwilted membranes will expand, and reaffirme their
upon the authoTity of fonae chemical authors whofe original beautiful (n) hue, and, by a dexterous addrefs,
veracity I had experienced in many other inftanees, may be perfectly unfolded. By this fimple operation,
I found myfelf conftantly difappointed. Glue, not we find that ifinglafs is nothing more than certain
ifinglafs, was the refult of every procefs ; and al- membrahous parts of fiihes, divefted of their native mu-
though, in the fame view, a journey to Ruffia proved cofity, tolled and twilled into the forms above meution-
fruidefs, yet>a Heady prefeverance in the refearch ed, and dried in open air.
proved not only fuccefsful as to this objeCl, but, in “ The founds, or air-bladders, of frdh water fiili
the purfuit, to difeover a refinous matter plentifully in general, are preferred for this purpofe, as being
procurable in the Britifh filheries, which has been the moil tranfparent, flexible, delicate fubftances.
found by ample experience to anfwer fimilar purpofes. Thtfe conftitute the fined forts of ifinglafs; thofe
It is now no longer a fecret, that our (a) lakes and called book and ordinary jiaple, are made of the intef-
rivera in North America are Hocked with immenfe tines, and probably of the peritonaeum of the filh.
quantities of filh, faid to be the fame fpecies with The belluga yields the greatefi quantity, as being the
thoft in Mufcovy, and yielding the finefi ifinglafs} the largeH and moH plentiful filh in the Mufcovy rivers; but
filheries whereof, under due encouragement, would the founds of all frelh-water fifh yield, more or lefs,
doubtlefs fupply all Europe with this valuable article. fine ifinglafs, particularly the fmaller forts, found in
“ No artificial heat is neceffary to the production prodigious quantities in the Cafpian Sea, and feveral
of ifinglafs, neither is the matter diflblved for this hundred miles beyond AHracan, in the Wolga, Yaik,
purpofe ; for, as the continuity of its fibres would be Don, and even as far as Siberia, where it is called kle or
deHroyed by folution, the mafs would become brittle kla by the natives, which implies a glutinous matter *
in drying, and fnap Ihort afunder, which is always it is the bafis of the Ruffian glue, which is preferred to
the cafe with glue, but never with ifinglafs. The all other kinds for its Hrength.
latter, indeed, may be refolved into glue with boil- “ The founds, which yield the finer ifinglafs, confift
ing water; but its fibrous recompofition would be of parallel fibres, and are eafily rent longitudinally ;
found imprafticable afterwards, and a fibrous texture but the ordinary forts are found compofed of double
is one of the moH diHinguilhing charafterifiics of ge- membranes, whofe fibres crofs each other obliquely, re-
auine ifinglafs. fembling the coats of a bladder : hence the former are
“ A due confideration that an imperfeA folution more readily pervaded and divided with fubacid li«
of ifinglafs, called fning by the brewers, poffeffed a quors; but the latter, through a peculiar kind of in.
peculiar property of clarifying malt-liquors, induced terwoven texture, are with great difficulty torn afun-
me to attempt its analyfis in cold fubacid menfiruums. der, and long refifi the power of the fame menilruum ;
One ounce and an half- of good ifinglafs, Heeped a few yet, when duly refolved, are found to ad with equal
days in a gallon ofoflale beerf was converted into energy in clarifying liquor*.
good fining, of a remarkably thick confifience: the “ Ifinglafs receives its different (hapes in the follow-
fame quantity of glue, under fimilar treatment, yielded ing manner :
only a mucilaginous liquor, refembling diluted gum- “ The parts of which it is compofed, particularly
water, which, inHead of clarifying beer, increafed the founds, are taken from the fifh while fweet and
both its tenacity and turbidnefs, and communicated frefh, flit open, walked from their flimy fordes, diveH-
other properties in no refped correfponding;with thofe ed of every thin membrane which envelopes the found*
of genuine fining. On commixing three fpoenfuls of and then expofed to Hiffen a little in the air. In this
the folution of ifinglafs with a gallon of malt liquor. Hate, they are formed into rolls about the thicknefs of
in a tall cylindrical glafs, a vaH number of curdly a finger, and in length according to the intended fize
maffes became prefently formed, by the reciprocal at- of the fiaple: a thin membrane is generally fele£ted
tra&ion of the particles of ifinglafs and the feculen- for the centre of the roll, round which the refi are
cies of the beer, which, increafing in magnitude and folded alternately, and about half an iach of each ex¬
tremity
(a) As the lakes of North America lie nearly in the fame latitude with the Cafpian Sea, particularly lake Su¬
perior, which is faid to be of greater extent, it was conjeftured they might abound with the fame forts of fifh \
and in confequence of public advertifements diHributed in various parts of North America, offering premiums
for the founds of flurgeon and other fifh, for the purpofe of making ifinglafs, feveral fpecimens of fine ifinglafs,
the produce of fifh taken in thefe parts, have been lately fent to England, with proper atteHations as to the un¬
limited quantity which may be procured.
(b) If the tranfparent ifinglafs be held in certain pofitions to the light, it frequently exhibits beautiful prif-
matic colours.
I C H [ 99 ] I C H
f4Itfcthyo- treirity of the roll i» turned inwards. The due dt-
[ mentions being thus obtained, the two ends of what
ff" ' '"l"' is called Jhort fiapk are pinned together with a fmall
wooden peg ; the middle of the roll is then prefled a
little downwards, which gives it t'te refemblance of a
heart-thape ; and thus it is laid on boards, or hung up
in the air to dry. The founds, which compofe the
long-llaple, are longer than the former ; but the ope¬
rator lengthens this fort at pleafure, by interfolding
the ends of one or more pieces of the found with each
other. The extremities are faftened with a peg, like
the former; but the middle part of the roll is bent
more confiderably downwards; and, in order to pre-
ftrve the fhape of the three obtufe angles thus formed,
a piece of round flick, about a quarter of an inch dia¬
meter, is faftened in each angle with fmall wooden
pegs, in the fame manner as the ends. In this ftate,
it is permitted to dry long enough to retain its form,
when the pegs and flicks are taken out, and the
drying completed; laftly, the pieces of ifinglafs are
colligated in rows, by running packthread through
the peg-holes, for convenience of package and expor¬
tation.
“ The membranes of the book fort, being thick
and refractory, will not admit a frmilar formation with
the preceding; the pieces, therefore, after their Tides
are folded inwardly, are bent in the centre, in fuch
manner that th^ oppofite (ides refemble the cover of a
book, from whence its name; a peg being r un acrofs
the middle, fallens the Tides together, and thus it is
dried like the former. This fort is interleaved, and
the pegs run acrofs the ends, the better to prevent its
unfolding.
“ That called caJte-ifwglafs is formed of the bits
and fragments of the ftaple forts, put into a flat me¬
talline pail, with a very little water, and heated juft
enough to make the parts cohere like a pancake when
it is dried ; but frequently it is overheated, and fitch
pieces, as before obferved, are ufelefs in the bufinefs
of fining. Experience has taught the confumers to
fejed them.
“ Ilinglafs is beft made in the frtmmer, as froft
gives it a difagreeable colour, deprives it of weight,
and impairs its gelatinous principles ; its faflrionable
forms are unnecefi’ary, and frequently injurious to its
native qualities. It is common to find oily putrid
matter, and exuvitt' of infefts, between the implicated
membranes, which, through the inattention of the
tellarman, often contaminate wines and malt-liquors in
the a£l of clarification. Thefe peculiar (hapes might,
probably, be introduced originally with a view to con¬
ceal and difguife the real fubftance of ifinglafs, and
preierve the monopoly ; but, as the mafk is now taken
off, it cannot be doubted to anfwef every purpofe more
effeftually in its native ftate, without any fublequent
manufacture whatever, efpecially to the principal con¬
fumers, who hence will be enabled to procure fuffici-
ent fupply from the Brilifh colonies. Until this laudai-
ble end can be fully accomplifhed, and as a fpecies of
tfinglafs, more eafily produceable from the marine
filheries, may probably be more immediately encou¬
raged, it may be manufactured as follows,:
“ 1 he founds of cod and ling bear great analogy
with thofe of the accipenfer genus of Einnaeu* and Ar*
tedi ; and are in general fo well known as to require Ichthyo*
no particular defcription. The Newfoundland and col,a'
Iceland fifheimen fplit open the fifh as foon as taken, ^
and throw the back bones, with the founds annexed,
in a heap ; but previous to incipient putrefaftion, the
founds are cut out, wafhed from their fliraes, and fak¬
ed for ufe. In cutting out the founds, the intercoftal
parts are left behind, which are much the beft ; the
Iceland filhermen are fo fenfible of this, that they beat
the bone upon a block with a thick flick, till the
pockets, as they term them, come out eafily, and thus
preferve the found entire. If the founds have been
cured with fait, that muft be diffolved by fteeping
them in water before they are prepared for ifinglafs ;
the frefli found muft then be laid upon a block of
wood, whofe lurface is a little elliptical, to the end of
which a fmall hair-brufti is nailed, and with a faw knife
the membranes on each fide of the found muft be fcra-
ped off. The knife is rubbed upon the bruftt occa-
fionally, to clear its teeth ; the pockets are cut ope*
with fciffars, and perfe&ly cleanfedof the mucous mat¬
ter with a coarfe cloth ; the founds are afterwards
wafiitd a few minutes in lime-water in order to abforb
their oily principle, and lattly in clear water. They
are then laid upon nets to dry in the air; but if in¬
tended to refemble the foreign ifinglafs, the founds of
cod will ©nly admit of that called look) but thofe of
ling both (hapes. The thicker the founds are, the bet¬
ter the ifinglafs, colour excepted ; but that is immate¬
rial to the brewer, who is its chief confumer.
“ This ifinglafs refolves into fining, like the other
forts, in fubacid liquors, as ftale beer, cyder, old hock,
&c. and in equal quantities produces fimilar effedfs
upon turbid liquors, except that it falls fpeedier and
clofer to the bottom of the veffel, as may be demon-
ftrated in tall cylindrical glaffes ; but foreign ifinglafs
retains the Amfif^ency of fining preferably in warm
weather, owing" go the greater tenacity of its native
mucilage. ' .
“ Vegetable acids are, in every refpedt, beft adap-
ted to fining: the mineral acrql are too corrofive, and
even infalubrious, in common beverage.
“ It is remarkable, that, during the converfion df
ifinglafs into fining, the acidity of the menftruum feems
greatly diminilhed, at leak to tafte; not on account of
any alkaline property in the ifinglafs, probably, but
by its invejoping the acid particles. Jt is likewife re¬
ducible into jelly with alkaline liquors, which indeed
are folvents of all animal matters; even cold lime-wa¬
ter diffolves it into a pulpous magma. Notwithftand-
ing this is itiadmiflible as fining, on account of the
menttruum, it produces admirable effedij in other re-
fptdls: for, on commixture with compofitions of pla-
fter, lime, &c. for ornamenting walls expofed to vicif-
fitudes of weather, it adds firmnefs and permanency to
the cement; and if common brick-mortar be worked
up with this jelly, it foon becomes almoft as hard as
the brick itfelf: but, for this purpofe, it is more com-
modioufly prepared, by dift'olving it in cold water, aci¬
dulated with vitriolic acid ; in which cafe, the acid
quits the jelly, and forms with the lime a Jiknhic mafs,
while, at the fame time, the jelly being deprived in
fome meafure of its moifture, through the formation
of an indiifoluble concrete amongft its parts, foon
N S5 dries.
I C H
Ichthyo- dries, and hardens into a firm body ; whence its fu-
, , perior ftrength and durability are eafily compre-
> hended.
“ It has long been a prevalent opinion, that ftur-
geon, on account of its cartilaginous nature, would
yield great quantities of ifinglafs ; but, on examina¬
tion, no part of this filh, except the inner coat of the
found, promifed the leaft fuccefs. This being full of
ruga, adheres fo firmly to the external membrane,
which is ufelefs, that the labour of feparating them
fuperfedes the advantage. The inteftines, however,
which in the larger fifii extend feveral yards in length,
being cleanfed from their mucus, and dried, were
found fuipriiingly ftrong and elaftic, refembling cords
made with the inteftines of other animals, commonly
called cat-gut, and, from fome trials, promifed fu-
perior advantages when applied to mechanic opera¬
tions.”
Ifinglafs is fometimes ufed in medicine ; and may be
given in a thin acrimonious ftate of the juices, after
the fame manner as the vegetable gums and mucilages,
regard being had to their different difpofition to putre-
fcence.
ICHTHYOLOGY, the fcience of fifties, or that
part of zoology which treats of fifties. See Fish.
Fifties form the fourth clafs of animals in the Lin-
mean fyftem. This clafs is there arranged into fix or¬
ders, under three great divifions ; _ none of which,
however, include the cetaceous tribes, or the whale,
dolphin, &c. thefe forming,an order of the clafs Mam-
, Mali a in the fame fyftem. See Zoology.
ClaMca- Mr Pennant, in his Britifti Zoology, makes a dif-
tion of ferent and very judicious arrangement, by which the
Sfliee. cetas are reftored to their proper rank. He diftributes
fifti into three divifions, comprehending fix orders.
His divifions are, into Cetaceous, Cartilaginous, and
Bony.
Div. I. Cetacwus Fi/h; the chara&ers of which
are the following : No gills ; an orifice on the top of
the head, through which they breathe and ejed:
water; a flat or horizontal tail; exemplified in
Plate CCLI. (lower compartment), fig. I. by the
Beaked Whale, borrowed from Dale’s Hift. Harw.
411. Tab. xiv. —This divifion comprehends three ge¬
nera ; the Whale, Cachalot, and Dolphin.
Div. II. Cartilaginous Fijh; the characters of
which are : Breathing through certain apertures, ge¬
nerally placed on each fide the neck; but in fome in-
ftances beneath, in fome above, and from one to feven
in number on each part, except in the pipe-fifti, which
has only one; the mufcles fupported by cartilages in-
ftead of bones. Example, the Picked Dog-filh, fig. 2.
a. The lateral apertures.—The genera are, the Lam¬
prey, Skate, Shark, Fiftiing-frog, Sturgeon, Sun-fifti,
Lump-fifti, Pipe-fifti.
Div. III. Boat Fijfb ; includes thofe whofe mufcles
are fupported by bones or fpines, which breathe thro’
gills covered or guarded by thin bony plates, open on
the fide, and dilatable by means of a certain row of
bones on their lower part, each feparated by a thin
web ; which bones are called the radii branchiojlegi,
or the gill covering rays. The tails of all the fifti that
form this divifion are placed in a iituation perpendicu¬
lar to the body ; and this is an invariable chara&er.
The great feftions cf the Bony Fifti into apodal,
l c H
Thoracic, Jugular, and Abdominal, he copies from Lin- Idithya-'
naeus: who founds this fyftem on a comparifon of the iosy
ventral fins to the feet of land-animals or reptiles ;v——'
and either from the want of them, qr their particular
fituation in refpeff to the other fins, eftablilhcs his
fedions.—In order to render them perfedly intelli¬
gible, it is neceflary to refer to thofe feveral organs of
movement, and fome other parts, in a perfed fifti, or
one taken out of the three laft fedions. In fig. 4.
(the Haddock), a, is the pedoral fins; b, ventral fins;
c, anal fins; d, caudal fin, or the tail; e, e, e, dorfal
fins : f, bony plates that cover the gills ; g, branchi-
oftegous rays and their membranes ; h, lateral or fide
line.
Sed. 1. Apodal: The moft imperfed, wanting
the ventral fins ; illuftrated by the Conger, fig. 3,
This alfo exprdfes the union ®f the dorfal and anal
fins with the tail, as is found in fome few fifti.—Ge¬
nera : The Eel, Wolf-fiih, Launce, Morris, Sword-
fifti.
Sed. 2. Jugular : The ventral fins b, placed be¬
fore the pedoral fins a, as in the Haddock, fig. 4  
Genera : The Dragonet, Weever, Codfifli, Blenny.
Sed. 3. Thoracic : The ventral fins a, placed be¬
neath the pedoral fins b, as in the Father Laftier,
fig. 5.—Genera : The Goby, Bull-head, Doree,
Flounder, Gilt head, Wrafle, Perch, Stickleback,
Mackarel, Surmullet, Gurnard.
Sed. 4. Abdominal : The ventral fins placed be¬
hind the pedoral fins, as in the Minow, fig. 6.—Ge¬
nera : The Loche, Salmon, Pike, Argentine, Athe-
rine. Mullet, Flying fifti, Herring, Carp.
Naturalills obferve an exceeding great degree of wif- s^apeaf
dom in the ftrudure of fifties, and in their conforma- fiflie aJ-
tion to the element in which they are to live. Mod mirably fit-
of them have the fame external form, fliarp at either
end, and fwelling in the middle, by which they aremotl°n’
enabled to traverfe the fluid in which they refide with
greater velocity and eafe. This ftiape is in fome meafure
imitated by men in thofe veflels which they ddign to
fail with the greateft fwiftnefs; but the progrefs of
the fwifteft failing ftu’p is far inferior to that of fifties.
Any of the large fifties overtake a (hip in full fail with
the greateft eafe, play round it as though it did not
move at all, and can get before it at pleafure.
The chief inftruments of a fifti’s motion have ^>een ufes the
fuppofed to be the fins ; which in fome are much more finsandtaih
numerous than in others. A fifti completely fitted ford fifties,
fwimming with rapidity, is generally furniftied with
two pair of fins on the fides, and three Angle ones*
two above, and one below. But it does not always
happen that the filh which has the greateft number of
fins is the fwifteft fvrimmer. The ftiark is thought
to be one of the fwifteft fifties, and yet it has, no fins
on its belly ; the haddock feems to be more completely
fitted for motion, and yet it does not move fo fwiftly.
It is even obfervable, that fome fifties which have no-
fins at all, fuch as lobfters, dart forward with prodigi¬
ous rapidity, by means of their tail; and the inftru-
ment of progrefiive motion, in all fifties, is now found
to be the tail. The great ufe of the fins is to keep
the body in equilibria : and if the fins are cut off, the.
fifh can ft ill fwim ; but will turn upon its fides or its
back, without being able to keep itfelf in an erebt
pofture as before. If the fifti defires to turn, a blow
from.
C 100 ]
logy.
m feriorityof
9 fifties to
f land ani
I mals.
I C H [
Ichthyo- from the tail fends it about in an inftant; but if the
tail ftrikes both ways, then the motion is progreffive.
All filhes are furnilhed with a flimy glutinous mat¬
ter, which defends their bodies from the immediate
contact of the furrounding fluid, and which likewife,
in all probability, afiifts their motion through the wa¬
ter. Beneath this, in many kinds, is found a ftrong
covering of fcales, which, like a coat of mail, defends
it ftill more powerfully ; and under that, before we
come to the mufcular parts of the body, lies an oily
fubflance, which alfo tends to preferve the requifite
^ warmth and vigour.
Arguments -By many naturaliils fifhes are confidered as of a na¬
ture very much inferior to land animals, whether beafts
or birds. Their fenfe of feeling, it is thought, mull
be very obfcure on account of the fcaly coat of mail
in which they are wrapped up. The fenfe of fmelling
alfo, it is faid, they can have only in a very fmall de¬
gree- All fifhes, indeed, have one or more noftrils ;
and even thofe that have not the holes perceptible
without, yet have the bones within, properly formed
for fmelling. But as the air is the only medium we
know proper for the diftribution of odours, it cannot
be fuppofed that thefe animals which refide conftantly
in the water can be affe&ed by them. As to tailing,
they feem to make very little diftin6lion. The palate
of moft fifhes is hard and bony, and confequently
incapable of the powers of relifhing different fub-
Itances ; and accordingly thefe voracious animals have
often been obferved to fwallow the fifherman’s plummet
inflead of the bait. Hearing is generally thought to
be totally deficient in fifhes, notwithftanding the dif-
coveries of fome anatomifts who pretend to have found
out the bones defigned for the organ of hearing in
their heads. They have no voice, it is faid, to com¬
municate with each other, and confequently have no
need of an organ for hearing. Sight feems to be that
fenfe of which they are poffeffed in the greateft degree ;
and yet even this feems obfcure, if we compare it with
that of other animals. The eye, in almofl all fifhes, is
covered with the fame tranfparent fkin which covers
the reft of the head, and which probably ferves to de¬
fend it in the water, as they are without eyelids. The
globe is more depreffed anteriorly, and is furnifhed be¬
hind with a mufcle which ferves to lengthen or flatten
it as there is qccafion. The cryftalline humour, which
in quadrupeds is flat, and of the fhape of a button-
mould, or like a very convex lens, in fifhes is quite
round, or fometimes oblong like an egg. Hence it
is thought that fifhes are extremely near fighted ; and
that, even in the water, they can peiceive objefts only
at a very fmall diftance. Hence, fay they, it is evi¬
dent how far fifhes are below terreftrial animals in their
fenfations, and confequently in their enjoyments. Even
their brain, which is by fome fuppofed to be of a fize
with every creature’s underftanding, fhows that fifhes
j are very much inferior to birds in this refpedl.
©bjedtions Others argue differently with regard to the nature
to thefe of fifhes.—With refpeft to the fenfe of feeling, fay
arguments..they, it cannot be juftly argued that fifhes are defi¬
cient, merely becaufe they are covered with fcales, as
it is poffible thefe fcales may be endued with as great
a, power of fenfation as we can imagine. The fenfe
of feeling is not properly connected with foftnefs in
any organ, more than with bardnefs. in it. A fimilar
IOI ] I C H
argument may be ufed with regard to fmelling ; for W'dioy
in though we do not know hovvfmells can be propagated ' ,
water, that is by no means a proof thalt they are not fo.
On the contrary, as water is found to be capable of
abforbing putrid effluvia from the air, nothing is more
probable than that thefe putrid effluvia, when mixed
with the water, would affeft the olfa&ory organs of
fiflies, as well aa they affedt ours when mixed with the
air.—With regard to tafte, it certainly appears, that
fifhes are able to diftinguifh their proper food from
what is improper, as well as other animals. Indeed,
no voracious animal feems to be endued with much
fenfibility in this refpedt ; nor would it probably be
confiftent with that way of promifcuoufly devouring
every creature that comes within its reach, without
which thefe kinds of animals could not fsbfift. g
With refpedl to the hearing, of fifnes, it is urged, Senfc of
that, when kept in a pond, they may be made tohearin2’
anfwer at the call of a whiftle or the ringing of a bell;
and they will even be terrified at any fudden and violent
noife, fuch as thunder, the firing of guns, See. and
{brink to the bottom of the water. Among the anci¬
ents, ma*y were of opinion that fifhts had the fenfe
of hearing, though they were by no means fatisfied
about the ways or paffages by which they heard. Pid-
centini afterwards difeovered fome bones in the head of
the pike, which had very much the appearance of be¬
ing organs of hearing, though he could never difeover
any external paffages to them. Klein affirmed, from
his own experiments and obfervations, that all fifhes
have the organs of hearing ; and have alfo paffages
from without to thefe organs, though in many fpecies
they are difficult to be feen ; and that even the moft
minute and obfcure of thefe are capable of communi¬
cating a tremulous motion to thofe organs, from founds
iffuing from without. This is likewife afferted by M.
Geoffroy f, who gives a particular defeription of the | D;jj-ertaj
organs of hearing belonging to feveral fpecies. Thefe
organs are a fet of little bones extremely hard, and-^"^ *
white, like fine porcelain, which are to be found in ^97‘*-
the heads of all fifhes : The external auditory paffages t’c
are very fmall ; being fcarce fufficient to admit a hog’s
briftle ; though with care they may be diftinguifhed in
almoft all fifhes. It can by no means be thought that
the water is an improper medium of found, feeing
daily experience fhows us that founds may be conveyed
not only through water, but through the moft folid
bodies +. It feems indeed very difficult to determine 1 See /$&•■
the matter by experiment. Mr Gouan, who kept
fome gold fifhes in a vafe, informs us, that whatever
noife he made, he could neither terrify nor difturb
them ; he halloo’d as loud as he could, putting a piece
of paper between his mouth and the water, to prevent
the vibrations from affefting the furface, and the filhes
Hill feemed infenfible : but when the paper-was re¬
moved, and the found had its full effeft on the water,
the cafe was then altered, and the fifhes inftantly funk
to the bottom. This experiment, however, or others
fimilar to it, cannot prove that the fifhes did not hear
the founds before the paper was removed ; it only fhows
that they Were not alarmed till a fenfible vibration was-
introduced into the water. The call of a whiftle may
alfp be fuppofed to affeft the water in a fifh-pond with
a vibratory motion : but this certainly mutt be very
obfcure; and if fifhes can.be affembled in this manner,
i whetL
I C H [ 102
khthyo- when no peifoiris in fight, it amounts to a dermnftra-
1"~y' i tion that they aftually do hear. See Comparative
Anatomy, n° 167.
The arguments ufed againll the fight of fifhes are
the weakeft of all. Many inftances which daily occur,
(how that fiihes have a very acute fight, not only of
Objefts in the water, but of thofe in the air. Their
jumping out of the water in order to catch flies is an
abundant proof of this; and this they will continue
to do in a fine fummer-evening, even after it is fo dark
that we cannot diitinguifli the infe£ts they attempt to
7 catch.
Fifties can- Though fifties are formed for living entirely in the
without w’ater> yet they cannot fubfift v/ithout ajr. On this
fubjeft Mr Hawkfbee made ftveral experiments, which
are recorded in the Philofophical Tranfadtions. The
fifties he employed were gudgeons ; a fpecies that are
very lively in the water, and can live a confiderable
time out of it. Three of them were put into a glafs
veflcl with about three pints of frefti water, which was
defigned as a flandard to compare the others by. Into
another glafs, to a like quantity of water, were put
three more gudgeons, and thus the water filled the
glafs to the very brim. Upon this he fcrewed down a
brafs-plate with a leather below, to prevent any com¬
munication between the water and the external air ;
and, that it might the better referable a pond frozen
over, he fuffered as little air as poffible to remain on
the furface of the water. A third glafs had the fame
quantity of water put into it ; which, firft by boilirig,
and then by continuing it a whole night in vacuo, was
purged of its air as well as pofiible ; and into this alfo
were put three gudgeons. In about half an hour, the
fifties in the water from whence the air had been ex-
haufted, began to difcover fome figns of uneafinefs by
a more than ordinary motion in their mouths and gills.
^ Thofe who had no communication with the external
air, would at this time alfo frequently afcend to the
top, and fuddenly fwim down again ; and in this ftate
they continued for a confiderable time, without any
fenlible alteration. About five hours after this obfer-
vation, the fifties in the exhaufted water were not fo
a&ive as before, upon lhaking the glafs which con¬
tained them. In three hours more, the included fiihes
lay all at the bottom of the glafs with their bellies up¬
wards ; nor could they be made to ftiake their fins or
tail by any motion given to the glafs. They had a
motion with their mouths, however, which fliowed that
they were not perfeftly dead. On uncovering the vef-
fel which contained them, they revived in two or three
hours, and were perfe&ly well next morning ; at which
time thofe in the exhaulted water were alfo recovered.
The veffel containing thefe laft being put under the
receiver of an air-pump, and the air exhaufted, they
all inftantly died. • They continued at top while the
air remained exhaufted, but funk to the bottom on the
? of admiffion of the atmofphere. _
the gills of The ufe of air to fifties is very difficult to be ex¬
plained ; and indeed their method of obtaining the
fupply of which they ftand conftantly in need, is not
eafily accounted for. The motion of the gills in fifties
is certainly analogous to our breathing, and feems to
be the operation by which they feparate the air from
the water. Their manner of breathing is as follows.
The filh firft takes a quantity of water by the mouth,
fiihes ana-
lo(ious to
our breat
] I C H
which is driven to the gills ; thefe clofe, and keep the tchthyo.
water which is fwallowed from returning by the mouth, lo^y-
while the bony covering of the gills prevents it from *
going through them till the animal has drawn the pro¬
per quantity of air from it: then the bony covers open,
and give it a free pafiage; by which means alfo the
gills are again opened, and admit a frefti. quantity of
water. If the fifti is prevented from the free play of
its gills, it foon falls into convulfions, and dies. But
though this is a pretty plaufible explanation of the re-
fpiration of fifties, it remains a difficulty not eafily fol-
ved what is done with this air. There leems to be
no receptacle for containing it, except the air-blad¬
der or fwim ; which, by the generality of modem
philofophets, is deilined not to anfwer any vital pur-
pofe, but only to enable the fifti to rife or fink at pka-
fure- 9
The air-bladder is a bag filled with air, compofed Of the ufe
fometimes of one, fometimes of two, and fometimes of >f fhe air-
three divilions, fituated towards the back of the fifti, in
and opening into the maw or the gullet. The ufe of
this in raifing or depreffing the fifti, is proved by the
following experiment. A carp being put into the air-
pump, and the air exhauftedj the bladder is faid to
burit by the expanfion of the air contained in it; aftef
which, the fifh can no more rife to the top, but ever
afterwards crawls at the bottom. The fame thing alfo
happens when the air-bladder is pricked or wounded
in fuch a manner as to let the air out ; in thefe cafes
alfo the fifti continues at the bottom, without a poffi-
bility of rifing to the top. From this it is inferred,
that the ufe of the air-bladder is, by fwelling at the
will of the animal, to increafe the furface of the fifti’s
body, and thence diminifhing its fpecific gravity, to
enable it to rife to the top of the water, and to keep
there at pleafure. On the contrary, when the fifh
wants to defcend, it is thought to Contraft the air-
bladder ; and being thus rendered fpecifically heavier,
it defcends to the bottom.
The ancients were of opinion, that the air-bladder
in fifties ferved for fome purpofes eflentially neceflary
to life ; and Dr Prieftley alfo conjedtures, that the rai¬
fing or depreffing the fifh is not the only ufe of thefe
air-bladders, but that they alfo may ferve fome other
purpofes in the ceconomy of fifhes. There are many
arguments indeed to be ufed on this fide of the que-
ftion 1 the moft conclufive of which is, that all the car¬
tilaginous kind of fifties want air-bladders, and yet they
rife to the top or fink to the bottom of the water
without any difficulty j and though moft of the eel-
kind have air-bladders, yet they cannot raife them-
felves in the water without great difficulty. l&
Fifties are remarkable for their longevity. “ Moft Longevity
of the diforders incident to mankind (fays Bacon) arife of fiihes.
from the changes and alterations in the atmofphere ;
but fifties refide in an element little fubjeft to change ;
theirs is an uniform exiftence} their movements are
without effort, and their life without labour. Their
bones, alfo, which are United by cartilages, admit of
indefinite extenfion ; and the different fizes of animals
of the fame kind, among fifties, is very various. They
ftill keep growing 1 their bodies, inftead of fuffering
the rigidity of age, which is the caufe of the natural
decay of land-animals, ftill continue increafing with
frelh fupplies ; and as the body grows, the conduits
| Method* of
>' ietermin-
; ing their
age.
Extreme
voracity of
fUbet.
I C H r 103 1 I C H
of Hfe furnifl\ their {lores in greater abundance. How her fpawn or eggs, and that the male afterwards ejeds Icht!
long a filh, that feems to have fcarce any bounds put his fperm or male femen upon it in the water. The lo.
t© its growth, continues to live, is not afcertained ; want of the organs of generation in fifhes gives an ap- jc|ce„
perhaps the life of a man would not be fufficient to parent probability to this: but it is ftrenuoufly oppo-<  
meafure that of the fmallell,”—There have been two fed by Linnaeus. He affirms, that there can be no
methods fallen upon for determining the age of fifhes ; poffibility of impregnating the eggs of any animal out
the one is by the circles of the fcales, the other by of its body. To confirm this, the general courfe of
the tranfverfe fedlion of the back bone. When a nature, not only in birds, quadrupeds, and infedls, but
fifh’s fcale is examined by a microfcope, it is found to even in the vegetable world, has been called in to his
confift of a number of circles one within another, in affi(lance, as proving that all impregnation is performed
fome meafure refembling thofe which appear on the while the egg is in the body of its parent: and he fup-
tranfverfe fedtion of a tree, and is fuppofed to give plies the want of the organs of generation by a very
the fame information. For, as in trees, we can tell llrange procefs, affirming, that the males ejedl their fe-
their age by the number of their circles ; fo, in fifhes, men always fome days before the females depofit their
we can tell theirs by the number of circles in every ova or fpawn ; and that the females fvvallow this, and
fcale, reckoning one ring for every year of the animal’s thus have their eggs impregnated with it. He fays,
exiftence.—The age of fifhes that want fcales«iay be that he has frequently feen, at this time, three or four
known by the ether method, namely, by feparating females gathered about a male, and greedily fnatch-
the joints of the back-bone, and then minutely ob- ing up into their mouths the femen he ejedls. He men-
ferying the number of rings which the furface, where tions fome of the efoces, fome pearch, and fome of the
it was joined," exhibits. cyprini, in which he had feen this procefs. But fee
Fifhes are, in general, the moft voracious animals Comparative Anatomy, n0 154.
in nature. In moft of them, the maw is placed next Many opinions have been ftarted in order to account
the mouth; and, though poflefled of no fenfible heat, is how it happens that fifhes are found in pools, and
endowed with a very furprifing faculty of digeftion. ditches, on high mountains, and elfewhere. But
Its digeftive power feems, in fome meafure, to increafe Gmelin obferves, that the duck-kind fwallow the eggs
in proportion to the quantity of food with which the of fifhes ; and that fome of thefe eggs go doton, and
fifh is fupplied. A fingle pike has been known to de- come out of their bodies unhurt, and fo are propaga-
vour 100 roaches in three days. Whatever is poffefled ted juft in the fame manner as has been obferved of
of life, feems to be the moft defirable prey for fifhes. plants.
Some that have very fmall mouths, feed upon worms, For a more particular view of the ftru&ure of fifhes,
and the fpawn of other fifh : others, whofe mouths are fee Comparative Anatomy, n° 146—167.
larger, feek larger prey ; it matters not of what kind, 1CHTH YOPHAGI, fish-eaters, a name given
whether of their own fpecies, or any other. Thofe to a people, or rather to feveral different people, who
with the larged mouths purfue almoft every thing that lived wholly on fifhes. The word is Greek, compounded
hath life ; and often meeting each other in fierce oppo- of Plfcif, “ fifh,” and edere, “ to eat.”
fition, the fifh with the largeft fwallow comes off with Thelehthyophagifpoken of by Ptolemy are placed by
the viftory, and devours its antagonift.—As a coun- Sanfon in the provinces of Nanquin and Xantong.
terbalance to this great voracity, however, fifhes are Agatharcides calls all the inhabitants between Carrnania
incredibly prolific. Some bring forth their young and Gedrofia by the name Ichthyophagi.
alive, others produce only eggs : the former are rather From the accounts given us of the Ichthyophagi by
the lead fruitful; yet even thefe produce in great abun- Herodotus, Strabo, Solinus, Plutarch, &c. it appears-
dance. The viviparous blenny, for inftance, brings indeed that they had cattle, but that they made no ufe
forth 200 or 300 at a time. Thofe which produce of them, excepting to feed their iifli withal. They made
eggs, which they are obliged to leave to chance, ei- their houfes of large fifh-bones, the ribs of whales fer-
ther on the bottom where the water is {hallow, or ving them for their beams. The jaws of thefe animals
floating on the furface where it is deeper, are all much ferved them for doors ; and the mortars wherein they
more prolific, and feem to proportion their flock to the pounded their fifh, and baked it at the fun, were nothing
danger there is of confumption.—Lewenhoeck affures elfe but their vertebrae.
us, that the cod fpawns above nine millions in a feafon. 1CHTHYPERIA, in natural biftory, a name gi-
The flounder commonly produces above one million, ven by Dr Hill to the bony palates and mouths of
and the mackarel above 500,000. Scarce one in 100 fifhes-, ufually met with either foffile, in fingle pieces,
of thefe eggs, however, brings forth an animal : they or in fragments. They are of the fame fubftance with>
are devoured by all the leffer fiy that frequent the the bufonitae; and are of very various figures, fome
fhores, by water-fowl in fhallow waters, and by the broad and fhort, others longer and flender ; fome very
larger fifhes in deep waters. Such a prodigious increafe, gibbofe, and others plainly arched. They are likewife
if permitted to come to maturity, would overftock na- of various fizes, from the tenth of an inch to two inches-
ture ; even the ocean itfelf would not be able to con- in length, and an inch in breadth,
tain, much lefs provide for, one half of its inhabitants. ICKENILD-street, is that old Roman highway,.
But two wife purpofes are anfwered by this amazing in- denominated from the Icenians, which extended from
creafe ; it preferves the fpecies in the midft of number- Yarmouth in Norfolk, the eaft part of the kingdom of
lefs enemies, and ferves to furnifh the reft with a fufle- the Iceni, to Barley in Hertfordlhire, giving name in
nance adapted to their nature. the way to feveral villages, as lekworth, Icklingham,
With refpeA to the generation of many kinds of and Ickleton in that kingdom. From Barley to Roy-
filhes, the common opinion is, that the female depofits fton it divides the counties of Cambridge and Hert-
5 &r4.
ICO L 104 ] ICO
koltukil ford. From Ickleford it runs by Tring, crofles Bucks
II and Oxfordihire, pafles the Thames at Goring, and ex-
CTS tends to the weft part of England.
ICOLMKIL. See Iona.
ICONIUM, at prefent Cogni, formerly the capital
city of Lycaonia in Afia Minor. St Paul coming to
Iconium (Afts xiii. 51. xiv. 1. &c.) in the year of
Chrift 45, converted many Jews and Gentiles there.
It is believed, that in his firft journey to this city, he
converted St Thecla, fo celebrated in the writings of
the ancient fathers. But fome incredulous Jews ex¬
cited the Gentiles to rife againft Paul and Barnabas,
fo that they were upon the point of offering violence
o them, which obliged St Paul and St Barnabas to
fly for fecurity to the neighbouring cities. St Paul
undertook a fecond journey to Iconium in the year
5 :: but we know no particulars of his journey, which
. .late peculiarly to Iconium.
ICONOCLASTES, or Iconoclasts, breakers of
images; a name which the church of Rome gives to
g:l who rejeft the ufe of images in religious matters.—
The word is Greek, formed from imago, and
*; rumpere, “ to break.”
In *his fenfe, not only the reformed, but fome of
:' . ; rn churches, are called Iconoclajies, and efteem-
m heretics, as oppofing the worfhip of the
>t’God and the faints, and breaking their fi¬
gures and reprefentations in churches.
The opppfition to images began in Greece under the
reign of Bardanes, who was created emperor of the
Greeks a little after the commencement of the eighth
century, when the worfhip of them became common.
See Image. But the tumults occafioned by it were
quelled by a revolution, which, in 713, deprived Bar¬
danes of the imperial throne. The difpute, however,
broke out with redoubled fury under Leo the Ifaurian,
who iffued out an edi& in the year 726, abrogating, as
fome fay, the worfhip of images, and ordering all the
images, except that of Chrift’s crucifixion, to be re¬
moved out of the churches ; but according to others, this
edift only prohibited the paying to them anykindof ado¬
ration or worfhip. This ediA occafioned a civil war,
which broke out in the iflands of the Archipelago, and
by the fuggeftions of the priefts and monks, ravaged a
part of Afia, and afterwards reached Italy. The civil
commotions and infurre&ions in Italy were chiefly pro¬
moted by the Roman pontiffs, Gregory I. and II. Leo
was excommunicated, and his fubjefts in the Italian
provinces violated their allegiance, and rifing in arms
either (uaffacred or banifhed all the emperor’s deputiei
and officers. In confequence of thefe proceedings, Leo
affembled a council at Conftantinople in 730, which de¬
graded Germanus, the bifhop of that city, who was a
.patron of images ; and he ordered all the images to be
publicly burnt, and infli&ed a variety of fevere puniflt-
ments upon fuch as were attached to that idolatrous wor¬
fhip. Hence arofe two fa&ions ; one of which adopted
theadoration and worfhip of images, and on that account
were called iconoduli or iconolatra ; and the other main¬
tained *hat fuch worfhip was unlawful, and that nothing
was more worthy the zeal of Chriftians than to demolilh
and deftroy thofe ftatues and pi&ures which were the
occafions of this grofs idolatry; and hence they were
diftinguifned by the titles of iconomachi, (from e‘*"v image,
and *«-xu I contend,) and iconocla/he. The zeal of Grc-
,N0 163.
gory II. in favour of image worfhip, was not only imi- le^nncia-
tated, but even furpaffed by his fucceflbr Gregory III. ftes-
in confequence of which the Italian provinces were torn
from the Grecian empire.
Conftantine, called Copronymus, from xorpor « fter-
cus,” and om^a. “ name,” becaufe he was faid to have
defiled the facred font at his baptifm, fucceeded his
father Leo in 74 r, and in 754 convened a council at
Conftantinople, regarded by the Greeks as the feventh
cecumenical council, which folemnly condemned the
worfhip and ufe of images. Thofe who, notwithftand*
ing this decree of the council, raifed commotions in
the Rate, were feverely punifhed; and new laws were
ena&ed, to fet bounds to the violence of monaftic rage.
Leo IV. who was declared emperor in 775, purfued
the fame meafures, and had recourfe to the coercive
influence of penal laws, in order to extirpate idolatry
out of the Chriftian church. Irene, the wife of Leo,
poifoned her hufband in 780 ; affumed the reins of
empire during the minority of her fon Conftantine,
and in 786 fummoned a council at Nice in Bithynia,
known by the name of the fecond Nicene council, which
abrogated the laws and decrees againft the new ido¬
latry, reftored the worfhip of images and of the crofs,
and denounced fevere punifhments againft thofe who
maintained that God was the only objeft of religious
adoration. In this couteft, the Britons, Germans, and
Gauls, were of opinion, that images might be lawfully
continued in churches, but they confidered the worfhip
of them as highly injurious and offenfive to the Su¬
preme Being. Charlemagne diftinguiflied himfelf as a
mediator in this controverfy: he ordered four books
concerning images to be compofed, refuting the rea-
fons urged by the Nicene bifhops to juftify the worfhip
of images, which he fent to Adrian the Roman pon¬
tiff in 790, in order to engage him to withdraw his ap¬
probation of the decrees of the laft council of Nice.
Adrian wrote an anfwer ; and in 794, a council of
300 bifhops, aflembled by Charlemagne at Francfort
on the Maine, confirmed the opinion contained in the
four books, and folemnly condemned the worfhip of
images. In the Greek church, after the banifhment
of Irene, the controverfy concerning images broke out
anew, and was carried on by the contending parties,
during the half of the ninth century, with various and
uncertain fuccefs. The emperor Nicephorus appears
upon the whole to have been an enemy to this idola¬
trous worfhip. His fucceflbr, Michael Curopalates,
furnamed Rhangabe, patronized and encouraged it. But
the feene changed on the acceffion of Leo the Arme¬
nian to the empire ; who aflemhled a council at Con¬
ftantinople in 814, that abolifhed the decrees of the
Nicene council. His fucceflbr Michael, furnamed Bal¬
ius, difapproved the worfhip of images, and his fon
Theophilus treated them with great feverity. How¬
ever, the emprefs Theodora, after his death, and du¬
ring the minority of her fon, affembled a council at
Conftantinople in 842, which reinftated the decrees of
the fecond Nicene council, and encouraged image
worfhip by a law. The council held at the fame place
under Photius, in 879, and reckoned by the Greeks
the eighth general council, confirmed and renewed the
Nicene decrees. In commemoration of this council, a
feftival was inftituted by the fuperftitious Greeks, call¬
ed the feajl of orthodoxy. The Latins were generally
/a,'/.
ICO I 1^5 1 1 D Z
rrogra- of opinion, that images might be {offered as the means
Phia of aiding the memory of the faithful, and of calling
-ofahe t0 l^e'r rememhrance the pious exploits and virtuous
jron ’ actions of the perfons whom they reprefented; but
they d'etefted all thoughts of paying them the lead
marks of religious homage or adoration. The coun¬
cil of Paris, affembled in 824 by Louis the Meek, re-
folved to allow the life of images in the churches, but
feverely prohibited rendering them religious worlhip.
Neverthelefs, towards the conclufion of this century,
the Gallican clergy began to pay a kind of religious
homage to the images of faints, and their example was
followed by the Germans and other nations. How*
ever, the iconoclalls ilill had their adherents among
"the Latins ; the mod eminent of whom was Claudius
bifhop of Turin, who, in 825., ordered all images, and
even the erofs, to be cad out of the churches, and
committed to the flames ; and he wrote a treatife, in
•which he declared both againd the ufe and worfhip ef
them. He condemned relics, pilgrimages to the holy
land, and all voyages to the tombs of faints ; and to
his writings and labours it was owing, that the city of
Turin, and the adjacent country, was, for a long time
after his death, much lefs infefted with fuperdition
than the other parts of Europe. The controverfy com*
cerning the fan&ity of images was again revived by
Leo bifhop of Chalcedon, in the 11th century, on
occafion of the emperor Alexius’s converting the fi¬
gures of iilver that adorned the portals of the churches
into money in order to fupply the exigencies of the
date. The biftiop obdinately maintained that he had
been guilty of facrilege; and publifhed a treatife, in
’which he affirmed, that in theie images there refided
an inherent fan&ity, and that the adoration of Chri-
{frans ought not to be confined to the perfons repre¬
fented by thefe images, but extended to the images
thtmfelves. The emperor affembkd a council at Con-
ftantinople, which determined, that the images of
Chrift and of the faints were to be honoured only with
a relative worlhip ; and that invocation and worlhip
were to be addreffed to the faints only as the fervants
of Chrill, and on account of their relation to him, as
their mafter. Leo, dilfatisfied even with thefe abfurd
and fuperftitious decifrons, was fent into banilhment.
In the wedern church, the worfhip of images was dis¬
approved and oppofed by feveral confiderable parties,
as the Petrobrudians, Albigenfes, Waldenfes, &c. till
at length this idolatrous practice was entirely abolilhed
in many parts of the Chrillian world by the Reforma¬
tion. See Image.
ICONOGRAPHIA (derived from « image,”
and “ 1 deferibe), the defeription of images or
ancient datues of marble and copper ; alfo of bulls and
femi-buds, penates, paintings in frefco, mofaic works,
and ancient pieces of miniature.
ICONOLATR7E, or Iconolaters (from o*a»
and x*TP!Ua “ I worihip,”) or IcoN-onuu (from nxov
and “ I ferve) thofe who worlhip images :
A name which the iconcclalles give to thofe of the
Romilh communion, on account of their adoring
images, and of rendering to them the worlhip only d«e
to God. See Iconoclasts and Image.
ICOSAHEDRON, in geometry, a regular folid,
confilling of 20 triangular pyramids, whjfe vertexes
meet in the centre of a fphere fuppofed to circum-
Vol. IX. Part L
feribe it ; and therefore have their height and bafts tiofandti*
equal: wherefore the folidity of one of thefe pyramids H
multiplied by 20, the number of Wes gives the folid _ .
contents of the icofahedron.
ICOSANDR1A (from [<x<xr< << twenty,” and ai”’p
“ a man or hufband”); the name of the 12th clafs in
Linnseus’s fexual method, conli fling of plants with her¬
maphrodite flowers, which aie furniffied with 20 or
more flamina, that are inferted into the inner fide of
the calyx or petals. See Botany, p. 430
ICTINUS, a celebrated Greek architetd who lived
about 430 B. C. builc feveral magnificent temples, and
among others that of Minerva at Athens.
IDA (anc. geog.), a mountain fituated in the heart
of Crete where broaded; the highefl. of all in the
illand; round, and in compafs 6ofladia (Strabo) ; the
nurfing place of Jupiter, and where his tomb was vi-
fited. in Varro’s time.—Another /da, a mountain of
Myfia, or rather a chain of mountains (Homer, Vir¬
gil), extending from Zeleia on the fouth of the terri¬
tory of Cyzicus to Ledum the utmofl promontory of
Troas. The abundance of its waters became the
fource of many rivers, and particularly of the Simois,
Scamander, Aifepus, Granicus, See, It was covered
with green wood, and the elevation of its top opened a
fine extenfive view of the Hellefpont and the adjacent
countrie'S; from which reafon it was frequented by
the gods during the Trojan war, according to Homer.
The top was called Gargara (Homer, Strabo); and
celebrated by the poets for the judgment of Paris on
the beauty.of the three goddeffes, Minerva, Juno, and
Venus, to the laft of whom he gave the preference.
1DALIUM (anc. geog.), a promontory on the
ead fide of Cyprus. Now Cafo di Griego; with a
high rugged eminence rifing over it, in the form of a
table. It was facred to Venus; and hence the epi¬
thet fda/ia given her by the poets. The eminence
was covered with a grove; and in the grove was a
little town, in Pliny’s time (Xtimfl. fda/ia, accord¬
ing to Bochart, denotes the place or fpot facred to
the goddefs. *
IDEA, the reflex perception of objefts, after the
original perception or impreffion has been felt by
the mind. See Metaphysics,/^; and Logic
Part I. ’
IDENTITY, denotes that by which a thing is it-
felf, and not any thing elfe; in which fenfe idwta*
differs fromfimilitude, as well as dlvcrfity. See Meta¬
physics.
IDES, in the ancient Roman kalendar, were eight
days in each month; the firtl of which fell on the . eth
of March, May, July, and Odober ; and on the l ath
day of the other months.—The origin of the word is
conteded. Some will have it formed from “ to
fee;” by reafon the full moon was commonly feen on
the days of the ides: others from ds& «* fpecies, fi.
gure,” on account of the image of the full moon then
viiible : others from iduhum, or ovis idulis, a name given
by the Hetrurians to a vidim offered on that day to
Jupiter: others from the Hetrutian word iduo, 1 e
div/do; by reafon the ides divided the meon into two
nearly equal parts.
The ides came between theKALEuCs and the Nones;
and were reckoned backwards. Thus they called the
14th day of March, May, July, and Odober, and the
° xzth
Idiocy.
i d i r 106 i r d i
Idiocy. 12 th of the other months, the pridie idus, or the day
before the ides ; the next preceding day they called
the tertia idw; and fo on, reckoning always back¬
wards till they came to' the Nones. This method of
reckoning time isftill retained in the chancery of Rome,
and in the kalendar of the Breviary,—The ides of
May were confecrated to Mercury: the ides of March
were ever efteemed unhappy, after Caefar’s murder on
that day : the time after the ides of Jane was reck¬
oned fortunate for thofe who entered into matrimony:
the ides of Auguft were confecrated to Diana, and
were obferved as a feaft day by the flaves. On the
ides of September, auguries were taken for appointing
the magiftrates, who formerly entered into their offices
on the ides of May, afterwards on thofe of March.
IDIOCY, a defeft of underhanding. Both idiocy
and Lunacy excufe from the guilt of crimes; (fee
Grime,ult.) For the rule of law as to lunatics,
which alfo may be eafily adapted to idiots, is, that fu*
riofus furore folum puniiur. In criminal cafes, there¬
fore, idiots and lunatics are not chargeable for their
JSUctJl. own a&s, if committed when under thefe incapacities:
Comment, no, not even for treafon itfelf. Alfo, if a man in his
found memory commits a capital offence, and before
arraignment for it he becomes mad, he ought not to
be arraigned for it: becaufe he is not able to plead to
it with that advice and caution that he ought. And'
if, after he has pleaded, the prifoner becomes mad,
he (hall not be tried:, for how can he make his de¬
fence ? If, after he be tried and found guilty, he lofes
his fenfes before judgment, judgment fhall not be pro¬
nounced ; and if, after judgment, he becomes of non¬
fane memory, execution (hall be flayed: for, perad-
venture, fays the humanity of the Englifh law, had
the prifoner been of found memory, he might have al¬
leged fomething in flay of judgment or execution. In¬
deed, in the bloody reign of Henry VIII. a flatute
was made, which enadled, that if a perfon, being
pos mends, fhould commit high treafon, and after fall
into madnefs, he might be tried in his abfence, and
fhould fuffer death, as if he were of perfedl memory.
But this favage and inhuman law was repealed by the
ftatute i 8c 2 Ph. & M c. io. For, as is obferved by
Sir Edward Coke, “ the execution of an offender is
for example, ut pcena ad pdiicos, metus ad omnes per-
•veniat: but fo it is not when a madman is executed ;
but fhould be a miferable fpedlacle, both againfl law,
and of extreme inhumanity and cruelty, and can be
no example to others.” But if there be any doubt
whether the party be compos or not, this (hall be tried
by a jury. And if he be fo found, a total idiocy, or
abfolute infanity, excufes from the guilt, and of courfe
from the punifhment, of any criminal a&ion commit¬
ted under fuch deprivation of the fenfes: but if a luna¬
tic hath lucid intervals of underflanding, he (hall an-
fwer for what he does in thofe intervals, as if he had
no deficiency. Yet, in the cafe of abfolute madmen,
as they are not anfwerable for their a£lions, they fhould
not be permitted the liberty of a&ing unlefs under pro¬
per control; and, in particular, they ought not to be
fuffered to go loofe, to flie terror of the king’s fub-
jedts. It was the dodlrine of our ancient law, that per-
fons deprived of their reafon might be confined till they
recovered their fenfes, without waiting for the forms of
s commiffion or other fpecial authority from the,crown;
and now, by the vagrant adls, a method is charted
out for imprifoning, chaining, and fending them to 1
their proper homes.
The matrimonial contract likewife cannot take place
in a flate of idiocy. It was formerly adjudged, that
the iffue of an idiot was legitimate, and his marriage
valid. A flrange determination! fince confent is ab-
folutely requifite to matrimony, and neither idiots
nor lunatics are capable of confenting to any thing.
And therefore the civil law judged much more fen-
fxbly, when it made fuch deprivations of reafon a pre¬
vious impediment, though not a caufe of divorce if
they happened after marriage. And modern refolu-
tions have adhered to the fenfe of the civil law, by de¬
termining that the marriage of a lunatic, not being in
a lucid interval, was abfolutely void. But as it might
be difficult to prove the exadl ftate of the party’s mind
at the adlual celebration of the nuptials, upon this ac¬
count (concurring with fome private family reafons*), * See Wri¬
the flatute 15 Geo. II. c. 30. has provided, that the
marriage of lunatics and perfons under phrenzies (ifc. 6.
found lunatics under a commiffion, or committed to
the care of truflees under any aft of parliament) before
they are declared of found mind by the lord chancel¬
lor, or the majority of fuch trullees, (hall be totally
void.’.
Idiots-and perfons of nonfane memory, as well as in¬
fants and perfons under durefs, are not totally difabled
either to convey or purchafe, but fub modo only. For
their conveyances and purchafes are voidable, but not
aftually void. The king, indeed, on behalf of an idiot,
may avoid his grants or other afts. But it hath been
faid, that a non compos himfelf,, though he be after¬
wards brought to a right mind, (hall not be permitted
to allege his own infanity in order to avoid fuch grant:
for that no man (hall be allowed to flupify himfelf, or
plead his own difability. The progrefs of this notion
is fomewhat curious. In the time of Edward I. non
compos was a fufficient plea to avoid a man’s own
bond: and there is a writ in the regiller for the alie¬
nor himfelf to recover lands aliened by him during his *
infanity; dum fuit non compos mentis fua, ut dlcit, &c.
But under Edward III. a fcruple began to arife, whe¬
ther a man (hould be permitted to blemijh himfelf, by
pleading his own infanity : and, afterwards, a defen¬
dant in affize having pleaded a releafe by the plaintiff ,
fince the lad continuance, to which the plaintiff re¬
plied (ore tenus, as the manner then was) that he was
out of his mind when he gave it, the court adjourned
the affize; doubting, whether as the plaintiff was fane
both then and at the commencement of the fuit, he
(hould be permitted to plead an intermediate depriva- -
tion of reafon ; and the queftion was a(ked, how he
came to remember to releafe, if out of his fenfes when
he gave it ? Under Henry VI. this way of reafoning .
(that a man (hall not be allowed to difable himfelf, by
pleading his own incapacity, becaufe he cannot know :
what he did under fuch a fituation) was ferioufly adop¬
ted by the judges in argument; upon a queftion, whe¬
ther the heir was barred of his right of entry by the
feoffment of his infane anceftor? And from thefe loofe
authorities, which Fitzherbert does not fcruple to re-
jeft as being contrary to reafon, the maxim that a man
(hall not ftultify himfelf, hath been handed down as.
fettled law : though later opinions, feeling the incora-,
venieaca
I D L [ IC7 ] IDO
? It’iim vemence of the rule, have in many points eftdeavoured
Idlenefa tQ re^ra^n And, clearly, the next heir, or other
r. '. perfon interefted, may, after the death of the idiot or
non compos, take advantage of his incapacity and avoid
the grant. And fo too, if he purchafes under this
difability, and does not afterwards upon recovering his
fenfes agree to the purchafe, his heir may either waive
or accept the eftate at his option. In like manner, an
infant may waive fuch purchafe or conveyance, when
he comes to full age ; or, if he does not then adtually
• agree to it, his heirs may waive it after him. Perfons
alfo, who purchafe or convey under durefs, may affirm
or avoid fuch tranfaftion, whenever the durefs is cea-
fed. For all thefe are under the prote&ion of the law}
which will not fuffer them to be impofed upon through
the imbecility of their prefent condition; fo that their
afts are only binding, in cafe they be afterwards agreed
to when fuch imbecility ceafes. Yet the guardians
or committees of a lunatic, by the ftatute 11 Geo. III.
c. 20. are empowered to renew in his right, under the
dire&ions of the court of chancery, any leafe for lives
or yeats, and apply the profits of fuch renewal for the
benefit of fuch lunatic, his heirs, or executors. See
Lunacy.
IDIOM, among grammarians, properly fignifies
the peculiar genius of each language, but is often ufed
in a fynonymous fenfe with dialed!. The word is
Greek, “ propriety;” formed of “proper,
own.”
IDIOPATHY, in phyfic, a diforder peculiar to a
certain pait of the body, and not.arifing fom any pre¬
ceding difeafe; in which fenfe it is oppofed to fym-
pathy. Thus, an epilepfy is idiopathic wffien it hap¬
pens merely through fome fault in the brain; and
fympathetic when it is the confequence of fome other
diforder.
IDIOSYNCRASY, among phyficians, denotes a
peculiar temperament of body, whereby it is rendered
more liable to certain diforders than perfons of a diffe¬
rent conftitution ufually are.
IDIOT, or Ideot, in our laws, denotes a natural
fool, or a fool from his birth. See Idiocy.
The word is originally Greek, itfarnr, which pri¬
marily imports a private perfon, or one who leads a pri¬
vate life, without any (hare or concern in the govern¬
ment of affairs.
A perfon who has underftanding enough to meafure
a yard of cloth, number twenty rightly, and tell the
days of the week, &c. is not an idiot in the eye of
the law. But a man who is born deaf, dumb, and
blind, is confidered by the law in the fame ftate as an
idiot.
Idiot is alfaufed, by ancient writers, for a perfon
ignorant or unlearned; anfwering to iiliteratus or im-
peritus. In this fenfe, Vi&or tells us, in his Chroni-
con, that in the confulffiip of Meffala, the Holy Gof-
pels, by command of the emperor Anattafius, were cor-
re&ed and amended, as having been written by idiot
evangelifts : Tanquam ab idiotis evangeliflis compojita.
IDLENESS, a relu&ancy in people to be employ¬
ed in any kind of work.
Idlenefs in any perfon whatfoever is a high of¬
fence againft the public economy. In China it is a
maxim, that if there be a man who does not work, or
a woman that is idle, in the empire, fomebody muft
fuffer cold or hunger : the produce of the lands not be- Ida?,
ing more than fufficient, with culture, to maintain the , idolatry.
inhabitants ; and therefore, though the idle perfon
may ffiift off the want from himfelf, yet it muft in the
end fall fomewhere. The court alfo of Areopagus at
Athens punched idlenefs, and exerted a rightof exami¬
ning every citizen in what manner he fpent his time;
the intention of which was, that the Athenians, know¬
ing they were to give an account of their occupations,
fhould follow only fuch as were laudable, ,and that there
might be no room left for fuch as lived by unlawful
arts. The, civil law expelled all fturdy vagrants from
the city: and, in our own law, all idle perfons or va¬
gabonds, whom our ancient ftatutes deferibe to be
“ fuch as wake on the night, and fleep on the day, Bladjt.
and haunt cuftomable taverns and ale-houfes, and routs Comme,tt‘
about; and no man wot from whence they come, ne
whether they go ;” or fuch as are more particularly
deferibed by ftatute 17 Geo. II. c. 5. and divided in¬
to three claffes, id/e and diforderly perfons, rogues and
vagabonds, and incorrigible rogues ;—all thefe are offen¬
ders againft the good order, and blemiffies in the
government, of any kingdom. They are therefore all
puniffied, by 'the ftatute laft mentioned ; that is to
fay, idle and diforderly perfons with one month’s im-
prifonment in the houfe of corre&ion; rogues and va¬
gabonds with whipping, and imprifonment not exceed¬
ing fix months; and incorrigible rogues with the like
difeipline, and confinement not exceeding two years-:
the breach and efcape from which confinement in one
of an inferior clafs, ranks him among incorrigible
rogues ; and in a rogue (before incorrigible) makea
him a felon, and liable to be tranfported for feven
years. Perfons harbouring vagrants are liable to a fine
of forty {hillings, and to pay all expences brought up¬
on the parilh thereby : in the fame manner as, by our
ancient laws, whoever harboured any ftranger for
more than two nights, was anfwerable to the public
for any offence that fuch his inmate might commit.
IDOL, in pagan theology, an image, or fancied
reprefentation of any of the heathen gods.—This
image, of whatever materials it confifted, was, by cer¬
tain ceremonies, called confecration, converted into a
god. While under the artificer’s hands, it was only a
mere ftatue. Three things were neceffary to turn it
into a god; proper ornaments, confecration, and ora¬
tion. The ornaments were various, and wholly defign-
ed to blind the eyes of the ignorant and ftupid multi¬
tude, who are chiefly taken with fhow and pageantry.
Then followed the confecration and oration, which
were performed with great folemnity among the Ro¬
mans. See Image.
IDOLATRY, or the worihip of idols, may be di-
ftinguiflied into two forts. By the firft, men adore the
works of God, the fun, the moon, the ftars, angels,
daemons, men, and animals: by the fecond, men wor-
ffiip the work of their own hands, as ftatues, pi&ures,
and the like : and to thefe may be added a third, that
by which men have worffiipped the true God under
fenfible figures and reprefentations. This indeed may
have been the cafe with refpedt to each of the above
kinds of idolatry ; and thus the Ifraelites adored God
under the figure of a calf.
The ftars were the firft objefts of idolatrous wor-
fhip) on account of their beauty, their influence on
0 3 the
IDO [ 108 I J E D
Uolatrf, the produftions of the earth, and the regularity of
Idcmeneus. (;}le;r motions, particularly the fun and moon, which
v are confidered as the molt glorious and refplendent
images of the Deity : afterwards, as their fentimeuts
became more corrupted, they began to form images,
and to entertain the opinion, that by virtue of confe-
cration, the gods were called down to inhabit or dwell
in their llatucs. Hence Arnobius takes occafion to
rally the pagans for guarding fo carefully the ilatues
of their gods, who, if they were really prefent in their
images, might fave their worfhippers the trouble of fe-
curing them from thieves and robbers.
As to the adoration which the ancient pagans paid
to the ftatues of their.gods, it is certain, that the wifer
and more fenfible heathens confidered them only as
limple reprefentations or figures defigned to recal to
their minds the memory of their gods. This was the
opinion of Varro and Seneca: and the fame fentiment
is clearly laid down in Plato, who maintains, that
images are inanimate, and that all the honour paid to
them has refpeft to the gods whom they reprefent.
But as to the vulgar, they were ftupid enough to be¬
lieve the llatues themfclves to be gods, and to pay di¬
vine worflrip to Hocks and (tones.
Soon after the flood, idolatry feems to have been
the prevailing religion of all the world ; for wherever
we call our eyes at the time of Abraham, we fcarcely
fee any thing but falfe worfhip and idolatry. And it
appears from Scripture, that Abraham's forefathers, and
even Abraham himfelf, were for a time idolaters.
The Hebrews were indeed exprefsly forbidden to
miake any reprefentation of God ; they were not fo
much as to look upon an idol : and from the time of
the Maccabees to the deilrudtion of Jerufalem, the
Jews extended this precept to the making the figure
of any man : by the law of Mofes, they were obliged
to deftroy all the images they found, and were for¬
bidden to apply any of the gold or filver to their owa
life, that no one might receive the leaft profit from
any thing belonging to an idol. Of this the Jews,
after they had fmarted for their idolatry, were fo fen¬
fible, that they thought k unlawful to ufe any vefiel
that had been employed in facrificing to a falfe god,
to warm themfelves with the wood of a grove after
k was cut down, or to (belter themfelves under its
{hade.
But the preaching of the Chriftian religion, where-
«ver it prevailed, entirely rooted out idolatry ; as did
alfo that of Mahomet, which is built on the worlhip
of one God. It muft not, however, be forgotten,
that the Proteftant Chriftians. charge thofe of the
church of Rome with paying an idolatrous kind of
worlhip to the piftures or images of faints and mar¬
tyrs : before thefe, they burn lamps and wax-candles;
before thefe, they burn incenfe, and, kneeling, offer
up their vows and petitions : they, like the Pagans,
believe that the faint to whom the image is dedi¬
cated, prefides in a particular manner about its (brine,
and works miracles by the intervention of its image
and that if the image was deftroyed or taken away,
the faint would no longer perform any miracle in that
place.
IDOMENEUS (fab. hift.), fucceeded his father
Deucalion on the throne of Crete. He accompanied
the Greeks to the Trojan war with a fleet erf 90 (hips. Idumaa
During this celebrated war he rendered himfelf famous , I
by his valour, and flaughtered many of the enemy. At, "rg V, l
his return; from, the Trojan war, he made a vow to * ' i
Neptune in a dangerous temped, that if he efcaped
from the fury of. the feas and ftor-ma, he would offer
to the god whatever living creature firfl prefented it-
felf to his eye on the Cretan (bore. This was no other
than hk fon, who came to congratulate his-father upon
his fate return. Idomeneus performed his promife to
the god ; and the inhumanity and ralhnefs of this fa-
crifice rendered him fo odious iivthe eyes of his fub-
je&s, that he left Crete, and migrated in quell of a
fettlement. He came to Italy and founded a city on
the coaft of Calabria, which he called Salentum- He _ :
died in an extreme old age, after he had had the fatis-
fadtion of feeing his new kingdom flourilh, and his.
fubjedls happy. According to the Greek fcholiaft of
Lycophron, v. .1217, Idomenens, during hia abfence in-
the Trojan war, entruiled the management of his king¬
dom to Leucos, to whom he promifed his daughter
Clifithere in marriage at his return. Leucos at firft:
governed with moderation, but be was perfuaded by.
Nauplius king of Euboea to put to death Meda the
wife of his mailer, withber daughter Clitithere, and to
feize the kingdom. After thefe violent meafures he
flrengthened himfelf on the throne of Crete, and Ido¬
meneus at his return found it impoffible to expel the
ufurper.
iDUMiEA. See Edom.
JEALOUSY, in ethics, is that peculiar uneafinefir
which arifes from the fear that feme rival may rob us
of the affedlion of one whom we greatly love, or fuf-
picion that he has already done it. The ftrft fort of~
jealoufy is infeparable from love, before it is in poffef-
fion of its objedl: the latter is often unjuft, generally
mifehievous, always troublefome.
Waters of Jeaiovst. See Waters.,
IDYLLION, in ancient poetry* is only a diminu¬
tive of the word eidos, and properly fignifies any poem .
of moderate extent, without confidering the fubjeft.
But as the colleiflion of Theocritus’s poems were called .
ulyllla, and the paftoral pieces being by far the bell in
that cdlledlion, the term, idyllioti feems- -to be now ap¬
propriated to patloral pieces.
JEARS or Geers, in the fea-language, an affem-
bhge of tackles, by which the lower yards of a fhip
are hoifted along the mart to their ufual ftation, or
lowered from thence as occafion requires; the former
of which operations is called fwaying, and die latter
Jlriking.
JEBUS-rEI, one of the feven- ancient people of Ca¬
naan, defeendents of Jebufi, Canaan’s fon ; fo warlike
and brave, as to have flood their ground, efpecially
in Jehus, afterwards called Jerufalem, down to the time
of David. Judges i. 21. 1 Sam. v. 6.
JEDBURGH, a parliament-town of Scotland, ca¬
pital ofTiviotdaleor Roxburghlhire, is fituated nearly
in the middle of the county, on the banks of the river
Jed, whence it derives its name. It is well built and
populous, and has a good market for corn and cattle.
On the weft fide of the river, near its junftidn with
the Teviot, Hand the beautiful ruins of an abbey-
founded by David I. a part of which ancient pile dill
ferves
a
J E F f >09 I J E H
:fed !a ferves for a pari/h-church.—Jedburgh is the feat of threaten the jury with fines and imprifonraent, if they Jeffrey**
H I! the (heriff’s court and prefbytery ; and is a barony in made the lead hefitation about bringing in ^ "r.'tannr Jehovah-
Jeffreyp- ^ ^ yamjjy. 0f Lothian, whofe elckft fon is called Earl guilty. Yet it is faid, that when he w£
of Ancrum.
JEDDO, the capital town
Japan, where the emperor refides. It is open on all
tides, having neither walls nor rampartsand the
houfes are built with earth, and boarded on the out-
fide to prevent the rain from deftroying the walls. In
every llreet there is an iron gate, which is fhut up in
the night j and a kind of cuftara-houfe or magazine,
to put merchandizes in. Tt is a large place, being
nine miles in length and fix in breadth, and contains
1,000,000 of inhabitants. A fire happened in rfijS,
which, in the {pace of 48: hours, burnt down 100,000
lioufes, and in which a vad number of inhabitants pe-
ridied. The emperor’s palace and all the red were re¬
duced to adies:; :bvrt they are all rebuilt again. The
royal palace is in the middle of the town ; and is de¬
fended with walls, ditches, towers, and badions.
Where the emperor refides, there are three towers
nine dories high, each covered with plates of gold ;
g in the prifbner, Jehovah-
was in temper,
and matters perfe&'ly indifferent came before him, 110
r city ©f the iHands of one became a feat of judice better. Nay, it even ap¬
pears, that, when he was under no date-influence, he
was fometitnes inclined to protedl the natural and civil
rights of mankind, of which the following indance
has been given :—The mayor and aldermen of Bri-
dol had been ufed to tranfport convicted criminals to
the American plantations, and fell them by way of
trade. This turning to good account, when any pil¬
ferers or petty rogues were brought before them, they
threatened them with hanging ; and then fome offi¬
cers who attended, earneffly perfuaded the ignorant in¬
timidated creatures to beg for tranfportation, as the
only way to fave them; and in general their advice was
followed. Then, without more form, each alderman
in courfe took one, and fold him for his own benefit*,
and fometimes warm difputes arofe between them about
the next turn. This infamous trade, which had been
carried on many years, coming to the knowledge of
and the Ball of audience is faid to be fupported by the lord chief juftice, he made the mayor defeend from
pillars of mafly gold. Near the palace are feveral the bench, and (land at the bar in his fcarlet and furr,
others, where the relations of the emperor live. The with his guilty brethren the aldermen, and plead as
emprefs has a palace of her own, and there are 20 common criminals. He then obliged them to give fe-
fmall ones for the concubines. Befides, all the vaflal curities to anfwer informations; but the proceedings
kings have each a palace in the city, with a handfome were flopped by the Revolution.—However, the bru-
garden, and ftables for 2000 horfes. The houfes of tality Jeffreys commonly (bowed on the bench, where
the common fort .are nothing but a ground floor, and his voice and vifage were equally terrible, at length ex-
the rooms are parted by folding-fereens 5 fo that they pofed him to a fevere mortification. A ferivener of
can make the rooms larger or fmaller at pleafure. It Wannino bavlnor a raufi- bpfor^ *>;«, r>n«> ,,f
is Rated in an agreeable plain, at the bottom of a fine
bay ; and the river which cro(Tes it, is divided intofeve-
Jal canals. E.. Long. 140. o. N. Lat. 35^ 32.
JEFFERY. See Geoffrey.
JEFFREYS (Sir George), baron Wem, commonly
called Judge Jeffreys, was the fixth fon of John JeF
freys, Efq; of Afton in Denbighfhirc ; and was edu-
Wapping having a caufe before him, one; of the oppo¬
nent’s counfel faid he was a ftrange fellow, and fome¬
times went to church, and fometimes to conventiclesy
and it was thought he was a trimmer. At this the
chancellor fired; “ A trimmer? (faid he); I have
heard much of that monfter, but never faw one. Come
forth, Mr Trimmer, and let me fee your fhape.” He
then treated the poor fellow fo roughly, that, on his
oated at Weftminfter-fchool, whence he removed to leaving the hall, he declared he would not undergo the
the Inner Temple, where he applied himfelf to the flu- terrors of that man’s face again to fave his life, and he
dy of the law. Alderman Jeffreys, who was probably fliould certainly retain the frightful impreffions of it as
related to him, introduced him among the citizens of long as he lived. Soon after, the prince of Orange
London ; and he being a merry bottle-companion, coming, the lord chancellor, dreading the public re-
foon came into great bufinefs, and was chofen their fentment, difguifed lumfelf in a feaman’s drefs, in or-
.recorder. Fie was afterwards chofen folicitor to the der to leave the kingdom ; and was drinking in a cel-
duke of York ; and in 1680 was knighted, and made lar, when this ferivener coming into the cellar, andfee-
chief-jnftice of Chefter. At length, refigning the re- ing again the face which had filled him with fuch hor-
corderfhip, he obtained the poft of chief-juftice of the ror, ftarted ; on which Jeffreys, fearing he was known,
king’s-bench, and, foon after the acceflion of James II. feigned a cough, and turned to the wall with his pot
the great feal. During the reign of king Charles II. of beer in his hand. But Mr Trimmer going out, gave
-he fhowed himfelf a bitter enemy to thofe diffenting notice that he was there ; and the mob ruffling in, fei-
minifters who, in that time of perfecution, were tried
by him : he was one of the greateft advifers and pro¬
moters of all the opprefltons and arbitrary meafures
carried on in the reign of James II. ; and his fanguL
nary and inhuman proceedingsagainfl Monmouth’s un¬
happy adherents in the weft will ever render his name
infamous. Whenever the prifoner was of a different
party, or he could pleafe the court by condemning him,
inftead of appearing according to the duty of his office,
zed him/ and carried him before the lord-mayor, who
fent him with a ftrong guard to the lords of the coun*
cil, by whom he was committed to the* Tower, where
he died in 1689.—It is remarkable, that the late coun-
tefs-of Pomfret met with very rude infults from the po¬
pulace on the weflern road, only becaufe fhe was grand¬
daughter of the inhuman Jeffreys.
JEHOVAH, one of the icripture-names of God,
.fignifymg the Being who is felf-exiftent and gives exift-
as his counfel, he would fcarce allow him to fpeak for ence to others,
himfelf; but would load him with the groffeft and So great a veneration had the Jews for this name, .
moft vulgar abufe, browbeat, infult, and turn to ridi- that they left off the cuftom of pronouncing it, whers-
eule the witneffei.that fpoke in his behalf; and even by its true.pronunciation was forgotten. TheycaUitr
ic~-
JEN [ no ] J E 0
tetragrammaion, or “ the name with four letters ; and Cord, butchers meat, and wild fowls, are very cheap,
believe, that whoever knows the true pronunciation of E. Long. 86. 25. N. Lat. 58, 40.
it cannot fail to be heard by God. JENCOPING, a town of Sweden, in the province
JEJUNE style. See Style. of Smaland, feated on the fouth fide of the lake Wer-
JEJUNUM, the fecond of the fmall guts; thus ter, with a Ilrong citadel. The houfes are all built with
called from the Latin jejunus, “ hungry;” becaufe wood. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat. 57. 22.
always found empty. See Anatomy, n® 93. JENKIN (Robert), a learned Englifh divine in the
JELLAL^EAN, or Gelal^an Calendar, epocha, 18th century, was bred at Cambridge, became mafter
and year. See Calendar, Epocha, and Year. of St John’s college, and wrote feveral books much
JELLY, a form of food, or medicine, prepared efteemed, w'ss. 1. An hiftorical examination of the
from the juices of ripe fruits, boiled to a proper con- authority of Geneial Councils, 4to. 2. The reafon-
fiftence with fugar, or the ftrong deco&ions of the ablenefs and certainty of the Chrittian religion, 2 vols
horns, bones, or extremities of animals, boiled to fuch 8vo. 3. Defenfio $. Augujlint. This book is written
a height as to be iliff and firm when cold, without the againft M. Le ClerC. 4. Remarks on fome books lately
addition of any fugar.—The jellies of fruits are cool- publifhed, ws. Mr Whifton’s eight fermons, Locke’s
ing, faponaceous, and acefcent, and therefore are good paraphrale, &c. 5. A tranflation from the French of
as medicines in all diforders of the primae vise, arifmg the life of Apollonius Tyaneus.
from alkalefcent juices, efpecially when not given alone, JENKINS (Henry). See Longevity.
but diluted with water. On the contrary, the jellies Jenkins (Sir Leoline), a learned civilian and abfe
made from animal fubltances are all alkalefcent, and are ftatefman of the laft century, born in Glamorganfhire
therefore good in all cafes in which an acidity of the about the year 1623. Being rendered obnoxious to
humours prevails: the alkalefcent quality of thefe is, the parliament during the civil war by adhering to the
ho'wever, in a great meafure taken off, by the adding king’s caufe, he cohfulted his fafety by flight; but re¬
lemon juice and fugar to them. There were formerly turning on the relloration, he was admitted an advo-
a fort of jellies much in ufe, called compound jellies; cate in the court of arches, and fucceeded Dr Exton
thefe had the reftorative medicinal drugs added to them, as judge* When the queen-mother Henrietta died iri
but they are now fcarce ever heard of. 2669 at Paris, her whole eftate, real and perfonal, was
‘jKLir-Oat, a preparation of common oats, recom- claimed by her nephew Louis XIV. : upon which Dr
mended by many of the German phyficians in all hec- Jenkins’s opinion being called for and approved, he
tic diforders, to be taken with broth of fnails or Cray- went to Paris, with three others joined with him in St
fi(h.—It is made by boiling a large quantity of oats, commiffion, and recovered her effefts; for which he
with the huflc taken off, with fome hartlhorn fliavings, received the honour of knighthood. He officiated as
and currants together, with a leg of veal cut to pieces, one of the mediators at the treaty of Nimeguen, in
and with the bones all broken ; thefe are to be fet over which tedious negociation he was engaged about four
the fire with a large quantity of water, till the whole is years and a half; and was afterwards made a privy-
reduced to a fort of jelly ; which when {trained and cold counfellor and fecretary of ftate. He died in 1685;
will be very firm and hard. A few fpoonfuls of this and as he never married, bequeathed his whole eilate
are to be taken every morning, diluted with a bafon of to charitable ufes: he was fo great a benefa&or to Je-
either of the above-mentioned broths, or any other fus-college Oxford, that he is generally looked on as
warm liquor. the fecond founder. All his letters and papers were
JEMPTERLAND, a province of Sweden, bound- collefted and printed in 1724, in 2 vols folio,
ed on the north by Angermania, on the eaft by Me- JENNY-wren, a name given by writers on fong*
dalpadia, on the fouth by Helfingia, and on the weft birds to the wren. See Wren.
by Norway. It is full of mountains ; and the principal JENTACULUM was, amongft the Romans, a
towns are Reffundt, Lich, and Docra. morning refreftiment like our breakfaft. It was ex-
JENA, a ftrong town of Germany, in the circle of ceedingly Ample, confifting, for the moft part, of
Upper Saxony, and in Thuringia, with an univerfity. bread alone; labouring people indeed had fomething
It is feated on the river Sala, in E. Long. 2. 59. N. more fubftantial to enable them to fupport the fatigues
Lat. 51.0. of their employment. What has been here faid may
JENCAPORE, a town of Afia, in Indoftan, and be obferved of the Jews and Grecians alfo. The Greeks
in the dominions of the Great Mogul, capital of a ter- diftinguilhed this morning-meal by the feveral names
ritory of the fame name. It is feated on the river of a/urov, axpalio-^oc or ax.pah<r^a, though apirov is gene-
Chaul, in E. Long. 76. 25. N. Lat. 30. 30. rally applied to dinner. See Eating and Dinner.
JENISA, a river of the Ruffian empire, that runs JEOFAILE, (compounded of three French words,
from north to fouth through Siberia, and falls into the J’ay faille, “ I have failed”), a term in law, ufed for
Trozen Ocean. an overfight in pleading or other proceedings at law.
JEN1SKOI, a town of the Ruffian empire, in Si- The fhowing of thefe defedts or overfights was for-
beria, feated on the river Jenifa. It is large, populous, merly often pradifed by the counfel; and when the
and pretty ftrong; and there are villages for feveral jury came into court in order to try the iffue, they laid,
miles round it. It is fubjedl to the Tungufians, who This inqueft you ought not to take ; and after ver-
are pagans, and chiefly live on the above river. They di£t they would fay to the court. To judgment you
pay a tribute to the emperor for every bow, reckon- ought not to go. But feveral ftatutes have been made
ing a man and a woman for one. The climate is ex- to avoid the delays occafioned by fuch fuggeftions; and
tremely cold; and no other fruits grow there but a judgment is not to be flayed after verdift for mifta-
black and red currants, ftrawberries, and goofeberries. king the Chriftian or furname of either of the parties, or
is
J E P [ ii
in a fum of money, or in the day, month, year, &c. where
the fame are rightly named in any preceding record.
JEPHTHAH, judge of Ifrael, and fucceflor to Jair
in the government of the people, was a native of Mif-
peh, and the fon of one Gilead by a harlot. This Gi¬
lead having married a lawful wife, and had children by
her, thefe children drove Jephthah from his father’s
houfe, faying, that he fliould not be heir with them.
Jephthah retired into the land of Tob, and there he
became captain of a band of thieves and fuch other
people as he had picked up together. At that time,
the Ifraelites beyond Jordan, feeing themfelves prelfed
t>y the Ammonites, came to defire alliitance from
Jephthah ; and that he would take upon him the com¬
mand of them. Jephthah at firft reproached them with
the injuftice which they had done him, or at lead which
they had not prevented, when he w'as forced from his
father’s houfe. But as thefe people were very earned in
their requed, he told them, that he would fuccour them,
provided that at the end of the war they would ac¬
knowledge him for their prince. This they confented
to, and promifed with an oath.
Jephthah, in the year of the world 2817, having
been acknowledged prince of the Ifraelites in an affem-
hly of the people, was filled with the fpirit of God,
and began to get his troops together ; to that end, he
went over all the land which the children of Ifrael pof-
fefied beyond Jordan. At the fame time he made a
vow to the Lord, that if he were fuccefsful againd the
Ammonites, he would offer up for a burnt-offering
whatever (hould fird come out of his houfe to meet
him. The battle being fought, Jephthah remained
conqueror, and ravaged all the land of Ammon. But
as he returned to his houfe, his only daughter came
out to meet him with timbrels and with dances: where¬
upon Jephthah tore his clothes, and faid, “ Alas, my
daughter, thou had brought me very low: for I have
made a vow unto the Lord, and cannot fail in the per¬
formance of it.” His daughter anfwered, “ My fa¬
ther, if thou had made a vow unto the Lord, do with
me as thou had promifed ; grant me only the favour
that I may be at liberty to go up to the mountains, and
there for two months bewail my virginity with my
companions.” Jephthah granted her this liberty; and
at the end of two months, he offered up his daughter,
who died a virgin, a burnt-offering, agreeable to his
vow, according to the opinion of mod commentators.
In the mean time, the Ephraimites, jealous of the
vt&ory obtained by Jepbthah over the Ammonites,
paffed the river Jordan in a tumultuous manner, came
and complained to Jephthah that he had not invited
them to this war, and threatened to fet fire to his
houfe. Jephthah anfwered them, that he had fent to
defire their afiidance; but obferving that they did not
come, he put his life in his hands and hazarded a battle.
The Ephraimites not being fatisfied with thefe reafons,
Jephthah affembled the people of Gilead, gave them
battle, and defeated them ; fo that there were two and
forty thoufand men of the tribe of Ephraim killed that
day. We know nothing more in particular concerning
the life of Jephthah, only that he judged Ifrael fix
years, and was buried in a city of Gilead.
St Paul (Heb. xi. 32.) places Jephthah among the
faints of the Old Teftament, the merit of whofe faith di-
ftinguifhed them. But it muft be obferved, that there is
3
1 ]. I E R
fomething fo extraordinary in Jephthah’s vow, that J«t>os,
notwithftanding the fcripture fpeaks of it in very plain ,3ei emiah,l
and clear terms, yet fuch difficulties arife concerning it _v
as perplex the commentators. Some maintain, that
this daughter of Jephthah was not facrificed, as that
would have been a violation of the law of Mofes ; and
efpecially, when by the fame law he might have re¬
deemed his daughter for ten fhekels of filver: therefore
they contend, that it was fomething elfe Jephthah did
to his daughter, fuch as devoting her to a Hate of ce¬
libacy, or dedicating her to the fervice of God.—On
the other hand, thofe who maintain the affirmative, or
that Jephthah’s daughter was adlually facrificed, urge,
that the times wherein Jephthah lived were fadly ad-
dided to idolatry ; alfo the manner wherein he lived
before he was called to the affiflance of his country ; but
above all, the clear, evident, and exprefs meaning of the
text. They obferve, that vows of perpetual virginity
are inftitutions of a modern date ; and had there been
no more in it, there would have been little occafion for
rending his clothes, and bemoaning himfelf as he did ;
befides the bitter lamentations made by herfelf, and by
all the daughters of Ifrael in fucceeding times. But if
fhe was facrificed, we may fafely and confidently aver
with Jofephus, who fays that fhe was, that this facri-
fice was neither lawful nor acceptable to God ; but, on
the contrary, an abominable crime, that might, not-
withflanding, have proceeded from a miftaken principle
of religion.
JERBOA. See Mus.
JEREMIAH (the Prophecy of), a canonical book
of the Old Teftament. This divine writer was of the
race of the priefts, the fon of Hilkia of Anathoth, of
the tribe of Benjamin. He was called to the prophetic
office when very young, about the 13th year of Jofiah,
and continued in the difcharge of it about 40 years.
He was not carried captive to Babylon with the other
Jews, but remained in Judea to lament the defolation
of his country. He was afterwards a prifoner in E-
gypt with his difciple Baruch, where it is fuppofed he
died in a very advanced age. Some of the Chriftian
fathers tell us he was ftoned to death by the Jews, for
preaching againft their idolatry ; and fome fay he was
put ta death by Pharaoh Hophrah, becaufe of his pro¬
phecy againft him. Part of the prophecy of Jeremiah
relates to the time after the captivity of Ifrael, and be¬
fore that of Judah, from the firft chapter to the 44th ;
and part of it was in the time of the latter captivity,
from the 44th chapter to the end. The prophet lays
open the fins of Judah with great freedom and bold-
nefs, and reminds them of the fevere judgments which
had befallen the ten tribes for the fame offences. He '
palfionately laments their misfortune, and recommends
a fpeedy reformation to them. Afterwards he predi&s
the grievous calamities that were approaching, parti¬
cularly the 70 years captivity in Chaldea. He like-
wife foretels their deliverance and happy return, and
the recompence which Babylon, Moab. and other
enemies of the Jews, fhould meet with in due time.
There are likewife feveral intimations in this prophecy
concerning the kingdom of the Meffiah ; alfo feveral
remarkable vifions, and types, and hiftorical paffages
relating to thofe times. The yzd chapter does not .
belong to the prophecy of Jeremiah, which probably
was added by Ezra, and contains a narrative of the ta.
j E’ R i II
'Jericho king of Jerufafem, and of what happened during the
Te ^ captivity of the Jews, to the death of Jechonias. St
-i - - ■' 1 Jerom has obferved upon this prophet, that his ftyle
is more eafy than that of Ifaiah and Hofea; that he re¬
tains fomething of the rufticily of the village where he
was bora; but that he is very learned and majeftic,
and equal to thofe two prophets in the fenfe of his
prophecy.
JERICHO, or Hiertchus (arc. geog.), a city of
Judea ; fituated between Jordan and Jerufalem, at the
diftance of 150 ftadia from the latter, and 60 from
the former. Jofephue fays, “ the whole fpace from
Jerufalem is defart and rocky, and equally barren and
uncultivated from Jericho to the lake Afphaltites-;
yet the places near the town and above it are extremely
fertile and delicious, fo that it may be juftly called a
divine plain, furpafiing the reft of the land of Canaan,
no unfruitful country, and furrounded by hills in the
manner of an amphitheatre. It produces opobalfa-
mum myrobalans, and dates; from the laft of which it
is called the city of palm-trees, by Mofes. The place
is now called Raha; and is fituated, M. Volney in¬
forms us,“ in a. plain fix or feven leagues long, by
three wide, around which area number of barren moun¬
tains, that render it extremely hot. Here formerly
was cultivated Ihe balm of Mecca. TYora the de-
fcription Of the Hadjes, this is a ftirnb fimilar to the
pomegranate-tree, with leaves like thofe of rue : it
bears a pulpy nut, in which is contained a kernel that
yields the tefinous Juice we call balm or balfam. At
prefent there is not a plant of k remaining at Raha ;
but another fpecies is to be found there, called Zak-
loan, which produce a fweet oil, alfo celebrated for
healing wounds. This <zakkoun refembles a plum-
tree; it has thorns four inches long, with leaves like
thofe of the olive-tree, but narrower and greener, and
prickly at^the end ; its fruit is a kind of acorn, with¬
out a calyx, under the bark of which is a pulp, and
then a mit, the kernel of which gives an oil that the
Arabs fell very dear; this is the foie commerce of
.Raha, which is no more than a ruinous village.
JERIMOTH. SeejARiMUTH.
JEROME (St), in Latin Hieronymus, a famous
-do&or of the church, and the molt learned of all the
Latin fathers, was the fon of Euftbius; and was born
at Stridon, a city of the ancient Pannonia, about the
year 340. He ftudied at Rome under Donatus, the
learned grammarian. After having received bap-
tifm, he went into Gaul, and there tranfcribed St Hi¬
lary’s book de Synodis. He then went into Aquileia,
where he contra&ed a friendlhip with Heliodorus, who
prevailed on him to travel with him into Thrace, Pon-
tus, Bithynia, Galatia, and Cappadocia. In 372 St
Jerome retired into a defart in Syria, where he was
perfecuted by the orthodox of Melitius’s party, for
being a Sabdl'an, becaufe he made ufe of the word
.Hypojlajls, which had been ufed by the council of Rome
in 369. This obliged him to go to Jerufalem ; where
he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Hebrew lan¬
guage, in order to receive a more perfedl knowledge
of the Holy Scriptures; and about this time he con-
fented to be ordained, on condition that he (honld not
be confined to any particular church. In 381, he went'
to Conftantinople to hear St Gregory of Nazianzen ;
And the following year returned to Rome, where he was
AT 163.
J E R
made fecretary to pope Damafus. He then inftru&ed Jerome
many Roman ladies in piety and the knowledge of the I)
fciences, which expofed him to the calumnies of thofe , -'t e^‘.
whom he zealoufly reproved fort heir irregularities; and
Pope Siricius not having all the efteem for himwhich his
learning and virtue juftly intitled him to, this learned
doftor left Rome, and returned to the monaftery of
Bethlehem, where he employed himfelf in writing a*
gainft thofe whom he called heretics, efpecially againft
•Vigilantius and Jovinian. He had' a quarrel with Jobs
of Jerufalem-and Rufinus about the Origenifts. He
was the firft who wrote againft Pelagius; and died on
the 30th of September 420, at about 80 years of age.
There have been feveral editions of his works; the laft.
which is that of Verona, is in 11 vols folio. His principal
works are, 1. A Latin verfion of the Holy Scriptures,
diftinguilhed by the name of the Vulgate. 2. Com¬
mentaries on the Prophets, Ecclefiaftes, St Matthew’s
Gofpel, and the Epiftle to the Galatians, Ephefians,
Titus, and Philemon. 3. Polemical treaties againft
Montanus, Helvidius, Jovinian, Vigilantius, and Pela¬
gias. 4. Several letters. 5. A treatife on the lives
and writings of the eccleftaftical authors who had
flouri{bed before his time.—-St Jerome’s ftyle is,lively
and animated, and fometimes fublime.
Jerome of Prague, fo called from the place of his
birth, in Bohemia. He was neither a monk nor
clergyman, but had a learned education. Having em¬
braced the opinions of John Hufs, he began to pro¬
pagate them in the year 1480. In the mean time the
council of Nice kept a watchful eye over him, and
confidering him as a dangerous perfon, cited him to
appear before them and give an account of his faith.
In obedience to this citation, he went to Conftance*
but on his arrival, in 1415, finding Hufs in prifon, he
fet out for his own country. Being feized however
on the way, imprifoned, and examined, he was fo in¬
timidated, that he retraced, and pretended to approve
of the condemnation of Wickliff’s and Hufs’s opinions;
but on the 26th of May 1416, he condemned that
recantation in thefe terms : “ I am not afhamed to
confefs here publicly my weaknefs. Yes, with horror
I confefs my bafe cowardice. It was only the dread
of the punilhment by fire which dtew me to confent*
againft my confcience, to the condemnation of the doc¬
trine of Wickliff and Hufs.” Accordingly fentence
was paffed on him ; in purfuance of which he was de¬
livered to the fecular arm, and burnt in 1416. He was
a perfon of great parts, learning, and elocution.
JERONYMITES, or Hieronvmites, a denomi¬
nation given to divers orders or congregations of reli¬
gious ; otherwife called Hermits of St Jerom.
JERSEY, an ifland in the Englilh channel, believed
to be the ifland called in the Itinerary Cafarea, in
fucceeding times Augia, by us Gerfey, more frequent¬
ly JY/yky. It is fituated in the Englilh channel, 18
miles to the weft of Normandy, and 84 to the fouth
of Portland in Dorfetfhire, and in the time of the
Romans was called Cefarea. It is not above 12
miles in length, nor much above 6 where broadeft,
which is at the two extremities. It is defended by
rocks and dangerous quickfands. On the north fide
the cliffs rife 40 or 50 fathoms high, which render it
inacceffible on that fide ; but on the fouth the (liore is
almofl level with the water. In the weft part of the
ifland
J E R [ i
Jerky, ifland is a large trad of land once cultivated and very
fertile, but now a barren defa^t, caufed by the wefterly
winds throwing up fand from the bottom to the top
of the higheft cliffs. The higher lands are diverfified
by gritty, gravelly, ftony, and fine mould; the lower
by a deep, rich, and heavy foil. The middle part of
the ifland is fomewhat mountainous, and fo thick
planted with trees, that at a diftance it refembles one
entire forefl, though in walking through it there is
hardly a thicket or any other thing to be feen but
hedge rows and orchards of apple-trees. The valleys
under the hills are finely watered by brooks, and have
plenty of cattle and fmall fheep, with very fine wool,
and very fweet meat, which is afcribed to the (hort-
nefs of the grafs. The horfes are good for draught;
but few fit for the faddle. The ifland produces variety
of trees, roots, and herbs ; but not corn enough for the
inhabitants, who therefore fend for it to England and
France, and fometimes to Dantzic. The fields are
inclofed by great mounds of earth, raifed from 6 to 8
or 10 feet high, proportionably thick and folid, plant¬
ed with quickfets and trees. As the air of this ifland
is very healthy, thofe of the inhabitants who are tem¬
perate live to a great age : but the coaft is very fub-
jedt to ftorms by wefterly wind, from which they have
no land to flrelter them nearer than North America ;
and there is a vaft chain of rocks about the ifland,
among which the tides and currents are fo ftrong and
rapid, that the navigation is dangerous to thofe who
are not perfe&ly acquainted with the coaft. The
buildings of this ifland are generally of rag-ftone ; but
feme of the wealthy inhabitants have their houfes front¬
ed with a reddifh white ftone, capable of being polifhed
like marble, and of which there is a rich quarry on a
hill called Monlmado. The ordinary dwellings are
thatched. The churches are very plain buildings,
moft of them wdth fquare fteeples ; and the com¬
munion table is not at the eaft end, as in the Engliftr
churches, but placed juft under the pulpit. The
ftaple manufa&ure is knit dockings and caps, many
thoufand pair of which are weekly fold at St Helier to
the merchants ; alfo cyder, of which 25,000 hogflreads
have been made here in one year. Their principal fo¬
reign trade is to Newfoundland ; whither, particularly
in 1732, they fent 24 flrips; thefe proceed from
thence to the Mediterranean to difpofe of their fifh.
On the fouth of the ifland the fea feems to have en¬
croached upon the land (which, as we have before ob-
ferved, declines on that fide), and to have fwallowed
upwards of fix fquate miles, making a very beautiful
bay of about three miles broad, and near the fame in
depth. In the eaft corner of this bay Hands the town
of St Helier, very happily fituated. But the princi¬
pal haven is in the weftern corner of the bay, which
receives its name from it, being called St Aulin’s.
There are, befides thefe, fev?ral other havens of Itfs
note ; as, St Brelade’s Bay, at the back of St Au-
bin’s; the great bay of St Ouen, which takes in the
greateft part of the weft fide of the ifland, where the
largeft fliips may ride in 12 and ry fathoms, fafe
from all but eaft winds. La Crevaffe is a port only for
boats ; Greve de Lecq and Port St John are alfo fmall
havens on the north fide, where is likevvife Bonneuit.
On the eaft there is the bay of St Catherine, and the
harbour of Rofel. To the fouth-weft lies the haven
Vol. IX. Part I.
13 1 J E It
de la Chauffee. The laft we (hall mention is the port Jerfey.
de Pas, a very little to the eaftward of St Au-
bin’s Bay.
The towns of St Helier and St Aubin, which, as al¬
ready mentioned, ftand both in the fame bay called
St Aubin's Bay, opening to the fouth, are about three
miles afunder. St Helier took its name from Elerittt
or Helier, a holy man, who lived in this ifland many
centuries ago, and was flain by the Pagan Norman*
at their coming hither. He is mentioned among the
martyrs in the martyrology of Coutance. His little
cell with the ftone bed is ftill ihown among the rocks;
and in memory of him a noble abbey of Canons regu¬
lar was founded in the little ifland in this bay, and
annexed to Cherburgh abbey in Normandy in the reign
of Henry I. and fuppreffed as an alien priory. The
town of St Helier ftands at the foot of a long and
high rocky hill at the eaft end. It is a well-built and
populous place ; greatly improved and enlarged with¬
in the laft century ; and contains about 400 houfes,
moftly (hops, and near 2000 inhabitants. The market¬
place in the centre is fpacious, furrounded with hand-
fome houfes, among which is the Cohue Royale or court
of juftice. At the top of the market-place is a ftatue of
George II. of bronze gilt. The market is held on a
Saturday, and much frequented.
St Aubin at the weft end of the bay is principally
inhabited by merchants and mafters of fliips, whom
the neighbourhood of the port has invited hither. It
is not more than half the fize of the other town,
though greatly increafed within thefe too years ; and
has a good ftone pier carried far into the fea, where
(hips of confiderable burden lie fafe under the guns of
the adjoining fort.
The ifle of St Helier, more to the eaft in the fame
bay, is in circuit near a mile, furrounded by the fea at
or about every half flood. On the file of the abbey
before mentioned is now Elizabeth Cattle, one of the
largeft and ftrongeft fortreffes in Britain. Queen
Elizabeth began it, and gave it her name. Charles I.
enlarged, and Charles II. who was twice here, com¬
pleted it. It was the laft; fortrefs that held out for
the king. It is the refidence of the governor and gar-
rifon, and occupies the whole ifle, from whence at
low water is a paffage called the bridge, half a mile
long, formed of fand and Hones. A citadel was begun
in the laft war on a hill, whence the caftle might be
bombarded, but fince the peace left off.
Mount Orgeud caftle, called alfo Gourray from the
neighbouring village of that name, lies to the fouth
of Rofel harbour in the bay of St Catharine. It was a
place of (Length before Henry Vth’s time, and bid
defiance to the attemps of the French under the con-
ftable De Guefclin 1374 at the end of the reign of
Edward III. It was repaired by Queen Elizabeth,
but is now negledled, yet preferves an air of grandeur
anfwering its name even in ruins. The afeent to its
top is by near 200 fteps; and from thence by a tele-
fcope may be feen the two front towers of the cathe¬
dral of Coutance. The famous William Prynne was
confined in it three years.
The ifland is divided into 12 parifties, which are fo
laid out that each has a communication with the fea ;
thefe are fubdivided into 52 vintaines, fo called from
the number of 20 houfes, which each is fuppofed to have
P formerly
Jerfey.
j e r r 114 i J ,E R
formerfy contained, jud as in England lohoufes ancient- necefiary for bringing any military enterprife to a fuc- Jerfey. I
ly made a tything. The whole number of inhabitants cefsful iffue. The force entrufted to him on the pre-■"'v
is computed at about 20,000, of which 3000 are fent occafion confided of 2000 men ; with whom he
able to bear arms, and are formed into regiments, embarked in very tempeftuous weather, hoping that
Their general review is on the Tandy bay between the he might thus be able to furprife the garrifon. Many
two towns, when they arc attended with a train of of his tranfports, however, were thus difperfed, and he
above 20 brafs field pieces and two fmall bodies of himfelf, with the remainder, obliged to take {belter in
horfe in the wings. feme iflands in the neighbourhood of Jerfey. As foon
The chief officer is the governor, who has the ch- as the weather grew calmer, he feized the opportunity
ftody of his majefty’s caftles, with the command of the of a dark night to effett landing at a place called Grou-
garrifons and militia. The civil government is admi- ville, where he made prifoners of a party of militia,
niftered by a bailiff, affifled by 12 jurats. They have Hence he proceeded with the utmoft expedition to
here alfo what they call an afiembly of the dates. St Heller’s, the capital of the ifland, about three
Thefe are convened by the governor or his deputy, the miles didant. His arrival was fo unexpe&ed, that he
bailiff confids of himfelf and the jurats, the dean and feized on a party of men who guarded it, together
clergy, and the 12 high eondables. with the commanding officer, and the magidrates of
There were formerly many druidical temples and al- the ifland. Ruflecourt then drew up a capitulation,
tars in Jerfey, fome remains of which are dill to be the terms of which were, that the ifland fhould
feen. The cromlechs are here pouquelays, and be indantly furrendered to the French, and the garrifon t
there are fome tumuli and keeps. Roman coins have be fent to England ; threatening the town with imme-
alfo been dug up in this ifland ; and there are the re- diate deflru&ion in cafe of noncompliance. It was
mains of a Roman camp in the manor of Dilamant. in vaimreprefented to him that no adt of the deputy-
Ghridianity was fird planted here in the middle of governor and magidrates could be valid while they re-
the 6th century, and the ifl’and made part of the fee mained in "his power; but, as Ridlecourt dill infided,-
of Dol in Bretagne, and it is now governed by a dean, they were obliged to comply, lead his menaces fhould
Befides the abbey of St Helier, here were four priories, have been carried into execution. This point being
Noirmont, St Clement, Bonn emit, and le Leek, and above gained, he advanced to Elizabeth Cadle in the neigh-
twenty chapels, now moflly ruined. During the lad bourhood of the town, fummoning it to furrender in
war this ifland, together with that of Guernfey, became virtue of the capitulation for the town and ifland jud
an objedf of defire to France, whole vanity, no lefs concluded. To this a peremptory refufal was given,
than her intered, was concerned in depriving Britain of and followed by fuch a vigorous difeharge of artillery,
thofelad remnants of her continental pofleffions. The that he was obliged to retire into the town. In the.
fird attempt to atchieve this conqued took place in mean tipje the Britilh troops dationed in the ifland
the year 1779- A fierce of 5000 or 6000 men was began to aflemble from every quarter under the corn-
embarked in flat-bottomed boats, and endeavoured to mand of Major Pierfon 5 who, on being required by
land in the bay of St Quen, on the fird of May. In the French commander to fubmit, replied, that if the
this attempt they were fupported by fiye frigates and French themfelves- did not, within 20 minutes, lay
other armed veffels ; but met with fuch a vigorous down their arms, he would attack them. This being
refidance from the militia of the ifland, affided by a body refufed, an attack was indantly made with fuch impe-
of regulars, that they were compelled to retire with- tuofity, that the French were totally routed in lefs
out having landed a fingle perfon. Much difeontent and than half an hour, and driven into the market-place,
mutual recrimination took place amongtheFfench naval where they endeavoured to make a Aand. Their
and military officers on this failure; and though the ex- commander, exafperated at this unexpe&ed turn of
pedition was reprefented by many as ill concerted,.and affairs, endeavoured to wreak his-vengeance on the cap-
deftitute every hope, of fuecefs, another attempt was tive governor, whom he obliged to ftand by his dde
refolved on. Both the troops and feamen that had been during the whole time of the conflift. This, however,
emplbyed in the former expedition were equally defirous- was quickly over; the French were broken on all fides,
of retrieving their honour; but they were for fome time the baron himfelf mortally wounded, and the-next in
prevented from making any attempt of this kind by command obliged to furrender himfelf and the whole
bad weather ; and, before another opportunity offered, party prifoners of war ; while the captive governor
the fquadron which was defigned to cover their defeent efcaped without a wound. This fecond difader put
was attacked by Sir James Wallace, who drove them an end to all hopes of the French minidry of being
alhore on the coaft of Normandy, filenced a battery un- able to reduce the ifland of Jerfey, and was indeed
der whofe guns they had taken {belter, captured a fri- no final!' mortification to them; 800 troops having
gate of 34 guns, with two rich prizes, burnt two o- been landed Rt that time, of which not one efcaped,
ther large frigates, and a confiderable number of fmall- A monument was eredted at the public expence in the-
er veffels. church of St Heiier, to the memory of Major Pierfon,
Thus the fcheme of invading the ifland of Jerfey to whom .the deliverance of the ifland was owing; but
was totally difconcerted, and laid afide for that time, who unhappily fell in the moment of vi&ory, when
but was refumed in the year 1781. The conduft of only 24 years of age.
this fecond expedition was given to the baron de All the landing places and creeks round the ifland
Rullecourt, who had been fecond in command when the are now fortified with batteries, and 17 or 18 watch-
former attempt was made. He was a man of courage, houfes are eredted on the headlands. Thefe are round
but fierce and violent in his difpofition, and feems to towers with embrafurcs for fmall cannon and loop-holes
have been very deficient in the prudence and condudi for fmall mufltetryj the entrance by a door in the
wall
J E R [i
fey. wall out of the reach of man, and to be afeended by a
ladder afterwards drawn up. This ifland, with thofe
of Guernfey, Sark, Alderney, and their appendages,
were parcel of the duchy of Normandy, and were
united to the crown of England by the firft princes of
the Norman line. The language of the pulpit, and
the bar, is the French, which is alfo that generally
fpoken by the people at large. They are governed by
their own laws, which are for the mod part the ducal
cuftoms of Normandy, being colledled in an ancient
book of cuftoms intitled Le grand coujlumkr. The
king’s writ, or procefs from the courts of Weft-
minfter, is here of no force ; but his commiffion is.
They are not bound by any common adts of our par¬
liaments, unlefs particularly named. All caufes are
originally determined by their own officers, the bailiff
and jurats of the iflands. But an appeal lies from
them to the king and council in the laft refort.—Jer-
fey is an earldom in the Villiers’s family.
New Jersey, or, as it is commonly called, the Jer-
Jeys (being two' provinces united into one govern¬
ment), one of the united ftates of North America, ly¬
ing from 39 to 41 degrees of north latitude, and from
74 to 75 degrees 30 minutes longitude weft from
London; in length 160 miles, in breadth 52.
It is bounded 'on the eaft by Hudfon’s river and
the fea; on the fouth, by the fea ; on the weft, by
Delaware bay and river, which divides it from the
ftates of Delaware, and Pennfylvania ; and on the
north, by a line drawn from the mouth of Mahak-
kamak river, in latitude 410 24', to a point on Hudfon’s
river, in latitude 41'; cortaining about 8320 fquare
miles, equal to 5,324,800 acres. New Jerfey is divided
into 13 counties, which are fubdivided into 94 town-
Ihipsorprecin&s. In 1784, a cenfus of the inhabitants
was made by order of the legillature, when they
amounted to 140,435, of which 10,501 were blacks.
Of thefe blacks 1939 only were flaves ; fo that the
proportion of flaves to the whole of the inhabitants in
the ftate is as one to feventy-fix. The population for
every fquare mile is eighteen. As to the face of the
country, foil, and produftions; the counties of
Suflex, Morris, and the northern part of Bergin, are
mountainous. As much as five-eighths of molt of the
ioutbern counties, qr one fourth of the whole ftate, is
a fandy barren, unfit for cultivation. The land on the
fea coaft in this, like that in the more fouthern ftates,
has every appearance of made ground. The foil is ge-
nerally a light fand ; and by digging, on an average,
about fifty feet below the furface (which can be done,
even at the diftance of twenty or thirty miles from the
fea, without any impediment from rocks or ftones),
you come to fait marlh. This ftate has all the va¬
rieties of foil from the vvorft to the belt kind. It has a
greater proportion of barrens than any of the ftates.
The barrens produce little elfe but ftirub oaks and
white and yellow pines. In the hilly and moun¬
tainous parts of the ftate, w’hich are not too rocky for
cultivation, the foil is of a ftronger kind, and covered
in its natural ftate with ftately oaks, hickoties, chef-
nuts, . &c. &c. and, when cultivated, produces wheat,
rye, Indian corn, buck wheat, oats, barley, flax, and
fruits of all kinds common to the climate. The land
in this hilly country is good for grazing, and the far¬
mers feed great numbers ef cattle for New York and
- 4
>5 ] J E R
Philadelphia markets, and many of them keep large Jerfey.
dairies. The markets of New York and Philadelphia' Y 
receive a very confiderable proportion of their fup-
plies from the contiguous parts of New Jerfey. And
it is worthy of remark that thefe contiguous parts are
exceedingly well calculated, as to the nature and ferti¬
lity of their foils, to afford thefe fupplies ; and the in¬
tervention of a great number of navigable rivers and
creeks renders it very convenient to market their pro¬
duce. Thefe fupplies confift of vegetables of marry
kinds, apples, pears, peaches, plums, ftrawberries,
cherries, and other fruits; cyder in large quantities
and of the beft quality, butter, cheefe, beef, pork,
mutton, and the leffer meats.
The trade of this ftate is carried on almoft folely
with and from thofe two great commercial cities, New
York on one fide, and Philadelphia on the other;
though it wants not good ports of its own. The
articles exported, befides thofe already mentioned, are
wheat, flour, horfes, live cattle, hams, which are cele¬
brated as being the beft in the world, lumber, flax,
feed, leather, and iron in great quantities in pigs and
bars. Formerly copper ore was reckoned among their
moft valuable exports; but the mines' have not been
worked fince the commencement of the late war.
The iron manufa&ure is the greateft fource of wealth
to the ftate. Iron works are ere&ed in Gloucefter,
Burlington, Morris, and other counties. The moun¬
tains in the county of Morris give rife to a number of
ftreams neceffary and convenient for thefe works, and.
at the fame time furnilh a copious fupply of wood and
ore of a fuperior quality. In this county alone are
no lefs than feven rich iron mines, from which might
be taken ore fufficient to fupply the United States;
and to work it into iron arc two furnaces, two rolling
and flitting mills, and about thirty forges, containing
from two to four fires each. Thefe works produce
annually about 540 tons of bar iron, 800 tons of pigs,
befides large quantities of hollow ware, fheet iron, and
nail rods. In the whole ftate, it is fuppofed there is
yearly made about I200;: or.t of bar iron, 1200 do. of
pigs, 80 do. of nail rods, exclufive of hollow ware,
and various other caftings, of which vaft quantities are
made.
The charailer, manners, and cuftoms of the people
are various in different parts of the ftate. The inha¬
bitants are a colle&ion of Low Dutch, Germans,
Englifli, Scotch, Irifti, and New Englanders, or their
defeendants. National attachment and mutual con¬
venience have generally induced thefe feveral kinds of
people to fettle together in a body ; and in this way
their peculiar national manners, cuftoms, and charac¬
ter, are ftill preferved, efpecially among the lower clafs
of people, who have little intercourfe with any but
thofe of their own nation. Religion, although its
tendency is to unite people in thofe things that are
effential to happinefs, occafions wide differences as to
manners, cuftoms, and even chara&er. The Prefby-
terian, the Quaker, the Epifcopalian, the Baptift, the
German and Low Dutch Calvinift, the Methodift, and
the Moravian, have each their diftinguiflring charac-
teriftics, either in their worlhip, their difeipline, or
their drefs. There is ftill another very perceptible
charafteriftical difference, diftinft from either of the
others, which ariies from the intercourfe of the inha-.
P 2 bitanta
J E R
Jeifey. bitants with different ftates. The people in Weft
Jerfey trade to Philadelphia, and of courfe imitate
their fafhions, and imbibe their manners. The inha¬
bitants of Eaft Jerfey trade to New York, and regu¬
late their faihions and manners according to thofe of
New York. So that the difference in regard to
faihions and manners between Eaft and Weft Jerfey,
is nearly as gieat as between New York and Phila¬
delphia. The people of New Jerfey are generally in-
duftrious, frugal, and hofpitable. There are, compa¬
ratively, but few men of learning in the Hate, nor can
it be faid that the people in general have a tafte for
the fciences. The lower clafs, in which may be in-
t eluded three-fifths of the inhabitants of the whole ftate,
are ignorant, and are criminally negleftful in the edu¬
cation of their children. There are, in this ftate, a-
boutyc Prelbyterian congregations, fubje&to the care
of three Prefbyteries, viz. that of New York, of New
Brunfwick, and Philadelphia; 40 congregations of the
Friends; 30 of the Baptifts; 25 of Epifcopalians; 28
of the Dutch, befides a few Moravians and Me-
thodifts.
There are two colleges in New Jerfey ; one at
Princeton, called NaJJau Hall; the other at Brunfwick,
called Queen’s-college. The college at Princeton was
firft founded about the year 1738, and enlarged by
governor Belcher in 1747. It has an annual income
of about L. 900 currency ; ,of which L. 200 arifes
from funded public fecurities and lands, and the reft
from the fees of the ftudents. There is a grammar-
fchod of about 30 fcholars, connefted with the col¬
lege, under the fuperintendance of the prefidfnt, and
taught by two mailers. Before the late revolution this
college was furnifhed with a philofophical apparatus
worth L. 500, which (except the elegant orrery con-
ilru&ed by Mr Rittenhoufe) was almoft entirely dc-
itroyed during the war, as w'as alfo the library, which
now confifts of between 2000 and 3000 volumes.—The
charter for Queen’s-college at Brunfwick was granted
juft before the war, in confequence of an application
from a body of the Dutch church. Its funds, raifed
wholly by free donations, amounted foon after its
eftablifhment to four thoufand pounds; but they were
confiderably diminilhed by the war. The ftudents are
under the care of a prefident. This college has lately
increafed both in numbers and reputation. There are
alfo a number of flourilhing academies in this ftate ;
one. at Trenton, another in Hakkenfak, others at
Orangedale, Freehold, Elizabeth-town, Burlington,
Newark, Spring-field, Morriftown, Bordentown, and
Amboy : but there are no regular cftablifhments for
common fchools. The ufual mode of education is for
the inhabitants of a village or neighbourhood to join
in affording a temporary fupport for a fchoolmatter,
upon fuch terms as is mutually agreeable. But the
encouragement which thefe occafional teachers meet
with, is generally fuch as that no perfon of abilities
adequate to the bufinefs will undertake it, and of courfe
little advantage is derived from thefe fchools.
There are a number of towns in this ftate, nearly
of equal fize and importance, and none that has more
than 200 houfes, compadtly built. — 7re«ts« is the lar-
geft town in New Jerfey. This town, with Lamber-
ton, which joins it on the fouth, contains 200 houfes,
and about ijoo inhabitants. Here the legiflature
J E R
meets, the fupreme court fits, and the public offices Jerfejr.
are all kept, except the fecretary’s, which is at Bur-
lington. On thefe accounts it is confidered as the ca¬
pital of the ftate.—Burlington Hands on the eaft fide of
the Delaware, 20 miles above Philadelphia by water,
and 17 by land. The ifland, which is the moft popu¬
lous part of the city, is a mile and a quarter in length,
and three quarters of a mile in breadth. On the ifland
are 160 houfes, 900 white and 100 black inhabitants.
There are two houfes for public worlhip in the town,
one for the Friends or Quakers, who are the molt nu¬
merous, and one for the Epifcopalians. The other
public buildings are two market-houfes, a court-houfe,
and the beft gaol in the ftate. Befides thefe, there is an
academy, a free fchool, a nail manufactory, and an ex¬
cellent diftillery, if that can be called excellent which
produces a poifon both of health and morals.—Perth
Amboy ftands on a neck of land included between Ra¬
ritan river and Arthur Kull found. It lies open to
Sandy Hook, and has one of the beft harbours on the
continent. Veffels f;om fea may enter it in one tide,
in almoft any weather.—Brunjwich was incorporated
in 1784, and is fituated on the fouth-weft fide of Rari¬
tan river, 12 miles above Amboy. It contains about
200 houfes and 1600 inhabitants, one half of which
are Dutch. Its fituation is low and unpleafant, being
on the bank of the river, and under a high hill which
rifes back of the town.— Princeton is a pleafant healthy
village, of about 80 houfes, 52 miles from New York,
and 43 from Philadelphia.—Elizabeth town and New¬
ark are pleafant towns ; the former is 15, and the lat¬
ter 9 miles from New York. Newark is famed for its
good cyder.
The government of this ftate is veiled in a governor,
legiflative council, and general affembly. The gover¬
nor is chofen annually by the council and affembly
jointly. The legiflative council is compofed of one
member from each county, chofen annually by the
people. The general affembly is compofed of three
members from each county, chofen by the freemen.
The council choofe one of their members to be vice-
prefident, who, when the governor is abfent from the
ftate, poffeffes the fupreme executive power. The
council may originate any bills, excepting preparing
and altering any money bill, which is the foie prero¬
gative of the affembly.
The firft fettlers of New Jerfey were a number of
Dutch emigrants from New York, who came over be¬
tween the years 1614 and 1620, and fettled in the
county of Bergen. Next after thefe, in 1627, came
over a colony of Swedes and Finns, and fettled on the
river Delaware. The Dutch and Swedes, though not
in harmony with each other, kept poffeffion of the
country many years. In March 1634, Charles II.
granted all the territory called by the Dutch New Ne¬
therlands, to his brother the duke of York. And in
June j 664, the duke granted that part now called New
Jerfey to Lord Berkeley of Stratton, and Sir Georgs
Carteret, jointly; who in 1665 agreed upon certain
conceffions with the people for the government of the
province, and appointed Philip Carteret, Efq; their
governor.—-The Dutch reduced the country in 1672;
but it was reftored by the peace of Weftminfter, Fe¬
bruary 9. 1674.
This ftate was the feat of war for feveral years, du¬
ring
[ H6 ]
J E R [i
Jerfey, ring the bloody conteft. between Great Britain and A-
Jcrufaieny merica. and her Ioffes, both of men and property,
jn proportion to the population and wealth of the
Hate, was greater than of any other of the thirteen
ftates.
Jersey, among woblcombers, denotes the fineft
wool, taken from the reft by dreffing it with a Jerfey
comb.
JERUSALEM, a very famous and ancient city,
capital of Judea or Paleftine, now a province of Turky
in Afia. According to Manetho, an Egyptian hifto-
rian, it was founded by the fhepherds who invaded E-
• See E- gypt in an unknown period of antiquity *. Accord-
gypt,n°». {ng to Jofephus, it was the capital of Melchifedek’s
kingdom, called Salem in the book of Genefis: and
the Arabians affeit, that it was built in honour of Mel-
chifedek by 12 neighbouring kings; which when they
had done, he called it Jerufahm. We know nothing
of it with certainty, however, till the time of king
David, who took it from the Jebufites, and made it
the capital of his kingdom, which it ever after conti¬
nued to be. It was firft taken in the days of Je-
hoafh, by Hazael the king of Syria, who flew all the
nobility, but did not deftroy their city. It was af¬
terwards taken by Nebuchadnezzar king of Baby¬
lon, who deftroyed it, and carried away the inhabi¬
tants. Seventy years after, permifiion was granted
by Cyrus king of Perfia to the Jews to rebuild their
city, which was done ; and it continued the capital of
Judea (though frequently fuffering much from the
Grecian monarchs of Syria and Egypt), till the time
of Vefpafian emperor of Rome, by whofe fon Titus it
..See<y£.ttlJ. was totally deftroyed f. It was, however, rebuilt by
' Adrian ; and feemed likely to have recovered its for¬
mer grandeur, being furrounded with walls, and adorn¬
ed with feveral noble buildings ; the Chriftians alfo be¬
ing permitted to fettle in it. But this was a ftiort-
lived change ; fothat when the emprefs Helena, mother
of Conftantine the Great, came to vilit this city, {he
found it in the moft forlorn and ruinous fituation. Ha¬
ving formed a defign of reftoring it to its ancient luftre,
Are cauftd, with a great deal of coft and labour, all the
rubbifh that had been thrown upon thofe places where
our Saviour had fuffered, been buried, &c. to be re¬
moved. In doing this, they found the crofs on which
he died, as well as thofe of the two malefa&ors who
fuffered with him ; and, as the writer s of thofe times
relate, difcovered by a miracle that which had borne
the Saviour of mankind. She then caufed a magnifi¬
cent church to be built, which inclofed as many of the
fcenes of our Saviour’s fufferings as could convenient¬
ly be done, and adorned the city with feveral other
buildings. The Emperor Julian is faid tohave formed
a defign of rebuilding the temple of Jerufalem, and of
reftoring the Jewifh vvorfnip. This fcheme was coni-
trived on purpofe to give the lie to our Saviour’s pro¬
phecy concerning the temple and city of Jerufalem ;
namely, that the firft fbould be totally deftroyed, with¬
out one ftone being left upon another ; and that Jeru¬
falem fhould be trodden down of the Gentiles till the
times of the Gentiles weie fulfilled. In this attempt,
however, according to the accounts of the Chriftian
writers of that age, the emperror was fruftrated by an
earthquake and fiery eruption from the earth, which
17 1 J E R
totally deftroyed the work, confumed the materials Jerufdc
which had been collefted, and killed a great number'
of the workmen.
This event hath been the fubjedl of much difpute.
Mr Warburton, who hath publiflied a treatife exprefs-
ly on the truth of this fail, hath colledled the follow¬
ing teftimonies in favour of it. The firft is that of
Ammianus Marcellinus, who tells us, “ Julian (ha¬
ving been already thrice conful), taking Salluft, pre¬
fect of the feveral Gaul&, for hia colleague, entered a
fourth time on this high magiftracy ; and although
his fenfibility of the many and great events which
this year was likely to produce made him very
anxious for the future, yet he both pufhed on the va¬
rious and complicated preparatives for this expedition
with the utmoft application, and, having an eye in.
every quarter, and being defirous to enternize his reign
by the greatnefs of his atchievements, he projected to
rebuild at an immenfe expence the proud and magni¬
ficent temple of Jerufalem ; which (after many com¬
bats, attended with much bloodfhed on both fides^
during the iiege by Vefpafian) was with great diffi¬
culty taken and deftroyed by Titus. He com¬
mitted the conduct of this affair to Alypius of
Antioch, who had formerly been lieutenant in Bri¬
tain. When therefore this Alypius had fet himfelf
to the vigorous execution of his charge, in which he
had all the afliftance that the governor of the province
could afford him, horrible balls of fire breaking out
near the foundations, with frequent and reiterated at¬
tacks, rendered the place from time to time inacceflible
to the fcorched and blafted workmen ; and the victo¬
rious element continuing, in this manner, obftinately
and refolutely bent, as it were, to drive them to a dL
ftance, Alypius thought belt to give over the enter-
prife.”
The next teftimony is that of Gregory Nazianzen.
Speaking of the emperor Julian, he fays, “ After
having run through a courfe of every other tyrannical
experiment againft the faith, and upon trial defpifing
all of them as trifling and contemptible, he at lall
brought down the whole body of the Jews upon us j.
whom, for their ancient turn to feditious novelties,
and an inveterate hatred of the Chtiftian name, he
chofe as the fitteft inftrument for his machinations.
Thefe, under a fhow of great good-will, which hid.
his fecret purpofe, he endeavoured to convince from
their facred books and traditions, which he took upon
him to interpret, that now was come the time fore¬
told, when they fhould return, to their own land, re¬
build their temple, and reftore the law to its ancient
force and fplendor. When thefe things had been
thoroughly infinuated, and heartily entertained (for
deceit finds eafy admittance when it flatters our paf-
fions), the Jews fet upon the work of rebuilding with
great attention, and pufhed on the projed with the
utmoft labour and application. But when, now driven
from their work by a violent whirlwind and a fudden
earthquake, they fled together for refuge to a certain
neighbouring church (fome to deprecate the impend¬
ing mifehief; others,, as is natural in fnch cafes, to
catch at any help that prefents itfclf; and others,
again, inveloped in the crowd, were carried along
with the body of tbofe who fled), there are who fay.,,
the
J K R T IIS ] J E R
'Jcrofalem. the cluircli rtfufed'them entrance ; and that when they under nine kings. At laft this kingdom was utterly Jer
v came to the doors which were wide open but a mo- ruined by Saladin ; and though the Chriftians once
me’nt before, they found them on a hidden clofed by more got poffeffion of the city, they were again ob-
a fecret and invifible hand; a hand accuftomed to liged to relinquith it. In 1217, the Saracens were ex¬
work thefe wonders by the terror and confufion of the pelled by the Turks, who have ever iince continued in
impious, and for the fecurity and comfort of godly pbfieffion of it.
•men. This, however, is now invariably affirmed and The city of Jerufalem, in Its moft flouriffiing {fate,
believed by all, that as they drove to force thei'r way was divided into four parts, each inclofed with its own
in by violence, the tire which burft from the founda- walls; viz. 1. The old city of Jehus, which flood on
tions of the temple, met and flopped them. One mount Zion, where the prophets dwelt, and where
part it burnt and deftroyed, and another it defperate- David built a magnificent caftle and palace, which
ly maimed, leaving them a living monument of God’s became the refidence both of himfelf and fuccdfors;
commination and wrath againfl finners. Thus the on which account it was emphatically called, the City
affair paffed ; and, let no man continue incredulous of David. 2. The lower city, called alfo r/>e Zlauj-A-
concerning this or the other miraculous works of ter of Zion, being built after it; on which flood the
God. But ftill the thing moft wonderful and illuf- two magnificent palaces which Solomon built for
trious was, a light which appeared in the heavens, of himfelf and his queen; that of the Maccabean princes;
a crofs within a circle. That name and figure which and the {lately amphitheatre built by Herod, capable
impious men before efteemed fo difhonourable upon of containing 80,000 fpe&ators ; the ftrong citadel,
earth, was now raifed on high, and equally objefted built by Antiochus, to command and overtop the
to the;common view of all men; advanced by God temple, but afterwards razed by Simon the Maccabee,
himfelf as the trophy of his viftory over unbelievers ; who recovered the city from the Syrians; and laflly, a
of all trophies the rr.oft exalted and fublime. Nay fecond citadel, built by Herod, upon a high and craggy
further, they who were prefent, and partakers of the rock, and called by him Antonia. 3. The new city,
miracle we are now about to fpeak of, fhow to this moftly inhabited by tradefmen, artificers, and mer-
very day the fign or figure of the crofs which was chants; and, 4. Mount Moriah, on which was built
then marked or impreffed upon their garments. For the fo famed temple of Solomon, deferibed in the
at that time, as thefe men (whether fuch as were of fixth and feventh chapters of the fecond book of Kings ;
us or flrangers) were (bowing thefe marks, or attend- and, fince then, that rebuilt by the Jews on their re-
ing to others who fhowed them, each prefently obferved turn from Babylon, and afterwards built almoft anew
the wander, either on himfelf or his neighbour; having and greatly adorned and enriched by Herod,
a radiant mark on his body or on his garment, in which Some idea of the magnificence of this temple may
there is fomething that, in art and elegance, exceeded be had from the following confiderations. 1. That
all painting or embroidery.” there were no lefs than 163,300 men employed in the
Notwithftanding thefe teflimonies, however, this work. 2. That notwithftanding that prodigious num-
facl hath been ftrenuoufly-contefled by others; and her of hands, it took up feven whole years in build-
, indeed it muft be owned .that the teftimonies above ing. 3. That the height of this building was 120
mentioned are by no means unexceptionable. In the cubits, or 82 yards, rather mofe than lefs; and the
laft particularly, the propenfity to the marvellous is fo courts round it about half as high. 4. That the
exceedingly great, that every one muft at firfl fight front, on the eaft fide, was fuftained by ramparts of
be ftruck with it. It is true indeed, the moft mira- fquare ftone, of vaft bulk, and built up from the val-
culous part of it, as it feemed to be to Gregory, ley below, which laft was 300 cubits high, and be-
namely, the appearance of croffes upon the garments ing added to that of the edifice amounted to 420
and bodies of fome of the people who were ftruck, cubits; to which, if we add, 5. The height of the
may be explained upon a natural principle; fince we principal tower above all the reft, viz. 60, will bring
are affured that lightning will fometimes produce ef- it to 480 cubits, which, reckoning at two feet to a
4 See VtgU-tzCts of this kind J : but even this is no decifive proof cubit, will amount to 960 feet; but, according to the
w'tfjr. of the authenticity of the relation ; though it cannot length of that meafure, as others reckon it, viz. at two
• by any means diferedit it, as fome think. On the feet and an half, it will amount to 1200 feet; a pro¬
whole, however, it is not a matter of any confequence digious height. this from the ground, and fuch as
whether this event happened with the circumftances might well make Jofephus fay, that the very defign of
above mentioned or not. If Julian did make any at- it was fufficient to have turned the brain of any but
tempt to rebuild the temple, it is certain that fome- Solomon. 6. Thefe ramparts, which were raifed in
thing obftrufted the attempt, becaufe the temple was this manner, to fill up the prodigious chafm made by
never actually rebuilt. If he made no fuch attempt, the deep valley below, and to make the area of a fuf-
the prophecy of our Saviour ftill holds good; and it ficient breadth and length for the edifice, were loco
furely cannot be thought to detraft from the merit of cubits in length at the bottom, and 800 at the top,
a prophecy, that no body ever attempted to elude it, and the breadth of them too more. 7. The huge
or prove it to be a falfehood. buttreffes which fupported the ramparts were of the
Jerufalem continued in the hands of the eaftern em- fame height, fquare at the top, and 50 cubits broad,
perors till the reign of the Caliph Omar, who reduced and jutted out 150 cubits at the bottom. 8. The
it under his fubjeflion. The Saracens continued in ftones, of which they were built, were, according to
poflcffion of it till the year 1099, when it was taken Jofephus, 40 cubits long, 12 thick, and 8 high, all
by the Crufeders. They founded a new kingdom, of of marble, and fo exquifitely joined, that they feemed
which Jerufalem was the capital, which lafted 88 years one continued piece, or rather polifhed rock. 9- Ac¬
cording
J E R [ n
Jtrufalem. cording to the fame Jewiih hiftorian, there were
columns of Parian marble, and twice that number of
pilafters; and of fuch thicknefa, that three men could
hardly embrace them, and their height and capitals
proportionable, and of the Corinthian order. But it
is likely Jofephus hath given us thefe two lail articles
from the temple of Herod, there being nothing like
them mentioned by the facred hiflorians, but a great
deal about the prodigious cedars of Lebanon ufed in
that noble edifice, the excellent workmanfhip of them
adapted to their feveral ends and defigns, together
with their gildings and other curious ornaments. The
only thing more we (hall venture to add is, what is
affirmed in Scripture, that all the materials of this
ftupendous fabric were finiffied and adapted to their
feveral ends before they were brought to Jerufalem,
that is, the ftones in their quarries, and the cedars
in Lebanon ; fo that there was no noife of ax, ham¬
mer, or any tool, heard in the rearing of it.
At prefent Jerufalem is called by the Turks Cud-
fembaric, and Coudjheriff'; and is reduced to a poor
thinly inhabited town, about three miles in circumfe¬
rence, fituated on a rocky mountain, furrounded on
all fides, except the north, with fteep afcents and deep
valleys ; and thefe again environed with other hills,
at fome diftance from them. In the neighbourhood
of the city there grow fome corn, vines, olives, &c.
The (lately church erected by the emprefs Helena, on
mount Calvary, is dill (landing. It is called the church
of the fepulchre ; and is kept in good repair by the
generous offerings of a confiant concourfe of pil¬
grims, who annually refort to it, as well as by the
contributions of feveral Chriftian princes. The walls
of this church are of (lone, and the roof of cedar; the
eaff end inclofes Mount Calvary, and the weft the holy
fepulchre : the former is covered with a noble cupola,
open at top, and fupported by 16 mafiive columns.
Over the high altar, at the eaft end, is another (lately
dome. The nave of the church conftitutes the choir;
and in the infide ides are (hown the places where the
mod remarkable circumftances of our Saviour’s paf-
fion were tranfa&ed, together with the tombs of God¬
frey and Baldwin, the two firft Chriftian kings of Je¬
rufalem. In the chapel of the crucifixion is (hown
the very hole in the rock in which the crofs is faid to
have been fixed. The altar in this chapel hath three
crofles on it; and is richly adorned, particularly with
four lamps of immenfe value that hang before it, and
are kept conftantly burning. At the weft end is that
of the fepulchre, which is hewn in that form out of
the folid rock, and hath a fmall dome fupported by
pillars of porphyry. The cloifter round the fepulchre
is divided into fundry chapels, appropriated to the fe¬
veral forts of Chriftians who refide there ; as Greeks,
Armenians, Maronites, Jacobites, Copts, Abyffines,
Georgians, &c. and on the north-weft fide of it are
the apartments of the Latins, who have the pare of
the church, and are forced to refide conftantly in it;
the Turks keeping the keys of it, and not fuffering
any of them to go out, but obliging them to re¬
ceive their provifions in at a wicket. At Eafter there
are fome grand ceremonies performed in the church,
reprefenting our Lord’s paffion, crucifixion, death,
and refurre&ion, at which a vaft concourfe of pil¬
grims commonly, affift. For a particular account of.
9 ] J E it
them, we refer the reader to Dodlors Shaw and Po- Jerefalem-
cocke. ’-~~v
On Mount Moriah, on the fouth-eaft part of the ci¬
ty, is an edifice called Solomon’s ’Temple^ (landing on or
near the fame fpot as the ancient; but when or by
whom ereifted is uncertain. In the midft of it is a
Turkifti mofque, where the Jewiih fandtnm fanflorum
is fuppofed to Jiave flood. The building, which Dr
Pococke thinks muft have been' formerly a Chriftian
church, is held in the utmoft veneration by the Turks.
The city is now under the government of a fangiac,
who refides in a houfe faid to have been that of Pon¬
tius Pilate, over-againft the caftle of Antonia built by
Herod the Great. Many of the churches erefted in
memory of fome remarkable gofpel-tranfa&ion, have
been fince converted into mofques ; into fome of which
money will procure admittance, but not into others.
Both the friars and other Chritlians are kept fo poor
by the tyranny of the government, that the chief fup-
port and trade of the place confifts in providing ft ran¬
gers with food and other accommodations, and felling
them beads, relics, and other trinkets, for which they
are obliged to pay confiderable fums to,the fangiac, as
well as to his officers ; and thofe are feldom fo well
contented with their ufual duties, but they frequently
extort fome frefti ones, efpecially from the Francifcans,
whofe convent is the common receptacle for all pil¬
grims, and for which they have confiderable allowan¬
ces from the pope, and other crowned heads, befides
the prefents which (Dangers generally make them at
their departure. The mod remarkable antiquities in
the neighbourhood of Jerufalem are, i. The pools of
Bethefda and Gihon ; the former 120 paces long, 40
broad, and at lead eight deep, but now without wa¬
ter ; and the old arches, which it dill difeovers at the
weft end, are quite dammed up : the other, which is
about a quarter of a mile without Bethlehem-gate, is
a very (lately relic, ic$ paces long, and 60 broad,
lined with a wall and plafter, and dill well ftored with
water. 2. The tomb of the Virgin Mary, in the val¬
ley of Jehofliaphat, into which one defeends by a mag¬
nificent flight of 47 fteps. On the right hand as one
goes down, is alfo the fepulchre of St Ann the mo¬
ther, and on the left that of Jofeph the hufband, of
the virgin-mother: fome add iikewife that of Jehoia-
kim her father. In all thefe areere&ed altars for priefts
of all forts to fay mafs, and the whole is cut into the
folid rock, 3. The tomb of king Jehofliaphat, cut
likewife into the rock, and divided into feveral apart¬
ments ; in one of which is his tomb, which is adorned
with a {lately portico and entablature over it. 4. That
commonly called Abfalom’spillar or place, as being ge¬
nerally fuppofed to be that which he is faid to have
erefted in his life-time to perpetuate his memory, as
he had no male-iffue. The place, however, both with¬
in and without, hath more the refemblance of a fe¬
pulchre than any. thing elfe: though we do not read
that he was buried there, neither- do the people here
affirm that he was. There is a great heap of (tones
about it, which is continually increafing ; the fuperftii
tious.Jews and Turks always throwing fome as they
pafs, in token of their abhorrence of Abfalom’s un¬
natural rebellion againft fo good' and holy a parent.
The ftructure itfelf is about 20 cubits fquare, and 60
high, riling ia a lofty fquare, adorned below with*four
columns
J E S
[
Jefttnfi1.
jerufalem columns of the Ionic order, with their capitals, enta-
JJ blatures, &c. to each front. From the height of 20
j to 40 cubits, it is fomewhat lefs, and quite plain, ex¬
cepting a fmall fillet at the upper end; and from40 to
the top it changes into a round, which grows gradual¬
ly into a point, the whole cut out of the folid rock.
There is a room within, confiderably higher than the
level of the ground without, on the fides of which are
niches, probably to receive coffins. 5. A little eaft-
ward of this is that called the tomb of Zechariah, the
fon of Barachiah, whom the Jews flew between the
temple and the altar, as is commonly fuppofed. This
fabric is all cut out of the natural rock, 18 feet high,
and as many fquare ; and adorned with Ionic columns
on each front, cut out likewife of the fame rock, and
fupporting a cornice. The whole ends in a pointed
top, like a diamond. But the moll curious, grand,
and elaborate pieces, in this kind, are the grotts with¬
out the walls of Jerufalem, ftyled the royal fepukhres ;
but of what kings is not agreed on. They confift of
a great number of apartments, feme of them fpacious,
all cut out of the folid marble rock ; and may juftly
be pronounced a royal work, and one of the mod
noble, furprifing, and magnificent. For a particular
account of them we muft refer the reader, for want of
room, to Pococke's Travels. In the neighbourhood
of Jerufalem is a fpot of ground, about 30 yards long
and 15 broad, now the burying-place of the Arme¬
nians, which is (hown as the Aceldama, or Field of
Blood, formerly the Potter’s Field, and fince ftyled
Campo Sanffo, or the Holy Field, purchafed with the
price of Judas’s treafon, for the burial of ftrangers. It
is walled round, to prevent the Turks abufing the bones
of Chriftians; and one half of it is taken up by a
building in the nature of a charnel houfe. Befides the
above, a great many other antiquities in the city and
its environs are ftiown to ftrangers; there being fcarce
any place or tranfa&ion mentioned either in the Old or
New Teftament, but they (how the very fpot of ground
where the one flood, and the other was done; not on¬
ly here, but all over Judaea.
JEST, an ancient town of Italy, in the territory of
the church, and in the marca or march of Ancona,
with a bifhop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain, near
a river of the fame name, in E. Long. 12. 20. N. Lat.
43- 5°-
JESSO, Jedso, or Tadfo, a large ifland of Afia
to the north of Niphon, and laid to be governed by a
prince tributary to the empire of Japan ; but is very
little known to the Europeans, fo that nothing can be
laid with certainty concerning it.
JESSES, ribbons that hang down from garlands
or crowns in falconry ; alfo fhort ftraps of leather fa-
llened to the hawk’s legs, and fo to vervels.
JESTING, or concife wit, as diftinguifhed from
continued wit or humour, lies either in the thought,
or the lauguage, or both. In the firft cafe it does
not depend upon any particular words or turn of the
exprtffion. But the greateft fund of jefts lies in the
language, i. e. in tropes or verbal figures ; thofe
afforded by tropes confift in the metaphorical fenfe of
the words, and thofe of verbal figures principally turn
upon a double fenfe'of the fame word, or a fimilitude of
found in different words. The third kind of jokes, which
lie bqth in the fenfe and language, arife from figures of
20 ] J E S
fentences, where the figure itfelf coafifts in the fenfe, Jefmts.
but the wit turns upon the choice of the words. ^
JESUI TS, or the Society of Jesus ; a famous reli¬
gious order of the Romifli church, founded by Ignatius
Loyola. See Ignatius.—The plan which this fana- Foundation
tic formed of its conftitution and laws was fuggefted, of the or-
as he gave out, and as his followers Hill teach, by thede^•
immediate infpiration of heaven. But notwithftand-
ing this high pretenfisn, his defign met at firft with
violent oppofition. The pope, to whom Loyola had
applied for the fanftion of his authority to confirm the
intlitution, referred his petition to a committee of car«
dinals. They reprefented the eftablifhment to be un-
neceffary as well as dangerous, and Paul refufed to
grant his approbation of it. At laft, Loyola removed
all his fcruples by an offer which it was impoffible for
any pope to refill. He propofed, that befides the
three vows of poverty, of chaftity, and of monaftic
obedience, which are common to all the orders of re¬
gulars, the members of his fociety fhould take a fourth
vow of obedience to the pope, binding themfelves to
go whitherfoever he Ihould command for the fervice
of religion, and without requiring any thing from the
holy fee for their fupport. At a time when the papal
authority had received fuch a Ihock by the revolt of fo
many nations from the Romifh church ; at a time when
every part of the popilh fyftem was attacked with fo
much violence and fuccefs, the acquilition of a body t
of men, thus peculiarly devoted to the fee of Rome, Confirmed
and whom it might fet in oppofition to all its enemies, by the
was an obje<!ft of the higheft confequence. Pau^n'
ftantly perceiving this, confirmed the inftitution of the motive*.
Jefuits by his bull, granted the moll ample privileges
to the members of the fociety, and appointed Loyola
to be the firft general of the order. The event hath
full juftified Paul’s difeernment, in 'expe&ing fuch be¬
neficial confequences to the fee of Rome from this in-
ftitution. In lefs than half a century, the fociety ob¬
tained eftablilhments in every country that adhered to
the Roman catholic church : its power and wealth in-
creafed amazingly ; the number of its members became
great; their chara&er as well as accompliihments
were ftill greater ; and the Jefuits were celebrated by
the friends and dreaded by the enemies of the Ro¬
mifli faith as the moft able and enterprifing order in
the church.
The .conftitution and laws of the fociety were per-
fefted by Laynez and Aquaviva, the two generals who
fucceeded Loyola, men far fuperior to their mafter in
abilities and in the fcience of government. They
framed that fyllem of profound and artful policy wffiich
diftinguiflies the order. The large infufion of fanati-
cifm mingled with its regulation fhould be imputed to
Loyola its founder. Many circumftances concurred
in giving a peculiarity of character to the order of
Jefuits, and in forming the members of it not only to
take greater 'part in the affairs of the world than any
other body of monks, but to acquire fuperior influence
in the conduft of them.
The primary object of almoft all the monaftic orders
is to feparate men from the world, and from any con- of thg
cern in its affairs. In the folitude and filence of the der fingu-
cloifter, the monk is called to work out his own fal- lar.
vation by extraordinary aids of mortification and pie¬
ty. He is dead to the world, and ought not to mingle
6 in
J E S [ 121 ] J E S
Jefuits. in its tranfafh'ons. He can be of no benefit to man-
~V~ kind but by his example and by his prayers. On the
contrary, the Jefuits are taught to confider themfelves
as formed for action. They are chofen foldiers, bound
to exert themfelves continually in the fervice of God,
and of the pope his vicar on earth. Whatever tends
to inftruft the ignorant, whatever can be of ufe to re¬
claim or to oppofe the enemies of the holy fee, is their
proper objeft. That they may have full leifure for
this a&ive fervice, they ate totally exempted from
thofe funftions the performance of which is the chief
bufmefs of other monks. They appear in no procef-
fions; they pra&ife no rigorous aufterities ; they do
not confume one ha'f of their time in the repetition
of tedious offices : but they are required to attend to
all the tranfaftions of the world, on account of the
influence which thefe may have upon religion ; they
are dire&ed to ftudy the difpofitions of perfons in
high rank, and to cultivate their friendlhip ; and by
the very conftitution as well as genius'of the order, a
fpirit of aftion and intrigue is infufed into all its
4 members.
prculiari- As the objefl of the fociety of Jefuits differed from
ties in its that of the other monaftic orders, the diverfity was
polky. no jefg jn the fotm 0f its goverment. The other or¬
ders are to be confidered as voluntary affociations, in
which whatever afft&s the whole body is regulated by
the common fuffrage of all its members. The execu¬
tive power is vefted in the perfons placed at the head
of each convent or of the whole fociety ; the legifla-
tive authority refides in the community. Affairs of
moment, relating to particular convents, are determi¬
ned in conventual chapters ; fuch as refpe& the whole
order are confidered in general congregations. But
Loyola, full of the ideas of implicit obedience, which
he had derived from his military profeffion, appointed
that the government of his order fhot'ild be purely mo¬
narchical. A general, chofen for life by deputies from
the feveral provinces, poffeffed power that was fupreme
and independent, extending to every perfon and to
every cafe. He, by his foie authority, nominated
provincials, rectors, and every other officer employed
in the government of the fociety, and could remove
them at pleafure. In him was vefted the fovereign
adminiftration of the revenues and funds of the order.
Every member belonging to it was at his difpofal;
and by his uncontrollable mandate he could impofe on
them any talk, or employ them in what fervice foever
Power of he pleafed. To his commands they were required to
the nene- yield not only outward obedience, but to refign up to
ra^ him the inclinations of their own wills and the fenti-
ments of their own underftandings. They were to
liflen to his injunfticns as if they had been uttered by
’Chrift himfelf Under his direftion they were te be
'mere paffive infiruments, like clay in the hands of the
potter, or like dead catcafes incapable of reliflance.
Such a Angular form of policy could trot fail to imprefs
its charafter on all the members of the order, and to
w give a peculiar force to all its operations. There is
not, in the annals of mankind, any example of fuch
a perfeft defpotifm, exercifed not over monks fhut up
in the cells of a convent, but over men difperfed among
all the nations of the earth.
As the conftitutions of the order veil in the general
fuch abfolute dominion over all its members, they care-
Vol. IX. Part I.
fully provide for his being perfe6Uy informed with re- Jefuits.
fpeft to the charafter and abilities of his fubjefts. v— ^
Every novice who offers himfelf as a candidate for en¬
tering into the order, is obliged to manifeft his con¬
fidence to the fuperior, or a perfon appointed by him ;
and is-requirecj to confefs not only his fins and defefts,
but to difcover the inclinations, the paffions, and the
bent of his foul. This manifeftation mull be renewed
every fix months; . The focfety, not fatisfied with pe¬
netrating in this.manner into the inpermoft receffes of
the heart, dire&s each member to obferve the words
and adtions of the novices; they.are conftituted fpies
upon their condudt, and are bound to difclofe every
thing of importance concerning them to the fuperior.
In m-der that this fcrutiny into their chara&er may be
as complete as poffible, a long noviciate mull expire,
during which they pafs through the feveral gradations
of ranks in fhe fociety ; and they muff have attained
the full age of thirty-three years before they can be
admitted to take the final vows, by which they become
profefTed members. By thefe various methods, the fupe-
riors, under whofe immediate infpedlion the novices are
placed, acquire a thorough knowledge of their difpo-
litions and talents. In order that the general, who is
the foul that animates and moves the whole fociety,
may have under his eye every thing neceffary to inform
or diredl him, the provincials and.heads of the feveral
houfes are obliged to i tranfmit to him regular and fre¬
quent reports concerning the members under their in-
fpe&ion. In thefe they defcend into minute details
with refpeft to the chara&er of each perfon, his abi¬
lities natural or acquired, his temper, his experience
in, affairs, and the particular department for which he
is heft fitted. Thefe reports, when digefled and ar¬
ranged, are entered into regifters kept of purpofe, that
the general may, at one comprehenfive view, furvey
the ftate of the fociety in every corner of the earth ;
obferve the qualifications and talents of its members ;
and thus choofe, with perfedl information, the infiru¬
ments wnich his abfolute power can employ in any fer- * .
vice for which he thinks meet to deftine them. ^
As it was the profdfed intention of the order ofprogrefso!
jefnits to labour with unwearied zeal in promoting eke power
the falvation of men, this engaged them of courfe *n
many aftive fun&ions. From their firft inftitution, order.
they confidered the education of youth as their peculiar
province ; they aimed at being fpiritual guides and
confeffors ; they preached frequently in order to in-
ilruft the people ; they fet out as miffionaries to con¬
vert unbelieving nations. The novelty of the inftitu¬
tion, as well as the fingularity of its objedls, procured
the order many admirers and patrons. The governors
of the fociety had the addrefs to avail themfelves of
every circumftance in its favour; and in a fhort time
the number as well as influence of its members in-
crcafed wonderfully. Before the expiiation of the
fixteenth century, the Jefuits had obtained the chief
direction of the education of youth in every catholic
country in Europe. They had become the confeffors
of almoft all its monarchs ; a function of no fmall im¬
portance in any reign, but, under a weak prince, fu-
pericr even to that of miuifter. They were the fpi¬
ritual guides of almoft every perfon eminent for rank
or power. They poffeffed the higheft. degree of con¬
fidence and interell with the papal court, as the mod
zealous
J E S
[ 122 j
J E S
Pernicious
effe&s of
thefe on ci¬
vil foeiety.
zealous and able champions for its authority. The the Jefuits, influenced by the fame principle of at- Jefuittt
advantages which an a&ive and enterprifing body of tachment to the interdls of their fociety, have been '“—v—
men might derive from all thefe circumftances are ob- the moft zealous patrons of thofe doftrines which
vious. They formed the minds of men in their youth, tend to exalt ecclefiaftical power on the ruins of civil
They retained an afcendant over them in their advan- government. They have attributed to the court of
ced years. They pofTeffed, at different periods, the Rome a jurifdidtion as extenfive and abfolute as was
direction of the moft confiderable courts in Europe, claimed by the moft prefumptuous pontiffs in the dark
They mingled in all affairs. They took part in every ages. They have contended for the entire independ-
intrigue and revolution. The general, by means of ence of ecclefiaftics on the civil magiftrates. They
the extenfive intelligence which he received, could re- have publifhed fuch tenets concerning the duty of op-
gulate the operations of the order with the moft per- pofing princes who were enemies of the Catholic faith, ’
fe£l difcernment ; and, by means of his abfolute power, as countenanced the moft atrocious crimes, and tended
could carry them ®n with the utmoft vigour and to diffolve all the ties which conned! fubjedfs with their
effedt. rulers.
Together with the power of the order, its wealth As the order derived both reputation and authority
continued to increafe. Various expedients were devi- from the zeal with which it flood forth in defence of
fed for eluding the obligation of the vow of poverty, the Romifh church againft the attacks of the reform*
The order acquired ample poffeffions in every catholic ers, its members, proud of this diftindtion,, have con*
country ; and by the number as well as magnificence fidered it as their peculiar fundiion to combat the
of its public buildings, together with the value of its opinions and to check the progrefs of the Proteftants.
property, moveable or real, it vied with the moft opu- They have made ufe of every art, and have employed
lent of the monadic fraternities. Befides the fources every weapon againft them. They have fet them-
of wealth common to all the regular clergy, the Je- felves in oppofition to every gentle or tolerating mea-
fuits poffeffed one which was peculiar to themfelves. fute in their favour. They have inceffantly fibred up
Under pretext of promoting the fuccefs of their mif- againft them all the rage of ecclefiaftical and civil per-
fions, and of facilitating the fupport of their mifliona- fecution.
ries, they obtained a fpecial licence from the court of Monks of other denominations have indeed ventu-
Rome to trade with the nations which they laboured red to teach the fame pernicious dodlrines, and have
to convert. In confequence of this, they engaged in held opinions equally inconfiftent with the order and
an extenfive and lucrative commerce both in the Eaft happinefs of civil fociety. But they, from reafons
and Weft Indies. They opened warehoufes in differ- which are obvious, have either delivered fuch opinions
ent parts of Europe, in which they vended their com- with greater referve, or have propagated them with
modities. Not fatisfied with trade alone, they imi- lefs fuccefs. Whoever recollefts the events which have
tated the example of other commercial focieties, and happened in Europe during two centuries, will find
aimed at obtaining fettlements. They acquired pof- that the Jefuits may juftly be confidered as refponfible
feffion accordingly of a large and fertile province in for moft; of the pernicious edebts arifing from that
the fouthern continent of America, and reigned as corrupt and dangerous cafuiftry, from thofe extrava*
fovereigns over fome hundred thoufand fubjebla. gant tenets concerning ecclefiaftical power, and from
Unhappily for mankind, the vaft influence which that intolerant fpirit, which have been the difgrace of
the order of Jefuits acquired by all thefe different the church of Rome throughout that period, and;
means, has been often exerted with the moft pernicious which have brought fo many calamities upon civil fo*
effebt. Such was the tendency of tha* difcipline ob- ciety. 9
ferved by the fociety in forming its members, and fuch But, amidft many bad confequences flowing from Some ad-*
the fundamental maxims in its conftitution, that every the inflitution of this order, mankind, it mull be ac- aatagcsre-
Jefuit was taught to regard the intereft of the order knowledged, have derived from it fome confiderable
as the capital objebl to which every confideration was advantages. As the Jefuits made the education of j , utioa..
to be facrificed. This fpirit of attachment to their or- youth one of their capital objebts, and as their firft of this
der, the moft ardent perhaps that ever influenced any attempts to eftablifh colleges for the reception of flu- order,
body of men, is the charabteriftic principle of the Je- dents were violently oppofed by the univerfities in dif-
fuits, and ferves as a key to the genius of their policy ferent countries, it became neceffary for them, as the
as well as the peculiarities in their fentiments and coit- mofl efifebtual method of acquiring the public favour*
dubt. to furpafs cheir rivals in fcience and induftry. This
As it was for the honour and advantage of the fa- prompted them to cultivate the ftudy of ancient lite-
ciety that its members fhould poflefs an afcendant over rature with extraordinary ardour. This put them up*
perfons in high rank or of great power; the defire of on various methods for facilitating the inftrublion of
acquiring and preferving fuch a direblion of their con- youth; and, by the improvements which they made
dubt with greater facility, has led the Jefuits to pro- in it, they have contributed fo much towards the pro¬
pagate a fyftem of relaxed and pliant morality, which grefs of polite learning, that on this account they have
accommodates itfelf to the pafiions of men, which merited well of fociety. Nor has the order of Jefuits
iviftifies their vices, which tolerates their imperfec- been fuccefsful only in-teaching the elements of lite-
tions, which authorifes almoft every abtion that the rature ; it has produced likewife eminent mafters in.
moft audacious or crafty politician would wifh ta per- many branches of fcience, and can alone boaft of a
petrate. greater number of ingenious authors than all the other
As the profperity of the order was intimately con- religious fraternities taken together,
nebied with the prefervation of the papal authority. But it is in the new world that the Jefuits have ex*
hibited
J E S [ I2J ] J E S
Jdfuits. hlbited the moft wonderful difplay of their abilities, rafter from the neighbouring governments, they did Jefm'tj.
V—-v— and have contributed moft effeftually to the benefit of not permit him to have any converfation with their ——v——^
the human fpecies. The conquerors of that unfortu- fubjefts ; and no Indian was allowed even to enter the
nate quarter of the globe had nothing in view but to houfe where thefe ftrangers refided unlefs in the pre¬
plunder, to enflave, and to exterminate its inhabitants, fence of a Jefuit. In order to render any communi-
The Jefuits alone have made humanity the objeft of cation between them as difficult as poffible, they in-
Settlement their fettling there. About the beginning of the laft duftrioufly avoided giving the Indians any knowledge
in Para- century, they obtained admiffion into the fertile pro- of the Spanifh or of any other European language ;
guay. vince of Paraguay, which ftretches acrofs the fouth- but encouraged the different tribes which they had
ern continent of America, from the bottom of the civilized to acquire a certain dialeft of the Indian
mountains of Potofi to the confines of the Spanifh tongue, and laboured to make that the univerfal lan-
and Portuguefe fettlements on the banks of the river guage throughout their dominions. As all thefe pre-^
de la Plata. They found the inhabitants in a ftate cautions, without military force, would have been in¬
little different from that which takes place among men fufficient to have rendered their empire fecure and per-
when they firft begin to unite together ; fttangers to manent, they inftrufted their fubjefts in the European
the arts, fubfifting precarioufly by hunting or fifhing, arts of war. They formed them into bodies of cavalry
and hardly acquainted with the firft principles of fub- and infantry, completely armed and regularly difcipli-
ordination and government. The Jefuits fet them- ned. They provided a great train of artillery, as well
felves to inftruft and to civilize thefe favages. They as magazines flored with all the implements of war.
taught them to cultivate the ground, to rear tame ani- Thus they eftablifhed an army fo numerous and well-
mals, and to build houfes. They brought them to appointed, as to be formidable in a country where a
live together in villages. They trained them to arts few fickly and ill-difciplined battalions compofed all
and manufaftures. They made them tafte the fweets the military force kept on foot by the Spaniards or
of fociety, and accuftomed them to the bleffings of fe- Portuguefe. ,i
curity and order. Thefe people became the fubjefts Such were the laws, the policy, and the genins ofDownfal
of their benefaftors, who have governed them with a this formidable order; of which, however, a perfeft ^ or<*er
tender attention, refembling that with which a father knowledge has only been attainable of late. Europe in EuroPe‘
direfts his children. Refpefted and beloved almoft to had obferved, for two centuries, the ambition and
adoration, a few Jefuits prefided over fome hundred power of the order. But while it felt many fatal ef-
thoufand Indians. They maintained a perfeft equa- lefts of thefe, it could not fully difcern the caufes to
Kty among all the members of the community. Each which they were to be imputed. It was unacquainted
of them was obliged to labour, not for himfelf alone, with many of the lingular regulations in the political
but for the public. The produce of their fields, to- conftitution or government of the Jefuits, which form-
gether with the fruits of their induftry of every fpe- ed the enterprifing fpirit of intrigue that diftinguilh-
cies, were depofited in common ftorehoufes, from which ed its members, and elevated the body itfelf to fuch a
each individual received every thing neceffary for the height of power. It was a fundamental maxim with
fupply of his wants. By this inftitution, almoft all the Jyfuits, from their firft inftitution, not to publiih
the pafiions which difturb the peace of fociety, and the rules of their order. Thefe they kept concealed
render the members of it unhappy, were extinguilhed. as an impenetrable myftery. They never communi-
A few magiftrates, chofen by the Indians themfelves, cated them to ftrangers, nor even to the greater part
watched over the public tranquillity, and fecured obe- of lhftr own members. They refufcd to produce them
dience to the laws. The*fanguinary punilhments fre- when required by courts of juftice ; and, by a ftrange
quent under other governments were unknown. An foleftTmdin policy, the civil power In different'countries
admonition from a Jefuit. a flight mark of infamy, or^authgfffed or connived at the eftablilhment of an order
on fome Angular occafion, a few laflies with a whi^ of men, whofe conftitution and laws were concealed
were fufficient to maintain good order among thefe in- with a folickude which alone was a good reafon for
nocent and happy people. having excluded them. During the profecutions late-
IBut even in this meritorious effort of the Jefuits ly carried on againft them in Portugal and France,
For the good of mankind, the genius and fpirit of the Jefuits have been fo inconfiderate as to produce
their order have mingled and are difcernible. They the myfterious volumes of their inftitute By the aid
plainly aimed at eftablilhing in Paraguay an indepen- of thefe authentic records, the principles of their go-
dent empire,, fubjeft to the fociety alone, and which, vernment may be delineated, and the fources of their
by the fuperior excellence of its conftitution and po- power inveftigated with a degree of certainty and
lice, could fcarcely have failed to extend Its dominion precifion which, previous to that event, it was impof-
over all the fouthern continent of America. With fible to attain.
this vieWj in order to prevent the Spaniards or Portu- The pernicious effefts, however, of the fpiru and
guefe in the adjacent fettlements from acquiring any conftitution of this order, rendered it early obnoxious
dangerous influence over the people within the limits to fome of the principal powers in Europe, and gra-
of the province lubjeft to the fociety, the Jefuits en- dually brought on its downfal. The emperor Charles V.
deavoured to irfpire the Indians with hatred and con- faw it expedient to check its progrefs in his domi-
tempt of thefe nations. They cut off all intercourfe nions ; it was expelled England, by proclamation
between their fubjefts and the Spanifh or Portuguefe 2 James I. in 1604; Venice, in 1606; Portugal, in
fettlements. They prohibited any private trader of 1759; France, in 1764; Spain and Sicily, in 1767;
either nation from entering their territories. When and totally fuppreffed and abolifhed by the late Pope
they were obliged to admit any perfon in a public cha- Clement XIV. in 1773.
0.2 JE-
J E S [ 124 3 J E S
JESUITS BARK. See the article Cinchona. woody; that from the limbs and roots, when dry, breaks Jefults
, The account there given being, however,, fomewhat fhort off, and powders eafier than the Peruvian bark,
defe&ive and indiffinft in regard both to the enume- The Jefuits bark of Jamaica is one of the moft agree- ' 
ration of the fpecies and the botanical diftin&ions, it able bitters; and infufed in wine or fpirits with a little
has been thought proper tafupply thofe defe&s in lemon-peel, makes a rich and eleg?nt tin&ure.
In the north fide of Jamaica, where this bark is pro¬
duced in the greateft perfeftion, it is held in high
efteem, and anfwers every purpofe of the Jefuits bark.
It fits eafy on the ftomach, and never occafions vo-
this place by the following more particular defcriptions
and additional notices concerning an article of fo great
importance in the jnateria medica.
Cinchon-a officinalis (Quinquina Condann
Afta Gallic. \ry},%)y Perunan-Bark Tree, The cha? miting nor naufea, but checks them in remitting fe-
ra&ers are as follows. vers, or where the ftomach is weak or difordered.
“ Cal. Perianthium monophyllum, fuperum, quince- 3- CmcnoN a Triflora : “ Foliis oppofitis, ovatis, a-
fidum, minimum, perfiftens. Cor. monopetala, infundi- cutis,integerrimisjpetiolatisj/Tsriiw tribus,axillaribus.”
buliformis; tubus cylindricus. longus ; limbus patulus, The leaves are like the Cinchona Caribasa, but larger,
quinquifidus, acutus. Stanr. Filamenta quinque, mini- The flowers three in number from the axillae of the
ma; antherae oblongae, intra faucem corollae. Pi/l. Ger- leaves, and of a fine red colour. The laciniae are refleft-
men fubrotundum, inferum ftylus longitudine corollae. ed. The feed-veffels are larger than any of the other
ftigma craffiufculnm, oblongum, fimplex. Per. Capfula fpecies we have yet feen.
fubrotunda ; calyce coronata, bilocularis, a bali verfus Mr Roberts difcovered this bark tree about the year
apicem bifariam dehifcens. 5m. plurima, oblonga, 1781, but found it no where elfe than in that dift'ridt
compreffa, marginata. Obferv. Flos interdum demit of Jamaica called Manchionecl. It grows by the fide
quintam partem numeri in fingulis partibus.” of a fmall rapid river near the Bath, and is about 35 feet
In Vol. XL. of the Phil. Tranf. p. 81. N° 446. high, but not thick in proportion*
there is an account of the Jefuits-bark tree of Peru Towards the bottom of the trunk the bark is rough
by Mr William Arrot M. de la Condamine after- and furrowed; but higher up it is fmooth, and has
wards gave a more particular and-fcientific account of much the appearance of the Peruvian bark. It isthin-
this tree : fince which fpecimens of the fru&ification ner, more fibrous, and redder, than either the Peruvian
have been fent to Europe ; and DrPulteney has given or the Jamaica bark already mentioned. When pow-
an excellent figure in his inaugural differtation De dered, it is of a cinnamon colour, inclining more to red.
Cortice Perwviano in, 1764, from which our figure is The tafte is mufty, bitter, and aftringent. It yields its
copied. qualities either infufed in wine or fpirits, but with
The properties and preparations of the Peruvian bark feme difficulty to cold infufion by water,
have been already fufficiently detailed under the article Trials have been made with this bark, in the cure of
Cinchona. We fhall here add the following notice of fevers, and in feveral with fuccefs. But few people
a new preparation of this bark recommended by M. could bear more than 20. grains,.and even that quantity
Lunel. He dire&s to “ boil fix grains of fait of tartar fometimes occafioned fo diftreffing a ficknefs and nau-
with an ounce of bark in a pint of water; and, after fea that its exhibition has been in general left off.
filtering the decoftion, another pint of water is to be 4. Cinchona-FzoKist/MM, (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxiv.
boiled with the fame quantity of fait and the remain- tab. 19. page 452.), St Lvcia-Bark Tree. _ “ Cin-
ingbark. la this way no bitternefs remains; at the chona jtforiiKr panniculatis, glabris; laciniis linearibus,
fame time that the ftrength of the bark appears to be tubo longioribus; ftaminis exfertis; foliis ellipticis,
completely exhaufted, as alcohol only extrafled two glabris.”
grains of refin from it.” The fpecimen of this bark we have examined was
* 2. CixchouCaribjea feu Jamaicensis. Of this externally fmooth ; it was thin, and very fibrous. Its
bark Dr Wright has given an accurate defeription tafte was a moft naufeous bitter, that lafted long in the
with an elegant engraving in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. mouth; its aftringent quality was more than the Pe-
p. 504, from which we fhall extract the botanic chara tiers ruvian bark.
fo as to diltinguifh it from other fpecies. This bark is violently emetic when frefh; but on
“ .£0/. ovata, integerrima, acuta, enervia, oppofita. long keeping, it lofes this quality in part only, as no^
’ Flor. fingulares, axillares. Cal. Perianthium monophyl- more than 20 grains can be ventured on, and its re-
lum,quinquefidum,minimum,perfiftens, campanulatum, petition at feveral-hours diftance.
obfoh tiffimi, qui: quedentatum. Cor. monopetala, infun- Intermitting and remitting fevers have been cured
dibuliformis; tubus cylindraceus, longiffimus; limbus by this bark, after refilling the ufe of the Peruvian
quinquepartitus, tubo sequalis ; laciniis ovatis, oblongis, bark. But it is probable that in thofe cafes the cure
reflexis, quandoque pendulis. Siam. Filamenta quin- was effe&ed. more from its emetic powers than by its
que, filiformia, ere&a e medio tubi, longitudine co- tonic virtues. At prefent, however, it has gone into,
rollse ; antherae longiffimse, obtufae, ere&ae fupra bafin difufe, except perhaps in the iflands where it grows,,
exteriorem, affix® in fauce coroll®. Cu//. bipartibilis, or where the Peruvian bark has either failed, or can-
in duas partes diffepimento parallelo, latere inferiore de- not eafily be got to hand.
hifeens. Sem. plurima, compreffa, marginata, oblonga.” 5. Cinchona Brachtcarpa: .“ ellipticis, rigi-
DrWiight at firft found this tree of a fmall fize; dis, obtufis, glabris; jFYor/'fox panniculatis, glabris; Cap-
fince which he difcovered it 50 feet high, and of a pro- fulis ovatis, coftatis.
portional height. Mr John Lindfay furgeon, Weftmoreland, Jamaica,
The bark from the larger trunk is very fibrous and an expert and diligent botanift, difcovered this fpecies
about
Plate CCLU.
ZtJ ^Jn<Vu/iuxso//lwJ/rr/M.
uvrvc////.
J E S [ i
Jefuitg about the year 1785. It grew on the fide of a deep
Barlt* hill or eminence running from eaft to weft, and the
tree was only about eight or ten feet high.
The leaves in a recent date were oval, fhining, and
rigid; the fprig dries with great difficulty, and turns
to a rufty brown. The fpike has many white flowers,
fimilar in figure* to thofe of the St Lucia bark tree.
The feed-veflels are larger than thofe of the Peruvian.
■ The feeds are fmalland fcaly. The trunks of this fmall
tree are much furrowed; the cuticle very thick ; the
bark farther up, fmooth and brown ; that of the in-
fide is of the colour of the Peruvian bark, but more
fibrous. It has no aroma ; and is lefs bitter, but more
aftringent, than the cinchona officinalis.
Mr Lindfay has made trial of this bark in the cure
of intermitting and remitting fevers with fuccefs. He
finds that the ftomach will bear 25 or 30 grains very
well. He has ufed it alfo in tincture and decoftion,
in various cafes of dyfpepfia, with advantage. On the
whole, were this bark to be had in fufficient quantity,
it promifes to be an ufeful fucccdaneum to the Peru¬
vian bark.
6 Civchona Angustifolia: “ Flonbm panniculatis
glabris ; Capfulis oblongis pentagonis ; Foliis linearibus
Ihnceolatis.” Ad. Stockholm^oX.Fm. 1787, p. 117.
Tab. 3.)
7. Cinchona Montana. This fpecies, which is
a native of Guadaloupe and Martinico, was firft
defcribed by M. Mallet, in the Journal de Phyjique
for March 17S'!, under the name of Quinquina Piton ;
and is faid to have been employed by the author with
the happieft effedts, in intermittent fevers, even af¬
ter the Peruvian bark had failed.—It has fince been
fcientifically defcribed, and a figure of it given, by
M. Badier in the Journal de Phyftque, Feb. 1789,
under the name of “ Cinchona Montana, foliis ova-
tis utrinque glabris, ftipulis baft connato-vaginan-
tibus, corymbo terminali, corollis glabris.” It is
defcribed as a very beautiful tree, growing more than
40 feet high, and having a large regular head of
branches with a thick foliage. The bark, when the
epidermis is removed, is of a grey-brown colour, and
its tafte very bitter. It would feem to contain no re¬
fin, all its extradf being foluble in water. It is how¬
ever reprefented as a very quick and powerful febri¬
fuge, as we have already noticed; at the fame time
that it pofTeffes an emetic and cathartic property. To
thefe poffibly its effeff on fever may be in part owing;
though whether its evacuating qualities will admit of
its ever becoming a good fubftitute for the officinalis,
or whether it poffefles any tonic power, remains yet
to be determined.
8. Cinchona Shnosa; thus defcribed in the Jour,
nal de Phyftque for Oftober 1790: “ Foliis minimis
fubrotundis, peduneulis uniflbris, corollis glabris qua-
drifidis tetrandris, feminibus fubemarginatis.” It is-
a native of St Domingo. The flowers are like thofe of
the Caribaea, but fmaller by a half It is but a ihrubby
plant, not exceeding eight or ten feet in height. The
kaves are fmall and very glabrous, and the branches
terminated by a fpine. The peculiar properties of this
bark, or its comparative efficacy as a medicine, have not
yet been afcertained.
9. 10. In the Manuel des Vcgctaux by M. de St Ger¬
main, we find two fpecies mentioned under the names
£
25 ] J E S
of Cinchona Antiliana and Cinchona Herbacea ; but as no Jefuits
defcriptions are added, we can fay nothing concerning Bark»
them. Jcfus.
11. A bark under the name of Angostura Bark ¥
has lately been introduced into pra&ice as a fubftitute
for the Peruvian bark. See London Medical Journal,
vol. x. page 154.
This bark is of much the fame colour and thicknefs as
the canella aromatica, and powders very freely. It has a
good deal of the aromatic tafte joined to bitternefs and
altringency; and has been fuppofed a true fpecies of cin¬
chona, different from the blanca or white fort mentioned
by Mr William Arrot in Phil. Tranf. vol. xl. n° 446. Mr
Bruce, however, is faid to have pronounced it to be the
bark of the Brucea antidyfenterica; to which indeed
the refemblance is very confiderable in its effe&s.
The Anguftura bark was fuppofed at firft to be
the produ&ion of a tree growing on the coaft of A-
frica ; but is now found to come from the Spanifh
Main. According to Experiments a”d Olfervations on
the Angujlura lark, by Auguftus Everard Brande, juft
publifhed, it is faid to excel the Peruvian bark in fome
of its properties, and in other difeafes to have different
qualities. It is a powerful bitter, joined with an aro¬
ma not more pungent than the cafcarilla, having a
portion of pure oil which approaches,in its nature to
camphor. It differs from the Peruvian bark, by pof-
feffing a narcotic principle ; and feems more powerful
than it both as a-tonic and an antifeptic. Various expe¬
riments on the antifeptic power of different fubftances
are related,, in which the columbo feems the leaft ef¬
ficacious, and the Anguftura bark to claim the higheft
rank. The following is given as the beft mode of
preparing the extradL
“ The quantity of extraft obtained by the following
method is fomewhat lefs than by boiling, but it ap¬
pears altogether the beft. Four ounces of powdered
Anguftura bark were put into a flannel bag of a coni¬
cal fliape: a fufficiency of boiling water was then-
poured upon it, and this repeated till the filtering li¬
quor had bat little tafte or colour. On evaporation by
a gentle heat, there remained 13 drams and one fcruple
of an extrapoffeffing the full flavour of the bark,.
and which contained two drams of refinous matter.”
Half a pound of bruifed Anguftura bark was put
into a ftill with a gallon of water,, and two quarts drawn
off. This diftilled water has a very Angular flavour,,
perhaps fomething like ftrong parfley waten A white
effential oil fwam on the furface, but in ■ too fmall
quantity for feparation or afcertaining its weight. This
poffeffes the full fmell of the bark, and is acrid to the
tafte, leaving a glow in the mouth like camphire. From;
fix pounds of this bark, it is faid, only two fcruples
of effential oil have been obtained by diftillation.—The
tinfture feems alfo an ufeful preparation^ but the re¬
fin in its pure ftate appears acrid and ftimulating.
In Mr Brande’s praftice this bark feems to have ex¬
celled the Peruvian in curing intermittents : Dr Pear-
fon, however, found that it was fcarcely fuperior in any
inftance, and fometimes not equal; but in low fevers,
and putrid fevers* it feemed fuperior. In the headach,
attended with fever, but ariling from the ftomach, Mr
Brande found it ufeful; and in dyfentery and dyfpepfia;
it has been of great fervice.
JESUS the Son of Sirach, a native of Jerufalem,,
com,-
J E S t ] J E S
compofed, about 200 B. C. the book of Ecclefiafticus, apoftles ; whom, however, he fent out only once, and 7" Jefu*
called by the Greeks na»*?£7®-, “ replenilhed with vir- after their return kept them conftantly about his per- Chrift.
tue who alfo quote it under the title of the IVifdom fon. But, befides thefe, he chofe other 70, whom he '—"■v'—J
of Solomon the fon of Sirach. His grandfon, who was difperfed throughout the country,
alfo of the fame name, and a native of Jerufalem, There have been many conje&ures concerning the
tranflated it from the Hebrew into Greek about rcafon why the number of apoftles was fixed at 12,
121 B. C. We have this Greek verfion, but the and that of the other teachers at 70. The firft, how-
Hebrew text is loft. ever, was, according to our Saviour’s own words (Matt.
Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and Saviour of xix. 28.), an allufion to the 12 tribes of Ifrael, there-
mankind, defcended from heaven, and took upon him by intimating that he was the king of thefe 12 tribes;
the human nature in Judaea, towards the conclufion of and as the number of his other meffengers anfwer*
the reign of Herod the Great, king of that country, evidently to that of the fenators who compofed the
The place of his birth was Bethlehem, a flourifhing Sanhedrim, there is a high degree of probability in
city of Judah ; but the year in which he was born is the conje&ure of thofe who think that Chrift by this
not precifely afcertained. The moft general opinion is, number defigned to admoniftv the Jews, that the au-
that it happened about the year of Rome 748 or 749, thority of their Sanhedrim was now at an end, and
and about 18 months before the death of Herod. Four that all power with refpedt to religious matters was
infpired writers have tranfmitted to us an account of veiled in him alone. His miniftry, however, was con-
the life of Jefus Chrift. They mention particularly fined to the Jews ; nor, while he remained upon earth,
his birth, lineage, family, and parents; but fay very did he permit his apoftles or difciples to extend their
little concerning his infancy and earlier youth. Herod labours beyond this favoured nation. At the fame
being informed that the Meffiah, or king of the Jews, time, if we confider the illuftrious adts of mercy and
fo much fpokeri of by the prophets, was now born, benevolence that were performed by Chrift, it will be
being afraid that his kingdom fhould now be taken natural to conclude, that his fame muft foon have
away, contrived how to deftroy his fuppofed rival: fpread abroad in other countries. Indeed this feems
but Chrift, being carried, while very young, into probable from a pafiage in fcripture, where we are
Egypt, efcaped the cruelty of the tyrant; who, being told that fome Greeks applied to the apoftle Philip in
determined to make fure work, made a general maf- order to fee Jefus. We learn alfo from authors of no
facre of the infants about Bethlehem, from the age of fmall note, that Abgarusf king of Edeffa, being feized (-See Ab-
two years and under. with a fevere and dangerous illnefs, wrote to our Lord,l>,n"*
After the death of Herod, our Saviour was brought imploring bis affiftance ; and that Jefus not only fent
back to Judasa ; but we are totally ignorant of what him a gracious anfwer, but alfo accompanied it with
his employment was during the interval between his his pidlure, as a mark of his efteem for that pious
return thither and the time of his entering upon prince. Thefe letters are ftill extant ; but by the ju-
the miniftry. We know only, that when he was but dicious part of mankind are univerfally looked upon
12 years of age, he difputed in the temple with the as fpurious; and indeed the late Mr Jones, in his
moft learned of the Jewifh doftors ; whom he furprifed treatife entitled new and full method of fettling the
with his knowledge, and the anfwers he gave to their canonical authority of the New Tef ament, hath offered
queftions. After this, as the fcripture tells us, he reafons which leem almoft unanfwerable againft the
continued with his parents, and was fubjeft to them, authenticity of the whole tranfaftion.
till he entered upon his miniftry. It is faid, indeed, The preaching of our Saviour, and the numberlefs
though upon no fure foundation, that during this pe- miracles he performed, made fuch an impreffion on
riod he followed the trade of his father, who was a the body of the Jewilh nation, that the chief priefts
carpenter. In the 30th year of his age, he began his and leading men, jealous of his authority, and pro¬
public miniftry ; to which the attention of the people voked at his reproaching them with their wicked lives,
was drawn by the preaching of John, a prophet mira- formed a confpiracy againft him. For a confiderable
culoufly infpired of God to proclaim the exiflence of time their defigns proved abortive ; but at laft Jefus,
the Saviour, as now defcended upon earth, and vifible knowing that he had fulfilled every purpofe for which
to the eyes of all; and by this prophet Chrift himfelf he came into the world, fuffered himfelf to be taken
was baptized in the waters of Jordan, that he might through the treachery of one of his difciples, named
not, in any point, negledl to anfwer the demands of Judas Jfcariot, and was brought before .the Sanhe-
the Jewilh law. drim. In this affembly he was accufed of blafphemy;
It is not neceffary here to enter into a particular and being afterwards brought before Pilate the Ro-
detail of the life and adlions of Jefus Chrift. Every man governor, where he was accufed of fedition, Pi-
one knows, that his life was one continued feene of late was no fooner fat down to judge in this caufe,
the moft perfeft fandlity, and the pureft and moft than he received a meffage from his wife, defiring him
a&ive virtue ; not only without fpot, but alfo beyond to have nothing to do with the affair, having that very
the reach of fufpicion. And it is alfo well known, day had a frightful dream on account of our Saviour,
that by miracles of the moft ftupendous kind, and not whom fhe called that juf man. The governor, inti-
more ftupendous than falutary and beneficent, he dif- midated by this meffage, and ftill more by the majefty
played to the univerfe the truth of that religion which of our Saviour himfelf, and the evident falfehood of
he brought with him from above, and demonftrated the accufations brought againft him, was determined
the reality of his divine commilfion in the moft illuf- if pofiible to fave him. But the clamours of an en-
trious manner. For the propagation of his religion raged populace, who at laft threatened to accufe Pi-
ihrough the country of Judaea, our Saviour chofe 12 late himfelf as a traitor to the Roman emperor, got
1 the
JEW [ 127 ] JEW
Jet the better of his love of juftice, which indeed on other
II occafions was not very fervent.
°we 8 . Our Saviour was now condemned by his judge,
though contrary to the plaineit di&ates of reafon and
juftice; was executed on a crofs between two thieves,
and very foon expired. Having continued three days
in a ftate of death, he rofe from the dead, and made
himfelf vifible to his difcipks as formerly. He con¬
vened with them 40 days after his refurre&ion, and
employed himfelf during that time in inftru6ting them
more fully concerning the nature of his kingdom ;
and having manifefted the Certainty of his refurrec-
tion to as many witneffes as he thought proper, he
was, in the pretence of many of his difciples, taken
up into heaven, there to remain till the end of the
world. See Christianity.
JET, a black inflammable fubftance of the bitumin¬
ous kind, harder than afphaltum, and fufceptible of a
good polifh. It becomes eledlrical by rubbing, attracting
light bodies like yellow amber. It fwims on water,
fo that its fpecific gravity muft be lefs than 1000;
notwithftanding which it has been frequently con
founded with the lapis olfidianus, the fpecific gravity
of which, according to Kirwan, is no lefs than 1744.
It alfo refembles cannel coal extremely in its hardnefs,
receiving a polifh, not foiling the fingers, &c. fo that it
has alfo been confounded with this. The diftindtion,
however, is eafily made betwixt the two ; for cannel-
coal wants the eleftrical properties of jet, and is like-
wife fo heavy as to fink in water; its fpecific gravity
being no lefs than 1273 ’ whereas that of jet, as has
already been faid, is lefs than 1000.
M. Magellan is of opinion that jet is a true amber,
differing from the yellow kind only in the ftiere cir-
cumftance of colour, and being lighter on acconnt
of the greater quantity of bituminous matter which
enters into its compofition. When burning it emits
a bituminous fmell. It is never found in ftrata
or continued maffes like foflil ftones ; but always in fe-
parate and unconnedted heaps like the true amber.
Great quantities of it have been dug up in the
Pyrensean mountains; alfo near Batalka, a fmall town
of Portugal; and in Galicia in Spain. It is found alfo
in Ireland, Sweden, Pruflia, Germany, and Italy. It
is ufed in making fmall boxes, buttons, bracelets,
mourning jewels, &c. Sometimes alfo it is employed
in conjundiion with proper oils in making varnifties.
When mixed with lime in powder^ it is faid to make an
extraordinary hard and durable cement.
jET-d'Eau, a French term, frequently alfo ufed
with us, for a fountain that cafts up water to a con-
fiderable height in the air. See Hydrostatics,
n°27.; and Iceland, n° 3. 4.
JETTY-he ad, anameufually given in the royal dock¬
yards to that part of a wharf which projedfs beyond the
reft; but more particularly the front of a wharf, whofe
fide forms one of the cheeks of a dry or wet dock.
JEWEL, any precious ftone, or ornament befet
with them. See Diamond, Ruby, See.
Jewels made a part of the ornaments with which
the Jews, Greeks and Romans, efpecially their ladies of
diftindfion, adorned themfelves. So prodigious was
the extravagance of the Roman ladies, in particular,
that Pliny the elder fays he faw Lollio Paulina with an
equipage of this kind amounting, according to jDr
Arbuthnot’s calculation, to 322,916!. 13s. 4ft. of our Jewel,
money. It is worthy of obfervation, that precious »
ftones amongft the Romans and all the ancients were
much fcarcer, and confequently in higher efteem, than
they are amongft us, fince a commerce has been opened
with the Indies.—The ancients did not know how to
cut andpoliflr them to much perfediion; but coloured
ftones were not fcarce, and they cut them very well
either hollow or in relief.—When luxury had gained
ground amongft them, the Romans hung pendants and
pearls in their ears ; and for this purpofe the ears of
both fexes were frequently bored. See Ears.
Jewel (John), a learned Engliflr writer and bifltop,
was born in 1522, and educated at Oxford. In 1540
he proceeded A B. became a noted tutor, and was
foon after chofen rhetoric ledturer in his college. In
February 1544, he commenced A. M. He had early
imbibed Proteftant principles, and inculcated the fame
to his pupils; but this was carried on privately till
the acceflion of King Edward VI. in 1546, when he
made a public declaration of his faith, and entered
into a clofe friendftiip with Peter Martyr, who was
made profeffor of divinity at Oxford. In 1550, he
took the degree of B. D. and frequently preached be¬
fore the univerfity with great applaufe. At the fame
time he preached and catechifed every other Sunday
at Sunningwell in Berkfhire, of which church he was
rebtor. Upon the acceffion of Queen Mary to the
crown in 1553, he was one of the tirft who felt the
rage of the ftorm then raifed againft the reformation ;
for before any law was made, or order given by the
queen, he was expelled Corpus Chtifti college by the
fellows, by their own private authority ; but he con¬
tinued in Oxford till he was called upon to fubferibe
to fame of the Popifh dodlrines, under the fevereft pe¬
nalties, which he fubmitted to. However, this did
not procure his fafety; for he was obliged to fly, and,
after encountering many difficulties, arrived at Franck-
fort, in the 2d year of Queen Mary’s reign, where he
made a public recantation of his fubfeription to the
Popifh do&rines. Thence he went to Strafburg, and
afterwards to Zurich, where he attended Peter Map-
tyr, in whofe houfe he refided. He returned to Eng¬
land in 1 558, after Queen Mary’s death; and in '559,
was confecrated biftiop of Salifbury. This promotion
was given him as a reward for his great merit and
learning; and another atteftation of thefe was gives
him by the univerfity of Oxford, who, in 1565, con¬
ferred on him in his abfence the degree of D. D. In
this chara&er he attended the queen to Oxford the
following year, and prefided at the divinity-difputa-
tions held before her majefty on that occafion. He
had before greatly diftinguifhed himfelf by a fermon
preached at St Paul’s-crofs, prefently after he was
made a bifliop, wherein he gave a public challenge to
all the Roman catholics in the world,.to produce but
one clear and evident teftimony out of any father or
famous writer, who flouriftied within 600 years after
Chirft, for any one of the articles which the Roma-
nifts maintain againft the church of England; and,
two years afterwards, he publifhed his famous apology
for this church. In the mean time, he gave a parti*
cular attention to his diocefe; where he began in his
firft vifitation, and perfedled in his laft, fuch a refor¬
mation, not only in his cathedral and parochial
churches,.
J E W
churches, but in all the churches of his jurifdiftion, as
procured him and the whole order of biihops due re¬
verence and efteem. For he was a careful overlooker
and ftri& obferver, not only of all the flocks, but alfo of
the pallors, in his diocefe: and he watched fo narrowly
■upon the proceedings of his chancellor and archdea¬
cons, and of his ftewards and receivers, that they had
no oportunities of being guilty of oppreffion, injuf-
tice, or extortion, nor of being a burden to the peo¬
ple, or a fcandal to himfelf. To prevent thefe and
the like abufes, for which the ecclefiaftical courts are
often too juftly cenfured, he fat often in his confiftory-
court, and faw that all things were carried rightly there-:
he alfo fat often as affiftant on the bench of civil juf-
tice, being himfelf a jufticeof the peace. Amidft thefe
employments, however, the care of his health was too
much neglefted ; to which, indeed, his general courfe
-of life was totally unfavourable. He rofe at four
o’clock in the morning; and, after prayers with his
family at five, and in the cathedral about fix, he was
fo fixed to his ftudies all the morning, that he could
not without great violence be drawn from them. After
dinner, his doors and ears were open to all fuitors;
and it was obferved of him, as of Titus, that he never
fent any fad from him. Suitors being thus difmiffed,
he heard, with great impartiality and patience, fnch
caufes debated before him, as either devolved to him
as a judge, or were referred to him as an arbitrator;
and if he could fpare any time from thefe, he reckoned
it as clear gain to his ftudy. About nine at night he
called all his fervants to an account how they had fpent
the day, and he went to prayers with them. From
the chapel he withdrew again to his ftudy till near
midnight, and from thence to his bed; in which
when he was laid, the gentleman of his bed-chamber
read to him till he fell afleep. This watchful and la¬
borious life, without any recreation at all, except what
his neceflary refreftiment at meals and a very few hours
of reft afforded him, wafted his life too faft. He died
at Monkton-Farley, in 1571, in the 50th year of his
age. He wrote, 1. A view of a feditious bull fent in¬
to England by Pope Pius V. in 1569. 2. A treatife
on the Holy Scriptures. 3. An expofition of St Paul’s
two epiftles to the Theffalonians. 4. A treatife on
the facrament. 5. An apology for the national
church. 6. Several fermons, controverfial treatifes,
and other works.
“ This excellent prelate (fays the Rev. Mr Granger)
was one of the greateft champions of the reformed
religion, as he was to the church of England what
Bellarmine was to that of Rome. His admirable
Apology was tranflated from the I.atin by Anne, the
fecond of the four learned daughters of Sir Anthony
Coke, and mother of Sir Francis Bacon. It was pub-
lifhed, as it came from her pen, in 1564, with the
approbation of the queen and the prelates. The fame
Apology was printed in Greek at Conftantinople, un¬
der the direction of St Cyril the patriarch. His De¬
fence of his Apology, againft Harding and other Po-
pifh divines, was in fuch efteem, that Queen Elizabeth,
King James I. King Charles I. and four fucceflive
archbiftiops, ordered it to be kept chained in all pariih-
churches for public life.
jEtfEL-BIocks, in the fea-language, a name given
to two fmall blocks which are fufpended at the extre»
N° 164.
JEW
mityof the main and fore top-fail yards, by means of
an eye-bolt driven from without into the middle of
the yard-arm, parallel to its axis. The ufe of thefe
blocks is, to retain the upper-part of the top-maft
ftudding-fails beyond the Ikirts of the top-fails, fo
that each of thofe fails may have its full force of ac¬
tion, which would be diminifhed by the encroachment
of the other over its furface. The hallards, by which
thofe ftudding-fails are hoifted, are accordingly paffed
through the jewel-blocks; whence, communicating
with a block on the top-maft head, they lead down¬
wards to the top or decks, where they may be conve¬
niently hoifted. See Sail.
JEWS, a name derived from the patriarch Judah,
and given to the defeendants of Abraham by his eldeft
fon Ifaac, who for a long time poffeffed the land of
Paleftine in Afia, and are now difperfed through all
nations in the world.
The hiftory of this people, as it is the moft Angular,
fo is it alfo the moft ancient in the world; and the
greateft part being before the beginning of profane
hiftory, depends entirely on the authenticity of the
Old Teftament, where it is only to be found.—To
repeat here what is faid in the facred writings would
both be fuperfluous and tedious, as thofe writings are
in every perfons hands, and may be confulted at plea-
fure. It feems moft proper therefore to commence
the hiftory of the Jews from their return to Jerufalepr
from Babylon, and the rebuilding of their city and
temple under Ezra and Nehemiah, when the feripture
leaves off any farther accounts, and profane hiftorians
begin to take notice of them. We {hall, however,
premife a chronological lift of their judges and kings
down to the captivity.
The Ifraelites had no king of their nation till Saul.
Before him, they were governed, at firft by elders, as
in Egypt; then by princes of God’s appointment, as
Mofes and Jofhua; then by judges, fuch as Othniel,
Ehud, £hamgar, Gideon, Jephthah, Samfon, Eli,
Samuel; and laft of all by kings, as Saul, David, So¬
lomon, Rehoboam, &c.
A lift of the Judges of Ifrael in a chronological or¬
der. The numbers prefixed denote the years of the
world.
2570. The death of Jolhua.
2585. The government of the elders for about 13'
years.
2592. An anarchy of about feven y ears. The hiftory
of Micah, the conqueft of the city of Lailh,
by part of the tribe of Dan, and the war un¬
dertaken by the 11 tribes againft Benjamin,
are all referred to this time.
2591. The firft fervitude under Cuftian-rifhathaim king
of Mefopotamia, began in 2591, and lafted
eight years to 2599.
2599. Othniel delivered Ifrael in the 40th year after
peace eftablilhed in the land by Jolhua.
2662. A peace of about 62 years, from the deliverance
procured by Othniel, in 2599, to 2662, when-
the fecond fervitude under Eglon king of the
Moabites happened. It lafted 18 years.
2679. Ehud delivers IfraeL
After him Shamgar governed, and the land wa*
in peace till the 80th year after the firft deli¬
verance procured by OthnieL
2699.
C 128 ]
JEW r 129 1 JEW
■Jews. ^699. The third fervitude under the Canaanites, which Ahaziah, one year, from 3119 to 3120.
V—lafted 20 years, from 2699 to 27'9* Athaliah, his mother, reigned fix years, from 3120 '
*719. Deborah and Barak deliver the Ifraelites: from to 3126.
the deliverance procured by Ehud to the end Joafh was fet upon the throne by Jehoiada the
of Deborah and Barak’s government, were 40 high-prieft, in 3126. He reigned 40 years, to the year
Amaziah, 29 years, from 3165 to 3 194.
Uzziah, otherwife called A^ariah, reigned 27 years,
to the year 3221. Then attempting to offer incenfe
in the temple, he was flruck with a leprofy, and obliged
to quit the government. He lived after this 26 years,
and died in 3246.
Jotham his fon took upon him the government in the
year of the world 3221. He reigned alone in 3246,
and died in 3262.
Ahaz fucceeded Jotham in the year of the world
3262. He reigned 16 years, to 3278.
Hezekiah, 28 years, from 3278 to 3306.
Manaffeh, 55 years, from the year of the world,
3306 to 3361.
Amon, 2 years, from 3361 to 3363.
Jofiah, 31 years, from 3363 to 3394.
Jehoahaz, three months.
Eliakim, or Jehoiakim, 11 years, from the year
3394 ^ 34°5-
Jehoiachin, or Jechoniah, reigned three months and
ten days, in the year 3405.
Mattaniah, or Zedekiah, reigned 11 years, from
34°5 to 3416. In the laft year of his reign Jerufa-
Jews,
years.
2768. Abimelech the natural fon of Gideon is acknow¬
ledged king by the Shechemites.
2771. He died at the fiege of Thebez in Paleftine.
2772. Tola after Abimelech governs for 23 years, from
2772 to 2795.
^795. Jair fucceeds Tola, and governs 22 years, frbm
2795 to 2816.
•2799. The fifth fervitude under the Philiftines, which
lafted 18 years, from 2799 to 2817.
2817. The death of Jair.
'2817. Jephthah is chofen head of the Ifraelites beyond
Jordan, he defeated the Ammonites, who op-
preffed them. Jephthah governed fix years,
from 281 7 to 2823.
2823. The death of Jephthah.
28 to. Ibzan governs feven years, from 2823 to 2830.
2840. Elon fucceeds Ibzan. He governs from 2830
to 2840.
Abdon judges Ifrael eight years, from 2840 to
2848.
*2848. The fixth fervitude,.under the Philiilines, which
lafted 40 years, from 2848 to 2888.
2848. Eli the high prieft, of the race of Ithamar, go¬
verned 40 years, the whole time of the fervi- lam was taken, the temple burnt, and Judah carried
tude under the Philiftines.
2849. The birth of Samfon.
2887. The death of Samfon, who was judge of Ifrael
during the judicature of Eli the high prieft.
2888. The death of Eli, and beginning of Samuel’s go¬
vernment, who fucceeded him.
2909. The ele&ion and anointing of Saul, firft king of
the Hebrews^
A chronological lift of the kings of the Hebrews.
Saul, the firft king of the Ifraelites, reigned 40
years, from the year of the world 2909 to 2949.
Iftibofheth the fon of Saul lucceeded him, and
reigned fix or feven years over part of Ifrael, from 2949
to 2956.
David was anointed king by Samuel in the year of years, and died in 3148.
into captivity, beyond the Euphrates.
Kings of Ifrael.
Jeroboam reigned 22 years, from 3029 to 3051.
Nadab, one year. He died in 3 yt.
Baaiha, 22 years, from 3052 to 3074.
Elah, two years. He died in 3075.
Zimri, feven days.
Onsri, 11 years, from 3075 to 3086. He had *
competitor Tibni who fucceeded, and died in what year
we know not.
Ahab, 21 years, from 3086 to 3107.
Ahaziah, two years, from 3106 to 3108.
Jehoram, the fon of Ahab, fucceeded him in 3108.
He reigned 12 years, and died in 3120.
Jehu ufui^ed the kingdom, in 3120, reigned 28
the world 2934, but did not enjoy the regal power
till the .teath of Saul in 2949, and was not acknow¬
ledged king of all Ifrael till after the death of Ifhbo-
fheth in 2956. He died in 2990 at the age of 70.
Solomon his fon fucceeded him ; he received the
royal un&ion in the year 2989. He reigned alone after
the death of David in 2990 He died in 3029, after
a reign of 40 years.
After his death, the kingdom was divided ; and the
ten tribes having chofen Jeroboam for their king, Re-
hoboam, the fon of Solomon, reigned only over the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin.
The Kings of Judah.
Rehobe-am, the fon and fucceftbr of Solomon, reign*
■ed 17 years; fromthe year 3029'tu 3046.
Abijam, three years, from 3046 to 3049.
Afa 41 years, from 3049 to 3090.
Jehoftiaphat, 25 ye^rs, from 3090 to 3115.
Jehoram, four years, iconi 3 u? to 2119.
Vol. IX. Part I.
Jehoahaz .reigned 17 years, from 3 148 to 3165.
Joalh reigned 14 years, from 3165' to 3179.
Jeroboam II. reigned 41 years, from 3179 to 3220.
Zachariah, 12 years, from 3220 to 3232.
Shallum, reigned a month. He was killed in 3233.
Menahem, 10 years, from 3233 to 3243.
Pekahiah, two years, from 3243 to 3245.
Pekah, 20 years, from 3245 to 3265.
Hofhea, 18 years, from 3265 103283. Here the
kingdom of Ifrael had an end after a duration of
253 years. _ ,
Cyrus the Great, king of Perfia, having conquered Cyrus pub:
Babylon and almoft all the weftern parts of Afia, per- hfies a de¬
ceiving the defolate and ruinous condftion in which cre.e fnr rc*
the province of Paleftine lay, formed a defign of re- Jerufal^u
ftoring the Jews to their native country, and permit¬
ting them to rebuild Jcrufalem and re-eftabli(h their
woi fhip. For this purpofe he iflued out a decree in the
firft year of his reign, about 536 B. C. by which they
R were
JEW [ 13° ] JEW
were allowed not only to return and rebuild their city, the Pcrfians, infomuch that they had almofl drawn
but to carry along with them all the facred veffels upon themfelves the difpleafure of Alexander the Great. u
which Nebuchadnezzar had carried off, and engaged That monarch having refolved upon the fiege of Tyre,
to defray the expence of building the temple himfelf. and being informed that the city was wholly fupplied
This offer was gladly embraced by the more zealous with provifions from Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, fent
Jews of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and Levi; but to Jaddua, then high-prieft, to demand of him that
many more, being no doubt lefs fanguine about their fupply which he had been accuftomed to pay to the
religion chofe to ftay where they were. Perfians. The Jewilh pontiff excufed himfelf on ac-
In 534 B. C. the foundations of the temple were count of his oath of fidelity to Darius; which fo pro¬
voked Alexander, that he had no fooner completed
the redu&ion of Tyre than he marched againft Jerii-
falem. The inhabitants then, being with good rea-
fon thrown into the utmoft confternation, had re-
courfe to prayers; and Jaddua is faid, by a divine re¬
velation, to have been commanded to go and meet
Alexander. He obeyed accordingly, and fet out on 44
his journey, dreffed in his pontifical robes, at tbe *
their captivity by Shalmanezer. This refufal proved head of all his priefts in their proper habits, and at-priefrwfttf
the fource of all that bitter enmity which afterwards tended by the reft of the people dreffed in white- gar-Alexander
took place between the Jews and Samaritans; and ments. Alexander is faid to have been feized withthetJrcat*
the immediate confequence was, that the latter made fuch awful refpedton feeing this venerable proceffion,
all the oppofition in their power to the going on of that he embraced the high-prieft, and paid a kind of
the work. At laft, however, all obftacles were fur- religious adoration to the name of God engraven on
* mounted, and the temple finifhed as related in the the front of his mitre. His followers being furprifed
books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The laft of thefe at this unexpe&ed behaviour, the Macedoniar
laid, and matters feemed to go on profperoufly, when
the undertaking was fuddenly obftru&ed by the Sa¬
maritans. Thefe came at firft exprefiing an earneft
defire to affift in the work, as they worlhipped the
fame God with the Jews; but the latter refufed their
affiftance, as they knew they were not true Ifraelites,
but the defcendants of thofe heathens who had been
tranfplanted into, the country of the ten tribes after
chiefs died about 409 B. C. after having reftored the
Jewifti worlhip to its original purity, and reformed a
narch informed them, that he paid that refpedl not to
the prieft, but to his God, as an acknowledgment
number of abufes which took place immediately on its for a vifion which he had been favoured with at
Admini-
ftration of
affairs con¬
ferred on
the high-
priefts.
commencement.
But though the Jews were now reftored to the free
exercife of religion, they were neither a free nor a
powerful people as they had formerly been. They
were few in number, and their country only a pro¬
vince of Syria, fubjeft to the kings of Perfia. The
Syrian governors conferred the adminiftration of af-
Dia ; where he had been promifed the conqueft of
Perfia, and encouraged in his expedition by a perfon
of much the fame afpeft and dreffed in the fame ha¬
bit with the pontiff before him. He afterwards ac¬
companied Jaddua into Jerufalem, where he offered
facrifices in the temple. The high-prieft Ihowed him
alfo the prophecies of Daniel, wherein the deftructiom
fairs upon the high-priefts; and their accepting this of the Perfian empire by himfelf is plainly fet forth;
office, and thus deviating from the law of Mofes^muft in confequence of which the king went away highly fa-
be confidered as one of the chief caufes of the mif- tisfied, and at his departure afked the high-prieft if
fortunes which immediately befel the people, becaufe there was nothing in which he could gratify himfelf
it made room for a fet of men who afpired at this or his people. Jaddua then told him, that, according-
high office merely through ambition or avarice, with- to the Mofaic law, they neither fowed nor ploughed
out either zeal for religion or love for their country, on the fcventh year; therefore would efteem it an high
It befides made the high-priefthood capable of being favour if the king would be pleafed to remit their tri-
difpofed of at the pleafure of the governors, whereas bute in that year. To this requeft the king readily
the Mofaic inftitution had fixed it unalienably in the yielded ; and having confirmed them in the enjoy-
family of Aaron.—Of the bad effefts of this pra&ice ment of all their privileges, particularly that of living
a fatal inftance happened in 373 B. C. Bagofes, go- under their own laws, he departed,
vernor of Syria, having contrafted an intimate friend- Whether this ftory deferves credit or not (for the
fhip with Jefhua the brother of Johanan the high- whole tranfaftion is not without reafon called in que-
prieft, promifed to raife him to the pontifical office ftion by fome), it is certain that thejewsweremuch*
a few years after his brother had been inverted with favoured by Alexander; but with him their good
it! Jefhua came immediately to Jerufalem, and ac- fortune feemed alfo to expire. The country of Judea
quainted his brother with it. Their interview hap- being fituated between Syria and Egypt, became fub- Mjfenibte
pened in the inner court of the temple ; and a fcuffle je£l to all the revolutions and wars which the ambi-ftate o'" tha
enfuing, Jefhua was killed by his brother, and the tious fucceffors of Alexander waged againft each other. Jews after
At firft it was given, together with Syria and Phe- ^e'^nderJ
nicia, to Leomedon the Mitylenian, one of Alexander’s
generals ; but he being foon after ftripped of the other
two by Ptolemy, Judea was next fummoned to yield
to the conqueror. The Jews fcrupled to break their
oath of fidelity to Leomedon ; and were of confe¬
quence invaded by Ptolemy at the head of a power-
temple thus polluted in the moft fcandalous manner.
The confequence to the Jews was, that a heavy fine
was laid on the temple, which was not taken off till
feven years after.
The firft public calamity which, befel the Jewifh na¬
tion after their reftoration from Babylon, happened
1 the year 351 B. C.; for having fome how or other
difobliged Darius Ochus king of Perfia, he befieged ful army. The open country was eafily reduced ; but
and took Jericho, and carried off all the inhabitants the city being ftrongly fortified both by art and na-
eaptives. From this time they continued faithful to ture, threatened a ftrong refiftance. A fuperftitious
3 fear
JEW [ 13! 1 JEW
fear for breaking the fabbath, however, prevented the beads fhould be brought into Jerusalem ; not even their
J befieged from making any defence on that day ; of fkins: and all thefe under the penalty of paying 3000 ^
which Ptolemy being informed, he caufed an aflault pieces of filver into the treafury of the temple. He
to be made on the fabbath, and eafily carried the further granted an exemption of taxes for three years to
place. . At firfl die treated them with great feverity,
and carried 100,00c men of them into captivity ; but
reflefting foon after on their known fidelity to their
conquerors, he redored them to all the privileges
they had enjoyed under the Macedonians. Of the
captives he put fome into garrifons, and others he
fettled in the countries of Libya and Gyrene. From
thofe who fettled in the latter of thefe countries de-
fcended the Cyrenean jews mentioned by the writers
of the NewTedament.
all the difperfed Jews that (hould come within a limited
time to fettle in the metropolis ; and that all who had
been fold for flaves within his dommions flrould be im¬
mediately fet free.
This hidden profperity proved of no long duration. Dreadful
About the year 176, a quarrel happened between common
Onias at that time high pried, and one Simon, gover t*0®8-
nor of the temple, which was attended with the mod
fatal confequences. The caufes of this quarrel are un¬
known. The event, however, was, that Simon finding
Five years after Ptolemy had fubdued Judea, he he could not get the better of Onias, informed Apol-
-- c J “■—-,J "" A-‘:  ~~f—:— ur~ lonius governor of Coelolyria and Paledine, that there
was at that time in the temple an immenfe treafure,
which at his pleafure might be feized upon for the ufe
of the king of Syria. Of this the governor infiantly
fent intelligence to the king, who difpatched one He-
liodorus to take polfedion of the fuppofed treafure.
This perfon, through a miraculous interpofition, as the
Jews pretend, failed in his attempt of entering the
temple 5 upon which Simon accufed the high-pried to
was forced to yield it to Antigonus, referving to him-
felf only the cities of Ace, Samaria, Joppa, and Gaza ;
and carrying off an immenfe booty, together with a
great number of captives, whom he fettled at Alexan¬
dria, and endowed with confiderable privileges and im¬
munities.—Antigonus. behaved in fuch a tyrannical
manner, that great numbers of his Jewifh fubje&s fled
into Egypt, and others put themfelvcs under the pro-
te&ion of Seleucus, who alfo granted them confider¬
able privileges. Hence this nation came gradually the people, as the perfon who had invited Heliodorus
to be fpread over Syia and Afia Minor; while Ju- to Jerufalem. This produced a kind of civil war, in
dea feemed to be in dar.ger of being depopulated till which many fell on both fides. At lalt Onias having
it. was recovered by Ptolemy in 292. The affairs of complained to the king, Simon was banifhed; but foon
after, Antiochus Epiphanes having afcended the throne
of Syria, Jafon, the high-prieft’s brother, taking ad¬
vantage of the necefiities of Antiochus, purchafed from
him the high-priefthood at the pi ice of 350 talents, and
obtained an order that his brother fhould be fent to
Antioch, there to be confined for life.
jafon’s next ftep was to purchafe liberty, at the price
of 150 talents more, to build a gymnafium at Jerufa¬
lem fimilar to thofe which were ufed in the Grec'iap
cities ; and to make as many Jews as he pleafed free ci¬
tizens ©f Antioch. By means of thefe powers he be¬
half-dead. A dreadful perfecution wras then raifed came very foon able to form a ftrong party in Judea;
againft the Jews, who had attempted to hinder him in for his countrymen were exceedingly fond of the Gre-
his impious attempt; but this perfecution was flopped cian cuftoms, and the freedom of the city of Antioch
by a ftill more extraordinary accident related under the was a very valuable privilege. From this time there-
article Egypt, n° 30. and the Jews again received into fore a general apoftacy took place ; the fervice of the A &fneral
the Jews then took a more profperous turn, and con¬
tinued in a thriving way till the reign of Ptolemy Phi-
lopator, when they were grievoufly opprefied by the in-
curfions of the Samaritans, at the fame time that An*
tiochus Theos king of Syria invaded Galilee. Ptole¬
my, however, marched again!! Antiochus, and defeated
him ; after which, having gone to jetufalem to offer
facrifices, he ventured to profane the temple itfelf by
going into it. He penetrated through the two outer
courts ; but as he was about to enter the fanftuary, he
s ftruck with fuch dread and terror that he fell down
^ favour.
Subdued by About the year 204 B. C the country of Judea was
Antiochm fubdued by Antiochus the Great ; and on this occa-
the Great, fion the loyalty of the Jews to the Egyptians failed
them, the whole nation readily fubmitting to the king
of Syria. This attachment fo pleafed the Syrian mo¬
narch, that he fent a letter to his general, wherein he
temple was negleded, and jafon abandoned himfelftakes^face.
without remorfe to all the impieties and abfurdities of '
paganifm.
He did not, however, long enjoy’his ill acquired dig¬
nity. Having fent his brother Menelaus with the
ufual tribute to Antiochus, the former took the oppor¬
tunity of fupplanting Jafon in the fame manner that he
acquainted him that he defigned to reflore Jerulalem had fupplanted Onias. Having offered for the high-
to its ancient fplendor, and to recal all the Jews that priefthood 300 talents more than his brother had gi-
had been driven out of it : that out of his Angular re- ven, he ealily obtained it, and returned with his new
fpeft to the temple of God, he granted them ;o,ooo commiflion to Jerufalem. He foon got himfelf a ftrong
pieces of filver, towards the charges of the vidtims, party; but Jafon proving too powerful, forced Mene-
frankincenfe, wine, and oil; 1400 meafures of fine laus and his adherents to retire to Antioch. Here,
wheat, and 375 meafures of fait, towards their ufual the better to gain their point, they acquainted Anti¬
oblations : that the temple (hould be thoroughly re- ochus that they were determined to renounce their old
paired at his coft ; that they (hould enjoy the free ex- religion, and wholly conform themfelves to that of the
ercife of their religion ; and reftore the public fervice of Greeks: which fo pleafed the tyrant, that he imme-
the temple, and the prieils, Levites, fingers, &c. to their diately gave them a force fufiicient to drive Jafon out
ufual funftions : that no ftranger, or Jew that was un- of Jerufalem ; who thereupon took refuge among the
purified, (hould enter farther into the temple than was Ammonites.
allowed by their law ; and that no flelh of unclean Menelaus being thus freed from his rival, took care
R 2 to
J E W
to fulfil his promife to the king with regard to the a-
J poftacy, but forgot to pay the money he had promifed.
At laft he was fummoned to Antioch ; and finding no¬
thing but the payment of the promifed fum would do,
fent orders to his brother Lyfimachus to convey to him
as many of the facred utenlils belonging to the temple
as could be fpared. As thefe were all of gold, the
apoftate foon raifed a fufficient fum from them, not
only to fatisfy the king, but alfo to bribe the courtiers
in his favour. But his brother Onias, who had been
all this time confined at Antioch,'getting intelligence
of the facrilege, made fuch bitter complaints, that an
infurre&ion was ready to take place among the Jews at
Antioch. Menelaus, in order to avoid the impending
danger, bribed Andronicus, governor of the city, to
[ >32 7
JEW
king, who, having by his means plundered the temple- Jew*
of every thing valuable, returned 19 Antioch in a kind '——v—
of triumph. Before he departed, however, ■ he put Ju¬
dea under the government of one Philip, a barbarous
Phrygian ; Samaria under that of Andronicus, a per-
fon of a fimilar difpolition ; and left Menelaus, the mod
hateful of all the three, in poffefSon of the high-prieft-
hood. to
Though the Jews fuffered . exceedingly under thefe Hbrnoii*.
tyrannical governors, they were {till referved for greater t^rous
calamities. About 168 B. C. Antiochus having been crueli:y-
moil feverely mortified by the Romans, took it into
his head to wreak his vengeance on the unhappy Jews.
For this purpofe he difpatched Apollonius at the head
of 22,000 men, with orders to plunder all the cities of
murder Onias. This produced the moft vehement Judea, to murder all the men, and fell the women and
complaints as foon as Antiochus returned to the capi¬
tal (he having been abfent for fome time in order to
quell an infurre&ion in Cilicia); which at laft ended in
the death of Andronicus, who was executed by the
king’s order. By dint of money, however, Menelaus
Bill found means to keep up his credit ; but was obli¬
ged to draw fuch large fums from Jerufalem, that the
inhabitants at laft maffacred his brother Lyfimachus,
whom he had left governor of the city in his abfence.
Antiochus foon after took a journey to Tyre; upon
children for (laves. Apollonius accordingly came with
his army, and to outward appearance with a peaceable,
intention; neither was he fufpe&ed by the Jews, as he
was fuperintendant of the tribute in Paleftine. He
kept himfelf inaffive till the next fabbath, when they,
were all in a profound quiet; and then, on a fudden,
commanded his men to arms. Some of them he fent
to the temple and fynagogues, with orders to cut in
pieces all whom they found there; whilft.the reft go¬
ing through the ftreets of the city maffacred all:that*
which the Jews fent deputies to him, both to juftify came in their way ; the fuperftitious Jews not attemp-
the death of Lyfimachus, and to accufe Menelaus of ting to make the lead refiftance for fear of breaking
being the author of all the troubles which bad hap¬
pened. The apoftate, however, was never at a lofs while
he could procure money. By means of this powerful
argument he pleaded his caufe fo effedtually, that the
deputies were not only caft, but put to death ; and this
unjuft fentence gave the traitor fuch a complete victory
over all his enemies, that from thenceforth he com-
Hienced a downright tyrant. Jerufalem was deftitute
of proteftors; and the fanhedrim, if there were any
zealous men left among them, were fo much terrified,
that they durft not oppofe him, though they evidently
faw that his defign was finally to eradicate the religion
and liberties of his country.
In the meantime, Antiochus was taken up with the
conqueft of Egypt, and a report was fome how or other
fpread that he had been killed at the fiege of Alexan¬
dria. At this news the Jews imprudently fhowed fome
figns of joy ; and Jafon thinking this a proper oppor¬
tunity to regain his loft dignity, appeared before Je-
rufalem at the head of about 1000 refolute men. The
the fabbath. He next ordered the city to be plun¬
dered and fet on fire, pulled down all their (lately
buildings, caufed the walls to be demolished, and car¬
ried away captive about 10,000 of thofe who.had Jir
efcaped the (laughter. From that time the fervice- of The temple
the temple was totally abandoned; that place having profaned
been quite polluted, both with the blood of multitudes
who had been killed, and in various other ways. Thejj^H
Syrian troops built a large fortrefs on an eminence iniifted.
the city of David ; fortified it with a ftrong wall and
(lately towers, and put a garrifon in it to command
the temple over-againft which it was built, fo that the
foldiers could eafily fee and (ally out upon all thofe who
attempted to come into the temple ; fo many of whom
were continually plundered and murdered by them, that
the reft, not daring to (lay any longer in Jerufalem, fled
for refuge to the neighbouring nations.
Antiochus, not yet fatiated with the blood of the
Jews, refolved either totally to abtoliih their religion, or
deftroy their whole race. He therefore iffued out a de¬
gates were quickly opened to him by fome of his cree that all nations within his dominions (hould for-
friends in the city; upon which Menelaus retired into
the citadel, and Jafon, minding nothing but his re-
fentment, committed the moft horrid butcheries. At
laft he was obliged to leave both the city and country,
on the news that Antiochus was coming with a power¬
ful army againft him ; for that prince, highly provoked
fake their old religion and gods, and wor(hip thofe
of the king under the moft fevere penalties. To make
his orders more effeftual, he fent overfeers into every
province to fee them ftrifilly put in execution; and as
he knew the Jews were the only people who would dif-
obey them, fpecial dire&ions were given to have them
at this rebellion, and efpecially at the rejoicings the treated with the utmoft feverity. Atheneas, an old
Jews had made on the report of his death, had aftually
refolved to punifli the city in the fevered manner.
and cr?*el mini Her, well verfed in all the pagan ,rites,
was fent into Judea. He began by dedicating the
y Accordingly, about 170 B. C. having made himfelf temple to Jupiter Qlympius, and fetting up his ftatue
Jerufalem mafter of the city, he behaved with fuch cruelty, that on the altar of burnt-offerings. Another lefl'er altar was
taken by vvithin three days they reckoned no fewer than 40,000 raifed before it, on which they offered facrifices to that
Antiochus killed, and as many fold for flaves. In the midft of falfe deity. All who refufed to come and worfhip this
pip anes. dreadful calamity, the apoftate Menelaus found idol were either maffacred or put to fome cruel tor-
means not only to preferve himfelf from the general tures till they either complied or expired under the
(laughter, but even to regain the good graces of the hands of the executioners. At the fame time, altare,
i 2 groves..
JfW?.
Mattathia-
Exploits of
Judas Mac¬
cabeus.
JEW [ :
groves, and flatties, were raifed every where through
the country, and the inhabitants compelled to worfhip
them under the fame fevere penalties ; while it was in-
ftant death to obferve the fabbath, circumcifion, or any
other inftitution of Mofes.
At laft, when vaft numbers had been put to cruel
y deaths, and many more had faved their lives by their
•. apoftacy, an eminent pried, named Mattathias, began
to fignalize himfelf by his bravery and zeal for reli¬
gion. He had for feme time been obliged to retire to
Modin his native place, in order to avoid the perfecu-
tion which raged at Jerufalem. During his reccfs there,
Apelles, one of the king’s officers, came to oblige the
inhabitants to comply with the abovernentioned orders.
By him Mattathias and his fons were addreffed in the
moil earned manner, and had the moft ample promifes
made them of the king’s favour and protection if they
would renounce their religion. But Mattathias anfwer-
ed, that though the whole Jewifh nation, and the whole
world, were to conform to the king’s edift, yet both
he and his fons would continue faithful to their God
to the laft minute of their lives. At the fame time per¬
ceiving one of his countrymen juft going to offer facri-
fices to an idol, he fell upon him and inftantly killed
him, agreeable to the law of Mofes in fuch cafes. Up¬
on this his fons, fired with the fame zeal, killed the
officer and his men ; overthrew the altar and idol; and
running about the city, cried out, that thofe who were
zealous for the law of God fhould follow them ; by
which means they quickly faw themfelves at the head
of a numerous troop, with whom they foon after with¬
drew into fome of the deferts of Judea. They were fol¬
lowed by many others, fo that in a ihort time they
found themfelves in a condition to refill their enemies;
and having confid'ered the danger to which they were
expofed by their fcrupulous obfervance of the fabbath,
they refolved to defend themfelves, in cafe of an at¬
tack, upon that day as well as upon any other.
In the year 167 B. C. Mattathias finding that his
followers daily inereafed in number, began to try his
llrength by attacking the Syrians and apoftate Jews.
As many of thefe as he took he put to death, but
forced a much greater number to fly for refuge into
foreign countries; and having foon ft ruck his enemies
with terror, he marched from city to city, overturned
the idolatrous altars, opened the Jewnfli fynagogues,
made a diligent fearch after all the facred books, and
caufed frelh copies of them to be written; he alfo caufed
the reading of the Scriptures to be refumed, and all the
males born fince the perfecution to be circumcife^. In
all this he was attended with fuch fuccefs, that he had
extended his reformation through a confiderable part
of Judea within the fpace of mjc year; and would pro¬
bably have completed it, had he not been prevented by
death.
Mattathias was - fucceeded by his fon Judas, furna-
-med Maccabeus, the greateft uninfpired hero of whom
' the Jews can boaft. His troops amounted to no more
than 6oco.men; yet with thefe he quickly made him¬
felf mailer of fomc of the ftrongeft fortreffes of Judea,
and became terrible to the Syrians, Samaritans, and
apoftate Jews. In one year he defeated the Syrians in
five pitched battles, and drove them quite out of the
country ; after which he purified the temple, and re-
flored the. true worlhip, which had been interrupted
for three years and a .half. Only one obftacle now re-
J3 1 J E W
mained, viz. the Syrian garrifan above mentioned, Jews.-
which had been placed over againll the temple, and  v '
which Judas could not at prefent reduce. In order to
prevent them.from interrupting the worlhip, however,.
he fortified the mountain on which the temple Hood,
with an high wall and ftrong towers round about, lea-
ving a garrifon to defend it; making’fome additional
fortifications at the fame time to Bethzura, a fortrefs
at about 20 miles diftance.
In the mean time Antiochus being on his return
from an linfuccefsful expedition into Perfia, received
the ^lifagreeable news that the Jews had all to a man
revolted, defeated his generals, driven their armies out
of Judea, and rellored their ancient worlhip. This
threw him into fuch a fury, that he commanded his
charioteer to drive with the utmoft fpeed, threatening,
utteily to extirpate the Jewilh race, without leaving a
fingle perfon alive. Thefe words were fcarce uttered,
when he was feized with a violent pain in his bowels, £)rta^
which no remedy could cure or abate. But notwitffi
Handing this fioknt Ihock, fuffering himfelf to be hur-Antiochus
ried away by the tranfports of his fury, he gave orders EP‘phants- -
for proceeding with the fame precipitation in his jour¬
ney. But while he was thus haftening.forward, hefdl
from his chariot, and was fo bruiled by the fall, that
his attendants were forced to put him into a litter.
Not being able to bear even the motion of the litter,
he was forced to halt at a town called Tab* on the
confines of Perfia and Babylonia. Here he kept his
bed, fuffering inexpreffible torments, occafioned chief¬
ly By the vermin which bred in his body, and the
ftench, which made him infupportable even to himfelf.
But the torments of his mind, caufed by his reflecting
on the former actions of his life, furpaffed by many
degrees thofe of his body. Polybius, who in his ac¬
count of this prince’s death agrees with the Jewilh hi-
ftorians, tells us, that the uneafinefs of his mind grew
at laft to a conftant delirium or Hate of madnefs, bv
reafon of feveral fpe&res and apparitions of evil genii
or fpirits, which he imagined were continually re¬
proaching him with the many wicked adlions of which
he had been guilty. At lall, having languilhcd for
fome time in this miferable condition, he expired, and
by his death freed the Jews from the moll inveterate
enemy they had ever known.
Nothwithftanding the death of Antiochus, however,
e war was Hill carried on again ft the Jews; but
through the valour and good condudft of Judas, the
Syrians were conftantly defeated, and in- 163 B. C. a
peace was concluded upon terms very advantageous to
the Jewilh nation. This tranquillity,,* however, was
of no long continuance ; the Syrian generals renewed
their hoftilities, and were attended with the fame ill
fuccefs as before. Judas defeated them in five engage.-
ments; but in the fixth was abandoned by all his men
except 800, who, together with their chief, were flain
in the year 161 B. C._
The news of the death of Judas threw his country- Exploits o'? :
men into the utmoll conllernation, and feemed to give Jonathan,'
newdife to all their enemies. He was fucceeded, how-si'nion> ar‘d ■
ever, by his brother Jonathan ; who condu&ed mat-W5,rc®ll‘
ters with no lefs prudence and fuccefs than Judas had
done, till he was treacheroully feized and pm to death
by Tryphon, a Syrian ufurper. who Ihortly after mur¬
dered his own fovereign. The traitor immediately-
prepared to invade Judea ; but found all his proje&s
rated.?
JEW I 134 1 J E W
Jewf. fruftrated by Simon, Jonathan’s brother. This pontiff
^ repaired all the fortreffes of Judea, and furnifhed
them with frefh garrifons, took Joppa and Gaza, and
drove out the Syrian garrifon from the fortrefs of Jeru-
falem; but was at lail treacheroufly murdered by afon-
in-law named Ptolemy•> about 13^ B. C.
Simon was fucceeded by his fon HyrCan ; who not
only fhook off the yoke of Syria, but conquered the
Samaritans, demolifhed their capital city, and became
mailer of all Paleftine,-to which he added the provinces
of Samaria and Galilee ; all which he enjoyed till with¬
in a year of his death, without the lead; dillurbance
from without, or any internal difcord. His reign was
no lefs remarkable on the account of his great wifdom
and piety at home than his conquefts abroad. He
was the firft fince the captivity who had alfumed the
royal title ; and he railed the Jewifh nation to a greater
degree of fplendor than it had ever enjoyed fince that
time. The author of the fourth book of the Macca¬
bees alfo informs us, that in him three dignities were
centered which never met in any other perfon, namely,
the royal dignity, the high-priefthood, and the gift
of prophecy. But the inllances given of this lad are
very equivocal and fufpicious. The laft year of his
reign, however, was imbittcred by a quarrel with the
Pharifees ; and which proceeded fuch a length as was
thought to have Ihortened his days. Hyrcan had al¬
ways been a great friend to that fe£, and they had
hitherto enjoyed the moft honourable employments
in the date ; but at length one of them, named Elea-
zar, took it into his head to quedion Hyrcan’s legiti¬
macy, alleging, that his mother had formerly been a
flave, and confequently that he was incapable of en¬
joying the high-priedhood. This report was credited,
or pretended to be fo, by the whole feft ; which irri¬
tated the high-pried to fuch a degree, that he joined
the Sadducees, and could never afterwards be recon¬
ciled to the Pharifees, who therefore railed all the
troubles and feditions they could during the fhort time
he lived.
Hyrcan died in 107 B. C. and was fucceeded by
his elded fon Aridobulus, who conquered Iturea, but
proved a mod cruel and barbarous tyrant, polluting
his hands with the blood even of His mother and one
of his brothers, keeping the red clofely confined du-
jg ring his reign, which, however, was but fhort. He
Alexander was fucceeded in 105 by Alexander Jannasus, the
Jannasus, a greated conqueror, next to king David, that ever fat
great con- on ^ Jewi(h throne. He was hated, however, by
spseror. ^ p|jarjfeeS) an^ once {n danger of being killed in a
tumult excited by them ; but having caufed his guards
to fall upon the mutinous mob, they killed 6000 of
them, and difperfed the red. After this, finding it
impofiible to remain in quiet in his own kingdom, he
left Jerufalem, with a defign to apply himfelf wholly
to the extending of his conqueds ; but while he was
bufied in fubduing his foreign enemies, the Pharifees
raifed a rebellion at home. This was quafhed in the
year 86 B. C. and the rebels were treated in the mod
inhuman manner. The faftion, however, was by this
means fo thoroughly quelled, that they never dared to
lift up their heads as long as he lived ; and Alexander
havingmadefeveralconquedsinSyriajdiedaboutyqB. C.
The king left two fons, Hyreanus and Aridobulus ;
fcut bequeathed the government to his wife Alexandra
as long as die lived : but as he faw her greatly afraid, Jews,
and not without reafon, of the refentment of the Pha-
rifees, he defired his queen, jud before his death, to Concerts by
fend for the principal leaders of that party, and pre-tween his ^
tend to be entirely devoted to them ; in which cafe, he rt>ns Hyr-
affured her, that they would fupport her and her fons C3n.us ani*
after her in the peaceable poffeffion of the government, ° '
With this advice the queen complied ; but found her-
felf much embarrafled by the turbulent Pharifees, who,
after feveral exorbitant demands, would at lad be con¬
tented with nothing lefs than the total extermination
of their adverfaries the Sadducees. As the queen was
unable to refid the drength of the pharifaic faction, a
mod cruel perfecution immediately took place againd .
the Sadducees, which continued for four years ; until
at lad, upon their^earned petition, they were difper¬
fed among the feveral garrifons of the kingdom, in
order to fecure them from the violence of their ene¬
mies. A few years after this, being feized with a
dangerous ficknefs, her younged fon Aridobulus col-
ledled a drong party in order to fecure the crown to
himfelf; but the queen, being difpleafed with his con-
duft, appointed her other fon Hyreanus, whom fhe
had before made high-pried, to fucceed her alfo in the
royal dignity. Soon after this die expired, and left
her two fons competitors for the crown. The Phari¬
fees raifed an army againd Aridobulus, which almoft
indantly deferted to him, fo that Hyreanus found
himfelf obliged to accept of peace upon any terms ;
which, however, was not granted, till the latter had
abandoned all title both to the royal and pontifical
dignity, and contented himfelf with the enjoyment of
his peculiar patrimony as a private per fon.
But this depofition did not extinguidi the party of
HytcanUs. A new cabal was raifed by Antipater an
Idumaean profelyte, and father of Herod the Great;
who carried off Hyreanus into Arabia, under pretence
that his life was in danger if he remained in Judea.
Here he applied to Aretas king of that country, who
undertook to redore the depofed monarch ; and for
that purpofe invaded Judea, defeated Aridobulus, and
kepi Him clofely befieged in Jerufalem. The latter 18
had recourfe to the Romans; and having bribed Scau- The Ro-
rus, one of their generals, he defeated Aretas with .n by Ari-
the lofs of 7000 of his men, and drove him quite out rtobulus.
of the country. The two brothers next fent prefents
to Pompey, at that time commander in chief of all
the Roman forces in the ead, and whom they made
the arbitrator of their differences. But he, fearing
that Aridobulus, againd \vhom he intended to declare,
might obdruft his intended expedition againd the Na-
batheans, difmiffed them with a promife, that as foon
as he had fubdued Are'rtis, he would come into Judea
and decide their controverfy.
This delay gave fuch offence to Aridobulus, that he
fuddenly departed for Judea without even taking leave
of the Roman general, who On his part was no lefs
offended at this want of refpeft. The confequence
was, that Pompey entered Judea with thofe troops
with which he had defigned to aft againd the Naba-
thaeans, and fummoned Aridobulus to appear before
him. The Jewifh prince would gladly have been ex-
cufed ; but was forced by his own people to comply
with Pompey’s fummons, to avoid a war with that ge¬
neral. He came accordingly more than once er twice
JEW [ 135 ] JEW
Jews, to him, and was difmiffed with great promifes and
marks of friendfhip. But at laft Pompey infifted, that
he (hould deliver into his hands all the fortified places
he pofleffed ; which let Ariftobulus plainly fee that he
was in the intereft of his brother, and upon this he
lied to Jerufalem with a defign to oppofe the Romans
to the utmoft of his power. He was quickly followed
by Pompey; and to prevent hoililities was at laft for¬
ced to go and throw himfelf at the feet of the haugh¬
ty Roman, and to promife him a confiderable fum of
money as the reward of his forbearance. This fub-
miffion was accepted ; but Gabinus, being fent with
fome troops to receive the ftipulated fum, was repul-
fed by the garrifon of Jerufalem, who fhut the gates
againft him, and refufed to fulfil the agreement. This
difappointment fo exafperated Pompey, that he im¬
mediately marched with his whole army againft the
>9 city.
Jerufaiein The Roman general firft fent propofals of peace ;
taken by jjUt find;ng the Jews refolved to ftam'< out to the laft,
ompey* he began the liege in form. As the pA.ce was ftrcng-
ly fortified both by nature and art, he might have
found it very difficult to accomplilh his defign, had not
the Jews been fyddenly feized with a qualm of con-
fcience refpefting the obfervance of the fabbath-day.
From the time of the Maccabees they had made no
fcruple of taking up arms againft an offending enemy
on the fabbath ; but now they difcovered, that though
it was lawful oh that day to Hand on their defence in
cafe they were aftually attacked, yet it was unlawful
to do any thing towards the preventing of thofe pre¬
paratives which the enemy made towards fuch future
affaults. As therefore they never moved an hand to
hinder the ereftion of mounds and batteries, or the
making of breaches in their walls on the fabbath, the
befiegers at laft made fuch a confiderable breach on
that day, that the garrifon could no longer refill; them.
The city was therefore taken in the year 63 B. C.
l z,ooo of the inhabitants were llaughtered, and many
more died by their own hands; while the priefts, who
were offering up the ufual prayers and facrifices in ^
the temple, chofe rather to be butchered along with
their brethren, than fuffer divine fervice to be one mo¬
ment interrupted. At laft, after the Romans had fa-
tiated their cruelty with the death of a vaft number
of the inhabitants, Hyrcanus was reftored to the pon¬
tifical dignity with the title oiprince; but forbid to af-
fume the title of king, to wear a diadem, or to extend
his territories beyond the limits of Judea. To prevent
future revolts, the walls were pulled down ; and Scau-
rus was left governor with a fufficient force. But be¬
fore he departed, the Roman general gave the Jews a
{till greater offence than almoft any thing he had hi¬
therto done ; and that was by entering into the moft
facred receffes of the temple, where he took a view of
the golden table, candleftick, cenfers, lamps, and all
the other facred veffels; but, out of refpedt to the-
Deity, forbore to touch any of them, and when he
came out commanded the priefts immediately to purify
the temple according to cuftom.
Pompey having thus fubdued the Jewlfh nation, fet
out for Rome, carrying along with him Ariftobulus
and his two fons Alexander and Antigonus, as cap¬
tives to adorn his future triumph. Ariftobulus himfelf
and hig fon Antigonus were led in triumph ; but A-
lexander found means to efcape into Judea, where he Jews,
raifed an army of 10,000 foot and 1500 horfe, and ^
began to fortify feveral ftrong holds, from whence he
made incurfions into the neighbouring country. As
for Hyrcanus, he had no fooner found himfelf freed
from his rival brother, than he relapfed into his former
indolence, leaving the care of all his affairs to Anti¬
pater, who, like a true politician, failed not to turn
the weaknefs of the prince to his own advantage and
the aggrandizing of his family. He forefaw, however,
that he could not cafily compafs his ends, unlefs he in¬
gratiated himfelf with the Romans ; and therefore
{pared neither pains nor coft to gain their favour.
Scaurus foon after received from him a fupply of corn
and other provifions, without which his army, which
he had led againft the metropolis of Arabia, would
have been in danger of periftiing ; and after this, he
prevailed on the king to pay 300 talents to the Ro¬
mans, to prevent them from raviflung his country.
Hyrcanus was now in no condition to face his enemy
Alexander; and therefore had again recourfe to the
Romans, Antipater at the fame time fending as many
troops as he could fpare to join them. Alexander ven¬
tured a battle ; but was defeated with confiderable lofs,.
and befieged in a ftrong fortrefs named Alexandrian,
Here he would have been forced to furrender ; but his
mother, partly by her addrefs, and partly by the fer-
vices ffie found means to do the Roman general, pre¬
vailed upon him to grant her fon a pardon for what
was pafh The fortreffes were then demoliftied, that
they might not give occafion to frefh revolts ; Hyrca-
nus was again reftrtred to the pontifical dignity ; and
the province was divided into five feveial diftrifts, in
each of which a feparate court of judicature was ereift-jewi^0„0.
ed. The firft of thefe was at Jerufalem, the fecond vernment
at Gadara, the third at Amath, the fourth at Jeri- changed
cho, and the fifth.at Sephoris in Galilee. Thus was theim° an
government changed from a monarchy to an arifto.ariftocrac^
cracy, and the Jews now fell under a fet of domineer¬
ing lords.
Soon after this, Ariftobulus found means to efcape
from his'confinement at Rome, and raifed new troubles
in Judea, but was again defeated and taken prifoner :
his fon a!fa renewed his attempts ; but was in like man¬
ner defeated, with the lofs of near 10,000 of his follow¬
ers ; after which Gabinius, having fettled the affairs of
Judea to Antipater’s mind, refigned the government of
his province to Craffus. The only tranfa&ion during
his government was his plundering the temple of all its
money and facred utenfils, amounting in the whole to
10,000 Attic talents, /. e. above two millions of our
money. After this facrilege, Craffus fet out on his ex¬
pedition againft; Parthia, where he perifhed; and his
death was by the Jews interpreted as a divine judgment
for his impiety.
The war between Casfar and Pompey afforded the T f *1
Jews fome refpite, and likewife an opportunity of in-vouredh?
gratiating themfelves with the former, which the poll- Csefar. ?
tic Antipater readily embraced. His fervices were re¬
warded by the emperor. He confirmed Hyrcanus in
hispriefthood, added to it the principality of Judea to
be entailed on his pofterity for ever, and reftored the
Jewifh nation to their ancient rights and privileges;,
ordering at the fame time a pillar to be eredled, where¬
on all thefe grants, and his own decree, fliould be en¬
graved,,
E W '[ IT6 1 TEW
Tews. graved, which was accordingly done ; and foon after,
'“•“'v 1 when Ca:far himfelf came into Jadea, he granted liber¬
ty alfo to fortify the city, and rebuild the wall which
had been demolifhed by Pompey.
During the lifetime of Casfar, the Jews were fo
highly favoured, that they could fcarcely be faid to feel
the Roman yoke. After his death, however, the na¬
tion fell into great diforders ; which were not finally
quelled till Herod, who was created king of Judea by
Marc Anthony in 40 B. C. was full ellabilhed on the
throne by the taking of Jerufalem by his allies the
Romans in 37 B. C. The immediate confequence of
H this was another cruel pillage and maffacre then fol-
raiferfto l°wc^ th6 death of Antigonus the fon of Ariftobulus,
the Jcwilh who-had for three years maintained his ground agaiuft
throne. iHerod, put to death his brother Phafael, and cut of
:Hyrcanus’s ears, in order the more effe&ually to inca¬
pacitate him for the highfpriefihood.
43 The Jews gained but little by this change of ma-
Histyranny flerg (he new king proved one of the greatefi: tyrants
iuid cfudty. ment!ona} [n-hiftory. .He began his reign with a cruel
perfecution. of thofe who had fided with his rival An¬
tigonus ; great numbers of whom he put to death, fei-
,zing and confifcating their effe&s for his own ufc.
■ Nay, fuch was his jealoufy in this laft refpefh that he
caufed guards to be placed at the city-gates, in order
■to watch the bodies of thofe of the Antigonian fac-
-tion who were carried out to be buried, left fome
of their riches fliould be carried along with them.
His jealoufy next prompted him to decoy Hyrcanus,
-the banilhed pontiff, from Parthia, where he had taken
refuge, that he might put him to death, tho’ contrary
.to his mod folemn promifes. His cruelty then fell upon
his own family. He had married Mariamne, the daugh¬
ter of Hyrcanus; whofe brother, Ariftobulus, a young
prince of great hopes, was made high-prieft at the in-
terceffion of his mother Alexandra. But the tyrant,
conlcious that Ariftobulus had a better right to the
kingdom than himfelf, caufed him foon after to be
drowned in a bath. The next vidtim was his beloved
queen Mariamne herfelf. Herod had been fummoned
to appear firft before Marc Anthony, and then before
Auguftus, in order to clear himfelf from fome crimes
laid to his charge. As he was, however, doubtful of
the event, he left orders, that in cafe he was condem¬
ned, Mariamne ftrould be put to death. This, toge¬
ther with the death of her father and brother, gave
her fuch an averfion for him, that fhe ftiowed it on
all occafions. By thiscondudt the tyrant’s refentment
was at laft fo much inflamed, that having^-got^her
falfely accuftd of infidelity, file was condemned to die,
and executed accordingly. She fuffered* with great
refolution ; but with her ended all the happinefs of her
hulhand. His love for Mariamne increafed fo much
aftei her death, that for fome time he appeared like
one quite diftra&ed. His remorfe, however, did not
get the better of his cruelty. The death of Mariamne •
was foon followed by that of her mother Alexandra,
and this by the execution of feVeral other perfons who
had joined with her in an attempt to fecure the king¬
dom to the fons of the deceafed queen.
Herod, having now freed himfelf from the greateft
part of his fuppofed enemies, began to ftiow a greater
contempt for the Jewilh ceremonies than formerly; and
introduced a number of heathenilh games, which made
N° J 64.
him odious to his lubjedts. Ten bold fellows at daft Jews,
took it into their heads to enter the theatre where the
tyrant was celebrating fome games, with daggers con¬
cealed under their clothes, in order to ftab him or fome
of his retinue. In cafe they ihould mifearry in the at¬
tempt, they had the defperate fatisfa&ion to think,
that, if they periftied, the tyrant would be rendered
ftill more odious by the puniihment infli&td on them.
They were not miilaken : for Herod being informed
of their defign by one of his fpies, and caufing the
affaflins to be put to a moft excruiating death, the
people were fo much exafperated againft the informer,
that they cut and tore him to pieces, and caft his flefti
to the dogs. Herod tried in vain to difeover the au¬
thors of this affront; but at laft having caufed fome
women to be put to the rack, he extorted from them
the names of the principal perfons concerned, whom he
caufed immediately to be put to death with their fa¬
milies. This produced fuch difturbances, that, ap¬
prehending nothing lefs thap a general revolt, he fet
about fortifying Jerufalem with feveral additional
works, rebuilding Samaria, and putting garrifons into
feveral fortieffes in Judea. Notwithftanding this, how¬
ever, Herod had ftiortly after an opportunity of re¬
gaining the affedtions of his fubjedts in fome mea-
fure, by his generofiiy to them during a famine; but
as he foon relapfed into his former cruelty, their love
was again turned into hatred, which continued till his
death.
Herod now, about 23 B. C. began to adorn his Rebuilds
cities with many ftately buildings. The moft re-the tempic*
markable and magnificent of them all, however, was
the temple at Jerufalem, which he is faid to have
raifed to a higher pitch of grandeur than even Solomon
himfelf had done. Ten thoufand artificers were im¬
mediately fet to work, under the diredtion of 1000
priefts, the heft fkilled in carving, mafonry, &c. all of
whom were kept in conftant pay. A thoufand carts
were employed in fetching materials; and fuch a num¬
ber of other hands were employed, that every thing
was got ready within the fpace of two years. After
this they fet about pulling down the old building,
and rearing up the new one with the fame expedition :
fo that the holy place, or temple, properly fo called,
was finifhed in a year and an half; during which we
are told that it never rained in the day-time, but only
in the night. The remainder was finifhed in fome-
what more than eight years. The temple, properly
fo called, or holy place, was but 60 cubits high, and
as many in breadth; but in the front he. added two
wings or fhoulders which projected 20 cubits more on
each fide, and which in all made a front of 120 cubits
in length, and as many in height ; with a gate 70
cubits high and 20 in breadth, but open and without
any doors. The ftones were white marble, 25 cubits
in length, 1 2 in height, and 9 in breadth, all wrought
and poliftied with exquifite beauty ; the whole refem-
bling a ftately palace, whofe middle being coniidera*
bly raifed above the extremities of each face, made it
afford a beautiful vifta at a great diftance, to thofe
who came to the metropolis. Inftead of doors, the
gates clofed with very coftly veils, enriched with a
variety of flowering of gold, filver, purple, and every
thing that was rich and curious; and on each fide of
the gates were planted two ftately columns, from
0 whofe
J E W
C 137 1
JEW
J their clufters of grapes, leaves, &c. curioufly wrought.
The fuperftru&ure, however, which was properly rear¬
ed on the old foundation without fufficient additions,
proved too heavy, and funk down about 20 cubits;
fo that its height was reduced to 100. This founda¬
tion was of an aftoniflring ftrength and height, of which
whofe cornices hung golden feftoons and vines, with ftones. It was furrounded, at a convenient diftance, Jews.
with a low wall or rail, which divided the court of
the priefts from that of the lay Ifraelites ; fo that
thcfe laft were allowed to come thus far to bring their
offerings and facrifices; though none but the priefts
were allowed to come within that inclofure.
Herod caufed a new dedication of this temple to
an account is given under the article Jerusalem. The be performed with the utmoft magnificence ; and pre¬
platform was a regular fquare of a ftadium or furlong on fented to it many rich trophies of his former viftories,
each fide. Each front of the fquare had a fpacious after the cuftom of the Jewifh monarchs.
gate or entrance, enriched with fuitable ornaments ; This, and many other magnificent works, however,
but that on the weft had four gates, one of which led did not divert the king’s attention from his ufual jea-
to the palace, another to the city, and the two others loufies and cruelty. His lifter Salome, and one of his
to the fuburbs and fields. This inclofure was fur- fons named Antipater, taking advantage of this difpo-
rounded on the outfide with a ftrong and high wall of fition, prompted him to murder his two fons by Ma-
large ftones, well cemented; and on the infide had on riamne, named Alexander and Arijlobulus, who had been
"each front a ftately piazza or gallery, fupported by co- educated at the court of Auguftus in Italy, and were
lumns of fuch a bignefs, that three men could but juft juftly admired by all who faw them. His cruelty foon
embrace them, their circumference being about 27 feet, after broke out in an impotent attempt to deftroy the
There were in all 162 of them, which fupported a ce- Saviour of the world, but which was attended with
dar cieling of excellent workmanlhip, and formed three no other confequence than the deftruftion of 2000 in¬
galleries, the middlemoft of which was the largeft and nocent children of his own fubjerfts. His mifery was
htgheft, it being 45 feet in breadth and too in height, almoft brought to its fummit by the difcovery of
whereas thofe on each fide were but 30 feet wide and Antipater’s defigns againft htmfelf; who was accor-
50 in height. dingly tried and condemned for treafon. Something
The piazzas and court were paved with marble of ftill more dreadful, however, yet awaited him; he was
various colours ; and, at a fmall diftance from the gal- feized with a moft loathfome and incurable difeafe, in
leries, was a fecond inclofure, furrounded with a flight which he was tormented with intolerable pains, fo
of beautiful marble rails, with ftately columns at pro- that his life became a burden. At laft he died, to the His death*
per diftances, on which were engraven certain admo- great joy of the Jews, five days after he had put Anti-
nitions in Greek and Latin, to forbid ftrangers, and pater to death, and after having divided his kingdom
thofe Jews that were not purified, to proceed farther among his fons in the following manner Archelaus
under pain of death. . This inclofure had but one gate had Judea; Antipas, or Herod, was tetrarch of Galilee
on the eaft fide; none on the weft; but on the north and Perea; and Philip had the regions of Trachonitis,
and fouth it had three, placed at equal diftances from Gaulon, Batanea, and Panias, which he eredted like-
each other. wife into a tetrarchy. To his filler Salome he gave
A third inclofure furrounded the temple, properly fo 50,000 pieces of money, together with the cities of
called, and the altar of burnt-offerings; and made Jamnia, Azotus, and Phafaelis; befides fame confide-
what they called the court of the Hebrews or Ifraelites. rable legacies to his other relations.
It was fquare like the reft: but the wall on the outfide The cruelty of this monfter accompanied him to
was furrounded by a flight of 14 fteps, which hid a his grave; nay, he in a manner carried it beyond the
confiderable part of h ; and on the top was a terrace, grave. Being well apprifed that the Jews would re¬
ef about 1 2 cubits in breadth, which went quite round joice at being freed from fuch a tyrant, he bethought
the whole cindture. The eaft fide had but one gate ; himfelf of the following infernal ftratagem to damp
the weft none; and the north and fouth four, at equal their mirth. A few days before his death, he fum-
diftances. Each gate was afeended by five fteps more moned all the heads of the Jews to repair to Jericho
before one could reach the level of the inward court; under pain of death ; and, on their arrival, ordered
fo that the wall which inclofed it appeared within to them all to be fliut up in the circus, giving at the
be but 25 cubits high, though conliderably higher fame time ftridl orders to his fifter Salome and her
on the outfide. On the infide of each of thofe gates hufband to have all the prifoners butchered as foon as
were raifed a couple of fpacious fquare chambers, in his breath was gone out. “ By this means (faid he),
r c -i;—  u:‘- I ftiall riot only damp the people’s joy, but fecure areal
mourning at my death.” Thefc cruel orders, how¬
ever, were not put in execution. Immediately after
the king’s death, Salome went to the Hippodrome,
form of a pavilion, 30 cubits wide and 40 in height,
each fupported by columns of 12 cubits in circumfe'
rence.
This inclofure had likewife a double flight of gal u _ __ ____ __i_  f
leries on the infide, fupported by a double row of co- where the heads of the Jews were detained, caufed the
lumns; but the weftern fide was only one continued gates to be flung open, and declared to them, that
wall, without gates or galleries. The women had now the king had no farther occafion for their attend-
likewife their particular courts feparate from that of ance, and that they might depart to their refpeeftive
the men, and one of the gates on the north and fouth homes; after which, and not till then, the news of the
leading to it. king’s death was publifhed. Tumults, feditions, and
The altar of burnt-offerings was likewife high and infurredlions, quickly followed. Archelaus was op-N 36.
fpacious, being 40 cubits in breadth, and 15 in height, pofed by his brethren, and obliged to appear at Rornefi0e,70f[he
The afeent to it was, according to the Mofaic law, before Auguftus, to whom many complaints were kingdom 4
imooth, and without fteps; and the altar of unhewn brought againft him. After hearing both parties Auguf.
Vol. IX. Part I. S & ^ the’tU8,
Jew?,
U
Archelaus
■fcanilhed,
and a Ro
man gover¬
nor ap¬
pointed
£",“-
J E W [ 138 ] JEW
fhe emperor made the following divifion of the king- fon of Herod the Great, was promoted by Caius to Jew*,
dotn : Archelaus had one half, under the title of the regal dignity. He did not, however, long enjoy ^ ’ ^
ethnarch, or governor of a nation; together with a this honour ; for, on his coming into Judaea, havingA 2pa
promife that he fliould have the title of/firry, as foon raifed a perfecution againft the ChriftianSj and blaf-macte king,
as he Jhowed himfelf worthy of it. This ethnarchy phemoufly fuffering himfelf to be ftyled a God by
contained Judea Propria, Idumea, and Samaria : but fome deputies from Tyre and Sidon, he was miracu-
this laft was exempted from one-fourth of the taxes loufly ftruek with a difeafe, which foon put an end to
paid by the reft, on account of the peaceable beha- his life. The facred hiftorian tells us, that he was
viour of the inhabitants during the late tumults. The eaten of worms; and Jofephus, that he was feized
remainder was divided between Philip and Herod ; with moft violent pains in his heart and bowels; fo
the former of whom had Trachonitis, Batanea, and that he could not but reflect on the bafenefs of thofe
Auranitis, together with a fmall part of Galilee ; the flatterers, who had but lately complimented him with
latter had the reft of Galilee and the countries be- a kind of divine immortality, that was now about to
yond the Jordan. Salome had half a million of filver, expire in all the torments and agonies of a miferable
together with the cities of Jamnia, Azotus, Phafaelis, mortal.
and Afcalon. On the death of Agrippa, Judsea was once more The king-
For fome years Archelaus enjoyed his government reduced to a province of the Roman empire, and had
in peace; but at laft, both Jews and Samaritans, tired new governors appointed over it. Thefe were Venti-^““^®
out with his tyrannical behaviour, joined in a petition dins, Felix, Feftus Aibinus, and Geflius Floras. province<
to Auguftus againft him. The emperor immediately Under their government the Jewifti affairs went on
fummoned him to Rome, where, having heard his ac- from bad to worfe; the country fwarmed with robbers
cufation and defence, he banifhed him to the city of and affafiins; the latter committing every where the
Vienne in Dauphiny, and confifcated all his effe&s. moft unheard-of cruelties under the pretence of reli-
Judea being by this fentence reduced to a Roman gion ; and about 64 A. C. were joined by )8,oco
province, was ordered to be taxed: and Cyrenius the workmen, who had been employed in further repair-
governor of Syria, a man of confular dignity, was ing and beautifying the temple. About this time
lent thither to fee it put in execution : which having alfo, Geflius Floras, the laft and worft governor the
done, and fold the palaces of Archelaus, and feized Jews ever had, was fent into the country. Jofephus
upon all his treafure, he returned to Antioch, lea- feems at a lofs for words to defcribe him by, or a
ving the Jews in no fmall ferment on account of this monfter to compare him to. His rapines, cruelties,
new tax. conniving for large fums with the banditti, and, in a
Thus w^ere the feeds of diffenfion fown between the word, his whole behaviour, were fo open and bare-
Jews and Romans, which ended in the moft lament- faced, that he was looked upon by the Jews more like
able cataftrophe of the former. The Jews, always a bloody executioner fent to butcher, than a magi-
impatient of a foreign yoke, knew from their prophe- ftrate to govern them. In this diftra£ted ftate of the
cies, that the time was now come when the Mrfliah country, many of the inhabitants forfook it to feek
fliould appear. Of confequence, as they expe&ed him for an afylum fomewhere elfe ; while thofe who re-
to be a great and powerful warrior, their rebellious and mained applied themfelves to Ceftius Gallus, governor
feditious fpirit was heightened to the greateft degree ; of Syria, who was at Jevufalem at the paffover, br¬
and they imagined they had nothing to do but take feeching him to pity their unhappy (late, and free
up arms, and viftory would immediately declare on them from the tyranny of a man who had totally
their fide. From this time, therefore, the country ruined their country. Floras, who was prefent when
was never quiet; and the infatuated people, while thefe complaints were brought againft him, made a
they rejected the true Mefliah, gave themfelves up to mere jeft of them; and Ceftius, inftead of making a
the diredion of every impoftor who chofe to lead ftrid inquiry into his condud, ciifmiffed the Jews with
them to their own deftrudion. The governors ap- a general promife that the governor fliould behave
pointed by the Romans were alfo frequently changed, better for the future; and fet himfelf about computing
but feldom for the better. About the 16th year of the number of Jews at that time in Jemfalem, by the
Chrift, Pontius Pilate was appointed governor; the number of lambs offered at that feftival, that he
whole of whofe adminiftration, according to Jofephus, might fend an account of the whole to Nero. By his
was one continued fcene of venality, rapine, tyranny, computation, there were at that time in Jerufalem
and every wicked adtion; of racking and putting in- 2,556,000; tho* Jufephus thinks they rather amounted
nocent men to death, untried and uncondemned ; and to 3,000,000.
of every kind of favage cruelty. Such a governor was In the year 67 began the fatal war with the Romans,
bet ill calculated to appeafe the ferments occafioned which was ended only by the deflru&ion of Jerufalem. iaft.
by the late tax. Indeed Pilate was fo far from at- The immediate caufe was the decifion of a conteftwa. with
tempting this, that he greatly inflamed them by taking with the Syrians concerning the city of Cssfarea, Thethe Ru"
every occafion of introducing his ftandards with ima- Jews maintained that this city belonged to them, be-man5*
ges and piftures, confecrated Ihields, &c. into their caufe it had been built by Herod ; and the Syrians-
city ; and at laft attempting to drain the treafury of pretended that it had always been reckoned a Greek
the temple, under pretence of bringing an aqueduft city, fince even that monarch had reared temples and
into Jerufalem. The moft remarkable tranfabtion of ftatues in it. The conteft at laft came to fuch an
his government, however, was his condemnation of height, that both parties took up arms againft each
Jesu s Christ: feven years after which he was removed other. Felix put an end to it for a time, by fending
&om Judea ^ and in a Ihort time Agrippa, the grand- fome of the chiefs of each nation to Rome, to plead
their
JEW [ i
Jw- the?? esufe bcfpre the emperor, where it hung in fuf-
l***^rm*~J penfe till thU time, when Nero decided it againft the
Jews. No fooner was this decifion made public, than
the Jews in all parts of the country flew to arms;
end though they were every where the fufferers, yet,
from this fatal period, their rage never abated. No¬
thing was now to be heard of but robberies, murders,
and every kind of cruelty. Cities and villages were
filled with dead bodies of all ages, even fucking babes.
TheVew* Jews, on their part, fpared neither Syrians nor
tembiy Romans, where they got the better of them; and this
Bsaflkred. proved the deftru&ion of great numbers of their peace¬
ful brethren : ?.o,ooo were maflacred at Cxfarea,
50,000 at Alexandria, 2000 at Ptolemais, and 3500
at Jerufalem.
A great number of afiaffins, in the mean time, ha¬
ving joined the faftious Jews in Jerufalem, they beat
the Romans out of Antonia, a fortrefs adjoining to
the temple, and another called Majfada ; and likewife
out of the towers called Phafael and Mariamne, kill¬
ing all who oppofed them. The Romans were at
lail reduced to fuch (traits, that they capitulated on
the fingle condition that their lives (houhl'be fpared ;
notwithftanding which, they were all maffacred by
the furious zealots: and this treachery was foon re¬
venged on the faithful Jews of Scythopolis. Thefe
had offered to aflift in reducing their factious bre¬
thren ; but their fmcerity being fufpedted by the
townfmen, they obliged them to retire into a neigh¬
bouring wood, where, on the third night, they were
maffacred to the number of 13,000, and all their
wealth carried off. The rebels, in the mean time,
croffed the Jordan, and took the fortreffes of Machaeron
and Cyprus ; which laft they razed to the ground,
They de- a^ter having put all the Romans to the fword —This
feat Ceftiu*brought Cellius Gallus, the Syrian governor, into
Osllus. Judaea with all his forces; but the Jews, partly by
treachery and partly by force, got the better of him,
and drove him out of the country'with the lofs of
5000 men.
All this time fuch dreadful diffenfions reigned a-
mong the Jews, that great numbers of the better fort
forefet ing the fad efft-As of the refentment of the Ro¬
mans, left the city as men do a finking veffel; and
the Chriftians, mindful of their Saviour’s prediction,
retired to Rella, a city on the other fide of Jordan,
whether the war did not reach. Miferable was the
^ fate of fuch as either could not, or would not, leave
Vefpaflan that devoted city. Vcfpafian was now ordered to
ftnt agaiuft leave Greece, where he was at that time, and to march
them. with all fpeed into Judea. He did fo accordingly at
the head of a powerful army, ordering his fon Titus
in the mean time to bring two more legions from A
lexandria; but before he could reach that country, the
Jews had twice attempted to take the city of Afcalon,
and were each time repulfed with the lofs of 10,000
of their number. In the beginning of the year 68, Vef-
pafian entered Galilee at the head of an army of 60,000
men, all completely armed and excellently difciplined.
He firft took and burnt Gadara: then he laid fiege to
Jotapa, and took it after a ftout refiftance ; at which
he was fo provoked, that he caufed every one of the
Jews to be maffacred or carried into captivity, not
one being left to carry the dreadful news to their
brethren. Forty thoufand perifhed on this occafion :
39 1 JEW
only 1200 were made prifoners, among whom was Jew*;
Jofephus the Jewiflt hiftorian, Japha next (hared the 1—
fame fate, after an obftinate fiege; all the men being-
maffacred, and the women and children carried into
captivity. A week after this the Samaritans, who
had affembled on Mount Gerizzim, were almoft all put
to the fword, or perilhed. Joppa fell the next vidtim
to the Roman vengeance. It had been formerly laid
wafte by Ceftius ; but was now repeopled and forti¬
fied by the feditious Jews who infefted the country.
It was taken by ftorm, and (hared the fame fate with
the reft. Four thoufand Jews attempted to efcape by
taking to their (hips ; but were driven back by a hid¬
den tempeft, and all of them were drowned or put to
the fword. Tarichea and Tiberias were next taken,
but part of their inhabitants were fpared on account
of their peaceable difpofitions. Then followed the
fieges of Gamala, Gifchala, and Itabyr. The firft was
taken by ftorm, with a dreadful (laughter of the Jews;
the laft by ftratagem. The inhabitants of Gifchala
were (inclinable to furrender : but a feditious Jew of
that tbwn, named John, the fon of Levi, head of the
faction, and a vile fellow, oppofed it; and, having the
mob at his back, overawed the whole city. On the
fabbath he begged of Titus to forbear hoftilities till
to-morrow, and then he would accept his offer ; but
inftead of that, he fled to Jerufalem with as many as
would follow him. The Romans, as foon as they were
informed of his flight, purfued, and killed 6000 of
his followers on the road, and brought back near 3000
women and children prifoners. The inhabitants then
furrendered to Titus, and only the factious were pu-
nifhed; and this completed the reduction of Galilee.
The Jewifh nation by this time was divided into Different
two very oppofite parties : the one forefeeing that fa&ions
this war, if continued, muft end in the total ruin of among the
their Country, were for putting an end to it by fub-Jew3‘
mining to the Romans; the other, which was the
remains of the faction of Judas Gaulonites, breathed
nothing but war and confulion, and oppofed all peace¬
able meafures with invincible obftinacy. This laft,
which was by far the moft numerous and powerful,
confifted of men of the vileft and moft profligate cha¬
racters that can be paralleled in hiftory. They were
proud, ambitious, cruel, rapacious, and committed
the moft horrid and unnatural crimes under the ma(k
of religion. They affirmed every where, that it was
offering the greateft diihonour to God to fubmit to
any earthly potentate; much lefs to Romans and to
heathens. This, they faid, was the only motive that
induced them to take up arms, and to bind theipfelves
under the ftri&eft obligations not to lay them down
till they had either totally extirpated all foreign au¬
thority, or periffied in the attempt.—This dreadful
diffenfion was not confined to Jerufalem, but had in-
fe&ed all the cities, towns, and villages, of Paleftine.
Even houfes and families were fo divided againft each
other, that, as our Saviour had exprefsly foretold, a
man’s greateft enemies were often thofe of his own
family and houfehold. In (hort, if we may believe
Jofephus, the zealots adled more like incarnate devils
than like men who had any fenfe of humanity left
them.—This obliged the contrary party likewife to
rife up in arms in their own defence againft thofe mif-
creants j from whom, however, they fuffered much
S 2 more
J E W
[ 140 1
Jew*, njore than they did even from the exafperated Ro-
J mans.—The zealots began their outrages by murder-
J E W
Not thinking himfelf, however, as yet mafter of force
_ „ v • fufficient to befiege Jerufalem, he invaded Idumea
Cruelty of *ng that oppofed them in the countries round about, with 20,000 men. The Idumeans oppofed him with
the zealots. Then they entered Jerufalem; but met with a ftout   ’ n  
oppofition from the other party headed by Ananusj
Jew*.
who had lately been high-prieft. A fierce engage¬
ment enfued between them; and the zealots were dri¬
ven into the inner cindture of the temple, where they
were clofely befieged. John of Gifchala above men¬
tioned, who had pretended to fide with the peaceable
party, was then fent with terms of accommodation ;
but, inftead of advifing the befieged to accept of them,
he perfuaded them ftill to hold out, and call the Idu-
roeans to their affiftance. They did fo, and procured
20,000 of them to come to their relief; but thefe new
allies were refufed admittance into the city. On that
night, however, there happened fuch a violent ftorm,
accompanied with thunder, lightning, and an earth¬
quake, that the zealots from within the inner court
fawed the bolts and hinges of the temple-gates with¬
out being heard, forced the guards of the befiegers,
fallied into the city, and led in the Idumeans. The
city was inftantly filled with butcheries of the moft
horrid kind. Barely to put any of the oppofite party
to death was thought too mild a punifhment; they
muft have the pleafure of murdering them by inches ;
fo that they made it now their diverfion to put them
to the moil exquifite tortures that could be invented ;
nor could they be prevailed upon to difpatch them till
the violence of their torments had rendered them
quite incapable of feeling them. In this manner pe-
rilhed 12,000 perfons of noble extraftion, and in the
flower of their age ; till at laft the Idumeans com¬
plained fo much againft the putting fuch numbers to
death, that the zealots thought proper to ereft a kind
of tribunal, which, however, was intended not for
judgment but condemnation; for the judges having
once acquitted a perfon who was manifeftly innocent,
the zealots not only murdered him in the temple, but
depofed the new-created judges as perfons unfit for
their office.
25,000 5 and a ffiarp engagement enftied, in which
neither party was vidorious. But Simon, foon after,
having corrupted the Idumean general, got their army
delivered up to him. By this means he eafily be¬
came mafter of the country; where he committed fuch
cruelties, that the miferable inhabitants abandoned it
to feek for (belter in Jerufalem.
In the city, matters went in the fame way. John
tyrannized in fuch a manner, that the Idumeans re¬
volted, killed a great number of his men, plundered
his palace, and forced him to retire into the temple.
In the mean time the people, having taken a notion
that he would fally out in the night and fet fire to
the city, called a council, in which it was refolved to
admit Simon with his troops, in order to oppofe John
and his zealots. Simon’s firft attempt againft his rival,
however, Was ineffe&ual, and he was obliged to con¬
tent himfelf with befieging the zealots in the temple.
In the mean time the miferies of the city were in-
creafed by the darting up of a third party headed by
one Eleazar, who feized on the court of the priefts,
and kept John confined within that of the Ifraelites.
Eleazar kept the avenues fo well guarded, that none
were admitted to come into that part of the temple
but thofe who came thither to offer facrifices ; and it
was by thefe offerings chiefly that he maintained him¬
felf and his men. John by this means found himfelf
hemmed in between two powerful enemies, Simon be¬
low, and Eleazar above. He defended himfelf, how¬
ever, againft them both with great refolution; and
when the city was invefted by the Romans, having
pretended to come to an agreement with his rivals,
he found means totally to cut off or force Eleazar’s
men to fubmit to him, fo that the faftions were again
reduced to two.
The Romans, in the year 72, began to advance to-The3Ro>
wards the capital. In their way they deftroyed many mans ad-
thoufands, wafting the country as they went along ; vance tc
The zealots, after having exterminated all thofe of and in the year 73 arrived before the walls of Jerufa-^erufa^eai’
36
They turn
their arms
any charafter or diftinftion, began next to wreak
their vengeance on the common people. This obli¬
ged many of the Jews to forfake Jerufalem, and take
refuge with the Romans, though the attempt was
very hazardous; for the zealots had all the avenues
well guarded, and failed not to put to death fuch as
fell into their hands. Vefpafian in the mean time
{laid at Csefarea an idle fpedlator of their outrages;
well knowing that the zealots were fighting for him,
and that the ftrength of the Jewifti nation was gra¬
dually wafting away. 'c'”“— *l':— o j-j —
ssgainfteachg^h other. A party was formed againft John, under
10 er' one Simon who had his head-quarters at the fortrefs
of Maffada. This new tnifereant plundered, burned,
and maffacred, wherever he came, carrying the fpoil
into the fort reft above mentioned. To increafe his
lem, under Titus afterwards emperor. As he was a
man of an exceedingly merciful difpofition, and greatly
defired to fpare the city, he immediately fent offers of
peace ; but thefe were reje&ed with contempt, and he
himfelf put in great danger of his life, fo that he re¬
folved to begin the fiege in form. In the mean time,
Simon and John renewed their hoftilities with greater
fury than ever. John now held the whole temple,
fome of the out-parts of it, and the valley of Cedron.
Simon had the whole city to range in; in fome parts
Every thing fucceeded to his of which John had made fuch devaftations, that they
~ ’ ‘ ' ferved them for a field of battle, from which they
fallied unanimoufly againft the common enemy when¬
ever occafion ferved; after which they returned to
their ufual hoftilities, turning their arms againft each
other, as if they had fworn to make their ruin more
eafy to the Romans. Thefe drew ftill nearer to the
walls, having with great labour and pains levelled all the
wifti. The zealots, after having maffacred or driven
away the oppofite party, turned their arms againft
party, he caufed a proclamation to be publiftied, by ground between Scopas and them, by pulling down
which he promifed liberty to the flaves, and propor- all the houfes and hedges, cutting down the trees,
tionable encouragement to the freemen who joined and even cleaving the rocks that flood in their way,
him. This ftratagem had the defired effeft, and he from Scopas to the tomb of Herod, and Bethara
•foon faw himfelf at the head of a confiderable army, or the pool of ferpents} in which work fo many
hands
The Cege
carried on
■with vi-
£our.
JEW
[ H1 J
JEW
hands Were employed, that they finifhed it in four fadious, who, by their inteftine feuds, had deftroyed Jew*.
; days. fuch quantities of provifxon, that they were forced to --v*
Whilil this was doing, Titus fent the befieged fome prey upon the people with the moft unheard-of cruel*
offers of peace ; and Jofephus was pitched upon to be ty. They forced their houfes; and, if they found any
the meffenger of them: but they were rejeded with —■-Q-—^   ^ j *1 r_..  -
indignation. He fent a fecond time Nicanor and Jo¬
fephus with frefh offers, and the former received a
of them: but they were rejeded with viduals in them, they butchered them for not appri-
fing them of it; and, if they found nothing but bare
walls, which was almoft every where the cafe, they
wound in his (boulder ; upon which Titus refolved to put them to the moft fevere tortures, under pretence
begin the affault in good earneft, and ordered his, men
to rafe the fuburbs, cut down all the trees, and ufe
the materials to raife platforms againft the wall. Every
thing was now carried on with invincible ardour; the
Romans began to play their engines againft the city
 -aI. —11 i-t- J i ♦- T'Vwa T o, -rr o V* *5/A 11 It-f 11 1 V"
that they had fome provifion concealed. “ I fhould
(fays Jofephus) undertake an impoffible taik, were I
to enter into a detail of all the cruelties of thofe im¬
pious wretches; it will be fufficient to fay, that t do
not think, that fince the creation any city ever fuffer-
with all their might. The Jews had likewife thdr ed fuch dreadful calamities, or abounded with men fo
machines upon the walls, which they plied with un¬
common fury : they had taken them lately from Ce-
ilius : but were fo ignorant in their ufe, that they did
little execution with them, till they were better in-
ftrufted by fome Roman deferters: till then, thei
chief fuccefs was rather owing to their frequent fallies
but the Roman legions, who had all their towers and
fertile in all kinds of wickednefs.”
Titus, who knew their miferable condition, and was
ftill willing to fpare them, gave them four days to
cool; during which he caufed his army to be multer-
ed, and provifions to be diftributed to them in fi0
the Jews, who flocked upon the walls to fee it. Jo- offerfof
fephus was fent to fpeak to them afrefh, and to exhort peace r<
machines before them, made terrible havock. The lead them not to run themfelves into, an inevitable ruin by je<fted-
ftones they threw were near ico weight; and thefe
they could throw the length of a quarter of a mile a-
gainft the city, and with fuch a force, that they could
do mifchief on thofe that ftood at fome diftance be-
obftinately perfifting in the defence of a place which
could hold out but a very little while, and which the
Romans looked upon already as their own. But this
ftubborn people, after many bitter inye&ives, began
hind them. Titus had reared three towers 50 cubits to dart their arrows at him; at which, not at all dif-
high; one of which happening to fall in the middle of couraged, he went on with greater vehemence : but
the night, greatly alarmed the Roman camp, who im¬
mediately ran to arms at the noife of it ^ but Titus,
upon knowing the caufe, difmiffed them, and caufed
~ l   ~
all the effedl it wrought on them was, that it prer
vailed on great numbers to fteal away privately to the
Romans, whilft the reft became only the more defpe-
it to be fet up again. Thefe towers, being plated rate and refolute to hold out to the laft, in fpite of Ti-
with iron, the Jews tried in vain to fet fire to them, tus’s merciful offers.
but were at length forced to retire out of the reach of To haften therefore their deftined ruin, he caufed
their (hot ; by which the battering-rams were now at the city to be furrounded with a ftrong wall, to prer
full liberty to play againft the wall. A breach was —" --*1- - ---  •    r
foon made in it, at which the Romans entered ; and
the Jews, abandoning this laft inclofure, retired be¬
hind the next. This happened about the 28th of A-
pril, a fortnight after the beginning of the fiege.
vent either their receiving any fuccours or provifioa
from abroad, or their efcaping his refentment by flight.
This wall, which was near 40 ftadia or five miles in
circuit, was yet carried on with fuch fpeed, and by fo
many hands, that it was finilhed in three days ; by
John defended the temple and the caftle of Anto- which one may guefs at the ardour of the befiegers to
nia, and Simon the reft of the city. Titus marched
clofe to the fecond wall, and plied his battering-rams
fo furioufly, that one of the towers, which looked to-
make themfelves mafters of the city.
There was now nothing to be feen thro’ the ftreets.
of Jerufalem but heaps of dead bodies rotting above
wards the north, gave a prodigious (hake. The men ground, walking Ikeletons, and dying wretches. As
who were in it, made a fignal to the Romans, as if many as were caught by the Romans in their fallies,
they would furrender; and, at the fame time, fent Si- Titus caufed to be crucified in fight of the town, toin-
mon word to be ready to give them a warm recep- jeft. a terror among the reft : but the zealots gave it
tion. Titus, having difcovercd their ftratagem, plied out, that they were thofe who fled to him .for protec-
. his work more furioufly, whilft the Jews that w7ere in tion; w'hich when Titus underftood, he fent a prifoner
the tower fet it on fire, and flung themfelves into the with his hands cut off to undeceive, and aflure them,
flames. The tower being fallen, gave them an en- that he fpared all that voluntarily came over to him ;
trance into the fecond inclofure, five days after gain- which encouraged great numbers to accept his offers,
ingthe firft ; and Titus, who was bent on faving the tho’ the avenues were clofely guarded by the fa&ious,
city, would not fuffer any part of the wall or ftreets who put all to death who were caught going on that
to be demolilhed; which left the breach and lanes fo errand. A greater mifchief than that was, that even
narrow, that when his men were furioufly repulfed by thofe who efcaped fafe to the Roman camp were mi-
Simon, they had not room enough to make a quick ferably butchered by the foldiers, from a notion which
retreat, fo that there was a number of them killed in thefe had taken that they had fwallowed great quan-
if rPV» i f* y". ,1 ! <-*L- 1-rr rl fV»<a ~1 . * T L 1 * a.  . . 1 r 1
This overfight was quickly re&ified; and the at¬
tack renewed with fuch vigour, that the place was car¬
ried four days after their firft repulfe.
tities of gold ; infomuch that two thoufand of them
were ripped up in one night, to come at their fuppo-
fed treafure. When Titus was apprifed of this bar-.
yeftilence
4n the city.
The famine, raging in a terrible manner in the city, barity, he would have condemned all thofe butchering
was foon followed by a peftilence ; and as thefe two wretches to death ; but they proved fo numerous, that
dreadful judgments increafed, fo did the rage of the he was forced to fpare them, and contented himfelf
^ with
JEW r H* ] JEW
Jcw>, vvlth fending a proclamation thro* his camp, that aa
'-‘“''■v—-'' many as fhould be "fufpe&ed thenceforward of that hor*
rid villany, (hould be put to immediate death : yet
did not this deter many of them from it, only they
did it more privately than before ; fo greedy were they
of that bewitching metal. All this while the defedfion
increafed Hill more thro* the inhumanity of the faction
within, who made the miferies and dying groans of
their ftarving brethren the fubjed of their cruel mirth,
and carried their barbarity even to the (heathing of
their fwords in fport in thofe poor wretches, under pre¬
tence of trying their fharpnefs. "
When they found therefore that neither their guards
nor feverities could prevent the people’s flight, they
had recourfe to another ftratagem equally impious and
cruel: which was, to hire a pack of vile pretenders to
prophecy, to go about and encourage the defpairing
remains of the people to expedt a fpeedy and miracu¬
lous deliverance; and this impoftuie proved a greater
expedient with that infatuated nation than their other
precautions.
Miferable Nothing could be more dreadful than the famifhed
condition con£jition to which they were now reduced.’ The poor,
of the Jews'hav;ng nothing to truft to but the Roman’s mercy or
a fpeedy death, ran all hazards'to get out of the city;
and if in their flight, and wandering out for herbs or
any other fultenance, they fell into the hands of any of
Titus’s parties fent about to guard the avenues, they
were unmercifully fcourged, and crucified if they made
the leaft refiftance. The rich within the walls were
now forced, though in the moft private manner, to give
half, or all they were worth, for a meafure of wheat,
and the middling fort for one of barley. This they
were forced to convey into fome private place in their
houfes, and to feed upon it as it was, without daring
to pound or grind it, much lefs to boil or bake it, lelt
the noife or fmell fhould draw the rapacious zealots to
come and tear it from them. Not that the fe were re¬
duced to any real want of provifiorts, but they had a
double end in this barbarous plunder; to wit, the ftar¬
ving what they cruelly ftyltd all ufelefs perfons, and
A mother the keeping their own ftores in referve. It was upon
eats her this fad and pinching jun&ure, that an unhappy mo-
swn child, was reduced to the extremity of butchering and
eating her own child.
When this news was fpread through the city, the hor¬
ror and confternation were as univerfal as they were
inexpreffible. It was then that they began to think
themfelves forfaken by the Divine Providence, and to
expedf the moft terrible effedls of his anger againft the
poor remains of their nation; infomuch that they be¬
gan to envy thofe that had perifhed before them, and
to wifh their turn might come before the fad expe&ed
Titus4 cataftrophe. Their fears were but too juft; fince Ti-
fweais the tus, at the very firft hearing of this inhuman deed,
eta! ruin fwore the total extirpation of city and people. “ Since
t the city. ^ajd he) they have fo often refufed my proffers of
pardon, and have preferred war to peace, rebellion to
obedience, and famine, fuch a dreadful one efpecially,
to plenty, I am determined to bury that accurled me¬
tropolis under its ruins, that the fun may never flioot
his beams on a city where the mothers feed on the flefh
of their children, and the fathers, no lefs guilty than
they, choofe to drive them to fuch extremities, rather
than lay down their arms.”
The dreadful a&ion happened about the end ©f July,
by which time the Romans, having purfued their at-
tacks with frelh vigour, made themtelves mailers of
the fortrefs Antonia; which obliged the Jews to fet
fire to thofe ftately galleries which joined it to the
temple, left they Ihouid afford an eafy paffage to the
befiegers into this lalt. About the fame time Titus,
with much difficulty, got materials for raifing new
mounds and terraces, in order to haften the fiege, and
fave, if poflsble, the fad remains of that once glorious
ftrutlure ; but his pity proved ftill worfe and worfe
bellowed on thofe obftinate’ wretches, who only be.
came the'more furious and defperate by it, . Titus at
length caufed fire to be fet to the gates, after having
had a very bloody encounter, in which his men were
repulfed with lofs. The Jews were fo terrified at it,
that they fuffered themfelves to be devoured by the
flames, without attempting either to extinguifh them
or fave themfelves. All this while Jotephus did
not ceafe exhorting the infatuated people to furren*
der, to reprefent to them the dreadful confequences
of an obftinate refiftance, and to affure them that it
was out of mere compaffion to them that he thus ha¬
zarded his own life to fave theirs : he received one day
fuch a wound in his head by a ftone from the battle¬
ments, as laid him for dead on the ground. The Jews
faliied out immediately, to have feized on his body;
but the Romans proved too quick and ftrong for them,
and carried him off. ^
By this time the two factions within, but efpecially John plus*,
that of John, having plundered rich and poor of all d<:rs 'n®
they had, fell alfo on the treafury of the temple, temP’Ci
whence John took a great quantity of golden uteu-
fils, together with thofe magnificent gifts which had
been prefented to that facred place by the Jewifh kings,
by Augultus, Li via, and many other foreign princes,
and melted them all to his own ufe. The repofitories
of the facred oil which was to maintain the lamps, and
of the wine which was referved to accompany the ufual
facrifices, were likewife feized upon, and turned into
common ufe; and the laft of this to fuch excefs, as
to make himfelf and his party drunk with it. All
this while, not only the zealots, but many of the
people, were ftill under fuch an infatuation, that tho*
the fortrefs Antonia was loft, and nothing left but
the temple, which-the Romans were preparing to bat-
ter down, yet they could not perfuade themfelves, that
God would fuffer that holy place to be taken by hea¬
thens, and were ftill expeding fome fudden and mira¬
culous deliverance. Even that vile rnonfter John,
who commanded there, either feemed confident of it,
or elfe endeavoured to make them think him fo. For,
when Joiephus was fent for the laft time to upbraid
his obftinately expofing that facred building, and the
miferable remains of God’s people, to fudden and
fure deftruftion, he only anfwered him with the bit-
tereft inve&ives; adding, that he was defending the
Lord’s vineyard, which he was fure could not be taken
by any human force. Jofephus in vain reminded him
of the many ways by which he had polluted both city
and temple ; and in particular of the feas of blood
which he caufed to be fhed in both thofe facred places,
and which, he affured him from the old prophecies,
were a certain fign and forerunner of their fpeedy fur-
render and deftruftion. John remained as inflexible
E W r 143 ] JEW
( Jews- as if all the prophets had affared him of a deliverance;
till at length Titps, forefeerng the inevitable ruin of
that {lately edifice, which he was {till extremely de-
firous to lave, vouchfafed even himfelf to fpeak to
them, and to perfuade them to furrender. But the
factious, looking upon this condenfceniion as the ef-
. feels of his fear rather than generofity, only grew the
more furious upon it, and forced him at laft to come
totho(e extremities, which he had hitherto endeavour¬
ed to. avoid. That his army, which was to attack the
temple, might have the freer paflage towards it thro*
the caftle. Antonia, he caufed a copfiderable-part of
the wall to be pulled down, and levelled ; which pro¬
ved fo. very dlrong, that it took him up feven whole
days, by which titpe- .they were far advanced in the
46 month of July. "£4
The dally Jt yvas on the ryth day of that month, as all Jofe-
facrifke in. plus’s copies have it, that the daily facrifice ceafecl for
er UP e • firft- (jmg fince its reiloration by the brave Judas
Maccabeus, there being no proper perfon left in the
temple to offer it up. Titus caufed the faftiens to be
feverely upbraided for it; exhorted John to fet up
whom he would to perform that office, rather than fuf-
fer the fervice of God to be fet afide; and then chal¬
lenged him and his party to come out of the temple,
and fight on a more proper ground, and thereby fave
that facred edifice from the fury of the Roman troops.
When nothing could prevail on them, they began to
fet fire again to the gallery which yielded a communi¬
cation between the temple and the cattle Antonia. The
Jews had already burnt about 20 cubits of it in length;
but this fecond blaze, which was likewife encouraged
by the befieged, confumed about 14 more ; after
which, they beat down what remained Handing. On
the 27th of July, the Jews, having filled part of the
weftern portico with cwmbuftible matter, made a kind
n of flight; upon which, fome of the forwardeft of the
Romans having fealed up to the top, the Jews fet five
to it, which flamed with, fuch fudden fury, that many
of the former were confumed in it, and the rett, ven¬
turing to jump down from the battlements, were, all
bur one, crufhed to death.
On the very next day, Titus having fet fire to the
north gallery, which inclofed the outer court of the
temple, from fort Antonia to the valley of Cedron, got
an eafy admittance into it, and forced the befieged in¬
to that of the priefts. He tried in vain fix days to bat¬
ter down one of the galleries of that precindl with an
helepolis: he was forced to mount his battering-rams
on the terrace, which was raifed by this time ; and yet
the flrtngth of this wall was fuch, that it eluded the
force of thefe alfo, tho’ others of his troops were bufy
in Tapping it. When they found that neither rams nor
Tapping could gain ground,, they bethought them-
felves of fealing ; but were vigoroufly repulfed in the
^ attempt, with the lois of fome itandards, and a num-
The gates ber of men. When Titus therefore found that his
of the defire of faving that building was like to coft fo many
teirple (et ];ves> pct gre to ^ gate3> which, being plated
on ce' with filver, burnt all that night, whilft the metal dropt
down in the melting. The flame foon communicated
itfelf to the porticoes and galleries; which the befieged
beheld without offering to flop it, but contented’them-
felves with fending whole volleys of impotent curfes
againft. the Romans. This was done on the eighth of
Augult; and, on the next day, Titus, having given Jews,
orders to extinguifh the fire, called a council, to de-'—^
termine whether the remainder of the temple fhould
be laved or demolifhed. That general was flill for
the former, and moft; of the reft declared for the lat¬
ter; alleging, that it was no longer a temple, but a
feene of war andTlaughter, and that the Jews would
never be at reft as long as any part of it was left
{landing: but when they found Titus ftiffly bent on
preferring fo noble an edifice, againft which he told
them he could have no quarrel, they all came over to
his mind. The next day, Augull the 10th, was
therefore determined for a general affault r and the
night before the Jews made two defperate Tallies on
the Romans; in the lalt of which, thefe, being time¬
ly fuccoured by Titus, beat them back into their in-
clofure.
But whether this laft Jewifh effort exafperated the
befiegers, or, which is more likely, as Jofephus thinks,
pufhed by the hand of Providence, one of the Roman
foldiers, of his own accord, took up a blazing fire¬
brand, and, getting on his comrade’s ftioulders, threw
it into one of the apartments that furrounded the fanc-
tuary, through a window. This immediately fet the
whole north-fide in a flame up to the third ftory, on
the' fame fatal day and month in which it had been
formerly burnt by Nebuchadnezzar. Titus, who was
gone to reft himfelf a while in his pavilion, was a-waked
at the noife, and ran immediately to give orders to
have the fire extinguifhed. He called, prayed, threat¬
ened, and even caned his men, but in vain ; the con-
fufion was fo great, and the foldiers fo obftinately bent
upon deftroying all that was left, that he was neither
heard nor minded. Thofe that flocked thither from
the camp, inftead of obeying his orders, were bufy,
either in killing the Jews, or in increafing the flames..
When Titus obferved that all his endeavours were
vain, he entered into the faneftnary and the moft ho¬
ly place, in which he found ftill fuch fumptuous men-
fils and other riches as even exceeded all that had
been told him of it. Out of the former he faved the
golden candleftick, the table of fhew bread, the altar
of perfumes, all of pure gold, and the book or volume-
of the law, wrapped up in a rich gold tiffue: but in
the latter he found no utenfils, becaufe, in all proba¬
bility, they had not made a frefh ark fince that of So¬
lomon had been loft. Upon his coming out of thaf
facred place, fome other foldiers fet fire to it, and obli¬
ged thofe that had flaid behind to come out; they all
fell foul on the plunder of it, tearing even the gold
plating off the gates and timber work, and carried off
all the coftly utenfils, robes, &c. they found, info-
much that there was not one of them who did not en¬
rich himfelf by it. ^
An horrid maftacre followed foon after, in which a-A dreadful;
great many thoufands'periihed; fome by the flames, mafi*cre'
others by the fall from the battlements, and a great¬
er number by the enemy’s fword, which deftroy-
ed all it met with, without diftinftion of age, fex,.
or quality. Among them were upwards of 6000 per-
fons who had been feduced thither by a falfe pro¬
phet, who promifed them that they fhould find a
fpeedy and miraculous relief there on that very day.
Some of them remained five whole days on the top of’
the walls, and .afterwards threw themfelves on the gene-
41 ral’a.
1
JEW E . *44 ] JEW
Jews, ral’s mercy; but were anfwered that they had outllaid ed by wild beads. The number of thofe prifoners Jews.
  ' the time, and were led to execution. The Romans car- amounted to 97,000; befides about u,ooo more, who l——v—
ried their fury to the burning of all the treafure-hou- were either ftarved through negledf, or ftarved them-
fes of the place, tho’ they were full of the richefl. fur- felves through fullennefs and defpair.—The whole num-
niture, plate, vellments, and other things of value, her of Jews who perilhed in this war is computed at up-
which had been laid up in thofe places for fecurity. wards of 1,400,000.
In a word, they did not ceafe burning and butchering, Befides thefe, however, a vaft number perifhed in
till they had deftroyed all, except two of the temple- caves, woods, wilderneffes, common-fewers, &c. of
gates, and that part of the court which was deftined whom no computation could be made. Whilft the
for the women. foldiers were ftill bufy in burning the remains of the
In the mean time the feditious made fuch a vigo- city, and vifiting all the hiding-places, where they
rous pufti, that they efcaped the fury of the Romans, killed numbers of poor creatures who had endeavoured Simon and
at leaft for the prefent, and retired into the city. But to evade their cruelty, the two grand rebels Simon John taken,
here they found all the avenues fo well guarded, that and John were found, and referved for the triumph of
there was no ppffibility left for them to get out; which the conqueror. John, being pinched with hunger,
obliged them to fecure themfelves as well as they foon came out; and having begged his life, obtained
could on the fouth-fide of it, from whence Simon, and it; but was condemned to perpetual imprifonment.
John of Gifchala, fent to defire a parley with Titus. Simon, whofe retreat had been better ftored, held out
They were anfwered, that though they had been the till the end of Oftober. The two chiefs, with 700
caufe of all this bloodfhed and ruin, yet they fliould of the handfomeft Jewilh captives, were made. to at-
have their lives fpared, if they laid down their arms, tend the triumphal chariot; after which Simon was
and furrendered themfelves prifoners. To this they dragged through the ftrcets with a rope about his
replied, that they had engaged themfelves, by the neck, feverely fcourged, and then put to death ; and
moll folemn oaths, never to furrender; and therefore, John was fent into perpetual imprifonment.—Three
only begged leave to retire into the mountains writh caftles llill remained untaken, namely, Herodion, Ma-
their wives and children : which infolence fo exafpe- chaeron, and Maffada. The two former capitulated;
rated the Roman general, that he caufed an herald to but Maffada held out. The place was exceedingly 5efp5erate
bid them hand to their defence ; for that not one of ftrong both by nature and art, well ftored with all end of the
them ftiould be fpared, fince they had rejefted his laft kinds of provifrons, and defended by a numerous gar- garrifon of
offers of pardon. Immediately after this, he aban- rifon of zealots, at the head of whom was one Elea-
doned the city to the fury of the foldiers, who fell zar, the grandfon of Judas Gaulonites, formerly men-
forthwith on plundering, fetting fire every where, and tioned. The Roman general having in vain tried his
murdering all that fell into their hands ; whilft the engines and battering-rams againft it, bethought him-
fa£lious, who were left, went and fortified themfelves felf of furrounding it with a high and flrong wall,
in the royal palace, where they killed 8000 Jews who and then ordered the gates to be fet on fire. The
had taken refuge there. wind puffed the flames fo fiercely againft the Jews,
In the mean time, great preparations were making that Eleazar in defpair perfuaded them firft to kill
for a vigorous attack on the upper city, efpecially on their wives and children, and then to choofe ten men
the royal palace ; and this took them up from the by lot, who ffould kill all the reft; and laftly one out
20th of Auguft to the 7th of September, during of the furviving ten to difpatch them and himfelf; on-
which time great numbers came and made their fub- ly this laft man was ordered to fet fire to the place be-
mifiion to Titus. The warlike engines then played fo fore he put an end to his own life. All this was ac-
furioufly on the fa&ious, that they were taken with a cordingly done ; and on the morrow, when the Romans
fudden panic; and, inftead of fleeing into the towers were preparing to fcale the walls, they were greatly
of Hippicos, Phafael, or Mariamne, which were yet furprifed neither to fee nor hear any thing move. On
untaken, and fo ftrong that nothing but famine could this they made fuch an hideous outcry, that two wo-
have reduced them, they ran like madmen towards Si- men, who had concealed themfelves in an aquedudl,
loah, with a defign to have attacked the w'all of cir- came forth and acquainted them with the defperate
cumvallation, and to have efcaped out of the city ; cataftrophe of the befieged.
but, being there repulfed, they were forced to go and Thus ended the Jewiff nation and worff ip ; nor State of the
hide themfelves in the public finks and common few- have they ever fince been able to regain the fmalleft Jews fince
ers, fome one w'ay and fome another. All whom the footing in the country of Judea, nor indeed in any he deftruc-
Romans could find were put to the fword, and the ci- other country on earth, though there is fcarce any part
ty was fet on fire. This was on the eighth of Sep- of the globe where they are not to be found. They ^
tember, when the city was taken and entered by Ti- continue their vain expedlations of a Mefliah to deli-
tus. He would have put an end to the maffacre; but ver them from the low eftate into which they are fal-
his men killed all, except the moft vigorous, whom len ; and, notwithftanding their repeated difappoint-
they fliut up in the porch of the women juft mention- ments, there are few who can ever be perfuaded to
cd. Fronto, who had the care of them, referved the embrace Chriftianity. Their ceremonies and religious
youngeft and moft beautiful for Titus’s triumph; worffip ought to be taken from the law of Mofes;
and fent all that were above feventeen years of age in- but they have added a multitude of abfurdities not
to Egypt, to be employed in fome public works there ; worth the inquiring after. In many countries, and in
and a great number of others were fent into feveral ci- different ages, they have been terribly maffacred, and
ties of Syria, and other provinces, to be expofed on in general have been better treated by the Mahome-
the public theatre, to exhibit fights, or be devour- tans and Pagans than by Chriftians. Since the revr-
164. val
J E Z E 145 1 I G N
Jews, val of arts and learning, however, they have felt the
. Jezides-1 benefit of that increafe of humanity which hath taken
v place almoft all over the globe. It Is faid, that In this
country the life of a Jew was formerly at the difpofal
of the chief lord where he lived, and likewife all his
goods. So ftrong alfo were popular prejudices and fuf-
picions againft them, that in the year 1348, a fatal
endemic diftemper raging in a great part of Europe,
it was faid that they had poifoned the fprings and
wells; in confequence of which a million and a half
of them were cruelly mafiacred. In 1492, half a mil¬
lion of them were driven out of Spain, and 150,000
from Portugal. Edward I. did. the fame. In fhort,
they were every where perfecuted, opptefled, and moft
rigoroufly treated.
In this enlighted period a more generous fyftem is
taking place. France has allowed them the rights of
citizens, which induces numbers of the moft wealthy
Jews to fix their refidence in that country. Poland is
about granting them very great privileges and immu¬
nities ; England, Holland, and Pruffia tolerate and
proteA them ; and the emperor has revoked fome re-
ilri&ions, for which an ediA has lately palled : Spain,
Portugal, and fome of the Italian Hates, are ftilh how¬
ever, totally averfe to their dwelling among them.
JEZIDES, among the Mahometans ; a term of fi-
-milar import with heretics among Chritlians.
The Jezides are a numerous feA inhabiting Turky
and Perfia, fo called from their head Jezid, an Ara¬
bian prince, who flew the fons of Ali, Mahomet’s fa¬
ther-in-law ; for which reafon he is reckoned a parri¬
cide, and his followers hereitcs. There are about
20,000 Jezides in Turky and Perfia ; who are of two
forts, black and white. The white are clad like
Turks ; and diftinguilhed only by their Ihirts, which
are not flit at the neck like thofe of others, but have
only a round hole to thruft their heads through. This
is in memory of a golden ring, or circle of light, which
defcended from heaven upon the neck of their cheq,
the head of their religion, after his undergoing a fall
of forty days. The black Jezides, though married,
are the monks or religious of the order ; and thefe are
called Fakirs.
The Turks exaA exceffive taxes from the Jezides,
who hate the Turks as their mortal enemies; and when,
in their wrath, they curfe any creature, they call it
mujfulman : but they are great lovers of the Chriftians,
being more fond of Jefus Chrift than of Mahomet, and
are never circumcifed but when they are forced to it.
They are extremely ignorant, and believe both the
bible and the koran without reading either of them :
they make vows and pilgrimages, but have no places of
religious worftrip.
All the adoration they pay to God confifts of fome
fongs in honour of Jefus Chrill, the virgin, Mofes,
and fometimes Mahomet; and it is a principal point
of their religion never to fpeak ill of the devil, left he
flrould refent the injury, if ever he ftrould come to be in
favour with God again, which they think poflible;
whenever they fpeak of him, they call him the angel
Peacock. They bury their dead in the firft place they
come at, rejoicing as at a feftival, and celebrating the
entry of the deceafed into heaven. They go in com¬
panies like the Arabians, and change their habitations
Vol. IX. Part I.
every 15 days. When they get wine, they drink it to Jezrarf
excefs ; and it is faid, that they fometimes do this with H .
a religious purpofe, calling it the blood of Chrift. They , u‘
buy their wives; and the market-price is 200 crowns
for all women, handfome or not, without diftinAion.
JEZRAEL, or Jezreel, a town in the north of
Samaria, towards mount Carmel, where ftood a palace
of the kings of Ifrael, 1 Kings xxi, 18. On the bor¬
ders of Galilee (Joftiua xix.) faid to be one of the
towns of Ifiacfiar.—The valley of Jezreel (Judges
vi. 17.) was fituated to the north of the town, run¬
ning from vVfeft to eaft for ten miles, between two
mountains; the one to the north, commonly called
Herman, near mount Tabor; the other Gilboa: in
breadth two miles.
IF, an ifland of France, in Provence, and the moft
eaftern of the three before the harbour of Marfeilles.
It is very well fortified, and its port one of the beft in
the Mediterranean.
IGIS, a town of the country of the Grifons, in
Caddea, with a magnificent caftle, in which is a cabi¬
net of curiofities, and a handfome library ; 23 miles
fouth-weft of Choira, and 23 fouth of Gian's. E. Lon.
9. o. N. Lat. 49. 10.
IGLAW, a conltderable and populous town of
Germany, in Moravia, where they have a manufaAory
of good cloth, and excellent beer. It is feated on the
river Igla, 40 miles weft of Brin, and 80 fouth-eaft of
Prague. E. Long. 15. 5. N Lat. 49. 10.
IGNATIA, in botany, a genus of the monogymia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. The
calyx is five-toothed ; the corolla is long ; the fruit an
unilocular plum, with many feeds. There is but one
fpecies, the amara, a native of India. The fruit of
this tree contains the feeds called St Ignatius's beans.
The beft account of the plant that has yet appeared,
is that fent by father Camelli to Ray and Petiver, and
publifhed in the Philofophical TranfaAions for the year
1699: he obferves, that it grows in the Philippine
iflands, and winds itfelf about the talleft trees to the
top; that it has large, ribbed, bitter leaves, a flower
like that of the pomegranate, and a fruit larger than
a melon. Some refemble the fruit to a pomegranate,
probably from mifapplying Camelli’s words. The fruit
is covered with a thin, glofly, blackifti, green, and as
it were marbled ftiell, under which is lodged another
of a ftony hardnefs : within this is contained a foft,
yellow, bitterifh pulp, in which lie the feeds or beans,
to the number commonly of 24, each covered with a
filvery down.
The fame gentleman gives an account of the virtue*
attributed to thefe feeds by the Indians; but expe¬
rience has Ihown that they are dangerous. Konig re¬
lates, that a perfon, by drinking fome of a fpirituous
tinAure of them inftead of aqua vitas, was thrown into
ftrong convulfions; and Dr Grim, that a dram of the
feed in fubftance occafioned, for a time, a total depri-
vatioaof the fenfes. Others mention violent vomitings
and purgings from its ufe. Neumann hath obferved
intermitting fevers removed by drinking, on the ap¬
proach of a paroxyfm, an infufion of fome grains of
the bean made in carduus water : We are not, how¬
ever, from hence to look upon this medicine as an uni-
verfal febrifuge, or to ufe it indifcriminately.
Thefe
I G N [ 146 ] I G N
Ignatius. Thefe beans (for fo cuftom requires that we ftiould
call them) are about the fize of a moderately large nut¬
meg ; in figure fomewhat roundiih, but extremely ir¬
regular, fcarcely any two being entirely alike, full of
unequal deprefiions and prominences j in colour, ex¬
ternally. yellowilh brown, but when the outer fltin is
taken off, of a blackifh brown, and in part quite
black!(h ; in confidence hard and compact as horn, fo
as not to be reducible into a powdery form, but by
cutting or rafping : for all their hardnefs, however,
they are not proof againd worms. When freih, they
have fomewhat of a mufky fmell, which by age is loft :
their taflc is very bitter, refembled by fome to that of
centaury.
According to fome, it is from this plant that the
Colombo root is obtained.
IGNATIUS Loyola, (canonized), the founder
©f the well-known order of the Jesuits, was born at
the caftle of Loyola, in Bifcay, 1491and became
firft page to Ferdinand V. king of Spain, and then an
officer in his army. In this laft capacity, he fignalized
himfelf by his valour; and was wounded in both legs
at the fiege of Pompeluna, in 1521. To this circum-
ftance the Jefuits owe their origin ; for, while he was
tinder cure of his wound, a Life of the Saints was put
into his hands, which determined him to forfake the
military for the ecclefiaftical profeffion. His firft de¬
vout exercife was to dedicate himfelf to the bleffed vir¬
gin as her knight: he then went a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land ; and on his return to Europe, he conti¬
nued his theological ftudies in the univerfities of Spain,
though he was then 33 years of age. After this he
went to Paris; and in France laid the foundation of
this new order, the inftitutes of which he prefented
to Pope Paul III. who made many objections to them,
but at laft confirmed the inftitution in 1540. The
founder died in 1555, and left his difciples two famous
books; 1. Spiritual exercifes ; 2. Conftitutions or rules
of the order. But it muft be remembered, that though
thefe avowed inftitutes contain many privileges ob¬
noxious to the welfare of fociety, the moft diabolical
are contained in the private rules intitled Monita fecre-
10, which were not difcovered till towards the clofe of
the laft century ; and mofl writers attribute thefe, and
even the Conftitutions, to Laynex, the fecond general
of the order.
Ignatius (St), furnamed Theopbrajlus, one of the
apoftolical fathers of the church, was born in Syria,
and educated under the apoftle and evangelift St John,
and intimately acquainted with fome other of the a-
poftles, efpeoially St Peter and St Paul. Being fully
inftru&ed in the do&rines of Chriflianity, he was, for
his eminent parts and piety, ordained by St John, and
♦onfirmed about the year 67 bifhop of Antioch, by
thofe two apoftles, who firft planted Chriftianity in that
city, where the difciples alfo were firft called Chriflians.
Antioch was then not only the metropolis of Syria,
but a city the moft famous and renowned of any in the
saft, and the ancient feat of the Roman emperors, as
well as of the viceroys and governors. In this impor¬
tant feat he continued to fit fomevwhat above 40 years,
both an honour and fafe-guard of the Chriftian reli¬
gion, till the year 107, when Trajan the emperor,
fluffied with a viftory which he bad lately obtained o-
ver the Scythians and Daci, about the ninth year of
Lis reign, came to Antioch to make preparations for
a war again!! the Parthians and Armenians. He en- Ignstm*..
tered the city with the pomp and folemnities of a tri- 1
umph ; and, as his firil care ufually was about the con¬
cernments of religion, he began prefently to inquire
into that affair. Chriftianity had by this time made
fuch a progrefs, that the Romans grew jealous and
uneafy at it. This prince, therefore, had already
commenced a perfecution again!! the Chriftians in
other parts of the empire, which he now refolved to
carry on here. However, as he was naturally of 3
mild difpofition, though he ordered the laws to be put
in force againft them if convifted, yet he forbad them
to be fought after.
In this ftate of affairs, Ignatius, thinking it more
prudent to go himfelf th»n ftay to be fent for, of hifr
owrn accord prefented himfelf to the emperor ; and, it
is faid, there palled a long and particular difcourfe be¬
tween them, wherein the emperor expreffing a furprife
how he dared to tranfgrefs the laws, the bifliop took
the -opportunity to affert his own innocency, and to
explain and vindicate his faith with freedom. The if-
fue of this was, that he was call into prifon, and this
fentence paffed upon him, That, being incurably over¬
run with fuperllition, he Ihould be carried bound by fol-
diers to Rome, and there thrown as a prey to wild beafts.
He was firft condudled to Seleucia, a port of Syria,
at about 16 miles diftance, the place where Paul and
Barnabas fet fail for Cyprus. Arriving at Smyrna in
Ionia, he went to vifit Polycarp bilhop of that place,
and was himfelf vifited by the clergy of the 'Afian
churches round the country. In return for that kind-
nefs, he wrote letters to feveral churches, as the Ephe-
lians, Magnefians, and Trallians, befide&the Romans,
for their inflruction and eftablilhment in the faith ; one
of thefe was addreffed to the Chriftians at Rome, to
acquaint them with hisprefent ftate, and paffionate de-
frre not to be hindered in the courfe of martyrdom
which he was now haftening to accomplifh.
His guard, a little impatient of their ftay, fet fail
with him for Troas, a noted city of the leffer Phry¬
gia, not far from the ruins of old Troy where, at
his arrival, he was much refrelhed with the news he
received of the perfecutian cealing in the church of
Antioch : hither alfo feveral churches fent their mef-
fengers to pay their refpe&s to him ; and hence too he
difpatehed two epillles, one to the church of Phila¬
delphia, and the other to that of Smyrna; and, to¬
gether with this laft, as Eufebius relates, he wrote pri¬
vately to Polycarp, recommending to him the care and
infpedlion of the church of Antioch.
From Troas they failed to Neapolis, a maritime
town in Macedonia ; thence to Philippi, a Roman co¬
lony, where they were entertained with all imaginable
kindnefs and courtefy, and condudled forwards on their
journey, paffiog on foot through Macedonia and Epi¬
rus, till they came to Epidanium, a city of Dalma¬
tia ; where again taking Ihipping, they failed through
the Adriatic, and arrived at Rhegium. a port-town in
Italy ; directing their courfe thence through the Tyr¬
rhenian fea to Puteoli, whence Ignatius defired to
proceed by land, ambitious to trace the fame way by
which St Paul went to Rome ; but this wilh was not
complied with ; and, after a ftay of 24 hours, a prof-
perous wind quickly carried them to the Roman port,,
the great harbour and ftation for their navy, built
near Ollia, at the mouth of the Tyber, about 16 miles
from.
I G N f H7 J I G N
Ignatius from Rome ; whither the martyr longed to come, as
II. much defirous to be at the end of his race, as his
keepers, weary of their voyage, were to be at the end
of their journey.
The Chriftians at Rome, daily expefting his arrival,
were come out to meet and entertain him, and accor¬
dingly received him with a mixture of joy and forrow ;
but when feme of them intimated, that poffibly the
populace might be taken off from defiring his death,
he expreffed a pious indignation, intreating them to
caft no rubs in his way, nor do any thing that might
hinder him, now he washafteningto his crown. There
are many fuch expreffions as this in his epiftle to the
Romans, which plainly fhow that he was highly am¬
bitious of the crown of martyrdom. Yet it does not
appear that he rafhly fought or provoked danger. A-
mong other expreflions of his ardor for fuffering, he
faid, that the wild beads had feared and refufed to
touch feme that had been thrown to them, which he
hoped would not happen to him. Being conduced
to Rome, he was prefented to the prasfedf, and the
emperor’s letters probably delivered concerning him.
The interval before his martyrdom was fpent in pray¬
ers for the peace and profperity of the church. That
his punifhment might be the more pompous and pub¬
lic, one of their folemn feflivals, the time of their Sa¬
turnalia, and that part of it when they celebrated their
Sigillaria, was pitched on for his execution ; at which
time it was their cuflom to entertain the people with
the bloody confli&s of gladiators, and the hunting and
fighting with v/ild beads. Accordingly, on -the 13th
kal. January, i. e. December 20. he was brought out
into the amphitheatre, and the lions being let loofe
upon him, quickly difpatched their meal, leaving no¬
thing but a few of the harded of his bones. Thefe
remains were gathered up by two deacons who had
been the companions of his journey ; and being tranf-
ported to Antioch, were interred in the cemetery,
without the gate that leads to Daphne; whence, by
the command of the emperor Theodofius, they were
removed with great pomp and folemnity to the Ty-
cheon, a temple within the city, dedicated to the pub¬
lic genius of it, but now coufecrated to the memory
of the martyr.
St Ignatius dands at the head of thofe Antinicene
fathers, who have occafionally delivered their opinions
in defence of the true divinity of Clirid, whom he calls
the Son of God, and his eternal Word. He is alfo reck¬
oned the great champion of the doftrine of the epif-
copal order, as didinft and fuperior to that of pried
and deacon. And one, the molt important, ufe'of his
writings refpedts the authenticity of the holy Scrip¬
tures, which he frequently alludes to, in the very ex¬
preffions as they Hand at this day.—Archbiffiop Ulh-
er’s edition of his works, printed in 1647, is thought
* the bed : yet there is a freffier edition extant at Am-
•fterdam, where, befide the bed notes, there are the
differtations of Uffier and Pearfon.
St Ignatius's Bean. See Ignatia.
IGNIS-fatuus, a kind of light, fuppofed to be of
an eleftric nature, appearing frequently in mines,
mailhy places, and neat dagnating waters. It was
formerly thought, and is dill by the fuperditious
believed, to have fomething ominous in its nature.
and to prefage death and other misfortunes. There Ignition’
have been indances of people being decoyed by thefe II
lights into marffiy places, where they have periffied ; .gnorai>c?'*
whence the names of Ignis fatuus, Will-with-a-wfp,
and 'Jach-'vuith-a-hmthorn, as if this appearance was
an evil fpirit which took delight in doing mifehief of
that kind. For a further account of the nature and
properties of the ignis-fatuus, fee the articles Light
and Meteor.
IGNITION, properly fignifies the fetting fire t«
any fubdance ; but the fenfe is commonly redrained
to that kind of burning which is not accompanied
with flame, fuch as that of charcoal, cinders, metals,
dones, and other folid fubdances.
The effefts of ignition are fird to diffipate what is
called the phlogiflon of the ignited fubdance, after
which it is reduced to afhes. Vitrification next fol¬
lows; and ladly, the fubdance is totally diffipated in
vapour. All thefe effe&s, however, depend on the
prefence of the air ; for in vacuo the phlogidon of any
fubdance cannot be diffipated. Neither can a body
which is totally deditute of philogidon be ignited in
fuch a manner as thofe which are not deprived of it:
for as long as the phlogidon remains, the heat is kept
up in the body by the a&ion of the external air upon
it; but when the phlogidon is totally gone, the air
always dedroys, indead of augmenting, the heat. Phi-
lofophers have therefore been greatly tmbarraffed in ex*
plainingthe phenomena ofignition. See Phlogiston.
IGNOBILES, amongd the Romans, was the defig-
nation of fuch perfons as had no right of uiing piftures
and datues. See Jvs Imaginis.
IGNOMINIA, a fpecies of punifhment arnongd
the Romans, whereby the offender fuffered public
fliame, either by virtue of the praetor’s edift, or by
order of the cenfor. This puniffiment, befides the
fcandal, deprived the party of the privilege of bearing
any offices, and almod all other liberties of a Roman
citizen.
IGNORAMUS, in law is a word properly u-
fed by the grand fnqued empanelled in the inquifi-
tion of caufes criminal and public, and written upon the
bill whereby any crime is offered to their confideration,
when as they millike their evidence as defc&iveor too
weak to make good the prefentment; the effedf of
which word fo written is, that all farther inquiry upon
that party for that'fault is thereby dopped, and lie
delivered without farther anfwer. It hath a refem-
blance with that^cudom of the ancient Romans, where
the judges, when they abfolved a perfon accufed, did
write /l. upon a little table provided for that purpofe,
i. e. abfohimus ; if they judged him guilty, they wrote
C. i. e. condemnamus; if they found the caufe difficult
and doubtful, they wrote N. L. i. e. non liquet.
IGNORANCE, the privation or abfence of know¬
ledge. The caufes of ignorance, according to Locke,
are chiefly thefe three. I. Want of ideas. 2. Want
of a difcoverable connexion between the ideas we
have. 3. Want of tracing and examining our ideas.
See Metaphysics.
Ignorance, in a more particular fenfe, is ufed to
denote illiteracy. Previous to the taking of Rome by
the Gauls, fuch grofs ignorance prevailed among the
Romans, that few of the citizenscould read or write,and
T 2 the
JIB [ t48 1 J I D
ignorance the alphabet was almoft unknown. During three ages age, an affemblage of many very rocky mountains in
II there were no public fchools, but the little learning their Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers. Here Mr Bruce
. -1' e‘ , children had was taught them by their parents; and how met with a lace of people much fairer in the com-
little that was may be partly concluded from this circum- plexion than any of the nations to the fouthward of
fiance, that a nail was ufually driven into the wall of Britain : their hair was red, and their eyes blue : they
the temple of Jupiter Capitolinusy on the 15th of Sep- maintain their independence, and are of a favage dif-
tember, to affifi the ignorance of the people in reckon- pofition, fo that our traveller found it difficult to ap¬
ing the years, becaufe they were unacquainted with proach them with fafety. They are called Neardia;
letters or figures. The driving of the nail was after- and each of them has a Greek crofs in the middle be-
wards converted into a religious ceremony, and per- tween the eyes, marked with antimony. They are
formed by the Difiator, to avert public calamities. divided into tribes, but, unlike the other Arabs, have
Ignorance, or miftake, in law, a defeft of will, huts in the mountains built of mud and ftraw ; and
whereby a perfon is excufed from the guilt of a crime, are, by our author, fuppofed to be a remnant of the
when, intending to do a lawful a£t, he does that which Vandals He even thinks that they may be defcended
is unlawful. For here the deed and the will adting from the remainder of an army of Vandals mentioned
feparately, there is not that conjun&ion between them by Procopius, which was defeated among thefe moun-
which is necelfary to form a criminal aft. But this tains. They live in perpetual war with the Moors,
mull be ah ignorance or miftake of faft, and not an and boaft that their ancettors were Chriftians. They
error in point of law. As if a man intending to kill pay no taxes.
a thief or houfe-breaker in his own houfe, by miftake JIDDA, a town of Arabia, fituated, according to
kills one of his own family, this is no criminal aftion : Mr Bruce, in|N. Lat. 28° a v' E. Long. 390 16' 45'',
but if a man thinks he has a right to kill a perfon It is fituated in a very unwholefome, barren, and.
excommunicated or outlawed wherever he, meets him, defert part of the country. Immediately without the.
and does fo; this is wilful murder. For a miftake in gate to the eaftward is a.defert plain filled with the
point of law, which every perfon of difcretion not huts of the Bedoweens or country Arabs, built of long
only may, but is bound and prefumed to know, is, in bundles of fpartum or bent-grafs put together like
criminal cafes, no fort of defence. Ignorantia juris fafcines. Thefe people fupply the town with milk arid
quod quifque tenetur fare, neminem excufat, is as well the butter. “ There is no ftirring out of the town (fays
maxim of our own law as it was of the Roman. Mr Bruce) even fora walk, unlcfsfor about half a mile
IGUANA, in zoology, a fpecies of Lacerta. in the fouth-fide by the fea, wheie there is a number
Mud-IaujiNA. See Muraena. of ftinking pools of ftagnant water, which contributes
1HOR, Johor, or Jor, a town of A fia, is Ma- to make the town very unwholefome.”1
lacca, and capital of a province of the fame name in From the difagreeable and inconvenient fifuation of
the peninfula beyond the Ganges. It was taken by this port, it is probable, that it would have been long
the Portuguefe in 1603, who deftroyed it, and car- ago abandoned, had it not been .for its vicinity to
ried off the cannon ; but it has fince been rebuilt, and Mecca, and the vaft annual influx of wealth occalioned
is now in pofieffion of the Dutch. E. Long. 93. 55. by the India trade; which, however, does not continue,.
N. Lat. x. 15. but pafles on to Mecca, whence it is difperfed all over
JIB, the foremoft fail of a Ihip, being a large ftay- the call. The town of Jidda itfelf receives but little
fail extended from the outer end of the bowfprit pro- advantage, for all the cuftoms are immediately fent. to
longed by the jib-boom, towards the fore-top mail- the needy and rapacious Iheriff of Mecca and his de¬
head. See Sail. pendents, “ The gold (fays Mr Bruce) is returned
The jib is a fail of great command with any fide- in bags and boxes, and palfes on as rapidly to the
wind, but efpecially when the (hip is clofe hauled, or ftxips as the goods do to the market, and leaves as little
has the wind upon her beam; and its effort in profit behind. In the mean time provifions rile to a
the fhip, or turning her head to leeward, is very prodigious price, and this falls upon the townfmen,
powerful, and of great utility, particularly when the while all the profit of the traffic is in the hands of
Ihip is working through a narrow channel. ftrangers ; moft of whom, after the market is over
JiB-Boom, a boom run out from the extremity of (which does not laft fix weeks), retire to Yemen and-
the bowfprit, parallel to its length, and ferving to other neighbouring countries, which abound in every
extend the bottom of the jib, and the ftay of the fore- fort of provifion.
top-gallant mail. This boom, which is nothing more From this fcarcity, Mr Bruce fuppofes it is that-
than a continuation of the bowfprit forward, to which polygamy is lefs common, here than in any other part
it may be confidered as a top maft, is ufually attached of Arabia. “ Few of the inhabitants of Jidda (fays
to the bowfprit by means of two large boom irons, our author) can avail tliemfelves of the privilege grant¬
or by one boom iron, and a cap on the outer end of ed by Mahomet. He cannot marry more than one
the bowfprit; or, finally, by the cap without and a wife,.becaufe he cannot maintain more; and from this,
ilrong lalhing within, inftead of a boom-iron, which caufe arifes the want of people and the number of un¬
is generally the method of fecuring it in fmall mer- married women.”
chant-Ihips. It may therefore be drawn in upon the The trade at Jidda is carried on in a manner which
bowfprit as eccafion requires; which is ufually prac- appeared very ftrange to our traveller^ “ Nine fliipa
tifed when the (hip enters a harbour, where it might (lays he) were there from India ; fome of them v/orth,
very foon be broken or carried away, by the veffels I fuppofe, 200,000!. One merchant, a Turk, living
which are moored therein, or palling by under fail. at Mecca, 30 hours journey off, where no Chriftian.
TIBBEL-Ajjrez, the oious aurafuis of the middle dares go whiift, the continent is open to the Turk for
efcapej
J I D [ 149 1 I L A
Jidda, efcape, offers to purchafe the cargoes of four out of
—y——' thefe nine fhips himfelf; another of the fame call
comes and fays he will buy none unlefs he has them
all. The famples are Ihown, and the cargoes of the
whole nine Ihips are carried into the wildeft parts of
Arabia by men with whom one would not wifh to
trull himfelf alone in the field. This is not all; two
India brokers come into the room to fettle the price;
one on the part of the India Captain, the other on
that of the buyer the Turk. They are neither Ma
hometans nor Chriflians, but have credit with both.
They fit down on the carpet, and take an India (bawl
which they carry on their Ihoulder like a napkin, and
fpread it over their hands. They talk in the mean time
indifferent converfation. as if they were employed in
no ferious bufinefs whatever. After about 20 minutes
fpent in handling each others fingers below the lhawl,
the bargain is concluded, fay for nine Ihips, without
one word ever having been fpoken on the fubjedt, or
pen or ink ufed in any lhape whatever* There never
was one inllance of a difpute happening in thefe fales.
But this is not all; the money is yet to be paid. A
private Moor, who has nothing to fupport him but
his charadter, becomes refponfible for. the payment of
thefe cargoes. This man delivers a number of coarfe
hempen bags full of what is fuppofed to be money.
He marks the contents upon the bag, and puts his
ftal upon the firing that ties the mouth of it. This is
received for what is marked upon it without apy one
ever having opened one of the bags ; and in India it is
current for the value marked upon it as long as the
bag lafts.
The port of Jidda is very extenfive, and contains
numberlefs Ihoals, fmall illands, and funk rocks, with
deep channels, however, between them ; but in the
harbour itfelf Ihips may ride fecure, whatever wind
blows. The only danger is in the coming in or going
out; but as the pilots are very Ikilful, accidents are ne¬
ver known to happen. The charts of this harbour, as
Mr Bruce informs us, are exceedingly erroneous.
While he ftaid here, he was defired by Captain
Thornhill to make a new chart of the harbour; but
finding that it had been undertaken by another gentle¬
man, Captain Newland, he dropped it. He argues in the
ftroitgeft terms againil the old maps, which he fays
can be of no ufe, but the contrary ; and he gives it as
a chara&eriftic of the Red fea, “ fcarce to have
foundings in any part of the channel, and often on
both fides ; whilft alhore, foundings are hardly found
a boat length from the main. To this, fays he, I will
add, that there is fcarce one ifland on which I ever
was, where the boltfprit was not over the land, while
there were no foundings by a line heaved over the
ftern. Of all the veflels in Jidda, only two had
their log lines properly divided, and yet all were
fo fond of their fuppofed accuracy, as to aver they
had kept their courfe within five leagues between In¬
dia and Babelmandel. Yet they had made no eftima-
tion of the currents without the ftraits,nor the different
very firong onesfoon after paffing Socotra; their half¬
minute glaffes, upon a medium, ran 57 feconds ; they
had made no obfet rations on the tides or currents in
the Red fea, either in the channel or in the inward
jaaffage ; yet there is delineated in this map a courfe of
Captain Newland’s, which he kept in the middle of J'ar
the channel, full of (harp angles and (hort ftretches ; ^
you would think every yard was meafured and. »
founded !”
JIG. See Music, n0 252.
JIN. See Genii.
1KENILD street, one of the four famous ways
which the Romans made in England, called Stratum
Icenorum, becaufe it began in the country of the Iceni,
who inhabited Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge-
(hire.
IL A, Ilay or IJla, one of the Weftern Ides of Scot¬
land, lying to the weft of Jura, from which it is fepa-
rated by a narrow channel. It extends 28 miles in length
from north to fouth. and is 18 in breadth from eall
to weft. On the eaft fide, it is full of mountains co¬
vered with heath; to the fouthward, the land is tole¬
rably well cultivated. In fome parts the inhabitants
have found great plenty of limellone, and lead-mines
are worked in three different places. The only har¬
bour in Ida is at Lochdale, near the north end-of the
idand. Here are feveral rivers and lakes well ftored
with trout, eels, and falmon. In the centre is Loch
Finlagan, about three miles in circuit, with the little
ide of that name in the middle. Here the great lord
of the ides once refided in all the pomp of royalty ;
but his palaces and offices are now in ruins. Inilead
of a throne, Macdonald flood on a ftone feven feet
fqtiare, in which there was an impreffion made to re¬
ceive his feet; here he was crowned and anointed by
the bi(hop of Argyle and feven inferior priefts, in pre-
fence of the chieftains. This ftone ftill exifts. The
ceremony (after the new lord had colledled his kin-
drt*d and vad'als) was truly patriarchal. After putting
on his armour, his helmet, and his fvvord, he took an
oath to rule as his anceftors had done ; that is, to go¬
vern as a father would his children : his people in re¬
turn fwore that they would pay the fame obedience to
him as children would to their parent. The domi¬
nions of this potentate, about the year 1586, confided
only of Ilay, Jura, Knapdale, and Cantyre ; fo redu¬
ced were they from what they had been before the de¬
privation of the great earl of Rofs in the reign of
James III. Near this is another little ifle, where he
affembled his council, Ilan na Corlle, or “ the ifland of
council;” where 13 judges conftantly fat to decide
differences among his fubjedls ; and received for their
trouble the nth part of the value of the affair tried
before them. In the firft ifland were buried the wives
and children of the lords of the ifl.es; but their own
perfons were depofited in the more facred ground of
Iona. On the (hores of the lake are fome marks of
the quarters of his Carnauch and Gilli glajfes, “ the mi¬
litary of the ifles:” the firft fignifying a ftrong man,
the laft a grim looking fellow. The firft were light¬
armed, and fought with darts and daggers; the lad
with (harp hatchets. Thefe are the troops that Shake-
fpeare alludes to, when he fpeaks of a Donald, who
"- From the Weftern Hies
Of Kernes and Oallow-glaffes was fuppiied.
Befides thofe already mentioned, the lords had a hoiife
and chapel at Laganon, on the fouth fide of Loch-an-
daal: a ftrong caftle on a rock in the fea, at Duno-
waik, at the fouth.-eaft end of the country ; for they,
made..-
T LA f 15
II* matle this ifland their refidence after their cxpulfion
from that of Man in 1304.—There is a tradition, that
while the Ifle of Man was part of the kingdom of the
ifles, the rents were for a time paid in this coun¬
try : thofe in filver were paid on a rock, ftill called
Creig-a-nione, or “the rock of the filver-rentthe
other, Creg a nairgidy or “ the rock of rents in kind.”
Thefe lie oppofite to each other, at the mouth of a
harbour on the fouth fide of this ifland. There are
feveral forts built on the ifles in fte/h-water lakes, and
divers caverns in different parts of the ifland, which
have been ufed occafionally as places of ftrength. The
ifland is divided into four parifires, viz.. Kildalton,
Kilaron, Kilchoman, and Kilmenie. The produce is
corn of different kinds; fuch as bear, which fometimes
yields eleven fold; and oats fix fold. Much flax is
raifed here, and about L. 2060 worth fold out of the
ifland in yarn, which might better be manufadhrred
on the fpot, to give employ to the poor natives. Not-
withflanding the excellency of the land, above L. 1000
worth of meal is annually imported. Ale is frequent¬
ly made in this ifland of the young , tops of heath,
mixing two-thirds of that plant with one of malt,
fometimes adding hops. Boethius relates, that this
liquor was much ufed among the Pidfs; but when that
nation was extirpated by the Scots, the fecret of ma¬
king it periihed with them. Numbers of cattle are
bred here, and about 1700 arc annually exported at
the price of 50 fhillings each. The ifland is often
overftocked, and numbers die in March for want of
fodder. None but milch-cows are houfed : cattle of
all other kinds, except the faddle-horfes, run out du¬
ring winter.
The number of inhabitants.is computed to be be¬
tween feven and eight thoufand. About 700 are em¬
ployed in the mines and in the fifhery; the reft are
gentlemen-farmers, and fubtenants or fervants. The
women fpin. The fervants are paid in kind; the fixth
part of the crop. They have houfes gratis: the ma¬
iler gives them the feed for the firft year, and lends
them horfes to plough annually the land annexed.
The quadrupeds of this ifland, as enumerated by
Mr Pennant f, are ftots, weefels, otters, andj hares :
the laft fmall, dark-coloured, and bad runners. The
birds are eagles, peregrine falcons, black and red game,
f Voyage and a very few ptarmigans, Red-breafted goofanders
to the He- treed on the (bore among the loofe ftones, wild geefe
fnrfw. u' in the moors, and herons in the ifland in Loch-guirm.
The fiih are plaife, fmeardab, large dabs, mullets, bal-
lan, lump-fifh, black goby, greater dragonet, and that
rare filh the lepadogafter of M. Geuan. Vipers fwarm
in the heath: the natives retain the vulgar error of
their Hinging with their forked tongues; that a fword
on which the poifon has fallen will hifs in water like a
red-hot iron ; and that a poultice of human ordure is
an infallible cure for the bite.
In this ifland, Mr Pennant informs us, feveral an¬
cient diverfions and fuperftitions are ftill preferred: the
laft indeed are almoft extindf, or at moft lurk only a-
mongft the very meaneft of the people. The late-
wakes or funerals, like thofe of the Romans, were at¬
tended wuth fports, and dramatic entertainments com-
pofed of many parts, and the aftors often changed their
drefles fuitably to their characters. The fubjeft of the
drama was hiftorical, and preferred by memory.—The
5
° ] I L A
power of fafeination is as ftrongly believed here as it
was by the iheplterds of Italy in times of old.
A efeto quis teneros oculii mihi fafeinat agnos?
But here the power of the evil-eye aflfeds more the
milch-cows than lambs. If the good houfewife per¬
ceives the effeCt of the malicious on any of her kine,
die takes as much milk as file can drain from the en¬
chanted herd (for the witch commonly leaves very
little). She then boils it with certain herbs, and adds
to them flints and untempered fteel: after that ihe
fecuresthe door, and invokes the three facrcd perfons.
This puts the witch into fuch an agony, that ihe comes
nilling-willing to the houfe, begs to be admitted, to
obtain relief by touching the powerful pot: the good
woman then makes her terms; the witch reftores the
milk to. the cattle, and in return is freed from her
pains. But fometimes, to fave the trouble of thofe
charms (for it may happen that the diforder may arife
from other caufes than an evil eye), the trial is' made
by immerging in milk a certain herb, and if the cows
are fupernaturally affefted, it inftantly diitills blood.
The unfuccefsful lover revenges himfelf on his happy
rival by charms potent as thofe of the ihepherd Al-
pheiibasus, and exacily fimilar :
JS.e6ie tribus nod is ter nos ^ A mary Hi y colores:
Kccle, Amarylli, modo.
Donald takes three threads of different hues, and
ties three knots on each, three times imprecating the
moft cruel difappointments on the nuptial bed : but
the bridegroom, to avert the harm, Hands at the altar
with an untied ftioe, and puts a iixpence beneath his
foot.
Hiftory fur nifties very few materials for the great
events or revolutions of Hay.- It feems to have been
long a feat of empire, probably jointly with the Ifie of
Man, as being moft conveniently fitnated for the go¬
vernment of the reft of the Hebrides ; for Crovan the
Norwegian, after his conqueft of that ifiand in 1066,
retired and finiftied his days in Hay. There are more
Danifti or Norwegian names of places in this ifland
than any other : almoft all the prefent farms derive
their titles from them; fuch as Perlibus, Torridale,
Torribolfe, and the like. On the retreat of the Danes
it became the feat of their fucceffors the lords of the
ifles ; and continued, after their po ver was broken, in
the reign of James III. in their defeendants the Mac¬
donalds, who held or ought to have held it from the
crown. It was in the poffeflion of a Sir James Mac¬
donald, in the year 1598, the fame who won the
battle of Trail-dhruinard. His power gave umbrage
to James VI. who direfted the lord of Macleod,
Cameron of Lochiel, and the Micneiles of Barra,
to fupport the Macleans in another invafion. The ri¬
val parties met near the hill of Benb’igger, eaft of Kil-
arow; a fierce engagement enfued, and the Macdo¬
nalds were defeated and alnioft entirely cut off. Sir
James efcaped to Spain; but returned in 1620, was
pardoned, received a penfion, and died the fame year
at Glafgow; and in him expired the laft of the great
Macdonalds. But the king, irritated by the diftur-
bances raifed by private wars, waged between thefe and
other clans, refumed the grant made by his predecef-
for, and transferred it to Sir John Campbell of Calder,
who held it on paying an annual feu-duty of five hun¬
dred pounds tierling, which is paid to this day. The
xfland
I L D [ 151 ] 1 L D
tlchefter, ifland was granted to Sir John as a reward for his
L und«rtaking the conqudi ; but the family confidered
| _ it as a dear acquifition, by the lofs of many gallant
followers, and by the expences incurred in fupport
of it.
ILCHESTER, a town of Somerfetlhire in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Yeovil, 129 rtiiles from Lon¬
don, is fo called, becaufe it once had a caftle, and
hands on the river Ivel. It is a place of great an¬
tiquity, as appears by the Roman coins which are
fometimes dug up. It is likewife evident, from the
ruins and from two towers on the bridge, that it was
once a large place, and encompafied with a double wall.
It alfo had fevcral parilh churches, though now but
one. It is governed by two bailiffs, who with the twelve
burgefles are lords of the manor. In the reign of Ed¬
ward III. the affizes for the county were fixed here,
which have fince been held alternately at Wells, Taun¬
ton, and Bridgewater. The knights of the fhire are
always chofen here, and it is the place for the county-
courts and jail. On the latter is its chief dependence,
and therefore it cannot be very polite. It is noted for
being the birth-place of Roger the famous Friar Ba¬
con. Ilchefter is an earldom in the Fox family.
ILDEFONSO (St), a celebrated royal refidence
of Spain, diltant about two miles from Segovia. It
was erefted by Philip V. in the midft of a folitary
wood, and in the bofom of deep mountains. It is
chiefly remarkable for its gardens. There is nothing
magnificent in the palace, particularly in its exterior
appearance. The front on the fide of the garden is of
the Corinthian order, and not de.ftitute of elegance.
Here are the king’s apartments, which look upon a
parterre furrounded with vafes and marble flatues, and
a cafcade which, for the richnefs of its decorations,
may he compared with the finellof the kind.
The purity and clearnefs of the water is indeed in¬
comparable. Philip V. could not, in this refpeft, be
better ferved by nature. From the mountains which
fhade the palace defcend feveral rivulets, which fupply
the refervoirs. Thefe waters anfwer the double pur-
pofe of fupplying numerous fountains, and of diffufing
life and verdure through the magnificent gardens, the
fight of which alone is a fufficient recompence for a
journey into Spain. They are on the in fide a league
in circumference. The inequality of the ground af¬
fords every moment new points of view. The princi¬
pal alleys anfwer to different fummics of neighbouring
mountains; and one in particular produces the moft
agreeable effe&. It is terminated at one end by the
grand front of the palace. From this point are feen,
at one view, five fountains, ornamented with elegant
groups, rifing into an amphitheatre, above which ap¬
pear the fummits of lofty mountains. The moft ele¬
vated of thefe groups is that of Andromeda faftened
to a rock. When feen at a little diftance it is perhaps
defe&ive, becaufe the rock appears too diminutive by
the fide of the monfter which threatens Andromeda;
and of Perfeus, by whom it is attacked ^ but the whole
contributes to the beauty of the view. The moft re¬
markable of the five groups is that of Neptune.
f Travc/s in “ Genius (fays M. Bourgoanne f) preiided at the
iS/um,!. 68. corJ1p0fition and in the choice of the fituation ; the
deity of the ocean appears ere£t, furrounded by his
marine court. His attitude, his threatening counte¬
nance, and the manner of holding his trident, announce
that he has juft impofed lilence 011 the mutinous waves;
and the calm which reigns in the bafon, defended
from every wind by the triple wall of vet dure by
which it is furrounded, feem to indicate that he has not
iffued his commands in vain. Often have I feated
myfeif, with Virgil in my hand, by the fide of this
filent water, under the fltadeof the verdant foliage, nor
ever did I fail to recolletl the famous Qms Ego !
“ There are other fountains worthy of the attention
of the curious; fuch as that of Latona, where the
limpid (heaves, fome perpendicularly, and others in
every dire&ion, fall from the hoarfe throats of the
Lycian peafants, half transformed into frogs, and
fpouting them forth in fuch abundance, that the ftatue
of the goddefe difappears under the wide mantle of
liquid cryftal; that alfo of Diana in the bath, fur¬
rounded by her nymphs; in the twinkling of an eye
all the chafte court is hidden beneath the waters; the
fpeohator imagines he hears the whiftling of aquatic
birds, and the roaring of lions, from the place whence
this momentary deluge efcapes by a hundred canals.
The fountain of Fame is formed by a fingle jet-d’eau,
which rife 130 feet, exhibiting to the diftance of feve¬
ral leagues round the triumph of art over nature,
and falls in a gentle Ihower upon the gazing fpe&a-
tors. There are fome fituations in the gardens of St
Udefonfo, whence the eye takes in the whole of the
greater part of thefe fountains, and. where the ear i@
delighted with the harmony of their murmurs. The
traveller who wifhes to charm all his fenfes at once,
muft take his ftation on the high flat ground in front
of the king’s apartment. In the thick part of the
foliage are contrived two large arbours, from the top
of which are feen tewenty cryftal columns rifing inta
the air to the height of the furrounding trees, mixing-
their refplendent whitenefs with the verdure of the
foliage, uniting their confufed noife to the ruftling of
the branches, and refreihing and embalming the air;
if the traveller here experience no pleafing fenfations,
let him return home, he is utterly incapable of feeling
either the beauties of art or nature.
“ The reader may here imagine (continues our au¬
thor) my enthufiafin too extravagant. He is mifta-
ken; let him follow me to the great refervoir of abun¬
dant and limpid waters. He will have to climb for
fume minutes, but will not regret the trouble he has
taken. Let us fuppofe ourfelves arrived at the long
and narrow alley which takes up the whole of the up¬
per part of the gardens; proceed to the middle, and
turn your face toward the caftle. To the vail horizon
around you, no other boundaries are difeovered but
thofe which limit the human fight; thefe alone pre¬
vent you from difeovering the Pyrenees. Obferve the
fteeple, which feems but a point in the immenfe ex¬
tent : you will perhaps imagine it to be that of the
parifh church of St Ildefonfo; but, in reality, it is
the cathedral of Segovia, at two leagues diftance. The
gardens, through which you have pafled, become nar¬
rower to the eye. You fuppofe yourfelf clofe to the
royal habitation ; the alleys, fountains, and parterres,
have all difappeared ; you fee but one road, which, in
the form of a veffel, upon the prow of which you feem
to (land, has its ftern on the top of the palace. Af¬
terward turn and take a view of the little lake behind
you*
T L D [ 15
you, of which the irregular borders do not, like what
we call our Englilh gardens, nierely ape the diforder
of nature. Nature herfelf has traced them, except on
the fide where you Hand. This llraight alley is uni¬
ted at each end to the curve which furrounds the re-
fervoir. The waters, which ftream in abundance from
the fides of the mountain in front, meet in this refer-
voir, and thence defcend by a thoufand invifible tubes
to other refervoirs, whence they are fpouted in columns
or flreets upon the flowery foil to which they were
ftrangers. The birds} drawn by their clearnefs, come
to fltim and agitate their cryftal. The image of the
tufted woods which furround them is reflefted from
their immoveable furface, as is alfo that of fome fimple
and rural houfes, thrown, as by accident, into this de¬
lightful pi&ure, which Loirain would have imitated,
but perhaps could mot have imagined. The oppofite
bank is obfcured by thick lhades. Some hollows,
oveifliadowed by arching trees, feem to be the afylums
of the Naiades. Difturb them not by indifcreet lo¬
quacity, but filently admire and meditate.
•“ It is impoffiblc, however, not to go to the fource
of thefe waters ; let us follow the meandring of their
courfe, and obferve the winding paths which there ter-
fninate, after appearing and difappearing at intervals
through the copfe. Let us liften to the bubbling of
the rivulets which from time to time efcape from our
fight, and haften to the rendezvous affigned them by
the defcendants of Louis XIV. They formerly loft
themfelves in the valleys, where they quenched the
thirft of the humble inhabitants, but are now confe-
crated to the pleafures of kings. Afcending the back
of the pyramidical mountain, behind which their fource
is concealed, we arrive at the wall which confines a part
of them in the garden, and which was hidden by the
trees; nothing, however, ought here to recal to mind
exclufive property and flavery. Woods, waters, and
the majeftic folitude of mountains, which are at a di-
llance from the tumult of courts and cities, are the
property of every man.—Beyond this wall, which
forms the exterior enclofure of the gardens, is an empty
and flat ground, where the infant Don Louis, brother
to the king, chofe a place which he confecrated to
cultivation. Farther on, the mountain becomes more
fteep, and is covered with trees to its fummit. Let us
now return ; as we feek amufement and not fatigue.
We will follow the courfe of the waters, they defcend
in bubbling ftreams from one level of the gardens to
the other. In their courfe, in one place they water
the feet of the trees, in others they crofs an alley to
nourifh more flowly the plants of a parterre. From
the bafon of Andromeda they run between two rows
of trees in the form of a canal, the too fudden incli¬
nation of which is taken off by cafcades and windings.
They receive and carry with them from the gardens
the rivulets; which after having played amongft the
gods and nymphs, and moiftened the throats of the
fwans, tritons, and lions, humbly defcend under ground,
and run on into the bofom of the neighbouring mea¬
dows, where they fulfil purpofes lefs brilliant but more
u^eful- j -i
“ We muft not quit thefe magnificent gardens with¬
out flopping at a place which appears to promife much,
but produces not any very great effeift. This is the
fiquare of the eight alleys, Pla$a dc las oobo calks. In
No 164.
2 1 I L D
the centre is the group of Pandora, the only one which Udefonf*.
is of whitened ftone, all the others are of white marble ^
or lead painted of a bronze colour. Eight alleys an-
fwer to this centre, and each is terminated by a foun¬
tain. Plats of verdure fill up the intervals between the
alleys, and each has an altar under a portico of white
marble by the fide of a bafon facred to fome god or
goddefs. Thefe eight altars, placed at equal diftances,
and decorated among other jets-d’eau, have two which
rife in the form of tapers on each fide of their divini¬
ties. This cold regularity difpleafed Philip V. who
a little before his death, when vifiting the gardens,
made fome fevere reproaches to the inventor upon the
fubjedt. Philip had not the pleafure of completely
enjoying what he had created ; death furprifed him
when the works he had begun were but half finiftied.
The undertaking was however the moft expenfive one
of his reign. The finances of Spain, fo deranged un¬
der the princes of the houfe of Auftria (thanks to the
wife calculations of Orry, to the fubfidies of France, and
ftill more to the courageous efforts of the faithful Cafti-
lians), would have been fufficient for three long and
ruinous wars, and for all the operations of a monarchy
which Philip V. had conquered and formed anew,
as well as to have refifted the fhocks of ambition and
political intrigue; but they funk beneath the expenfive
efforts of magnificence.”
It is Angular that the caftle and gardens of St Ilde-
fonfo fliould have coft about 45,000,000 of piaftres,pre-
cifely the fum in which Philip died indebted. This enor¬
mous expence will appear credible, when it is known
that the fituation of the royal palace was at the begin¬
ning of this century the floping top of a pile of rocks;
that it was neceffary to dig and hew out the ftones,
and in feveral places to level the rock ; to cut out of
its fides a paffage fora hundred different canals, to carry
vegetative earth to every place in which it was intended
to fubftitute cultivation for fterility, and to work a mine
to clear a paffage to the roots of the numerous trees
which are there planted. All thefe efforts were crown¬
ed with fuccefs. In the orchards, kitchen gardens,
and parterres, there are but few flowers, efpaliers, or
plants, which do not thrive ; but the trees, naturally of
a lofty growth, and which confequently muft ftrike
their roots deep into the earth, already prove the in-
fufficiency of art when it attempts to ftruggle againft
nature. Many of them languifti with withered trunks,
and with difficulty keep life in their almoft naked
branches. Every year it is neceffary to call in the aid
of gunpowder to make new beds for thofe which are
to fupply their place ; and none of them are covered
with that tufted foliage which belongs only to thofe
that grow in a natural foil. In a word, there are in the
groves of St Ildefonfo, marble ftatues, bafons, cafcadfiS,
limpid waters, verdure, and delightful profpefts, every
thing but that which would be more charming than
all the reft, thick ftiades.
The court of Spain comes hither annually during
the heat of the dog-days. It arrives towards the end
of July, and returns at the beginning of O&ober. The
fituation of St Ildefonfo, upon the declivity of the
mountains which feparate the two Caftiles, and front¬
ing a vail plain where there is no obftacle to the paf-
fage of the north wind, renders this abode delightful
in fummer. The mornings and evenings of the hotteft
day*
I X E [
days are agreeably cool. Yet as this palace is upwards
of 20 leagues from Madrid, and half of the road which
leads to it crolfes the broad tops of mountains, ex¬
tremely deep in many places, it is much more agreeable
to the lovers of the chace and folitude than to others.
ILERDA (anc. geog.), the capital of the Hi-
gertes* fituated on an eminence between the rivers Si-
coris and Cinga: An unhappy city, often befieged, and
often taken, becaufe lying expofed to the iucurfions
from Gaul; and under GalHenus it was deftroyed by
the Germans. Now Lerida, in Catalonia, on the river
Segra.
ILEX, the Holm or Holly 7m : A genus of the
tetragynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
.plants; and'in the natural method ranking under the
43d order, Dumofa.' The calyx is quadridentated ;
the corolla rotaceous; there is no ftyle; the berry is
tnonofpermous.
There are feveral fpecies of this genus; but the moft
remarkable is the aquifolium, or common holly. Of
.this there are a great number of -varieties with variega¬
ted leaves, which are propagated by the nurfery-gar-
deners for fale, and fome years paft were in very great
redeem, but at prefent are but little regarded, the old
tafte of filling gardens with Ihorn evergreens being
pretty well abolifhed ; however, in the difpofition of
clumps, or rather plantations-, of evergreen trees and
fhrubs, a few of the moft lively colours may be admit¬
ted, which will have a good effed. in the winter feafon,
-if they are properly difpofed.
The beft of thefe varieties are the painted lady-holly,
Britilh holly, Bradley’s heft holly, phyllis or cream-
holly, mdkmaid holly, Prichet’s beft holly, gold-
edged hedgehog holly, Chyney’s holly, glory-of-the-
-weft holly, Broaderick’s holly, Partridge’s holly. Here*
fordfhire white holly, Blind’s cream holly, Longftaff’s
holly, Eales s holly, filver-edged hedgehog holly. All
■ thefe varieties are propagated by budding or graft¬
ing them upon docks of the common green holly :
there is -alfo a variety of the common holly with
fmooth leaves ; but this is frequently found intermixed
-with the prickly-leaved on the fame tree, and often on
the fame branch there are both forts of leaves.
The common holly grows naturally in woods and fo-
■ reds in many parts of England, where it rifes from 20
to 30 feet high, and fometimes more, but their ordi¬
nary height is not above 25 feet: the ftem by age be¬
comes large, and is covered with a greyifh fmooth bark;
and thofe trees which are not loped or browfed by
cattle, are commonly furnifhed with branches the great
eft part of their length, fo form a fort of cone ; the
branches are gar-nilhed with oblong oval leaves, of
-a lucid green on their upper furface, but are pale on
their under, having a ftrong midrib : the edges are in¬
dented and waved, with (harp thorns terminating each
of the points, fo that fome of the thorns are raifed up¬
ward, and others are bent downward, and being very
ftiff they, are troubiefome to handle. The leaves are
placed alternate on every fide of the branches; and from
the bafe of their footftalks come out the flowers in
cluflers, Handing on very fhort footftalks; each of
•thefe fuftain five, fix, or more flowers. They are of
a dirty white, and appear in May ; but are fucceeded
By roundiflt berries, which turn to a beautiful red a-
Vou IX. Part I.
155 ] ILF
bout Michaelmas, and continue on the trees, if they Hex,
are not deftroyed, till after Chriftmas. Ilfracomb.
The common holly is a very beautiful tree in winter;
therefore deferves a place in all plantations of evergreen
trees and ftirubs, where its ihining leaves and red ber¬
ries make a fine variety ; and if a few of the beft varie¬
gated kinds are properly intermixed, they will enliven
the feene. It is propagated by feeds, which never
come up the firft year, but lie in the ground as the
haws do; therefore the berries (hould be buried in the
ground one year, and then taken up and fown at Mi¬
chaelmas, upon a bed expofed only to the morning
fun; the following fpring the plants will appear, which
muft be kept clean from weeds; and if the fpring
ftiould prove dry, it will be of great fervice to the
plants if they are watered once a-week; but they muft
not have it oftener, nor in too great quantity, for too
much moifture is very injurious to thefe plants when
young. In this feed-bed the plants may remain two
years; and then (hould be tranfplanted in the autumn,
into beds at about fix inches afunder, where they may
(land two years longer ; during which time they muft
be conftantly kept clean from weeds ; and if the plants
have thriven well, they will be ftrong enough to tranf-
plant where they are defigned to remain : for when
they are tranfplanted at that age; there will be lefs
danger of their failing, and they will grow to a larger
fize than thofe which are removed when they are much
larger; but if the ground is not ready to receive them
at that time, they {hould be tranfplanted into a nur-
fery in rows at two feet diftance. and one foot afunder
in the rows, in which place the plants may remain two
years longer; and if they are defigned to be grafted or
budded with any of the variegated kinds, that {hould be
performed after the plants have grown one year in the
nurfery ; but the plants fo budded or grafted {hould
continue two years after in the nurfery, that they may-
make good {hoots before they are removed ; though
the plain ones {hould not ftand longer than two years
in the nurfery, becaufe when they are older they do
not tranfplant fo well. The beft: time for removing
hollies is in the autumn, efpecially in dry land ; but
where the foil is cold and moift, they may be tranf-
plant-ed with great (afety in the fpring, if the plants
are not too old, or have not ftood long unremoved, foi"
if they have, there is great doubt of their growing
when removed.
Ufes. Sheep in the winter are fed with croppings
of holly. Birds eat the berries. The bark ferment¬
ed and afterwards wafhed from the woody fibres, makes
the common bird-lime. The plant makes an impene¬
trable fence, and bears cropping ; however, it is not
found in all refpefts to anfwer for this purpofe equally
well with the hawthorn. The wood is ufed in fineer-
ing, and is fometimes ftained black to imitate ebony.
Handles for knives and cogs for mill-wheels are made
of it. It is alfo made into hones for whetting of ra¬
zors. Mr Miller fays, he has feen the floor of a room
laid with compartments of holly and mahogany, which
had a very pretty effeft.
ILFRACOMB a town of Devonfliire, feated on
the Severn fea, almoft oppofite to Swgnfea in Glamor-
ganftire, 186 miles from London. It is a populous,
rich, trading fea-port, efpecially with herrings in the
U rich.
ILK [ 154 ] ILL
Iliac Briftol-channcl; noted for maintaining conllant lights
^Ilkuch to c**re<^ t^e fa^or8 » ^or *ta convenience of building
. 1 and reparing fhips ; and for. the fafe (belter (hips
from Ireland find here, when it is extremely dangerous
for them to run into the mouth of the Taw, which
they call Barnftaple-water ; and this is one reafon why
the Barnftaple merchants do fo much of their bufinefs
at this port. The harbour, with its quay, warp-houfe,
light-houfe, pilot-boats, and tow-boats, were formerly
maintained at the expence of the anceftors of the lord
of the manor; and then it had a quay or pier 850
feet long ; but by time and the violence of the fea all
went to decay ; to remedy which, the parliament paffed
an aft in 1731, for both repairing and enlarging the
piers, harbour, &c. It is governed by a mayor, bai¬
liffs, See. and confifts chiefly of one ftreet of fcattered
houfes almoft a mile long. The parifh is large, con¬
taining feveral tythings and manors.
ILIAC Passion, a violent and dangerous kind of
colic ; called alfo volvulus, miferere mei, and chordapfus.
It takes its name from the inteftine ilion, on account of
its being ufually affefted in this diltemper ; or per¬
haps from the Greek verb « to wind or twill” ;
whence alfo it is the Latins call it volvulus. See Me¬
dicine Index.
ILIAD, the name of an ancient epic poem, the firfl
and fined of thofe compofed by Homer.
The poet’s defign in the Iliad was to fhow the
Greeks, who were divided into feveial little dates, how
much it was their intered to preferve a harmony and
ood underdanding among themfelves ; for which end
e fets before them the calamities that befel their an-
cedors from the wrath of Achilles, and his mifunder-
danding with Agamemnon ; and the advantages that
afterwards accrued to them from their union. The
iliad is divided into 24 books or rhapfodies, which are
marked with the letters of the alphabet.
ILISSUS, a river running to the ead of Athens;
which, with the Eridanus running on the wed fide,
falls below the city into the fea. Sacred to the mufes,
called Hiflladcs ; on whofe bank their altar flood, and
where the ludration in the lefs myfleries was ufual¬
ly performed.
ILIUM; Ilion, or Ilios, (anc. geog.) a name for
the city of Troy, but mod commonly ufed by the
poets, and didinguifhed by the epithet F'etus ; at a
greater didance from the fea than what was afterwards
called Ilium Novum, and thought to be the IJienJium
Pagus of Strabo. New or modern Ilium was a village
nearer the fea, with a temple of Minerva; where A-
iexander, after the battle of Granicus, offered gifts,
and called it a city, which he ordered to be enlarged.
His orders were executed by Lyfimachus, who en-
eompafled it with a wall of 40 ffadia. It was after¬
wards adorned by the Romans, who granted it immu¬
nities as to their mother-city. From this city the /-
lias of Homer takes its name, containing an account
of the war carried on between the Greeks and Trojans
on account of the rape of Helen ; a variety of difafters
being the confequence, gave rife to the proverb Idas
Malorum.
ILKUCH, a royal town of Poland, in the palati¬
nate of Cracow, remarkable for its filver mines mixed
with lead. It is feated in a barren and mountainous
sountry, in E. Eong. 20. o. N. Lat. 50. 26,
ILLECEBRUM, in botany: A genus of the mo- Ilkcebrum
nogynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of U
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the Illlclum° ^
12th order, Holoracee. The calyx is pentaphyllous, y
and cartilaginous ; there is no corolla; the ffigma is
Ample ; fthe capfule quinquevalved, and monofper-
mous. There are feveral fpecies, of which the mod
remarkable are the paronychia and the capitatum. Both
thefe have trailing flalks near two feet long, which
fpread on the ground, garnifhed with fmall leaves like-,
thofe of knot-grafs. The heads of the flowers come
out from the joints of the ffalks, having neat filvery
braftea furrounding them, which make a pretty appear¬
ance. Their flowers appear in June, and there is
generally a fucceflion of them for at lead two months;
and when the autumn proves warm, they will ripen
their feeds in Oftober. They are propagated by feeds
which fhould be fown in a bed of light earth in thc-
beginning of April: the plants will come up in May,
when they fhould be kept clean from weeds till they
are fit to remove. S >me fhould be planted in fmalf
pots, and the red in a warm border, obferving to wa¬
ter and fhade them till they have taken new root.
Thefe plants are fometimes killed in fevere winters ;,
for which reafon it is direfted to plant fome of them
in pots, that they may be fheltered during that feafon.
ILLENOIS, a people of North America, inhabi¬
ting a country lying near a large lake of the fame
name (called alfo Michigan), formed by the river St
Laurence. The country is fertile ; and the people
plant Indian corn, on which they chiefly fubfiff. They
are civil, aftive, lively, and robud ; and are much lefs
cruel in their difpofitions than the other Indian na¬
tions. They are, however, faid to be great libertines,
and to marry a number of wives; but fome of their
villages have embraced Chriftianity.
ILLICIUM, in botany : A genus of the pentagy-
nia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The calyx is tetraphyllous, and
deciduous; there are eight petals, and eight petaloid
Tubulated neftaria. There are 16 flamina with bifid.
antherse 5 the capfules are ovate, compreffed, and mo-
nofpermous. There are two fpecies, viz. x. The flo-
ridanum, with red flowers, and very odorous fruit. It
is a native of China. 2. The anifatum, a na¬
tive of the woods of China and Japan. It rifes
with an ereft branched flem to the height of a
cherry-tree ; and is covered with an afh-colourcd bark,
under which is another bark that is green, flefhy, fome-
what mucous, and of an aromatic taffe, combined with
a fmall degree of aflringency. The wood is hard and
brittle ; the pith fmall in quantity, fungous, and of a
green herbaceous colour. The leaves refemble thofe
of laurel ; the flowers, in fome fort, thofe of narciffus.
Thefe lad generally ftand fingle, are of a pale white,
and confiff of 16 petals, which differ in their form.
The extremity of the flower-flalk being continued into
the germcn or feed-bud of the flower, forms eight con¬
joined capfules, or one deeply divided into eight parts.
Of thefe capfules, fome frequently decay ; the red in-
clofe each a fingle feed, fomewhat refembling that of
palma chridi, and which, when the hardifh corticle
that clofely covers and involves it is broken, exhibits
a kernel that is white, flefhy, foft, and of a vapid
tade*
ILL [ 155 1 . ILL
‘•tITiiminac tafte. The bonz-es, or priefts of China and Japan, in- A very ancient MS. of Genefis, which Was in the lilutnina-
, tin£' , fufe into the inhabitants a fuperftitious belief, that the Cottonian library, and almolt deftroyed by a fire in tinS'
^ gods are delighted with the prefence of this tree. }73l> contained two hundred and fifty curious paint-
Hence they generally place before their idols gar¬
lands and bundles made of the branches. A fimilar
opinion the Bramins inculcate into the Indians, of the
Malabar fig, or Jiais religSo/a. The bark of the anife-
ings in water colours. Twenty-one fragments, which
efcaped the fire, are engraven by the fociety of anti¬
quaries of London. Several fpecimens of curious
paintings alfo appear in Lambecius’s catalogue of tin*'
tree, reduced to powder, and equally burnt, the public imperial library at Vienna, particularly in Vol. Ilk
watchmen in Japan, by a very curious contrivance de- where forty-tight drawings of nearly equal antiquity
fcribed by Kempfer, render ufeful in the meafuring of with thofe in the Cottonian library are engraven ; and
time during the darknefs of the night. The fame pow- feveral others may be found in various catalogues of
der is frequently burnt in brazen veflels on the Japanefe the Italian libraries. The drawings in the Vatican
altars, as incenfe is in other countries, from a belief Virgil made in the fourth century, before the art*
that the idols in whofe honour the ceremony is per- were entirely negle&ed, illullrate the different fubje&s
Formed are greatly refrefhed with the agreeable fra- treated of by the Roman poet. A miniature drawing
grancy of its odour. It is remarkable, that a branch is prefixed to each of the gofpels brought over to Eng-
of this tree being added to the decoftion of the poi- land by St Auguftin in the fixth century, which is pre-
fonous fifli, termed by the Dutch de opllafer (a fifh ferved in the library of Corpus Chrifti college, Cam-
the moft delicate, if the poifonous matter be firft pro¬
perly expelled), increafes its noxious quality, and ex-
afperates the poifon to an aftonifhing degree of aftivity
and power.
ILLUMINATING, a kind of miniature-painting,
anciently much pradtifed for illuftrating and adorning
books. Befides the writers of books, there were ar-
tifts whofe profeffion was to ornament and paint manu-
fcripts, who were called illuminators ; the writers of
books firft finifhed their part, and the illuminators em-
belliftied them with ornamented letters and paintings.
We frequently find blanks left in manufcripts for the
bridge : in the compartments of thofe drawings are de¬
puted reprefentations of feveral tranfadtions in each go-
fpel. The curious drawings, and elaborate ornaments’ in
St Cuthbert’s gofpels jmade by St Eihelwald, and now
in the Cottonian library, exhibit a ftriking fpecimen of
the ftate of the arts in England in the feventh century.
The fame may be obferved with refpedl to the draw¬
ings in the ancient copy of the four gofpels preferved
in the cathedral church of Litchfield, and thofe in the
Codex Rufhworthianus in the Bodleian library at Ox¬
ford. The life of St Paul the hermit, now remaining
in Corpus Chrifti college, Cambridge, (G 2), af-
illuminators, which were never filled up. Some of the fords an example of the ftyle of drawing and ornamen-
  --- ~:i. --J 1 :n--J - a..i„ ing letters in England in the eighth century ; and the
copy of Prudentius’s -Pfycomachia in the Cottonian li¬
brary (Cleop. c. 8.) exhibits the ftyle of drawing in
Italy in the ninth century. Of the tenth century
there are Roman drawings of a Angular kind in the
Harleian library (N0 2820.) ^5280, 1802, and
432, in the fame librar}", contain fpecimens of orna¬
mented letters, which are to be found in Irifti MSS.
ancient manufcripts are gilt and burnifhed in a ftyle
fuperior to later times. Their colours were excellent,
and their ikill in preparing them muft have been very
great.
The practice of introducing ornaments, drawmgs>
'emblematical figures, and even portraits, into manu-
fcripts, is of great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives
of feven hundred illuftrious Romans, which he enrich¬
ed with their portraits, as Pliny attefts in his Natural from the twelfth to the fourteenth century. Ctedmon’s
Hiftory (lib. xxxv. chap. 2.) Pomponius Atticus, Poetical Paraphrafe of the book of Genefis, written
the friend of Cicero, was the author of a work on the in the eleventh century, which is preferved amongft F.
a&ions of the great men amongft the Romans, which Junius’s MSS. in the Bodleian library, exhibits many
he ornamented with their portraits, as appears in his fpecimens of utenfils, weapons, inftruments of mufic,
life by Cornelius Nepos (chap. 18.) But thefe works and implements of huibandry ufed by the Anglo-Sax-
have not been tranfmitted to pofterity. There are, ons. The like may be feen in extrafts from the Pen-
however, many precious documents remaining, which tateuch of the fame age, in the Cottonian library
  - .... - . • ^ rT'U,>   I- rr. .
exhibit the advancement and decline of the arts in
different ages and countries. Thefe ineilimable paint¬
ings and illuminations difplay the manners, cuftoms,
habits ecclefiaftical, civil, and military, weapons and
(Claud. B. 4.) The manufcript copy of Terence in
the Bodleian library (D. 17.) difplays the dreffes,
malks, &c. worn by comedians in the twelfth century,
if not earlier. The very elegant Pfalter in the library
inftruments of war, utenfils and architefture of the of Trinity College, Cambridge, exhibits fpecimens of
ancients ; they are of the greateft ufe in illuftrating the art of drawing in England in the fame century,
many important fafts relative to the hiftory of the times The Virgil in the Lambeth library of the 13th century
in which they were executed. In thefe treafures of (NJ 471.), written in Italy, fhows both by the draw-
antiquity are preferved a great number of fpecimens ings and writing, that the Italians produced works
of Grecian and Roman art, which were executed be- much inferior to ours at that period. The cogy of
fore the arts and fciences fell into negledt and contempt, the Apocalypfe in the fame library (N- 209), contains
The manufcripts containing thefe fpecimens form a a curious example of the manner of painting in the
valuable part of the riches preferved in the principal fourteenth century.—The beautiful* paintings in the
libraries of Europe. The Royal, Cottonian, and Har- hiftory of the latter part of the reign of king Rich. II.
leian libraries, as alfo thofe in the two univeifities in in the Harleian library (N° 1319), afford curious
England, the Vatican at Rome, the imperial at Vienna, fpecimens of manners and cuftoms, both civil and mi-
the royal at Paris, St Mark’s at Venice, and many litary, at the clofe of the fourteenth and in the be-
©thers. ginning of the fifteenth century ; as dees NJ 2278
U 2 itt
ILL [ 156 1 IMA
lllumina. jn the fame library.—Many other Jnflances might be
‘‘"S produced ; but thofe who defire farther information
Illumined rnay confuh Strutt’s Regal and Ecclefiaftical Antiqui-
u—y——'ties, qto, and his Horda-Angel-cynnan lately publilhr
ed in three vols.
This art was much praftifed by the clergy* and
even by fome in the higheit ftations in the church.
“ The famous Ofmund (fays Bromton), who was
confecrated bifhop of Salifbury A. D. 1076, did not
difdain to fpend fome part of his time in writing,
binding, and illuminating books.” Mr Strutt, as al¬
ready noticed, has given the public an opportunity of
forming fome judgment of the degree of delicacy and
art with which thefe illuminations were executed, by
publifhing prints of a prodigious number of them, in
his Regal and ecclejiajlical antiquities of England, and
View of the cujloms, l$c. of England. In the fir ft of thefe
works we are prefented with the genuine portraits, in
miniature, of all the kings, and feveral of the queens
of England, from Edward the Confeflbr to Henry
VII. moftly in their crowns and royal robes, together
with the portraits of many other eminent perfons of
both fexes.
The illuminators and painters of this period feem to
have been in poffeffion of a confiderable number of co¬
louring materials, and to have known the arts of pre¬
paring and mixing them, fo as to form a great variety
of colours: for in the fpecimens of their miniature-
paintings that are ftill extant, we perceive not only
the five primary colours, but alfo various combinations
of them. Though Strutt’s prints do not exhibit the
bright and vivid colours of the originals, they give us
equally a view, not only of the perfons and dreffes of
our anceftors, but alfo of their cuftoms, manneis, arts,
and employments, their arms, fhips, houfes, furniture,
&c. and enable us to judge of their Ikill in drawing.
The figures in thofe paintings are often ftiff and for¬
mal ; but the ornaments are in general fine and deli¬
cate, and the colours clear and bright, particularly the
gold and azure. In fome of thefe illuminations the
paffions are ftrongly painted. How ftrongly, for ex¬
ample, is terror painted in the faces of the earl of
Warwick’s failors, when they were threatened with a
Qupwreck, and grief in the countenances of thofe
• See .%>•»«, who were prefent at the death of that hero * ? Af-
vof. ii. ter the introduftion of printing, this elegant art. of
plates 56, illuminating gradually declined, and at length was quite
* neglected.
Before concluding, it may not be improper to ob-
ferve, that from the fifth to the tenth century, the
miniature paintings which we meet with in Greek MSS.
are generally good, as are fome which we find among
thofe of. Italy, England, and France. From the tenth
to the middle of the fourteenth century they are com¬
monly very bad, and may be confidered as fo many
monuments of the barbarity of thofe ages; towards
the latter end of the fourteenth, the paintings in ma-
nufcripts were much improved ; and in the two fuc-
ceeding centuries, many excellent performances were
produced, efpecially after the happy period of the re
Iteration of the arts, when great attention was paid to
the works of the ancients, and the ftudy of antiquity
became falhionable.
ILLUMINATORS. See Illuminating.
ILLUMINED, Illuminati, a church term, anci¬
ently applied to fuch perfons as had received baptifna. IllunsInsAi
This name was occafioned by a ceremony in the bap- 1'^
tifm. of adults; which confided in- putting alighted
taper in the hand of the perfon baptized, as a. fymbol
of the faith and grace he had received in the facia-
men t.
Illumined, Iliuminati, is alfo the name of a fe£t of
heretics, who fprang up in Spain about the year 1575,
and were called by the Spaniards Alambrados. Their
principal do&rines were, that by means of a fublime
-manner of prayer, which they, had attained to, they
entered into fo perfect a date, that they, had.no oc-
cafion for ordinances, facraments, nor good works;
and that they could give way, even to the vileft adtions,.
without fin. The left of Illumined was revived in
France in the year 1634, and were foon after joined .
by the Guerinets, or difciples of Peter Guerin, who
together made but one body, called alfo Illumined :
but they were fo hotly purfued by Louis XHI. that,
they were foon deftroyed. The brothers of. th^ Rofy.
Grofs, are fometimes alfo called Illumined. See.
Rosycrusian.
ILLUSTRIOUS, Illustris, was heretofore,,
in the Roman empire, a title of honour peculiar
to people of a certain rank. It was fir ft given to
the moft diftinguifhed. among the knights, who
had a right to. bear the latus clavus : afterwards,.
thofe were intitled illujlrious who held the firft rank,
among thofe called honorati; that is, the prsefefti
prsetorii, prsefefi i urbis, treafurers, comites, &c.
There were, however, different degrees among the
illujlrious.: as in Spain they have grandees of the firft
and fecond clafs,.fo in Rome they had their illujlres,
whom they called great, majqres ; and others lefs, called
illujlres minores.—For inftance ; the praeftflus praetorii
was a degree below the. mailer of the offices, though
they were both illujlres.
The Novels of .Valentinian diftinguilh as far as five
kinds of illujlres ;. among whom, the illujlres adminijlra-
tores bear the firft rank.
ILLYRICUM,, fSo/Km.perhaps underftood) Livy,
Herodian, St. Paul; called Illyris by the Greeks, and.
fometimes Illyria: the country extending from the
Adriatic to Pannonia thus called. Its boundaries are.
varioully afligned. Pliny makes it extend in length from
the river Arfia to the Drinius, thus including Liburnia,
to the weft, and Dalmatia to the eaft : which is alfo,
the opinion of Ptolemy; who fettles its limits from
mount Scardus and the Upper Moefia on the eaft, to
Iftria in the weft. A Roman, province, divided by
Auguftus into the Superior and Inferior, but of which-
the limits are left undetermined both by ancient hi-
ftorians and. geographers. Illyrii the people ; called
Illyres by the Greeks. The country is now called
Sclavonia.
ILLYRIUS, (Matthias, Flaccus, or Francowitz),.
one of the moft learned divines of the Augfburgh con-
feffion,born in Iftria, anciently called Illyrica, in 1520,
He is faid to have been a man of vaft genius, extenfive.
learning, of great zeal againft Popery ; but of fuch a
reftlefs and paflionate temper, as overbalanced all his-
good qualities, and occafioned much difturbance in the
Proteftant church. He publilhed a great number of
books, and died in 1575.
IMAGE, in a religious fenfe, is an artificial repre-
fentatioa
IMA [ 157 ] IMA
Image, fentation or fimilitude of fome perfon or thing, ufed
' either by way of decoration and ornament, or as an
objeft of religious worfhip and adoration ; in which
laid fenfe, it is ufed.indifferently with the word Idol.
The noble Romans preferved the images of their
anceftors with a great deal of care and concern, and
had them carried in procefiion at their funerals and
triumphs: thefe were commonly made of wax, or
wood, though fometirnes of marble or brafs. They
placed them in the veftibules of their houfes; and they
were to flay there, even if the houfes happened to be
fold, it being accounted impious to difplace them.
Appius Claudius was the firft who brought them into
the temples, in the year of Rome 2.59, and he added
infcriptions to them, fhowing the origin of the perfons
reprefented, and their brave and virtuous atchieve-
ments.—It was not, however, allowed for all, who had
the images of their anceftors in their houfes, to have
them carried at their funerals; this was a thing only
granted to fuch as had honourably difcharged them-
felves of their offices : for thofe who failed itr this re-
fpecl, forfeited that privilege ; and in cafe they had
been guilty of any great crime, their images were
broken in pieces-. See Ignowl£s and Jus.
The Jews abfolutely condemn all images, and do not
fo much as fuffer any ftatues or figures in their
houfes, much lefs in their fynagogues or places of
worfhip.
The ufe and adoration of images are things that
have been a long time controverted in the world.
It is plain, from the pradtice of the primitive
church, recorded by the earlier fathers, that Chriftians,
for the firft three centuries after Chrift, and the greater
part of the fourth, neither worfhipped images nor ufed
them in their worfhip. However, the greater part of
the Popifh divines maintain, that the ufe and worfhip
of images were as ancient as the Chriftian religion
itfelf: to prove this, they alledge a decree, faid
to have been made in a council held by the A-
poftles at Antioch, commanding the faithful, that
they may not err about the objedt of their worfhip, to
make images of Chrift and worfnip them, Baron, ad
ann. 102. But no notice is taken of this decree, till
.700 years after the Apoftolic times, after the difpute
about z'wMgw had commenced. The fiift inftance that
occurs in any credible author of images among Chrif¬
tians, is that recorded by Tertullian de Pudicit. c. 10.
of certain cups, or chalices, as Bellarmine pretends,
on which was reprefented the parable of the good fhep-
herd carrying the loft fheep on his fhoulders : but this
inftance only proves, that the church, at that time,
did not think emblematical figures unlawful ornaments
of cups or chalices. Another inftance is taken from
Eufebius, Hift. Eccl. lib. vii. cap. 18. who fays, that
in his time there were to be feen two brafs ftatues in
the city of Paneas or Caefarea Philippi; the one of a
woman on her knees, with her arms ilretched out, the
other of a man over againft her, with his hand extend¬
ed- to receive her : thefe ftatues were faid to be the
images of our Saviour and the woman whom he cured
of an iffue of blood. From the foot of the ftatue re-
prefenting our Saviour, fays the hiitorian, fprung up
an exotic plant, which, as foon as it grew to touch the
border of his garment, was faid to cure all fprts of dif-
tempers. Eufebius, however, vouches ndne of thefe
things; nay, he fuppofes that the woman, who erected
this ftatue of our Saviour was a pagan, and afcribes it
to a pagan, cuftom. Farther, Philoftorgius, Eccl.
Hift. lib. vii. c. 3. exprefsly fays, that this ftatue was
carefully preferved by the Chriftians, but that they
paid no kind of worfhip to it, becaufe it is not lawful
for Chriilians to worfhip brafs or any other matter.
The primitive Chriftians abllained from the worfhip of
images, not, as the Papifts pretendr from tendernefs to
heathen idolaters, but becaufe they thought it unlaw¬
ful in itfelf to make any images oi the Deity. Juftin
Mart. Apol. ii. p. 44. Clem. Alex. Strom. 5. Strom.
1. and Protr. p. 46. Aug. de Civic. Dei. lib. vii. c. 5.
and lib. iv. c. 3,2. Id. de Fide et Symb. c. 7. La&ant.
lib. ii. c. 3. Tertull. Apol. c. 12. Arnob. lib. vi.
p. 202. Some of the fathers, as Tertullian, Clemens
Alexandrinus, and Origin, were of opinion, that,
by the fecond commandment, the arts of painting and
engraving were rendered unlawful to a Chriftian, ftyling
them evil and wicked arts. Tert. de Idol, cap.3. Clem.
Alex. Admon. ad Gent, p- 41. Orig. contra Celfumlib.
vi. p. 1-82. The ufe of images in churches as ornaments,
was firft introduced by fome Chriftians in Spain, in the
beginning of the fourth century; but the practice
was condemned as a dangerous innovation, in a coun-*
cil held at Eliberis in 305, Epiphanius, in a letter
preferved by Jerom, tom. ii. ep. 6. bears ftrong tefti-
mony againft images, and may be confidered as one of
the firft Iconoclasts. The cuftom of admitting
pidlures of faints and martyrs into the churches (for
this was the firft fource of z»z<^e-worftiip) was rare in
the latter end of the fourth century ; but became
common in the fifth: however, they were ftill confider¬
ed only as ornaments; and even in this view, they met
with very confnkrable oppofition. In the following
century the cuftom of thus adorning churches became
almoft univerfal, both in the eaft and weft. Petavius
exprefsly fays, (de Incar. lib. xv. cap. 14.) that no
ftatues were yet allbwed in the. churches ; becaufe
they bore too near a refemblance to the. idols of the
Gentiles. Towards the clofe of the fourth or begin¬
ning of the fifth century, images, which were introduced
by way of ornament, and then ufed as an aid to devo¬
tion, began to be adlually worftn'pped. However, it
continued to be the dodrine of the church in the fixth
and in the beginning of the feventh century, that
images were to be ufed only as helps to devotion, and
not as obje&s of worlhip. The vvorfhip of them was
condemned in the ftrongeft terms by Pope Gregory the
Great; as appears by two letters of bis written in 601;
From this time to the beginning of the eighth century,
there occurs no Angle in llance of any worlhip given or
allowed to be given to images by any council or affem-
bly ofbilhops whatever. But they were commonly wor-
Ihipped by the monks and populace in the beginning of
the eighth century ; infomuch, that in the year 726,
when Leo publifhed his famous edid, it had already
fpread into all the provinces fubjed to the empire.
The Lutherans condemn the Calvinifts for break¬
ing the images in the churches of the Catholics, look¬
ing on it as a kind of facrilege ; and yet they condemn
the Romanics (who are profelfed image-'worfhippers) as
idolaters : nor can thefe laft keep pace with the
Greeks, who go far beyond them in this point; which •
has- occafioned abundance of diiputes among thenK
See Iconoclasts.
The Mahometans have a peifed averfion to images - -
\vhic4.
IMA [ U8 ] I M E
image which was what led them to deflroy mod of the beauti-
li ful monuments of antiquity, both facred and profane,
mam‘ i at Conftantinople.
Image, in Rhetoric, alfo fignifies a lively defcription
of any thing in a difcourfe.
Images in difcourfe are defined by Longinus, to be,
in general, any thoughts proper to produce expreffions,
and which prefent a kind of pifture to the mind.
But, in the more limited fenfe, he fays, images net
fuch difeourfes as come from us, when, by a kind of
enthufiafm, or an extraordinary emotion of the foul,
we feem to fee the things whereof we fpeak, andprefent
them before the eyes of thofe who hear us.
Images, in rhetoric, have a very different ufe from
what they have among the poets: the end principally
propofed in poetry is, aflonifliment and furprize }
whereas the thing chiefly aimed at in profe, is to paint
things naturally, and to fhow them clearly. They
have this, however, in common, that they both tend
•to move, each in its kind.
Thefe images, or piSures, are of vaft ufe, to give
weight, magnificence, and ftrength, to a difcourfe.
They warm and animate it 5 and, when managed with
art, according to Longinus, feem, as it were, to tame
and fubdue tbe hearer, and put him in the power of the
fpeaker.
Image, in Optics, a figure in the form of |any ob-
je&, made by the rays of light iffuing from the feveral
points of it, and meeting in fo many other points, ei¬
ther at the bottom of the eye, or on any other ground,
or on any tranfparent medium, where there is no fur-
face to refledt them. Thus we are faid to fee all ob-
jefts by means of their images formed in*the eye.
IMAGINATION, a power or faculty of the
mind, whereby it conceives and forms ideas of things
communicated to it by the outward organs of fenfe.
..See Metaphysics.
Force of Imagination. See Monster.
IMAGO, in Natural Bijlory, is a name given by
Linmeus to the third flate of infedts, when they ap¬
pear in their proper fhape and colours, and undergo no
more transformation.
IMAM, or Iman, a minifter in the Mahometan
church, anfwering to a parifh prieft among us. The
word properly fignifies what we call a prelate, antijles,
one who prefides over others 5 but the Muffulmen fre¬
quently apply it to a perfon who has the care and inten¬
dancy of a mofque, who is always there at firft, and
reads prayers to the people, which they repeat after
him.
Imam is alfo applied, by way of excellence, to the
four chiefs or founders of the four principal fe&sin the
Mahometan religion. Thus Ali is the imam of the
rerfian, or of the fed! of the Schiaites ; Abu-beker
the imam of the Sunnites, which is the fedt followed
by the Turks ; Saphii, or Safi y, the imam of another
fedt, &c.
The Mahometans do not agree among themfelves.
about this imamate or dignity of the imam. Some
think it of divine right, and attached to a Angle fami¬
ly, as the pontificate of Aaron.—Others hold, that it
is indeed of divine right, but deny it to be fo at¬
tached to any fingle family, as that it may not be
transferred to another. They add, that the imam is
to be clear of all grofs fins; and that otherwife he
3
may be depofed, and his dignity may be conferred on Imatis
another. However this be, it is certain, that after an II
imam has once been owned as fuch by the Muflulmen, Imeretiz,
he who denies that his authority comes immediately ~y
from God is accounted impious; he who does not
obey him is a rebel ; and he who pretends to contra*
di£t what he fays is efteemed a fool, among the ortho¬
dox of that religion. The Imams have no outward
mark of diftin&ion ; their habit is the fame with that
of the Turks in common, except that the turban is a
little larger, and folded fomewhat differently.
IMAUS, (anc. geog.), the largeft mountain of A-
fia, (Strabo) ; and a part of Taurus, (Pliny) ; from
which the whole of India runs off into a vaft plain, re-
fembling Egypt. It extends far and wide through
Scythia, as far as to the Mare Glaciale, dividing it
into the Hither or Scythia intra Imaum, and into the
Farther or Scythia extra Imaum, (Ptolemy) ; and al¬
fo ftretching out along the north of India to the
eaftern ocean, feparates it from Scythia. It had va¬
rious names according to the different countries it run
through : Poftellus thinks it is the Sephar of Scrip¬
ture.
IMBECILITY, a languid, infirm ftate of body,
which, being greatly impaired, is not able to perform
its ufual exercifes and fun&ions.
IMBIBING, the adtion of a dry porous body, that
abforbs or takes up a moift or fluid one : thus,
fugar imbibes water; a fpunge, the moifture of the
air, &c.
IMBRICATED, is ufed by fome botanifts, to ex-
prefs the figure of the leaves of fome plants, which are
hollowed like an imltex, or gutter-tile, or are laid ia
clofe feriesover one another like the tiles of an houfe.
IMERETIA, or Immeretta, the name of a king¬
dom, or rather principality, of Georgia, confifting of
four provinces, is under the dominion of a prince
named David. See Georgia.
The capital, where prince David refides, is called
Curtays. The remains of a church announce that Cur-
tays was formerly a large city; but at prefent it call
fcarcely be accounted a village.
Solomon, the father of the prefent fovereign, order¬
ed the citadel to be deftroyed as well as the ramparts
of the city; for he thought, and very wifely, that
Caucafus was the only fortification capable of being
defended by an army of 6000 men undifeiplined and
deftitute of artillery.
The number of the inhabitants of Imeretta is rec¬
koned to be j 0,000 families; but the greater part
of them live neither in towns nor villages, but are dif-
perfed throughout the level country, each of them
poffeffing a fmall hut or cottage. Thefe people have
fewer ftrangers among them, and they are more enga¬
ging in their appearance, than the Georgians. They
are of a milder and lefs pufillanimous charatfer ; and
the principal branch cf their commerce confifts in
wines, a confiderable quantity of which they export in
Ikins as far as the confines of Georgia. They are ac¬
quainted with no other trade; for fhey are poor and
miferable, and greatly oppreffed by their lords.
The ordinary revenues of Imeretta, like thofe of
Georgia, arife from a tythe which vaflals are obliged
to pay in wines, cattle, and corn, and fome fubfidies
furnilhed annually by neighbouring princes. The ex-
tr*’
I M I [ 159 ] I M I
fmeretla, traordinary revenues for the moft part arife from con-
I ^mitation. fifcations of every kind ; but notwithftanding this,
the finances of the prince are fo limited, that he is
often under the neceffity of going from houfe to houfe,
to live at the expence of his vaflals, never quitting their
habitations until the prefiing wants of his hofts abfo-
lutely compel him. It is therefore probable, that the
court of the fovereign of Imeretta is as deficient in
brilliancy as his table is in fplendor when he dines at
home. His principal difhes confift of a certain food
called gom, which is a kind of millet boiled, and a
piece of roaft meat, with fome high-feafoned fauce.
He never eats but with his fingers, for forks and fpoons
are unknown in Imeretta. At table he generally gives
audiences refpe&ing affairs of the firft confequence,
which he determines as he thinks proper ; for in every
country fubjedf to his dominions there is no other law
but his will.
On Friday, which is the market-day, all his new e-
difts are publifhed by a kind of herald, who climbs up
into fome tree, in order to proclaim the will of his
fovereign. The Imerettans profefs the religion of the
Greek church. Their patriarch muft be of the royal
family ; but it is feldom that he can either read or
write : the priefts who compofe the reft of the clergy
are not much more enlightened. The ’greater part of
their churches are pitiful edifices, which can fcarcely
be diftinguifhed from the common huts of the inhabi¬
tants but by a pafteboard crucifix, and a few coarfe
paintings of the Virgin, which are feen in them.
IMITATION, derived from the Latin imltare, to
“ reprefent or repeat,” a found or adtion, either exa&ly
or nearly in the fame manner as they were originally
exhibited.
Imitation, in raufic, admits of two different fenfes.
Sound and motion are either capable of imitating them-
felves by a repetition of their own particular modes ;
or of imitating other objedts of a nobler and more ab-
ftradled nature. Nothing perhaps is fo purely men¬
tal, nothing fo remote from external fenfe, as not to
be imitable by mufic. But as the defcription of this
in M. Rouffeau, article Imitation, is nobly animated,
and comprehends all that is ne«effary to be faid on the
fubjedt, we tranflate it as follows.
“ Dramatic or theatrical mnfic (fays he) contri¬
butes to imitation no lefs than painting or poetry : it
is in this common principle that we muft inveftigate
both the origin and the final caufe of all the fine arts;
fSeeSeaux^ ie Batteaux has fhown f. But this imitation is
d 'une J n°t equally extenfive in all the imitative aits. What-
Ptimige. ever the imagination can reprefent to itfelf is in the
department of poetry. Painting, which does not pre-
fent its pidlures to the imagination immediately, but
to external fenfe and to one fenfe alone, paints only
fuch objedfs as are difcoverable by fight. Mufic might
appear fubjedted to the fame limits with refpedl to the
car; yet it is capable of painting every thing, even
fuch images as are objedts of ocular perception alone :
by a magic almoft inconceivable, it feems to transform
the ears into eyes, and endow them with the double
fundtion of perceiving vifible objedls by the mediums
of their own ; and it is the greateft miracle of an art,
which can only adt by motion, that it can make that
very motion reprefent abfolute quiefcence. Night,
fleep, filence, folitude, are the noble efforts, the grand Imitation,
images, reprefented by a pidturefque mufic. We know —y*“J
that noife can produce the fame effedl with filence,
and filence the fame effedt with noife ; as when one
fleeps at a ledture infipidly and monotonically de¬
livered, but wakes the inftant when it ends. But
mufic adls more intimately upon our fpirits, in exci¬
ting by one fenfe difpofitions fimilar to thofe which
we find excited by another; and, as the relation be¬
tween thefe images cannot be fenfible unlefs the im-
preffion be ftrohg, painting, when divefted of this e-
nergy, cannot reftore to mufic that afliftance in imita¬
tions which file borrows from it. Though all nature
Ihould be afleep, he who contemplates her does not
fleep ; and the art of the mufician confifts in fubftitu-
ting, for this image of infenfibility in the objedt, thofe
emotions which its prefence excites in the heart of
the contemplator. He not only ferments and agitates
the ocean, animates the flame to conflagration, makes
the fountain murmur in his harmony, calls the rattling
flrower from heaven, and fwells the torrent to refiftlefs
rage; but he paints the horrors of a boundlefs and
frightful defart, involves the fubterraneous dungeon in
tenfold gloom, foothes the temped, tranquillizes the
difturbed elements, and from the orcheftra diffufes a
recent fragrance through imaginary groves; nay, he
excites in the foul the fame emotions which we feel
from the immediate perception and full influence of
thefe objedts.”
Under the word Harmony, Rouffeau has faid, that no
affiftance can be drawn from thence, no original prin¬
ciple which leads to mufical imitation; fince there can¬
not be any relation between chords and the objedts
which the compofer would paint, or the paflions which
he would exprefs. In the article Melody, he imagines
he has difeovered that principle of imitation which
harmony cannot yield, and what refources of nature
are employed by mufic in reprefenting thefe objedts
and thefe paflions.
It is hoped, however, that incur article of Melody, .
we have ftiown upon wrhat principle mufical imitation
may be compatible with harmony ; though we admit,
that from melody it derives its moft powerful energy,
and its moft attradtive graces. Yet we muft either be
deceived beyond all poftibility of cure,-or-we have felt
the power of imitative harmony in a high degree. Wa
are certain that the fury, the impetuofity, the rapid
viciflkudes, of a battle, may be fuccefsfully and vividly
reprefented in harmony. We have participated the
exultation and triumph of a conqueft, infpired by the
found of a full chorus. We have felt all the folemnity
and grandeur of devotion from the flow movement, the
deep chords, the fwclling harmony, of a fentimental
conapofition played upon the organ. Nor do we ima¬
gine harmony lefs capable of prefenting the tender
depreflion, the fludtuating and tremulous agitation, of
grief. As this kind of imitation is the nobleft efforts,
of mufic, it is aftonilhing that it fliould have been over¬
looked by M. D’Alembert. He has indeed apologi¬
zed, by informing us, that his treatife is merely ele¬
mentary : but we are uncertain how far this apology
ought to be regarded as fufficient, when it is at the
fame time confidered, that he has given an account of
imitation in its mechanical, or what Rouffeau calls its
technical};
I M M t 16°
Tm!tatTon technical, fenfe ; which, however, to prevent ambigu-
N ity, we fhould rather choofe to call mymefis, ot anace-
, ^mm('r‘ jfhaUoJls. To RoufTeau’s account of the word in this
acceptation, we return.
“ Imitation (fays he), in its technical fenfe, is a
-reiteration of the fame air, oi of one which is fimilar,
in feveral parts where it is repeated by one after the
mother, either in unifon, or at the dittance of a fourth,
a fifth, a third, or any other interval whatever. The
imitation may be happily enough purfued even though
feveral notes firould be changed; provided the fame air
may always be recognifed, and that the cOmpofer does
not deviate from the laws of proper modulation. Fre¬
quently, in order to render the imitation more fenfible,
it is preceded by a general reft, or by long notes which
feem to obliterate the impreffion formerly made by the
air till it is renewed with greater force and vivacity by
the commencement of the imitation. The imitation
■ may be treated as the compofer choofes; it may be
abandoned, refumed, or another begun, at pleafure -;
.in a word, its rules are as much relaxed as thofe of
the fugue are fevere : for this reafon, it is defpifed by
-the moft eminent mafters; and every imitation of this
•kind too much affedled, almoft always betrays a novice
(in compofition.”
Imitation, ip oratory, is an endeavour to refemble
a fpeaker or writer in thofe qualities with regard to
which we propofe them to ourfelves as patterns. The
-firfl. hillorians among the Romans, fays Cicero, were
•very dry and jejune, till they began to imitate Jthe
Greeks, and then they became their rivals. It is well
known how clofely Virgil has imitated Homer in his
_®neid, Hefiod in his Georgies, and Theocritus in
his Eclogues. Terence copied after Menander ; and
JPlautus after Epicarmus, as we learn from Horace,
lib. ii. ep. ad Auguft. who himfelf owes many of his
beauties to the Greek lyric poets. Cicero appears,
from many paffages in his writings, to have imitated
the Greek orators. Thus Quintilian fays of him, that
he has expreffed the ftrength and fublimity of De-
mofthenes, the copioufnefs of Plato, and the delicacy
of Ifocrates.
IMMACULATE, fomething without (lain, chiefly
applied to the conception of the holy Virgin. See
. Conception Immaculate.
IMMATERIAL, fomething devoid of matter, or
that is pure fpirit. See Metaphysics.
IMMEDIATE, whatever is capable of producing
.an effedt without the. intervention of external means ;
thus we fay, an immediate caufe, in oppofition to a
mediate or remote one.
IMMEMORIAL, an epithet given to the time or
duration of any thing whofe beginning we know no¬
thing of.
In a legal fenfe, a-thing is faid to be of time imme¬
morial, or time out of mind, that was before the reign of
our king Edward II.
IMMENSITY, an unlimited extenfion, or which
no finite and determinate fpace, repeated ever fo often,
can equal
IMMER, the moft eafterly ifland of all the New
Hebrides in the South Sea It lies about four leagues
from Tanna, and feems to be about five leagues in cir¬
cumference; it is of a confiderable height, -with a.flat*
tpp.
No 164.
] IMP
1MMERETTA, or Imeretia. See Imeretia. Immesetta
IMMERSION, that acl by which any thing is plun- H
ged into water or other fluid. m?*n
It is ufed in chemiftry for a fpecies of calcination, c—y—J
when any body is immerfed in a fluid to be corroded:
or it is a fpecies of lotion; as when a fubftance is plun¬
ged into any fluid, in order to deprive it of a bad qua¬
lity, or communicate to it a good one.
Immersion, in aftronomy, is when a ftar or planet
is fo near the fun with regard to our obfervations, that
we cannot fee it; being, as it were, inveloped and hid
in the rays of that luminary. It alfo denotes the be¬
ginning of an eclipfe of the moon, or that moment
when the moon begins to be darkened, and to enter in¬
to the fhadow of the earth.
IMMOLATION, a ceremony ufed in the Roman
facrifices ; it confifted in throwing upon the head of
the vidtim fome fort of corn and frankincenfe, toge¬
ther with the mol a or fait cake, and a little wine.
IMMORTAL, that which will laft to all eter¬
nity, as having in it no principle of alteration or cor¬
ruption.
IMMUNITY, a privilege or exemption from fome
office, duty, or impofition, as an exemption from tolls,
&c.~
Immunity more particularly underftood of the li¬
berties granted to cities and communities.
IMMUTABILITY, the condition of a thing that
cannot change. Immutability is one of the divine at¬
tributes. SeeGop.
IMOL A, a town df Italy, in the territory of the
church, and in Romagna, with a biffiop’s fee. It
is a very handfome populous place.; and is feated on
the river Santerno, in E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 44.
28.
IMPALE, in heraldry, is to conjoin two coats df
arms pale-wife. Women impale their coats of arms
with thofe of their hulbands. See Heraldry.
To impale .cities, camps, fortifications, &c. is to
inclofe them with pallifadoes.
To Impair, or Empale, fignifies alfo to put to death
by fpitting on a ftake fixed upright.
IMPALPABLE, that whofe parts are fo extremely
minute, that they cannot be diftinguifhed by the fenfes,
particularly by that of feeling.
IMP AN A (TON, a term ufed by divines to fignify
the opinion of the Lutherans with regard to the eucha-
rift, who believe that the fpecies of bread and wine
remain together with the body of our Saviour after con-
fecration.
IMP ANNULLING, in law, fignifies the writing
down or entering into a parchment, lift, or fchedule,
the names of a jury fummoned by the fheriff to appear
for fuch public fervices as juries are employed iu.
IMPARLANCE, in law, a petition in court for a
day to confider or advife what anfwer the defendant
fliall make to the plaintiff’s aftion ; and is the conti¬
nuance of the caufe till another day, or a longer time
given by the court.
IMPASSIBLE, that which is exempt from fuffer-
ing ; or which cannot undergo pain, or alteration. The
Stoics place the foul of their wife man in an impafiible,
imperturbable ftate. See Apathy.
IMPASTAT1QN, the mixtion of various materials
of different colours and confiftencies, baked or bound
2 to”
I M P r 161 1 IMP
Jmpatiens together with fome cement, and hardened either by the
il air or by fire.
liTy? IMPATIENS, touch-me-not, and Balfamine: A
i,r —J' - genus of the monogamia order, belonging to the fyn-
genefia clafs of plants^ and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 24th order, Coryclales. The calyx is di-
phyllous; the corolla pentapetalous, and irregular,
with an hooded nedlarium ; the capfule fuperior and
quinquevalved.
Species. 1. The noli-me-tangere, or common yel¬
low balfamine, is a native of Britain, but is cultivated
in many gardens for curiofity. It hath a fibrous root,
an upright, jointed, fucculent, ftalk, about x 8 inches
high, with alternate oval leaves; and, from the axillas
of the ftalks, long, flender, branching footftalks, each
fuftaining many yellow flowers; fucceeded by taper
capfules, that burft open and dart forth their feeds
with great velocity, whence its name. 2. The balfa-
mina, or balfam, is a native of India. It hath a fi¬
brous root, an upright, thick, fucculent ftalk, branching
all around a foot and an half or two feet high ; with
long, fpear fhaped, fa wed leaves, the upper ones alter¬
nate ; and from the joints of the ftalk and branches
clufters of flxort foot-ftalks, each fuftaining one large ir¬
regular flower, of different colours in the varieties ;
flowering from June or July till September.
Culture. The firft /pecies is very hardy, and will
grow freely from the feeds in any common border;
but the fecond requires artificial warmth. The feeds
will indeed grow in the full ground, but rarely before
the month of May ; and more freely then, if covered
with a hand-glafs, &c. But the plants railed by arti¬
ficial heat will flower five or fix weeks fooner than
thofe raifed in the natural ground. The feeds ought
therefore always to be lowed on a hot-bed in March or
April,’ and the plants continued therein till June ; and
if the frames be deep, they will then be drawn up to
the length of two or three feet; after which they may
be planted in pots, which muft likewife be continued
in the hot-bed till the plants have taken ffeftx root.
IMPEACHMENT, an accufation and profecution
for treafon and other crimes and mifdemeanors. Any
member of the lower houfe of parliament may impeach
any one belonging either to that body or to the houfe
of lords. The method of proceeding is to exhibit ar¬
ticles on the behalf of the commons, by whom mana¬
gers are appointed to make good their charge. Thefe
articles are carried to the lords, by whom every per-
fon impeached by the commons is always tried ; and
if they find him guilty, no pardon under the great feal
can be pleaded to fuch an impeachment. 12 Will. III.
cap. ii
IMPECCABILES, in church hiftory, a name given
to thofe heretics who boafted that they were impec¬
cable, and that there was no need of repentance : fuch
were the Gnoftics, Prifcillianifts, &c.
IMPECCABILITY, the ftate of a perfon who
cannot fin : or a grace, privilege, or principle, which
puts him out of a poffibility of finning.
The fchoolmen diftinguifh feveral kinds and degrees
of impeccability : that of God belongs to him by na¬
ture : that of Jefus Chrift, confidered as man, belongs
to him by the hypoftatical union : that of the blefled
is a confequence of their condition: that of men is
the effeft of a confirmation in grace, and is rather
Vox.. IX. Part I.
called impeccance than impeccability ; accordingly divines Imped!-
diftinguifh between thefe two : this diftin&ion is found n,ents
neceffary in the difputes againft the Pelagians, in or-
der to explain certain terms in the Greek and Latin  
fathers, which without this diftincfion are eafily con¬
founded.
IMPEDIMENTS, in law, are fuch hindrances as
put a ftop or flay to a perfon’s feeking for his right
by a due courfe of law. Perfons under impediments
are thofe under age or coverture, non compos mentis^
in prifon, beyond fea, &c. who, by a faving in our
laws, have time to claim and profecute their rights,
after the impediments are removed, in cafe of fines le¬
vied, &c.
IMPENETRABILITY, in philofophy, that pro¬
perty of body, whereby it cannot be pierced by ano¬
ther : thus, a body which fo fills a fpace as to exclude
all othe.3, is faid to be impenetrable. *
IMPERATIVE, one of the moods of a verb, ufed
when we would command, intreat, or advife : thus, go
read, take pity, be advifed, are imperatives in our lan¬
guage. But in the learned languages, this mood has
a peculiar termination to diftinguifh it from others, as
i, or ito, “ go lege, o£ legito, “ read,” &c. and
not only fo, but the termination varies, according as
you addrefs one or more perfons, as audi and audite ;
«xa/7u, UKHilov, aKvtlaa-av, 8CC.
IMPERATOR, in Roman antiquity, a title of
honour conferred on vi&orious generals by their armies*
and afterwards confirmed by the fenate.
Imperator was alfo the title adopted by the Roman
emperors.
IMPERATORIA, masterwort: A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
45th order, Umbellatce. The fruit is roundifh, com-
preffed in the middle, gibbous, and furrounded witffa
border ; the petals are inflexo-emarginated. There is
but one fpecies, m%. the oftruthium, a native of the
Auflrian and Styrian Alps, and other mountainous
places of Italy. Mr Lightfoot informs us, that he
has found it in feveral places on the banks of the Clyde
in Scotland ; but whether indigenous or not, is uncer¬
tain. The root is as thick as a man’s thumb, running
obliquely in the ground ; it is flefhy, aromatic, and has
a ftrong acrid tafte, biting the tongue like pellitory of
Spain : the leaves arife immediately from the root;
they have long foot-ftalks, dividing into three very fhort
ones at the top, each fuftaining a trilobate leaf, indent¬
ed on the border. The footftalks are deeply channel¬
ed, and, when broken, emit a rank odour. The
flower ftalks rife about two feet high, dividing in¬
to two or three branches, each being terminated by
a pretty large umbel of white flowers whofe petals are
fplit; thefe are fucceeded by oval compreffed feeds,
fomewhat like thofe of dill, but larger.—The plant
is cultivated in gardens for the fake of its roots,
which are ufed in medicine. It may be propagated ei¬
ther by feeds, or by parting the roots in autumn.
They thrive beft in a lhady fituation.—The root has a
flavour fimilar to that of angelica, and is efteemed a
good fudorific. There are inftances of its having
cured the ague when the bark had failed. It fhould
be dug up in winter, and a ftrong infufion made in wine.
IMPERFECT, fomething that is defe&ive, or that
X wants
I M P
[ 162 ]
IMP
Imperfeft wants fome of the proper ics found in other beings of implied that is not exprefled by the parties themfelves Imply
. ■■ the fame kind.
Imperfect Tenfe, in grammar, a tenfe that denotes
Ws—y——< fome preterite cafe, or denotes the thing to be at that
time prefent, and not quite finiftied ; as fcribebam, “ I
was writing.” See Grammar.
IMPERIAL, fomething belonging to an emperor,
or empire. See Emperor and Empire.—Thus we
fay, his imperial majefty, the imperial crown,
arms, &c.
Imperial Crown. See Heraldry, p. 462.
... their deeds, contrafts, or agreements.
To IMPLY, or carry, in Mufic. Thefe we have .l^p°in'ltc;
ufed as fynonymous terms in that article. They are
intended to fignify thofe founds which ought to be
the proper concomitants of any note, whether by its
own nature, or by its pcfition in artificial harmony.
Thus every note, confidered as an independent found,
nperial may be faid to carry or imply its natural harmonics,
that is to fay, its o6Iave, its twelfth, and its feven-
teenth; or, when reduced, its eighth, its fifth, and its
Imperial Chamber, is a fovereigh court, eftablifhed third. But the fame found, when confidered as confti-
for the affairs of the immediate ftates of the empire, tuting any part of harmony, is fubje&ed to other laws
See Chamber, and Germany.
Imperial Cities, in Germany, are thofe which own
no other head but the emperor.
Thefe are a kind of little commonwealths; the chief
magiftrate whereof does homage to the emperor, but
in other refpe&s, and in the adminiftration of juftice,
is fovereign.
Imperial cities have a right of coining money, and
of keeping forces and fortified places. Their deputies
afiift at the imperial diets, where they are divided
into two branches, that of the Rhine and that of
Suabia. There were formerly 22 in the former and
37 in the latter ; but there are now only 48 in all.
and different limitations. It can then only be faid to
carry or imply fuch fimple founds, or complications of
found, as the preceding and fubfequent chords admit
or require. For thefe the laws of melody and har¬
mony muff be confulted. See Melody and Har¬
mony.
IMPORTATION, in commerce, the bringing
merchandife into a kingdom from foreign countries ;
in contradiftimftion to exportation. See Exporta¬
tion.
For the principal laws relating to importation, fee
Cujlom-houfe Laws.
IMPOSITION of hands, an ecclefiaftical a&ion by
Imperial Diet, is an affembly or convention of all which a bifiiop lays his hand on the head of a perfon,
the ftates of the empire. See Diet and Germany. in ordination, confirmation, or in uttering a blefiing.
IMPERIALI (John Baptift), a celebrated phy- This pra&ice is alfo frequently obferved by the diffen-
fician of Vicenza, where he was born in 1568. He ters at the ordination of their minifters, when all the
compofed feveral efteemed works both in profe and minifters prefent place their hands on the head of him
verfe, wTitten in good Latin; and died in 1623. whom they are ordaining, while one of them prays for
IMPERSONAL verb, in grammar, a verb to a bltffing on him and his future labours. This fome
which the nominative of any certain perfon cannot be of them retain as an ancient pra&ice, juftified by the
prefixed; or, as others define it, a verb deftitute of example of the apoftles, when no extraordinary gifts
the two firft and primary perfons, as decet, oportet, &c. are conveyed. However, they are not agreed as to the
The imperfonal verbs of the aftive voice end in t, and
thofe of the paffive in tur; they are canjugated thro’
the third perfon fingular of almoft all the tenfes and
moods : they w'ant the imperative, inftead of which
propriety of this ceremony ; nor do they confidcr it as
an effential part of ordination.
Impofition of hands was a Jewifh ceremony, intro¬
duced not by any divine authority, but by cuftom ; it
e ufe the prefent of the fubjiin&ive; as pxniteat, pug- being the pra&ice among thofe people whenever they
•netur, &c. nor, but a few excepted, are they to be met prayed to God for any perfon to lay their hands on
with in the fupines, participles, or gerunds. his head.
IMPERVIOUS, a thing not to be pervaded or Our Saviour obferved the fame cuftom, both when
paffed through, either by reafon of the clofenefs of its he conferred his blefiing on children and when he
pores, or the particular configuration of its parts. cured the fick 5 adding prayer to the ceremony. The
IMPETIGO, in Medicine, an extreme roughnefs apoftles likewife laid hands on thofe upon whom they
and foulnefs of the Ikin, attended with an itching and beftowed the Holy Ghoft.—The priefts obferved the
plentiful feurf. fame cuftom when any one was received into their
The impetigo is a fpecies of dry pruriginous itch, body.—And the apoftles themfelves underwent the
wherein feales or feurf fucceed apace ; arifing from impefition of hands afrdh every time they entered
faline corrofive humours thrown out upon the exterior upon any new defign. In the ancient church impofi-
parts of the body, by which means the internal parts tion of hands was even praftifed on perfons when
are ufually relieved. they married, which cuftom the Abyflinians Hill ob-
IMPETRATION, the aft of obtaining any thing ferve.
by requeft or prayer. IMPOSSIBLE, that which is not pofiible, or which
Impetration was more particularly ufed in our cannot be done or effefted. A propofition is faid to
ftatutes for the pre-obtaining of benefices and church- be impofiible, when it contains two ideas which mutu-
offices in England from the court of Rome, which did ally deftroy each other, and which can neither be con-
helong to the difpqfal of the king and other lay patrons eeived nor united together. Thus it is impofiible
of the realm ; the penalty whereof is the fame with that a circle Ihould be a fquare ; becaufe we conceive
that of provifors, 25 E. III. clearly that fquarenefs and roundnefs deftroy each
IMPETUS, in mechanics, the force with which other by the contrariety of their figr-~
one body firikes or impels another.
IMPLICATION, in law, is where fomething is
6
There are two kinds of impoffibiliti^s, phyfical and
moral
Phyfical
IMP [ i
Impoft Phyfical impoffibility is that which is contrary to
II the law of nature.
mpocercy. ^ thing is morally impoffible, when of its own na¬
ture it is poflible, but yet is attended with fuch diffi¬
culties, as that, all things confidered, it appears im¬
poffible. Thus it is morally impoffible that all men
ffiould be virtuous ; or that a man ffiould throw the
fame number with three dice a hundred times fuc-
ceffively.
A thing which is impoffible in law, is the fame
with a thing impoffible in nature : and if any thing in
a bond or deed be impoffible to be done, fuch deed,
&c. is void. 21 Car. I.
IMPOST, in law, fignifies in general a tribute pr
cuftom, but is more particularly applied to fignify that
tax which the crown receives for merchandifes im¬
ported into any port or haven.
IMPOSTHUME, or abfcefs, a colle&ion of mat¬
ter or pus in any part of the body, either owing to
an obltruftion of the fluids in that part which makes
them change into fuch matter, or to a tranflation of
it from fome other part where its was generated. See
Surgery.
IMPOSTOR, in a general fenfe, denotes a perfon
who cheats by a fi&itious charafter.
Religious Impostors, are fuch as falfely pretend to
an extraordinary commiffion from heaven ; and who
terrify and abufe the people with falfe denunciations
of judgments. Thefe are punilhable in the temporal
courts with fine, imprifonment, and infamous corporal
puniffiment.
IMPOTENCE, or Impotency, in general, de¬
notes want of ftrength, power, or means, to perform
any thing.
Divines and philofophers diftinguiffi two forts of
impotency; natural and moral. The firft is a want
of fome phyfical principle, neceflary to an adtion ; or
where a being is abfolutely defe&ive, or not free and
at liberty to aft : The fecond only imports a great dif¬
ficulty ; as a ftrong habit to the contrary, a violent
paffion, or the like.
Impotency is a term more particularly ufed for a na¬
tural inability to coition. Impotence withrefpeft to men
is the fame as flerility in women ; that is, an inability
of propagating the fpecies. There are many caufes
of impotence; as, a natural defeft in the organs of
generation, which feldom admits of a cure : accidents
or difeafes ; and in fuch cafes the impotence may or
may not be remedied, according as thefe are curable
or otherwife.—The mcft common caufes are, early and
immoderate venery, or the venereal difeafe. We have
inftances, however, of unfitnefs for generation in men
by an impediment to the ejeftion of the femen in coi¬
tion, from a wrong direftion which the orifice at the
verumontanum got, whereby the feed was thrown up
into the bladder. M. Petit cured one patient under
fuch a difficulty of emiffion, by making an incifion
like to that commonly made in the great operation for
the ftone.
On this fubjeft we have fome curious and original
obfervations by the late Mr John Hunter in his Trea-
*^* *?'' t tife on the Venereal Difeafe*. He confiders impo-
c'3 e ^’tency as depending upon two caufes. One he refers
to the mind ; the-other to the organs0
63 ] IMP
1. As to impotency depending upon the mind, he obferves, Impotency.
that as the “ parts of generation are not neceflary for the —'"Y—
exiftence or fupport of the individual, but have a refe¬
rence to fomething elfe in which the mind has a prin¬
cipal concern; fo a complete aftionin thofe parts cannot
take place without a perfeft harmony of body and
of mind : that is, there muft be both a power of body
and difpofition of mind; for the mind is fubjeft to a
thoufand caprices, which affeft the aftions of thefe
parts.
“ Copulation is an aft of the body, the fpring of
which is in the mind ; but it is not volition : and ac¬
cording to the ftate of the mind, fo is the aft per¬
formed. To perform this aft well, the body ffiould
be in health, and the mind ffiould be perfeftly confi¬
dent of the powers of the body : the mind ffiould be
in a ftate entirely difengaged from every thing elfe :
it ffiould have no difficulties, no fears, no apprehen-
fions, not even an anxiety to perform the aft well;
for even this anxiety is a ftate of mind different from
what ffiould prevail; there ffiould not be even a fear
that the mind itfelf may find a difficulty at the time
the aft ffiould be performed. Perhaps no funftion of
the machine depends fo much upon the ftate of the
mind as this.
“ The will and reafoning faculty have nothing to
do with this power ; they are only employed in the
aft, fo far as voluntary parts are made ufe of: and if
they ever interfere, which they fometimes do, it often
produces another ftate of mind which deftroys that
which is proper for the performance of the aft ; it
produces a defire, a wiffi, a hope, which are all only
diffidence and uncertainty, and create in the mind the
idea of a poffibility of the want of fuccefs, which de¬
ftroys the proper ftate of mind or neceffary confidence.
“ There is perhaps no aft in which a man feels
himfelf more interefted, or is more anxious to perform
well; his pride being engaged in fome degree, which
if within certain bounds would produce a degree of
perfeftion in an aft depending upon the will, or an
aft in voluntary parts; but when it produces a ftate
of mind contrary to that ttate on which the perfeftion
of the aft depends, a failure muft be the confequence.
“ The body is not only rendered incapable of per¬
forming this aft by the mind being under the above in¬
fluence, but alfo by the mind being, tho’perfeftly confi¬
dent of its power, yet confcious of an impropriety in
performing it; this, in many cafes, produces a ftate of
mind which ffiall take away all power. The ftate of
a man’s mind refpefting his After takes away all power.
A confcientious man has been known to lofe his powers
on finding the woman he was going to be connefted
with unexpectedly a virgin,
“ Shedding tears arifes entirely from the ftate of
the mind, although not fo much a compound aftion
as the_ aft in queftion ; for none are fo weak in body
that they cannot ffied tears: it is not fo much a com¬
pound aftion of the mind and rtrength of body joined,
as the other aft is ; yet if we are afraid of ffiedding
tears, or are defirous of doing it, and that anxiety is
kept up through the whole of an affefting fcene, we
certainly ffiall not ffied tears, or at leaft not fo freely
as would have happened from our natural feelings.
44 From this account of the neceffity of having the
X 2 mind
IMP L 164 1 IMP
Jnspotency. mind independent refpedting the aft, we muft fee that
y ~i it may very often happen that the ftate of mind will
be fuch as not to allow the animal to exert its na¬
tural powers; and every failure increafes the evil. We
muft alfo fee from this llate of the cafe, that this aft
muft be often interrupted ; and the true caufe of this
interruption not being known, it will be laid to the
charge of the body or want of powers. As thefe cafes
do not arife from real inability, they are to be carefully
diftinguifhed from fuch as do ; and perhaps the only
way to dtftinguilh them is, to examine into the ftate
of mind refpefting this aft. So trifling often is the
circumftance which {hall produce this inability de¬
pending on the mind, that the very delire to pleafe
{hall have that effeft, as in making the woman the
foie objeft to be gratified.
“ Cates of this kind we fee every day; one of which
1 (hall relate as an illuftration of this fubjeft, and alfo
of the method of cure.—A gentleman told me, that he
had loft his virility. After above an hour’s inveftiga-
tion of the cafe, I made out the following fafts: that
he had at unneceflary times ftrong eredtions, which.
lh >wird that he had naturally this power ; that the e-
reftioiis were accompanied with defire, which are all
the natural powers wanted ; but that there was ftill a
defeft fomewhere, which I fuppofed to be from the
mind. I inquired if all women were alike to him ? his
anfwer was. No; fome women he could have conneftion
with as well as ever. This brought the defeft, what¬
ever it was, into a fmaller compafs:' and it appeared
there was but one woman that produced this inability,
and that it arofe from a defire to perform the aft with
this woman well; which defire produced in the mind
a doubt or fear of the want of fuccefs, which was the
caufe of the inability of performing the aft. As this
ai ofe entirely from the ftate of the mind produced by
a particular circumftance, the mind was to be applied
to for the cure ; and I told him that he might be
cured, if he could perfeftly rely on his own power of
felf-denial. When I explained what I meant, he told
me that he could depend upon every aft of his will or
refolution. 1 then told him, that, if he had a perfeft
confidence in himfelf in that refpeft, he was to go to
bed to this woman, but firft promife to himfelf that
he would not have any conneftion with her for fix
nights, let his inclinations and powers be what they
would which he engaged to do, and alfo to let me
know the refult. About a fortnight after, he told
me, that this relolution had produced fuch a total al¬
teration in the ftate of his mind, that the power foon
took place ^ for inftead of going to bed with the fear
of inability, he went with fears that he ftiould be pof-
fefled with too much defire, too much power, fo as to
become uneafy to him : which really happened; for he
would have been happy to have Ihortened the time ;
and when he had once broke the fpell, the mind and
powers went on together, and his mind never return¬
ed to its former ftate”
2. Of impotency from a 'want of proper correfpondence
let'ween the atiions of the different organs. Our author,
in a former part of his Treatife, when conlidering the
difeafes of the urethra and bladder, had remarked,
that every organ in an animal body, without excep¬
tion, was made up of different parts, whole funftions
or aftious were totally different from one another, al-
4
though all tending to produce one ultimate effeft. In Tm potency,
all fuch organs when perfeft (he obferves), there is a ‘
fucceffion of motions, one naturally arifing out of the
other, which in the end produces the ultimate effeft ;
and an irregularity alone in thefe aftions will conftitute
difeafe, at leaft will produce very difagreeable effefts,
and often totally fruftrate the intention of the organ.
This principle Mr Hunter, on the prefent occafion,
applies to the “ aftions of the tefticles and penis: for
we find that an irregularity in the aftions of thefe
parts fometimes happen in men, producing impotence j
and fomething fimilar probably may be one caufe of
barrennefs in women.
“ In men, the parts fubfervient to generation may
be divided into two; the effential,andthe acceffory. The
tefticles are the effential; the penis, &c. the acceffory.
As this divilion arifes from theit ufes or afttons in
health, which exaftly correfpond with one another, a
want of exaftnefs in the correfpondence or fufeeptibi-
lity of thofe aftions may alfo be divided into two :
where the aftions are reverfed, the acceffory taking
place without the firft or effential, as in ereftions of the
penis, where neither the mind nor the tefticles are fti-
mulated to aftion; and the fecond is where the tefticles
performs the aftion of fecretion too readily for the
penis, which has not a correfponding ereftion. The
firft is called priapifm ; and the fecond is what ought
to be called feminal 'weaknefs.
“ The mind has confiderable effeftapn the corre¬
fpondence of the aftions of thefe. two parts : but it
would appear in many inftances, that ereftions of the
penis depend more on the ftate of the mind than
the fecretion of the femen does ; for many have the
fecretion, but not the ereftion ; but in fuch, the want
of ereftion appears to be owing to the mind only.
“ Priapifm often arifes fpontaneoufly ; and often
from vifible irrigation of the penis, as in the vene¬
real gonorrhoea, efpecially when violent. The ftnfa-
tion of fuch ereftions is rather uneafy than pleafant;
nor is the fenfation of the glans at the time fimilar to
that arifingTrom the ereftions of defire, but more like
to the Tenfatfon of the parts immediately after coition.
Such as arife fpontaneoufly are of more ferrous confe-
quence than thofe from inflammation, as they proceed
probably from caufes not curable in themfelves 01 by
any known methods. The priapifm arifing from in*
flammation of the parts, as in a gonorrhoea, is attend-
tended with nearly the fame fymptoms ; but generally
the fenfation is that of pain, proceeding from the in¬
flammation of the parts. It may be obferved, that
what is faid of priapifm is only applicable to it when
a difeafe in itfelf, and not when a fy raptom of other dif¬
eafes, which is frequently the cafe.
“ The common praftice in the cure of this com¬
plaint is to order all the nervous and ftrengthening me¬
dicines ; fuch as bark, valerian, mulk, camphor, and
aifo the cold bath. I have feen good effefts from the
cold bath ; but fometimes it does not agree with the ,
conftitution, in which cafe I have found the warm
bath of fervice. Opium appears to be a fpecific in
many cafes; from which circumftance I Ihould be apt,
upon the whole, to try a foothing plan.
*< Seminal weaknefs, or a fecretion and eraifiion\of
the femen without ereftions, is the reverfe of a prifc-
pifm, and is by much the worlt difeafe of the tw<a.
There
I M P
Impotency, There is great variety in the degrees of this difeafe,
  there being all the gradations from the exait corre-
fpondence of the adtions of all the parts to the te'fticles
adling alone ; in every cafe of the difeafe, there is too
quick a fecretion and evacuation of the femen. Like
to the priapifm, it does not arife from defires and abi¬
lities; although when mild it is attended with both,
but not in a due proportion ; a very flight defire often
jy. oducing the full effeft. The fecretion of the femen
{hall be fo quick, that fimple thought, or even toying,
(hall make it flow.
“ Dreams have produce ! this evacuation repeatedly
in the fame night; and even when the dreams have
been fo flight, that there has been no confcioufnefs of
them when the fleep has been broken by the aft of
emiffion. I have known Cafes where the teilicles have
been fo ready to fecrete, that the lead friftion on the
glans has produced an emiffion : 1 have known the
fimple aftion of walking or riding produce this effeft,
and that repeatedly, in a very ftiort fpace of time.
“ A young man, about four or five and twenty years
of age, not fo much given to venery as rrioft young
men, had thefe laft mentioned complaints upon him
Three or four times in the night he would emit; and
if he walked fall, or rode on horfeback, the fame thing
wo ild happen. He could fcarCely have conneftion
with a woman before he emitted, and in the emiflion
there was hardly any fpafm. He tried every fuppofed
ftrengthening Aedicine, as alio the cold bath and fea-
bathing, bnt with no effeft By taking 20 drops of
laudanum on going to bed, he prevented the night
emiffions; and by taking the fame quantity in the
morning, he could walk or ride without the before
mentioned inconvenience. I direfted this praftice to
be continued for fome time, although the difeafe did
not return, that the parts might be accuftomed to
this healthy Hate of aftion ; and i have reafon co be¬
lieve the gentleman is now well. It was found necef-
fary, as the conftitution became more habituated to
the opiate, to increafe the dofe of it.
“ The fpafms, upon the evacuation of jjie femen in
l * fuch cafes, are extremely flight, and a repetition of
them foon takes place ; the firil emiffion not prevent¬
ing a fecond ; the conftitution being all the time but
little affefted(A). When the tefticlcs aft alone, with-
qut the acceflbry parts taking up the neceflary and na-
tual confequent aftion, it is ftill a more melancholy
difeafe ; for the fecretion arifes from.no vifible or fen-
fible caufe, and does not give any vifible or fenfible
effeft, but runs off’ fimilar to involuntary llools or
urine. It has been obferved that the femen is more
fluid than natural in fome of thefe cafes.
“ There is great variety in the difeafed aftions of
thefe parts ; of which the following cafe may be con-
fidered as an exampfei A gentleman has had a itric-
ture in the urethra for many years, for which he has
frequently ufed a bougie, bur. of late has neglefted it.
» He has had no conneftion with women for a conlider-
able time, being afraid of the confequences. He has
I M P
often in his fleep involuntary emiffions, which generally Impotency
awake him at the paroxyfm ; but what furprifes him II
moil is, that often he has fuch without any femen ImPfegna*
paffing forwards through the penis, which makes him U"n' t
think that at thofe times it goes backwards into the ^
bladder. This is not always the cafe, for at other _
times the femen paffes forwards. At the time the
femen feems to pafs into the blaJder, he has the erec¬
tion, the dream ; and is awaked with the fame mode
of aftion, the fame fenfation, and the fame pleafure,.
as when it paffes through the urethra, whether dream¬
ing or waking. My opinion is, that the fame irri¬
tation takes place in the bulb of the urethra without
the femen, that takes place there when the femen en¬
ters, in confequence of all the natural preparatory
fteps, whereby the very fame aftions are excited as if
it came into the paffage : from which one would lup-
pofe, that either femeu is not fecreted; or if it be, that
a retrograde motion takes place in the aftions of the
aceeleratores urinas. But if the firft be the cafe, then
we may fuppofe, that in the natural flare the aftions of
thofe mufeles do not arife Amply from the llimulus of
the f men in the part, but from their aftion being a
termination of a preceding one making part of a furies
of aftions. Thus they may depend upon the friftion,
or ’he imagination of a ruction, on the penis; the telli-
cles not doing their part, and the fpafm in fuch cafes
arifing from the iriftion and not from the ftcretion.
In many of thofe cafes of irregularity, when the erec¬
tion is not ftrong, it ftiall go off without the emiffion ;
and at other times an emiffion ftiall happen almoft
without an ereftion ; but thefe arife not from debility,
but affeftions of the mind.
“ In many of the preceding cafes, wafhing the penis,
ferotum, and perinasum, with cold water, is oftdn of
fervice; and to render it colder than we find it in fome
feafons of the year, common fait may be added to it,
and the parts wafhed when the fait is almofl dif-
folved.”
Impotency is a canonical difability, to avoid mar¬
riage in the fpiritual court. The marriage is not void
ab initio, but voidable only by fentence-of reparation
during the life of the parties.
IMPRECATION, (derived from »«, and precort
“ I pray ;”) a curfe or wifh. that fome evil may be-
fal any one.
The ancients had their goddeffes called Imprecations%
in Latin Dim, i. e. Deorum ira, who were fuppofed to
be the executioners of evil confciences. They were
called Dira in heaven, Furies on earth, and Eumenides
in hell. The Romans owned but three of thefe Im¬
precations, and the Greeks only two. They invoked
them with prayers and pieces of verfes to dettroy
their enemies.
IMPREGNATION, the getting a female with
child See Conception.
The term impregnation is alfo ufed, in pharmacy, for
communicating the virtues of one medicine to another,
whether by mixture, coftion, digellion, &c.
IM-
t 16* 1
*:          
(a) “ It is to be confidered, that the conftitution is commonly affefted by the fpafms only, and in pro¬
portion to their violence, independent > the fecn.tmn ana evacuation of the femen. But in iome caies • ven
the ereftion going off without the fpauns on the emifhon, fhall produce the lame debility as if they nad
taken plate.’'
IMP r 166 1 IMP
Imprefling IMPRESSING si amen. The power of impref-
Im rifon fea-faring men for the fea fervice by the king’s
"rrent"* commiflion, has been a matter of fome difpute, and
Y-—' fubmitted to with great reluftance; though it hath
very clearly and learnedly been fliown by Sir Michael
Fofter, that the praftice of imprefling, and granting
powers to the admiralty for that purpofe, is of very
ancient date, and hath been uniformly continued by a
regular feries of precedents to the prefent time : whence
he concludes it to be part of the common law. The
difliculty arifes from hence, that no ftatute has exprefsly
declared this power to be in the crown, though many
of them veryftrongly imply it. The ftatute 2 Ric. II.
c. 4. fpeaks of mariners being arrefted and retained
for the king’s fervice, as of a thing well known, and
praftifed without difpute ; and provides a remedy a-
gainft their running away. By a later ftatute, if any
waterman, who ufes the river Thames, ftiall hide him-
felf during the execution of any commiflion of prefling
for the king’s fervice, he is liable to heavy penalties.
By another (5 Eli%. c. 5.) no fifherman (hall be
taken by the queen’s commiflion to ferve as a mariner;
but the commiflion ftiall be flrft brought to two juftices
of the peace, inhabiting near the fea-coaft where the
mariners are to be taken, to the intent that the juftices
may choofe out and return fuch a number of able-
bodied men, as in the commiflion are contained, to
ferve her majefty. And by others, efpecially protec¬
tions are allowed to feamen in particular circumftances,
to prevent them from being imprefled. Ferrymen are
alio faid to be privileged from being imprefled, at com¬
mon law. All which do moft evidently imply a power
of imprefling to refide fomewhere ; and if any where,
it muft, from the fpirit of our conftitution, as well as
from the frequent mention of the king’s commiflion,
refide in the crown alone.—After all, however, this
method of manning the navy is to be confidered as
only defenfible from public neceflity, to which all pri¬
vate confiderations muft give way.
The following perfons are exempted from being im¬
prefled : Apprentices for three years ; the mafter, mate,
and carpenter, and one man for every too tons, of
veflels employed in the coal trade ; all under 18 years
of age, and above 55 ; foreigners in merchant-ftiips
and privateers ; landmen betaking themfelves to fea for
two years; feamen in the Greenland fiftiery, and har-
pooners, employed, during the interval of the filhing
feafon, in the coal-trade, and giving fecurity to go to
the fiftiing next feafon.
IMPRESSION is applied to the fpecies of objefts
which arc fuppofed to make fome mark or impreflion
on the fenfes, the mind, and the memory. The Peripa¬
tetics aflert, that bodies emit fpecies refembling them,
which are conveyed to the common fenforium, and they
are rendered intelligible by the aftive intelleft ; and,
when thus fpiritualized, are called expreffiom, or exprefs
fpecies, as being exprefled from the others.
Impression alfo denotes the edition of a book, re¬
garding the mechanical part only ; whereas edition, be¬
tides this, takes in the care of the editor, who cor-
refted or augmented the copy, adding notes, &c. to
render the work more ufeful.
IMPRISONMENT, the ftate of a perfon reftrain-
ed of his liberty, and detained under the cuftody of
another.
No perfon is to be imprifoned but as the law direfts, tmprifon^
either by the command or order of a court of record, ' nt
or by lawful warrant; or the king’s procefs, on which
one may be lawfully detained. And at common law, Im^r®Pna*
a perfon could not be imprifoned unlefs he were guilty. ^ I. j
of fome force and violence, for which his body was
fubjeft to imprifonment, as one of the higheft execu¬
tions. Where the law gives power to imprifon, in
fuch cafe it is juftifiable, provided he that does it in
purfuance of a ftatute exaftly purfues the ftatute in
the manner of doing it; for otlierwife it will be deem¬
ed falfe imprifonment, and of confequence it is unjuf-
tifiable. Every warrant of commitment for impri-
foning a perfon, ought to run, “ till delivered by due
courfe of law,” and not “ until farther order
which has been held ill: ind thus it alfo is, where one
is imprifoned on a warrant not mentioning any caufe
for which he is committed. See Arrest and Com¬
mitment.
Falfe Imprisonment. Every confinement of the
perfon is an imprifonment, whether it be in a common
prifon, or in a private houfe, or in the ftocks, or even
by forcibly detaining one in the public ftreets. Un¬
lawful or falfs imprifonment, confifts in fuch confine¬
ment or detention without fufficient authority : which
authority may arife either from fome procefs from the
courts of juftice ; or from fome warrant from a legal
power to commit, under his hand and feal, and ex-
preffing the caufe of fuch commitment; or from fome
other fpecial caufe warranted, for the nccefiUy of the
thing, either by common law or aft of parliament;
fuch as the arrefting of a felon by a private perfon
without warrant, the impreffing of mariners for the
public fervice, or the apprehending of waggoners for
mifbehaviour in the public highways. Falfe impri¬
fonment alfo may arife by executing a lawful warrant
or procefs at an unlawful time, as on a Sunday ; or in
a place privileged from arrefls, as in the verge of the
king’s court. This is the injury. The remedy is of
two forts ; the one removing the injury, the other ma¬
lting fatisfatiion for it.
The means of removing the aftual injury of falfe im¬
prifonment are four-fold, 1. By writ of Mainprize.
2. By writ De Odio et Atia. 3. By writ HoMine.
Replegiando. 4. By writ of Habeas Corpus. See
thofe articles.
The fatisfaElory remedy for this injury of falfe im¬
prifonment, is by an aftion of trefpafs vi et armis,
ufually called an attwn of falfe imprifonment ; which is
generally, and almoil unavoidably, accompanied with
a charge of aflault and battery alfo : and therein the
party (hall recover damages for the injuries he has re¬
ceived ; and alfo the defendant is, as for all other in¬
juries committed with force, or vi et armis, liable to pay
a fine to the king for the violation of the public peace.
IMPROMPTU, or Inpromptu, a Latin word
frequently ufed among the French, and fometimes in
Englifh, to fignify a piece made off-hand, ox extempore,
without any previous meditation, by mere force and
vivacity of imagination.
IMPROBATION, in Scots law, the name of any
aftion brought for fetting any deed or writing afide
upon the head of forgery.
IMPROPRIATION, in ecclefiaftical law’. See
Appropriation.
IM-
r N A [ 167 ] INC
Impurity IMPURITY, in the law of Mofes, is any legal de¬
ll filement. Of thefe there were feveral forts. Some were
Inalic, -hie. voluntary, as the touching a dead body, or any animal
^ that died of itfelf, or any creature that was efteemed
unclean ; or the touching things holy, by one who was
not clean, or was not a prieft ; the touching one who
had a leprofy, one who had a gonorrhoea, or who was
polluted by a dead carcafe, &c. Sometimes thefe im¬
purities were involuntary ; as when any one inadver¬
tently touched bones, or a fepulchrc, or any thing pol¬
luted ; or fell into fuch difeafes as pollute, as the le¬
profy, See.
The beds, clothes, and moveables, which had touch¬
ed any thing unclean, contra&ed alfo a kind of impuri¬
ty, and in fome cafes communicated it to bthers.
Thefe legal pollutions were generally removed by
bathing, and latted no longer than the evening. The
perfon polluted plunged over head in the water, and
either had his clothes on when he did fo, or wafhed
himfelf and his clothes feparately. Other pollutions
continued feven days, as that which was contra&ed by
touching a dead body. That of women in their month¬
ly courfes lafted till this was over with them. Other
impurities lafted 40 or 50 days; as that of women
who were lately delivered, who were unclean 40 days
after the birth of a boy, and 50 after the birth of a girl.
Others again lafted till the perfon was cured.
Many of thefe pollutions were expiated by facrifices;
and others by a certain water or lye made with the
afhes of a red heifer, facrificed on the great day of ex¬
piation. When the leper was cured, he went to the
temple, and offered a facrifice of two birds, one of
which was killed and the other fet at liberty. He who
had touched a dead body, or had beep prefent at a fu¬
neral, was to be purified with the water of expiation,
and this upon pain of death. The woman who had
been delivered, offered a turtle and a lamb for her ex¬
piation ; or if ftre was poor, two turtles or two young
pigeons.
Thefe impurities, which the law of Mofes has ex-
prefled with the greateft accuracy and care, were only
figures of other more important impurities, fuch as the
fins and iniquities committed againft God, or faults
committed againft our neighbour. The faints and pro¬
phets of the Old Teftament were fenfible of this; and
our Saviour, in the gofpel, has ftrongly inculcated, that
they are not outward and corporeal pollutions- which
render us unacceptable to God, but fuch inward pol¬
lutions as infeft the foul, and are violations of ju-ftice,
truth, and charity.
IMPUTATION, in general, the charging fome
thing to the account of one which belonged to ano¬
ther: thus, the affertors of original fin maintain, that
Adam’s fin is imputed to all his pofterity.
In the fame fenfe, the righteoufnefs and merits of
Chrift are imputed to true believers.
INACCESSIBLE, fomething that cannot be come
at, or approached, by reafon of intervening obftades,
as a river, rock, &c, It is chiefly ufed in {peaking of
heights and diftances. See Geometry.
INACHUS, founder of the kingdom of Argos,
1856 B. C. See Argos.
INALIENABLE, that which cannot be legally
alienated or made over to another: thus the dominions
of the king, the revenues of the church, the eHates of
a minor, &c. are inalienable, otherwife than with a re- Inanimate
ferve of the right of redemption. II
INANIMATE, a body that has either loft its foul, , n^a‘ .
or that is not of a nature capable of having any.
INANITION, among phyficians, denotes the
ftate of the ftomach when empty, in oppofition to re¬
pletion.
INANITY, the fchool term for emptinefs or ab-
folute vacuity, and implies the abfence of all body
and matter whatfoever, fo that nothing remains but
mere fpace.
INARCHING, in gardening, is a method of
grafting, commonly called grafting by approach ; and is
ufed when the flock intended to graft on, and the tree
from which the graft is to be taken, Hand fo near, or
can be brought fo near, that they may be joined to¬
gether. The branch to be inarched is to be fitted to
that part of the ftock where it is to be joined; the
rind and wood are to be pared away on one fide for
the length of three inches, and the ftock or branch
where the graft is to be united muft be ferved in the
fame manner, fo that the two may join equally and the
fap meet. A little tongue is then to be cut upwards
in the graft, and a notch made in the ftock to admit
it; fo that when they are joined, the tongue will pre¬
vent their flipping, and the graft will more clofely
unite to the ftock. Having thus brought them ex¬
actly together, they muft be tied with fome bafs, or
wotfted, or other foft tying ; and then the place mufl;
be covered with fome grafting clay, to prevent the air
from drying the wound, and the wet from rotting the
ftock. A flake muft be fixed in the ground, to which,
both the ftock and the graft muft be tied to prevent
the winds from difplacing them. When they have re¬
mained in this flate for four months, they will be fuf-
ficiently united, and the graft may then be cut off
from the mother-tree, obferving to flope it clofe to the
ftock; and at this time there fhould be frefli clay laid
all round-the part. This operation Ihould be perform¬
ed in April or May, that the graft may be perfe&ly
united to the ftock before the enfuing winter.
Inarching is chiefly praftifed upon oranges, myr¬
tles, jeffamines, walnuts, firs, and fome other trees
which do not fucceed well in the common way of graft¬
ing. But it is a wrong pra&ice when orange-trees are
deligned to grow large, for thefe are feldom long-lived:
after the operation.
INAUGURATION, the coronation of an emperor
or king, or the confecration of a prelate: fo called from
the ceremonies ufed by the Romans, when they were
received into the college of augurs.
INCA, or Ynca, a name given- by the natives of
Peru to their kings and the princes of the blood. Pe¬
dro de Cieca, in his Chronicles of Peru, gives the ori¬
gin of the incas; and fays, that that country was, for
a long time, the theatre of all manner of crimes, of
war, diffention, and the moft dreadful diforders, till at
laft two brothers appeared, one of whom was called
Mangocapa; of this perfon the Peruvians relate ma¬
ny wonderful ftories. Pie built the city of Cufco*
made laws, eftablilhed order and harmony by his wife
regulations; and he and his defeendants took the name
of inca, which fignifies king or great lord. Thefe in?
cas became fo powerful, that they rendered themfelves
mailers of all the country from Pafto to Chili, and ftom.
the-
INC r 168 1 IN
Incamera- the river Maule on the fouth to the river Augafmago
t|on on the north; thefe two rivers forming the bounds
Incendiary. of tbe!r empire, which extended above thirteen hun-
■ -v— * dred leagues in length. This they enjoyed till the di-
vifions between Inca Guafcar and Atabalipa ; which
the Spaniards laying hold of, made themfelves mailers
of the country, and deftroyed the empire of the incas.
See Peru.
INCAMERATION, a term ufed in the chancery
of Rome, for the uniting of lands, revenues, or other
-rights, to the pope’s domain.
INCANTATION, denotes certain ceremonies, ac¬
companied with a formula of words, and fuppofed to
be capable of raifing devils, fpirits, &c. See Charm,
&c
INCAPACITY, in the canon-law, is of two
kinds: 1. The want of a difpenfation for age in a mi¬
nor, for legitimation in a baftard, and the like : this
renders the provifion of a benefice void in its original.
2. Crimes and heinous offences, which annul provifions
at firft valid.
INCARNATION, in theology, fignifies the a&
whereby the Son of God aflumed the human na¬
ture ; or the myftery by which Jefus Chrift, the
eternal word, was made man, in order to accom-
plilh the work of our falvation. The era ufed among
ChriIlians, whence they number their years, is the time
of the incarnation, that is, of Chrilt’s conception- in
the virgin’s womb.
This era was firlt eftablilhed by Dionyfius Exiguus,
about the beginning of the fixth century, till which time
the era of Dioclefian had been in ufe.
Some time after this, it was confidered, that the
years of a man’s life were not numbered from the time
of his conception, but from that of his birth : which
occafioned them to pollpone the beginning of this era
for the fpace of one year, retaining the cycle of Diony¬
fius entire in every thing elfe
At Rome they reckon their years from the incar¬
nation or birth of Chjril, that is, from the 25th of
December, which cuftom has obtained from the year
1431. In France, and feveral other countries, they alfo
reckon from the incarnation: but then they differ
from each other in the day of the incarnation, fixing
it, after the primitive manner, not to the day of the
birth, but conception of our Saviour. Though the
Florentines retain the day of the birth, and begin their
year from Chriftmas.
Incarnation (formed from in, and caro ‘ flelh”,)
in furgery, fignifies the healing and filling up of ulcers
and wounds with new flelh. See Surgery.
INCA RNATIVES, in furgery, medicines which
affilt nature in filling up wounds or ulcers with flelh;
or rather remove the obftruftions thereto.
INCENDIARY, in law, is applied to one who
is guilty of malicioufly fetting fire to another’s dwell¬
ing houfe, and all outhoufes that are parcel thereof,
though not contiguous to it or under the fame roof,
as barns and llables. A bare intent or attempt to do
this, by actually fetting fire to a houfe, unlefs it ab-
folutely burns, does not fall within the defcription of
incendit et comlufrt. But the burning and confuming of
any part is lufficient; though the fire be afterwards
extinguilhed. It muft alfo be a malicious burning;
N° 165.
oeherwife it is only a trefpais. This offence is called Incenfe
arfon in our law. ||
Among the ancients, criminals of this kind were to InctA
be burnt. Qui edes, acervumque frumenti juxta domum v "_
pojitum fciens, prudenfque dolo malo combujjerit, vinflus igni
necatur.
The punilhment of arfon was death by our ancient
Saxon laws and by the Gothic conftitutions: and in
the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to
death. The flat. 8 Hen VI c. 6. made the wilful
burning of houfes, under fpecial circumftances, high
treafon ; but it was reduced to felony by the general
a&s of Edward VI. and Queen Mary. This offence
was denied the benefit of clergy by 21 Hen. VIII c. 1.
which ilatute was repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12 ; and
arfon was held to be oufted of clergy, with re-
fpedl to the principal, by inference from the flat. 4
and 5 P. and M. c. 4. which exprefsly denied it to the
acceffory; though now it is exprefsly denied to the
principal alfo, by 9 Geo. I. c. 22.
INCENSE, or Frankincense, in the materia me-
dica, &c. a dry refinous fubftance, known among au¬
thors by the names thus and olibanum.
Incenfe is a rich perfume, with which the Pagans,
and the Roman-Catholics Hill, perfume their temples,
altars, &c.—The word comes from the Latin incenfum,
q. d. burnt; as taking the effeft for the thing itfelf.
The burning of incenfe made part of the daily fer-
vice of the ancient Jcwilh church. The prieils drew
lots to know who Ihould offer it: the deflined perfon
took a large filver difh, in with was a cenfer full of
incenfe ; and being accompanied by another prieft
carrying fome live coals from the altar, went into the
temple. There, in order to give notice to the peo¬
ple, they flruck upon an inflrument of brafs placed
between the temple and the altar ; and being returned
to the altar, he who brought the fire left it there, and
went away. Then the offerer of incenfe having faid
a prayer or two, waited the fignal, which was the
burning of the holocauft ; immediately upon which he
fet fire to the incenfe, the whole multitude continuing
all the time in prayer. The quantity of incenfe offer¬
ed each day was half a pound in the morning and as
much at night.
One reafon of this continual burning of incenfe might
be, that the multitude of viftims that were continually
offered up, would have made the temple fmell like a
flaughter-houfe, and confequently have infpired the
comers rather with difgufl and averfion, than awe and
reverence, had it not been overpowered by the agree¬
able fragrance of thofe perfumes.
INCEPTIVE, a word ufed by Dr Wallis to ex-
prefs fuch moments, or firfl principles, which, though
of no magnitude themfelves, are yet capable of produ¬
cing fuch as are. Thus a point has no magnitude it¬
felf, but is inceptive of a line which it produces by ita
motion. So a line, though it have no breadth, is yet
inceptive of breadth ; that is, it is capable, by its mo¬
tion, of producing a furface which has breadth, &c.
INCEST, the crime of venereal commerce between
perfons who are related in a degree wherein marriage
is prohibited by the law of the country.
Some are of opinion, that marriage ought to be
permitted between kinsfolks, to the end that the af¬
fection.
INC t 169 ] INC
Inch. feftion fo neceffary in marriage might be heightened form, and the fntface ornamented with fcale-like fi- Inch
V by this double tie : yet the rules of the church have gures. At each end is the reprefentation of a human jlicijent
formerly extended this prohibition even to the feventh head. ‘ .
degree; but time has now brought it down to the third Inch-Keith, a fmall ifland fituated in the fame frith,
or fourth degree. midway between the port of Leith and Kinghorn on
Mod nations look on inceft with horror, Perfia and the oppofite fhore. See Forth.
Egypt alone excepted. In the hiftory of the ancient This ifland is faid to derive its name from the gal-
kings of thofe countries we meet with inftances of the lant Keith who fo greatly fignalized himfelf by his
brother’s marrying the filler; the reafon was, becaufe valour in 1010, in the battle of Barry, in Angus, n-
they thought it too mean to join in alliance with their gainft the Danes ; after which he received in reward
own fubjefts, and ftill more fo to have married into the barony of Keith, in Lothian, and this little
any foreign family. ifle. In 1549 the Englilh fleet, fent by Edward VI.
Incest Spiritual, a crime committed in like manner to aflift the lords of the congregation againfl. the
between perfons who have a fpiritual alliance by means queen-dowager, landed, and began to fortify this
of baptifm or confirmation. ifland, of the importance of which they grew fen-
Spiritual inceft is alfo underftood of a vicar, or other fible after their negleft of fecuring the port of Leith,
beneficiary, who enjoys both the mother and daughter; fo lately in their power. They left here five com-
that is, holds two benefices, the one whereof depends panics to cover the workmen under the command of
upon the collation of the other. Cotterel; but their operations were foon interrupted
Such a fpiritual inceft renders both the one and the by M. Defle, general of the French auxiliaries, who
other of thefe benefices vacant. took the place, after a gallant defence on the part of
INCH, a well-known meafure of length ; being the the Englifh. The Scots kept poflelfion for fome years;
twelfth part of a foot, and equal tp three barly-corns but at Taft the fortifications were deftroyed by aft of
in length. parliament, to prevent it from being of any ufe to the
Inch of Candle, (fale by). See Candle. former. The French gave it the name of L’ijle des
INCH(contraftedfromthe Gaelic innw “an ifland”), chevaux, from its property of foon fattening horfes.
a word prefixed to the names of different places in —In 1497, by order of council, all venereaTpatients
Scotland and Ireland. in the neighbourhood of the capital were tranfported
Inch- Calm or Columba, the ifle of Columba, an ifland there, ne quid detrimenti refpublica eaperet.
fituated on the frith of Forth in Scotland, and faipous INCH-Garvie, a fmall ifland, alfo lying in. the frith
for its monaftery. See Forth. of Forth. See Forth.
This monaftery was founded about 1123, by Alex- INCHANTMENT. See Witchcraft.
ander I. on the following occafion. In palling the frith INCHOATIVE, a term fignifying the beginning
of Forth he was overtaken with a violent ftorm, which of a thing or aftion ; the fame with what is otherwifc
drove him to this ifland, where he met with the moft called inceptive.
hofpitable reception from a poor hermit, then refiding Inchoative verbs, denote, according to Prifcian and
here in the chapel of St Columba, who, for the three other grammarians, verbs that are charafterifed by the
days that the king continued there tempeft-bound, en- terminationyco ox fcor, added to their primitives: as
tertained him with the milk of his cow, and a few augefco from augeo, calefco from caleo, dulcefco from dulcis,
fhell-fifti. His majefty, from the fenfe of the danger irafcor from ira, &c.
he had efcaped, and in gratitude to the faint to whom INCIDENCE, denotes the direftion in which one
he attributed his fafety, vowed fome token of refpeft; body ftrikeson another. See Optics and Mechanics.
and accordingly founded here a monaftery of Auguf- Angle of Incidence. See Angle.
tines, and dedicated it to St Columba. Allan de Mor- INCIDENT, in a general fenfe, denotes an event,
timer, lord of Aberdour,who attended Edward lll.inhis or a particular circumftance of fome event.
Scotch expedition, bellowed half of thofe lands on the Incident, in law, is a thing appertaining to, or
monks of this ifland, for the privilege of a family burial- following another, that is more worthy or principal,
placeintheirchurch.—Thebuildingsmadeinconfequence A court-baron is infeparably incident to a manor; and
of the piety of Alexander were very confiderable. There a court of pie-powders to a fair,
are ftill to be feen a large fquare tower belonging to Incident diligence, in Scots law, a warrant granted
the church, the ruins of the church, and of feveral by a lord ordinary in the court of fefiion, for citing
other buildings. The wealth of this place in the time witneffes for proving any point, or for produftion of
of Edward III. proved fo ftrong a temptation to his any writing neceffary for preparing the caufe for a
fleet, then lying in the Forth, as to fupprefs all the final determination, or before it goes to a general
horror of facrilege and refpeft to the fanftity of the proof.
inhabitants. The Englilh landed, and fpared not even Incident, in a poem, is an epifode, or particular
the furniture more immediately confecrated to divine aftion, joined to the principal aftion, or depending'
worlhip. But due vengeance overtook them ; for in on it.
a ftorm which inftantly followed, many of them pe- A good comedy is to be full of agreeable incidents,
riflred; thofe who efcaped, ftruck with the juftice of which divert the fpeftators, and form the intrigue’
the judgment, vowed to make ample recompence to The poet ought always to make choice of fuch inci-
the injured faint. 1 he tempeft ceafed; and they made dents as are fufceptible of ornament fuitable to the
the promiled atonement.—The Danifh monument, fi- nature of his poem. The variety of incidents wellcon-
gured by Sir Robert Sibbald, lies on the fouth-eaft fide dufted makes the beauty of an heroic poem, which
-of the building, on a rifing ground. It is of a rigid ought always to take in a certain number of incidents
Vol. IX. Part I. y t@
INC [ 170 1 INC
Indnera- to fufpend the cataftrophe, that would otherwife break
out too foon.
INCINERATION, (derived from in, and rims,
“ afhes,”) in Chemiftry, the reduction of vegetables
into afhes, by burning them gently.
INCISIVE, an appellation given to whatever cuts
or divides: thus, the foreteeth are called dentes incifi-
vi, or cutters; and medicines of an attenua'ting nature,
incidents, or incifive medicines.
INCLE, a kind of tape made of linen yarn.
INCLINATION, is a word frequently ufed by
mathematicians, and fignifies the mutual approach,
tendency, or leaning of two lines or two planes to¬
wards each other, fo as to make an angle.
INCLINATION in a moral fenfe. See Appetite.
INCLINED Plane, in mechanics, one that makes
an oblique an,. le with the horizon. See Mechanics.
INCOGNITO, or incog, is applied to a perfon
who is in any place where he would not be known :
but it is more particularly applied to princes, or great
men, who enter towns, or walk the llreets, without
their ordinary train or the ufual marks of their diftinc-
tion and quality. «
INCOMBUSTIBLE cloth. See Asbestos.
On this Cronftedt obierves, that the natural ftore of
the afbefti is in proportion to their economical ufe,
both being very inconfidevable. <r It is an old tradi-
dion (fays he), that in former ages they made clothes;
of the fibrous afbefti, which is faid to be compofed by
the word l^/Jus ; but it is not very probable, fince if one
may conclude from fome trifles now made of it, as
bags, ribbons, and other things, fuch a drefs could
neither have an agreeable appearance, nor be of any
conveniency or advantage. It is more probable that the
Scythians dreffed their dead bodies, which were to be
burned, in a cloth manufadiured of this ftone; and this
perhaps has occafioned the above fable.” M. Magellan
confirms this opinion of Cronftedt’s, and informs us
that fome of the RomaUs alfo inclofed dead bodies in
cloth of this kind. In the year 1756 or 1757 he tells
us, that he faw a large piece of afbeftos cloth found in
a ftone tomb, with the aihes of a Roman, as appeared
by the epitaph. It Was kept, with the tomb alfo, if
our author remembers rightly, in the right-hand wing
of the Vatican library at Rome. The under-librarian,
in order to fhow that it was incombuftible, lighted a
candle, and let fome drops of wax fall on the cloth,
which he fet on fixe with a candle in his prefence with¬
out any detriment to the cloth. Its texture was coarfe,
but much fofter than he could have expedfed.
INCOMBUSTIBLE, fomething that cannot be
burnt or confumed by fire. See Asbestos.
INCOMMENSURABLE, a term in geometry,
ufed where two lin<^, when compared to each other,
have no common meafure, how fmall foever, that will
exadlly meafure them both. And in general, two
quantities are faid to be incommenfurable, when no third
quantity can be found that is an aliquot part of both.
Incommensurable Numbers, are fuch as have no com¬
mon divifor that will divide them both equally.
INCOMPATIBLE, that which cannot fubfift with
another without deftroying it: thus cold and heat are
incompatible in the fame fubjedt, the ftrongeft over¬
coming and expelling the weakeft.
INCONTINENCE, icordinacy of the fexual ap¬
petite ; lull. It is the oppofite of chaftity. See Chas Incontl-
tity aad Continence. cence
Incontinence, in the eye of law, is of divers kinds; incutnbent.
as in cafes of bigamy, rapes, fodomy, or buggery, get- ^ - t
ting baftards; all which are punifhed by ftaiute. See 25
Hen. VIII. cap. 6. 18 Eliz. cap. 7. 1 Jac. I. cap. 11.
Incontinency of priefts is punilhable by the ordinary,
by imprifonment, &c. 1 Hen. VII. cap, 4.
Incontinence, in medicine, fignifies an inability
in any of the organs to retain what (hould not be dif-
charged without the concurrence of the will. But in¬
continence is moft frequently ufed with regard to an
involuntary difcharge ot urine otherwife called diabe¬
tes. See Medicine-/W«c.
INCORPORATION, in pharmacy, is much the
fame as impaltation, being a redu&ion of dry fubftan-
ces to the confidence of a palle, by the admixture of
fome fluid : thus pills, boles, troches, and plafters,
are made by incorporation. Another incorporation is
when things of different confiftencies are by digeftion
reduced to one common confiftence.
Incorporation or Body-Corporate. See Corpora¬
tion.
INCORPOREAL, fpiritual; a thing, or fubftance,
which has no body. Thus the foul of man is incor¬
poreal,. and may fubfift independent of the body. See
Metaphysics.
INCORRUPTIBLE, that which cannot be cor¬
rupted. Thus fpiritual fubftances, as angels, human
fouls, &c. and thus alfo glafs, gold, mercury, &c. may
be called incorruptible.
INCO K RUPTIBLES, Iscorruptibiles, the
name of a fedf which fprang out of the Eutychians.—
Their diftinguifhing tenet was, that the body of Jefus
Chrilt was incorruptible ; by which they meant, that
after and from the time wherein he was formed in the
womb of his holy mother,, he was not fufceptible of
any change or alteration ; not even of any natural and
innocent paffions, as of hunger, thirft, &c. fo that he
eat without any occafion, before his death, as well as
after his refurredlion. And hence it was that they
took their name.
INCRASSATING, in pharmacy, &c. the ren¬
dering of fluids thicker by the mixture of other fub¬
ftances lefs fluid, or by the evaporation of the thinner
parts.
INCUBATION, the aftion of a hen, or other
fowl, brooding on her eggs. See Hatching.
INCUBUS, Night-Mare, a dileale confifting in
an oppreffion of the breaft, fo very violent, that the
patient cannot fpeak or even breathe. The word is
derived from the Latin incubare, to “ lie down” on
any thing and prefs it: the Greeks call it waLlnc
q. d. fa/tator, “ leaper,” or one that rufheth on a
perfon.
In this difeafe the fenfes are not quite loft, but
drowned and aftonilhed, as is the underftanding and
imagination; fo that the patient feems to think fome
huge weight thrown on him, ready to ftrangle him.
Children are very liable to this diftemper ; fo are fat
people, and men of much ftudy and application of
mind ; by reafon the ftomach in all thefe finds fome dif¬
ficulty in digeftion.
INCUMBENT, a clerk or minifter who is refident
on his benifice; he is called incumbent^ becaufe he does,
o*
I N D [
jncurvation or at leaft ought to, bend his whole ftudy to difcharge
II the cure of his church.
Indepen- INCURVATION of the Rays of Light, their
dunta‘ bending out of a re£tilinear ftraight courfe, occafioned
by refradtion. See Optics.
INCUS, in anatomy, a bone of the internal ear,
fomewhat refembling one of the anterior dentes mo-
lares. See Anatomy, n° 141.
INDEFEASIBLE, a term in law for what can¬
not be defeated or made void ; as an indefeafible ettate
of inheritance, &c.
Indefeasible Right to the Throne. See Heredi¬
tary Right.
INDEFINITE, that which has no certain bounds,
or to which the human mind cannot affix any.
Indefinite, in grammar, is underftood of nouns,
pronouns, verbs, participles, articles, &c. which are
left in an uncertain indeterminate fenfe, and not fixed
to any particular time, thing, or other circumftance.
INDELIBLE, fomething that cannot be cancelled
or effaced.
INDEMNITY, in law, the faving harmlefs; or a
writing to fecure one from all damage and danger that
may enfue from any aft.
INDENTED, in heraldry, is when the outline of
an ordinary is notched like the teeth of a faw.
INDENTURE, in Law, a writing which com-
prifes fome contraft between two at leaft ; being in¬
dented at top, anfwerable to another part which has
the fame contents. See Deed.
Inde en- INDEPENDENTS, a feft of Proteftants fo called
pents. from their maintaining that each congregation of Chrif-
ftians, which meets in one houfe for publick worlhip, is
a complete church, has fufficient power to aft and per¬
form every thing relating to religious government
within itfelf, and is in no refpeft fubjeft or accountable
tp other churches.
4 The Independents, like every other Chriftian feft,
Their ori- derive their own origin from the praftice of the a-
gin, poftles in planting the tirft churches; but they were
unknown in modern times till they arofe in England
during the reign of Elizabeth. The hierarchy efta-
blifhed by that princefs in the churches of her domi¬
nions, the veftments worn by the clergy in the celebra¬
tion of divine worfhip, the book of common prayer,
and above all the fign of the crofs ufed in the admini-
• ftration of baptifm, were very offenfive to many of her
fubjcfts, who during the perfecutions of the former
reign had taken refuge among the Proteftants of
Germany and Geneva. Thofe men thought that the
church of-England refcmbled, in too many particulars,
the anlichriftian church of Rome ; and they called
perpetually for a more thorough reformation and a
purer woiffiip. From this circumftance they were ftig-
matized by their adverfaries with the general name of
Puritans, as the followers of Novatian( A) had been in
5
171 ] I N D
the ancient church. Elizabeth was not difpofed to Indepen-
comply with their demands; and it is difficult to fay ,
what might have been the iffue of the conteft, had the ^
Puritans been united among themfelves in fentiments,
views, and meafures. But the cafe was quite other-
wife. That large body, compofed of perfons of dif¬
ferent ranks, charafters, opinions, and intentions, and
unanimous in nothing but in their antipathy to the
forms of doftrine and difcipline that were eftabliffied
by law, was all of a hidden divided into a variety of
lefts. Of thefe the moft famous was that which was
formed about the year 1581 by Robert Brown, a man'
infinuating in his manners, but unfteady and inconfift-
ent in his views and notions of men and things. See
Brown.
This innovator differed not in point of doftrine either
from the church ofEngland or from the reft of the Puri¬
tans; but he had formed notions then new and Angular,
concerning the nature of the church and the rules of ec-
cleliaftical government. He was'for dividing the whole
body of the faithful into feparate focieties or congre¬
gations ; and maintained, that fuch a number of per¬
fons as could be contained in an ordinary place of
worftiip ought to be confidered as a church, and enjoy
all the rights and privileges that are competent to an
ecclefiaftical community. Thefe fmall focieties he
pronounced independent, jure divino, and entirely exempt
from the jurifdiftion of the bilhops, in whofe hands
the court had placed the reins of fpiritual government;
and alfo from that of prelbyteries and fynods, which
the Puritans regarded as the fupreme vilible fources of
ecclefiaftical authority. He alfo maintained, that-the
power of governing each congregation refided in the
people; and that each member had an equal (hare in
this government, and an equal right to order matters
for the good of the whole fociety. Hence all points
both of doftrine and difcipline were fubmitted to the
difeuffion of the whole congregation; and whatever
was fupported by a majority of voices paffed into a
law. It was the congregation alfo that elefted certain
of the brethren to the office of pallors, to perform the
duty of public inftruftion, and the feveral branches of
divine worftiip ; referving however to themltlves the
power of difmiffing thefe minifters, and reducing them
to the condition of private members, whenever they
ftiould think fuch a change conducive to the fpiritual ad¬
vantage of the community. It is likewiie to be ob-
ferved, that the right of the pallors to preach was by
no means of an exclulive nature, or peculiar to them
alone ; fince any member that thought proper to ex¬
hort or inftruft the brethren, was abundantly indulged
in the liberty of prophefying to the whole affembly.
Accordingly, when the ordinary teacher or pallor had
finilhed his difeourfe, all the other brethren were per¬
mitted to communicate in public their fentiments and
illuftrations upon any ufeful or edifying fubjeft.
Y-2 The
(a) The followers of Novatian were called Puritans, becaufe they would ndt communicate with the Catho¬
lic church, under pretence that her communion was polluted by admitting thofe to the facred myfteries who
through infirmity had facrificed to idols in times of perfecution. Thefe unhappy men were not received by
the church till after a long oourfe of penance. The Novatians would not receive them at all, however long
their penance, or however fincere their forrow, for their fin. In other refpefts, the ancient Puritans were, like
the Englilh, orthodox in the faith, and of irreproachable morals.
I N D [ i;
Indepen- The zeal with which B-rown and his aflbciates
, dtnt8- ^ maintained and propagated thefe notions was in a high
- v—^egree Jntemperate and extravagant. He affirmed,
that all communion was to be broken off with thofe
religious focieties that were founded upon a different
plan from his; and treated, more efpecially the church
of England, as a fpurious church, whofe minifters were
unlawfully ordained, whofe difcipline was popifh and
antichriftian, and whofe facraments and inftitutions
were deftitute of all efficacy and virtue. The fe<ff of
this hot-headed innovator, not being able to endure
the fevere treatment which their own violence had
brought upon them from an adrniniftration that was
not diftinguifhed by its mildnefs and indulgence, re¬
tired into the Netherlands, and founded churches at
Middlebourg in Zealand, and at Amflerdam and Ley¬
den in the province of Holland ; but their eftablilh-
ments were neither folid nor lalting. Their founder
returned into England; and having renounced his
principles of feparation, took orders in the eftabliffied
church, and obtained a benefice. The Puritan exiles,
whom he thus abandoned, difag reed among thcmfelves,
w'ere fplit into parties, and their affairs declined from
day to day. This engaged the wifer part of them to
mitigate the feverity of their founder’s plan, and to
3 foften the rigour of his uncharitable decifions.
And pro- The perfon who had the chief merit of bringing
grek‘ about this reformation was one of their pattors called
John Robinjon, a man who had much of the folemn
piety of the times, and no inconfiderable portion of
learning. This well-meaning reformer, perceiving the
defefts that reigned in the difcipline of Brown, and in
the fpirit and temper of his followers, employed his
zeal and diligence in corre&ing them, and in new-
modelling the fociety in fuch a manner as to render it
lefs odious to its adverfaries, and lefs liable to the juft
cenfure of thofe true Chriftians, who look upon cha¬
rity as the end of the commandments. Hitherto the
fe£t had been called Brownijls ; but Robinfon having,
in his Apology, affirmed, Coetum quemlibet particulartm
ejfe tot am, integram, et pcrfeBam ecclefiam ex fuis partibus
conjlantem immediate et independentur (quoad alias ec-
clejias) fub ipfo Ghrijlo,—the fe£i was henceforth called
Independents, of which the apologift was confidered as
the founder.
The Independents were much more commendable
than the Brownifts. They furpaffed them both in the
moderation of their fentiments and in the order of
their difcipline. They did not, like Brown, pour forth
bitter and uncharitable inve&ives againft the churches
which were governed by rules endrely different from
theirs, nor pronounce them on that account unworthy
of the Chriftian name. On the contrary, though they
confidered their own form of ecclefiaftical government
as of divine inftitution, and as originally introduced by
the authority of the apoftles, nay by the apoftles them-
fdves, they had yet candour and charity enough to
acknowledge, that true religion and folid piety might
ftourifh in thofe communities which were under the
jurifdi&ion of bilhops or the government of fynods
and prefbyteries. This is put beyond all doubt by Ro¬
binfon himfelf, who expreffes his ewn private fenti¬
ments and thofe of his community in the following
dear and precife words; “ Projitemur coram Deo et
’2 ] I N D
hominibus, adeo nobis convenire cum ecclefiis refor- ludepen-
matis Belgicis in re religionis, ut omnibus et fingulis denti.
earundem ecclefiarum fidei articulis, prout habentur J
in harmonia confeffionum fidei, parati fimus fubfcribere.
Ecclefias reformatas pro verts et genuinis habemus,
cum ufdem in facris Dei communionem profitemur, et,
quantum in nobis eft, colimus.” They were alfo much
more attentive than the Brownifts, in keeping on foot
a regular miniftry in their communities: for while the
latter allowed promifcuoufly all ranks asd orders of
men to teach in public, the Independents had, and
ftill have, a certain number of minifters, chofen re-
fpe&ively by the congregations where they are fixed;
nor is any perfon among them permitted to fpeak in
public, before he has fubmitted to a proper examina¬
tion of his capacity and talents, and been approved of
by the heads of the congregation.
This religious fociety ftill fubfifts, and has produced
divines as eminent for learning, piety, and virtue, as
any church in Chriftendom. It is now diftinguifhed
from the other Proteftant communities chiefly by the
two following circumftances.
1. The Independents rejefl the ufe of all creeds and in
confeffions drawn up by fallible men, requiring of their the) are
teachers no other teft of orthodoxy than a declaration now diftin-
of their belief in the gofpel of Jefus, and their adhe- f/oni other
rence to the Scriptures as the foie ftandard of faith proteltants»
and pra£lice.
2. They attribute no virtue whatever to the rite of
ordination upon which fome other churches lay fo
much ftrefs; for the Independents declare, that the
qualifications which conftitute a regular minifter of the
New Teftament, are, a firm belief in the gofpel, a
principle of fincere and unaffetfted piety, a competent
ftock of knowledge, a capacity for leading devotion
and communicating inftrudtion, a ferious inclination to
engage in the important employment of promoting the
everlafting falvation of mankind, and ordinarily an in¬
vitation to the paftoral office from fome. particular fo¬
ciety of Chriflians. Where thefe things concur, they
confider a perfon as fitted and authorifed for the dif-
charge of every duty which belongs to the minifterial
fundlion ; and they believe that the impofition of the
hands of bilhops or prelbyters would convey to him no
powers or prerogatives of which he was not before
poffeffed.
When the reformers feparated from the church of
Rome, they drew up public confeffions of faith or ar¬
ticles of religion, to which they demanded fubfcription
from their refpe&ive followers. Their purpofe in this
was to guard againft dangerous herefies, to afcertain
the meaning of Scripture-language, and, we doubt not,
to promote the unity of the fpirit in the bond of
peace. Thefe were laudable ends ; but of the means
chofen for attaining them, the late Dr Taylor of Nor¬
wich, the glory of the Independent churches, and
whofe learning would have done honour to any church,
expreffes his opinion in the following indignant lan¬
guage ; “ How much foever the Chriftian world va- $
lueth thefe creeds and confeffions, I confefs, for my T},eir ^
owm part, that I have no opinion of them. But w-e
are told that they were generally drawn up by the ufe 0f
ableft divines. But what evidence is there of thisioeed*.
are divines in vogue and power commonly the moft
knowing
I N D [ 173 ] I N D
Indepen- knowing and upright ? But granting that the refor-
dents. mers were in thofe days the ableft divines ; the ableft
"“*"v divines educated in Popifh fchools, notwithftanding
any pretended learning, might comparatively be very
weak and defe&ive in fcripture-knowledge, which was
a thing in a manner new to them. In times of great
ignorance they might be men of eminence; and yet
far fhort of being qualified to draw up and decjde the
true and precife rules of faith for all Chriftians. Yea,
their very attempting to draw up, decide, and eftablifh,
fuch rules of faith, is an inconteftible evidence of their
furprifing ignorance and weaknefs. How could they
be able divines, when they impofed upon the confciences
of Chriftians their own decifions concerning gofpel-
faith and do£trine ? Was not this in fadl to teach and
conitrain Chriftians to depart from the moil fundamen¬
tal principle of their rdig\on, fubjeSlion and allegiance to
Chrifi, the only teacher and lawgiver ? But if they were
able men, were they infallible ? No : they publicly af¬
firmed their own fallibility; and yet they a&ed as if
they had been infallible, and could not be miftaken in
prefcribing faith and dodtrine,
“ But even if they were infallible, who gave them
commiffion to do what the Spirit of God had done al¬
ready ? Could the firft reformers hope to deliver the
, truths of religion more fully and more clearly than the
Spirit of God ? Had they found out more apt expref-
fions than had occurred to the Holy Spirit ? The Son
of God ‘ fpake not of himfelf; but as the Father faid
unto him, fo he fpake’ (John xii. 50). ‘ The Spirit
of truth fpake not of himfelf; but whatfoeverhe heard,
that he fpake’ (John xvi. 13). ‘ The things of God
the apoftles fpake, not in the words which man’s wif-
dom teacheth, but which the Holy Glroft. teacheth’
( 1 Cor. ii. (3.). If the Chriftian revelation was thus
handed down to us from the Fountain of Light with
fo much care and exa&nefs, both as to matter and
words, by the Son of God, by the Spirit, and by the
apoflles, who were the ancient dodfors and biihops ? or
who were the firft; reformers? or who were any fynods
or affemblies of divines, that they dared to model Chri¬
ftian faith into their own invented forms, and impofe
it upon the minds of men in their own devifed terms
and expreflions ?
“ Hath Chrift given authority to all his minifters,
to the end of the world, to new-mould his dodfrines by
the rules of human learning, whenever they think fit ?
or hath he delegated his power to any particular per-
fons ? Neither the one nor the other. His dodfrines
are not of fuch a dudtile nature; but ftand fixed, both
as to matter and words, in the Scripture. And it is
at any man’s peril, who pretends to put them, as they
are rules of faith, into any new drefs or ftiape. I con¬
clude therefore, that the firft reformers, and all coun¬
cils, fynods, and aflembhes, who have met together to
colledt, determine, and decide, to prefcribe and impofe
matters pertaining to Chriftian faith, have adted with¬
out any warrant from Chrift, and therefore have in¬
vaded the prerogative of him who is the foie Prophet
and Lawgiver to the church. Peace and unity, I know,
is the pretended good defign of thofe creeds and con-
feffions. But as God never fandfified them for thofe
ends, fo all the world knows they have produced the
contrary effedts ; difcord, divifion, and the fpilling of
whole feas of Chriftian blood, for 1400 years together.”
Such fentiments as thefe are now maintained by Indepen*
Chriftians of various denominations; but they were deilts' ,
firft avowed by the Independents, to whom therefore __v " ^
the merit or demerit of bringing them to light pro¬
perly belongs. Our readers will think differently of
them according to their preconceived opinions; but
it is not our province either to confirm or to confute
them. They rife almoft neceffarily out of the inde¬
pendent fcheme of congregational churches ; and we
could not fupprefs them without deviating from our
fixed refolution of doing juftice to all religious parties,
as well thofe from whom we differ as thofe with w-horn
we agree. It ought not, however, to be rafhly con¬
cluded, that the Independents of the prefent age,
merely becaufe they reject the ufe of all creeds of hu¬
man compofition, doubt or dilbelieve the doctrines
deemed orthodox in other churches. Their predecef-
fors in the laft century were thought to be more rigid
Calvinifts than the Prefbyterians themfelves ; as many g
of thofe may likewife be, who in the prefent century Not there-'
admit not the conftfiions and formulas of the Calviniftic£or' nj-cef-
churches. They acknowledge as divine truth every r^(|^ ete”
dodtrine contained in the Scriptures; but they think
that fcripture-doArines are moft prope'rly expreffed in
fcripture language; and the fame fpirit of religious
liberty, which makes them rejeA the authority of bi-
fhops and fynods in matters of difeipline, makes them
rejedl the fame authority in matters of faith. In ei¬
ther cafe, to call any man or body of men their mailers,
would, in their opinion, be a violation of the divine
law, fince “ one is their mailer, even Chrift, and they *
all are brethren.” 7
In fupportof their fchemeof congregational churches,
they *bferve, that the word exxXtjcn*, which we tranflate.the i„ae.
church, is always ufed in Scripture to fignify either a-pendency
jingle congregation, or the place where a fingle congrega- °f congre*
tion meets. Thus that unlawful affembly at Epheius,^”®^^
brought together againft Paul by the craftsmen. isc'
called exxXixna,church (Adis xix-. 32-, 39,41.) The
word, however, is generally applied to a more facred
ufe ; but Hill it fignifies either the affembling, or
the place in which it affembles. The whole body of
the difciples at Corinth is called the churchy and fpoken
of as coming together into one place (t Cor. xiv. 23.)
The place into which they, came together we find iike-
wife called a church ; “ when ye come together in the
church,— when ye come together into one place” (1 Cor.
xi. 18, 20.). Wherever there were more congrega¬
tions than one, there were likewife more churches than
one : Thus, “ Let your women keep file nee in the
churches, f* raif txnxwntif ( , Cor. xi. 18.) The whole
nation of Ifrael is indeed called a church, but it was no
more than a fingle congregation ; for it had but one.
place of public worlhip, vi%. firft the tabernacle, and
afterwards the temple. The Catholic church of Chrill,.
his holy nation and kingdom, is likewife a fingle con¬
gregation, having one place of worlhip, viz heaven,
where all the members alfemble by faith and hold com¬
munion ; and in which, when they (hall all be fully,
gathered together, they will in fadl be one glorious af-
fcmbly. We find it called “ the general affembly and
church of the firlt-born, whofe names are written in
heaven.”
Befides thefe, the Independent can find no other de-
feriptioa of a church in the New-Teftament; not 3
tracee
I N D [ 174 1 I N D
ilndepen* trace of a diocefe or prefbytery confiftlng of feveral
, dent-c- congiegati ns all fubjeft to one jurifdi&ion. The
w-v—— number 0f difciples in Jerufalem v/as certainly great
before they were ilifperfed by the perfecution in which
Paul bore fo aftive a part: yet they are never men¬
tioned as forming diftinft allemblies, but as one affem-
Wy meeting wirh its elders in one place ; fometimes in
the temple, fometimes in Solomon’s porch, and fome¬
times in an upper room. After the difperlion, the
difciples who fled from Jerufalem, as they could no
longer affemble in one place, are never called a church
by themfelves, or one church, but the churches of Judea,
Samaria, and Galilee, (A&s ix. 31. Gal i. 22.)
Whence the Independent concludes, that in Jerufalem
the words church and congregation were of the fame im¬
port; and if fuch was the cafe there, where the gofpel
was firll preached, he thinks we may reafonably expedf
to find it fo in other places. Thus when Paul on his
journey calls the elders of the church of Ephefus to
Miletus, he fpeaks to them as the joint overleers of a
iingle congregation : “ Take heed to yourfelves, and
to all the flock, over which the Holy Gholl hath made
you overfeers” (A&sxx. 28.) Had the church at
Ephefus confifted of different congregations united
under fuch a jurifdi£tion as that of a modern prefby¬
tery, it would have been natural to fay, “ Take heed
to yourfelves, and to the flocks over which the Holy
Ghoft hath made you overfeers but this is a way of
fpeaking of which the Independent finds not an in-
flance in the whole New Te[lament. The facred wri¬
ter's. when fpeaking of all the Chriflians in a nation
or province, never call them the church oi fuch a nation
or province, but the churches of Galatia (Gal. i. 2.),
the churches of Macedonia (2 Cor. viii. 1.), the churches
of Alia (t Cor. xvi; 10.) On the other hand, when
fpeaking of the difciples in a city or town, who might
ordinarily aflemble in one place, they uniformly call
them a church; faying, the church of Antioch, the
church at Corinth, the church of Ephefus, and the
8 like'
Sn each eac^ ^ churches or congregations there
congrega- were elders orprejbyters and deacons; and in every churdx
tier more there feems to have been more than one elder, in fome
than one a great many, who all “ laboured in word and doc-
prefhyter trme.” Thus we read (Ads xiv. 23.) of Paul and
whole office Barnabas ordaining elders in every church; and (Ads
is to teach xx. 17.) of a company of elders in the church of Ephe-
as well as pus^ who were exhorted to feed the flock, and to
govern. tajie heed to themfelves and to all the flock over which
the Holy Ghoft. had made them overfeersbut of fuch
elders asare to be found in modern prefby terian churches,
who neither teach nor are apt to teach, the Indepen¬
dent finds no veflige in the Scriptures, nor in the ear-
lieft uninfpired writers of the Chrillian church. The
rule or government of this prefbyfery or elderfhfp tn a Indcpen.
church is not their own but Chrifl’s. They are not dents,
lords over God’s heritage, nor can they pretend to more "v "J.
power over the difciples than the apottles had. But
when the adminillration of the apollles in the church
of Jerufalem, and other churches where they aded as
elders, is inquired into by an Independent, it does not
appear to him that they did any thing of common
concern to the church, without the confent of the
multitude : nay, it feems they thought it neceflary to
judge and determine in difeipline in prefence of the
whole church(Adsvi. 1—6. xv. 22. 1 Cor. v. 3, 4, 5.)
Excommunication and abfolution were in tfee power of
the church at Corinth, and not of the elders as dillin- nication
guifhed from the congregation (1 Cor. v. 2 Cor. ii.) and aHfolu
The apollle indeed fpeaks of his delivering fome unto1’00 intbe
Satan (1 Tim. i. 20.): but it is by no means clear that
he did it by himfelf, and not after the manner pointed at gregation.
1 Cor. v.4,5; even as it does not appear, from his faying,
in one epiitle, that the gift was given unto Timothy by
the putting on of his hands, that this was not done
in the prejhytery of a church, as in the other epiftle
we find it adually was. The trying and judging of
falfe apoflles was a matter of the firll importance : but
it was done by the elders with the flock at Ephefus
(Rev. ii. 2. Adis xx. 28,); and that whole flock did
in the days of Ignatius all partake of the Lord’s flip¬
per, and pray together in one(B) place. Even the
power of binding and looling, or the power of the keys,
as it has been called, was by our Saviour conferred not
upon a particular order of difciples, but upon the
church : “ If thy brother fliall trefpafs againlt thee,
go and tell him his fault between thee and him alone :
if he lhall hear thee, thou haft gained thy brother. But
if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two
more, that in the mouth of one or two witnefles every
word may be eftablilhed. And if he ftiall negledt to
hear them, tell it unto the church ; but if he negledl
to hear the church, let him be unto thee as an heathen
man and a publican. Verily I fay unto you, what-
foever ye fliall bind on earth, fhall be bound, &c.
(St Mat. xviii. 15, 16, 17, 18.). It is not faid, if he
fliall negledl to hear the one or two, tell it to the el¬
ders of the church; far lefs can it be meant that the
offended perfon ftiould tell the caufe of his offence to
all the dilciples in a prefbytery or diocefe conftlting of
many congregations: but he is required to tell it to
that particular church or congregation to which they 10
both belong ; and the fentence of that affembly, pro- which
nounced by its elders, is in a very folemn manner de- 4^ea"tenc*
dared to be final, from which there lies no appeal to i
any jurifdidlion on earth. If
With refpedt to the conflituting of elders in any church What cort-
or congregation, the Independent reafons in the fol- hhutes ei-
lowingd=rsi"a
° church.
(b) The evidence upon which this is faid by Mr Glas (for the whole of this reafoning is extradled from his
works), is probably the following paffage in the epiftle of Ignatius to the Ephelians: Ei iivUpov
irfomox*, See. ‘ For if the prayer of one or two be of fuch force as we are told, how much more prevalent
xnuft that be which is made by the bilhop and the whole church ? He then that does not come together into
the fame place with it, is proud, and hath condemned himfelf; for, it is written, God relifteth the proud. Let
us not therefore refill the bilhop, that we may be the fervants of God.” The -fentence, as it thus Hands by
itfelf, certainly countenances Mr Glas’s fcheme , but the reader who thinks any regard due to the teftimony of
Ignatius, will do well to perufe the whole epiltle as publifhed by Voffius,
I N D l i
Indepen- lowing manner : The officers of Chrift’s appointment
dent*. are either ordinary and permanent in the church, or
“—‘v they were extraordinary and peculiar to the planting of
Chrillianity. The extraordinary were thofe who were
employed in laying the plan of the gofpel churches,
and in publifhing the New Teftament revelation Such
were the apoftles, the chofen witnefles of our Saviour’s
refurredtion ; fuch were the prophets infpired by the
Holy Ghoft for explaining infallibly the Old Tefta¬
ment by the things written in the New; and fuch were
the evangelifts, the apoftles minifters. Thefe can be
fucceeded by none in that which was peculiar to them,
becaufe their work was completed by themfelves. But
they are fucceeded in all that was not peculiar to them
by elders and deacons, the only two ordinary and per¬
manent orders of minifters in the church. We have
already feen, that it belongs to the office of the elder
to feed the flock of Chrift; and the only queftion to
be fettled is, how men are ordinarily called to that
office ? for about the office of the deacon there is little
or no difpute. No man now can pretend to be fo
called of God to the miniftry of the word as the a-
poftles and other infpired elders were, whom he chofe
to be the publifhers of his revealed truth, and to whofe
miffion he bore witnefa in an extraordinary manner.
But what the apoftles were to thofe who had the di¬
vine oracles from their mouths, that their writings are
to us : and therefore as no man can lawfully pretend a
Gall ftom God to make any addition to thoi'e writings,
fo neither can any man pretend to be lawfully called to
the miniftry of the word already written but in the
manner which that word diredts. Now there is no¬
thing of which the New Teftament fpeaks more clear¬
ly than of the charaBers of thofe who ftiould exercife
the office of elders in the church, and of the aftual,ex¬
ercife of that office. The former are graphically drawn
in the epiftles to Timothy and Titus; and the latter is
minutely defcribed in Paul’s difcourfe to the Ephefian
elders, in Peter’s exhortation to elders, and our Lord’s
eommiffion to thofe minifters, with whom he promifed
to be always prefent even unto the end of the world.
It is not competent for any man or body of men to add
to, or diminiflr from, the defer iption of a gofpel mi-
nifter given in thefe places, fo as to infift upon the ne-
ceffity of any qualification which is not there mentionr
ed, or to difpenfe with any qualification as needlefs
which is there required. Neither has Jefus Chrift,
the only legiflator to the church, given to any mini,
a^auift theS ^ers or PeoP^e any Power or r>ght whatfoever to call,
efficacy of fend, eledt, or ordain, to that office any perfon who is
every kind not qualified according to the defeription given in his
of minifte- iaw . nor has he given any power or right to rejeft the
leaft of them who are fo qualified, and who delire the
office of a bilhop or elder. Let a man have hands laid
upon him by fuch as could prove an uninterrupted de-
feent by impofition of hands from the apoftles; let him
be fet apart to that office by a company of minifters
themfelves, the moft conformable to the feripture cha-
rafter, and let him be chofen by the moft holy people
on earth ; yet if he anfwer not the New Teftament
defeription of a minifter, he is not called of God to
that office, and is no minifter of Chrift, but is indeed
running unfent. No form of ordination can pretend
to fuch a clear foundation in the New Teftament as
rial ordina¬
tion.
75 1 I N D
the defeription of the perfons who fhould be elders of Indepen*
the church ; and the laying on of hands, whether' by de'lt°' ,
bifhops or prefbyters, is of no more importance in the " v
miffion of a minifter of Chrift, than the waving' of
one’s hand in the air or the putting of it into his bo-
fom ; for now when the power of miracles has ctaied,
it is obvious that fuch a rite, by whomfoever perform¬
ed, can convey no powers, whether ordinary or extra¬
ordinary. Indeed it appears ip have been fometimes
ufed even in the apodobc age without any fuch inten-.
tion. When Paul and Barnabas were feparated to the
particular employment of going out to the Gentiles,
the prophets and teachers at Antioch “ prayed and
laid their hands on them:” But did this ceremony con¬
fer upon the two apoftles any new power or authority
to ad as minifters of (Chrift ? Did the impoiition of
hands make thofe Alining lights of the gofpel one whit
better qualified than they were before to convert and
baptize the nations, to feed the flock of God, to teach,
rebuke, or exhort, with all long fuffering and dodrineJ
It cannot be pretended. Paul and Barnabas had un¬
doubtedly received the Holy Ghoft before they came
to Antioch ; and as they were apoftles, they were of
courfe authorifed to difeharge all the fundions of the
inferior and ordinary minifters of the gofpel. In a
word, whoever in his life and converfation'is conform¬
able to the charafter which the infpired writers give of
a bifhop or elder, and is likewife qualified by his
“ mightinefs in the feripture” to difeharge the duties
of that office, is fully authorifed to adminifter the fa- And even'
craments of baptifm and the Lord’s fupper, to teach,ag.mft tho-
exhort, and rebuke, with all long fuffering and doc-ncceffity
trine, and has all the call and miffion which the Lord
now gives to any man ; whilft he who wants the quali¬
fications mentioned, has not God’s call, whatever he
may have ; nor any authority to preach the gofpel of
Chrift, or to difpenfe the ordinances of his religion.
From this view of the Independent principles, which
is-faithfully taken from their own writers, it appears,
that, according to them, even the ele&ion of a congre¬
gation confers upon the man whom they may choofe
for their paftor no new powers, but only creates a new
relation between 'him and a particular flock, giving
him an exclufive right, either by himfelf or in con-
junftion with other paftors conftituted in the fame
manner, to exercife among them that authority which
he derives immediately from Chrift, and which in a
greater or lefs degree is poffeffed by every fincere Chri-
ilian according to his gifts and abilities. Were the.
minifters of the gofpel conftituted in any other way
than this; by impofition of hands, for inftance, in fuc-
ceffion from the apoftles; the cafe of.Chriftianswould,-
in the opinion of the Independents, be extremely hard,,
and the ways of God fcarcely equal. We are ftriftly.
commanded not to forfake the affcmbling of ourfelvesi
together, but to continue ftedfaft in the apoftles doc¬
trine and fellowfhip, and in the breaking of bread, and:
in prayer “ but can any man (aflcs one of their ad¬
vocates) bring himfelf to believe, that what he is com¬
manded to do in point of gratitude, what is made hiV
own perfonal a&, an aft expreffive of certain dutiful,
and pious affeftions, can poffibly be-reftrifted to the in¬
termediate offices or inilrumentality of others, who aft/,
by powers which he can neither give nor take away ■
Ta>
IND [176] IND
Ii.determi- To fuppcfe a thing neceflarjr to my.happinefs, which
n^te is not in my own power, or wholly depends upon the
Index. S00^ pkafure of another, over whom I have no au-
u—y—j thority, and concerning whofe intentions and difpofi-
tions I can have no fecurity, is to fuppofe a conttitu-
tion the moft foolifii and ill-natured, utterly inconfiftent
with our ideas of a wife and good Agent.” Such are
fome of the principal arguments by which the Inde¬
pendents maintain the divine right of congregational
churches, and the inefficacy of minifterial ordination to
conftitute a minifter of Chrill. We mean not to re¬
mark upon them, as the reader will find different con-
IHtutions of the church pleaded for under the words
Presbyterians and Ep 1 scopacy,to which wereferhim
for farther fat isfaftion. We ftiall only obferve at pre-
fent, what it would be affe&ation to pafs unnoticed,
that the mode of reafoning adopted by the laft quoted
advocate for the Independents, if puffied as far as it
will go, neceflarily leads to confequences which will not
readily be admitted by a Chriftian of any denomina¬
tion, or indeed by a ferious and confiftent Theiff.
INDETERMINATE, in general, an appellation
given to whatever is not certain, fixed, and limited;
in which ftnfe it is the fame with indejinite.
INDEX, in anatomy, denotes the fore-finger. It
is thus called from indico, I point or direct; becaufe
that finger is generally fo ufed : whence alfo the ex-
tenfor indicis is called indicator.
INDEX, in arithmetic and algebra, fhows to what
power any quantity is involved, and is otherwife call¬
ed its exponent. See Algebra, p. 412.
Index of a Book, is that part annexed to a book,
referring to the particular matters or paffages therein
contained.
Index of a Globe, is a little ftyle fitted on to the
northpole, and turning round with it, pointing to cer¬
tain divifions in the hour-circle. It is fometimes alfo
called gnomon. See Globe.
Expurgatory Index, a catalogue of prohibited books
in the church of Rome.
The hrft catalogues of this kind were made by the
inquifitors ; and thefe were afterwards approved of by
the council of Trent, after fome alteration was made
in them by way of retrenchment or addition. Thus
an index of heretical books being formed, it was con¬
firmed by a bull of Clement VIII. in 1595, and print¬
ed with feveral introductory rules ; by the fourth of
which, the ufe of the feriptures in the vulgar tongue
is forbidden to all perfons without a particular licence ;
and by the tenth rule it is ordained, that no book ffiall
be printed at Rome without the approbation of the
Pope’s vicar, or fome perfon delegated by the Pope ;
nor in any other places, unlefs allowed by the bilhop
of the diocefe, or fome perfon deputed by him, or by
the inquifitor of heretical pravity.
The Trent index being thus publifhed, Philip II.
•of Spain ordered another to be printed at Antwerp,
in 1571> with confiderable enlargements. Another
index was publiffied in Spain in 1584; a copy of which
NJ 165.
was fnatched out of the fire when the Engliffi piun- India.
dered Cadiz. Afterwards there were feveral expurga-  v—>■«
tory indexes printed at Rome and Naples, and parti¬
cularly in Spain.
INDIA. See Hindostan.—By the name of In¬
dia the ancients underffood only the weftern peninfula,
on this fide the Ganges, and the peninfula beyond
it, having little or no knowledge of the countries which
lie farther to the eaftward ; though by the moderns ail
thofe vaft trafts from the eaffern parts of the Perfian
empire to the iflands of Japan, are confounded under
the general name of Eajl Indies. Even the ancients,
though originally they were acquainted only with the
weftern parts of Hindoftan, gradually extended the
name of India over the other countries they difeovered
to the eaftward; fo that probably they would have in¬
volved all the reft in the fame general defignation, had
they been as well acquainted with them as the moderns T
are. By whom thefe countries wereoriginally peopled, is Cnnjeifture
a queftion which in all probability will never be refolved. concerning
Certain it is, that fome works in thefe parts difeover11?.6 Peo'
marks of altoniflring fldll and power in the inhabitants, In°
fuch as the images in the ifland of Elephanta ; the
rocking ftones of immenfe weight, yet fo nicely ba¬
lanced that a man can move them with his hand; the
obfervatory at Benares, &c. Thefe ftupendous works
are by Mr Bryant attributed to the Cuffrites or Baby¬
lonians, the firft diftindt nation in the world, and who
of confequence muft for fome time have pofleffed in a
manner the fovereignty of the whole earth ; and it
can by no means appear improbable, that the fubjefts of
Nimrod, the beginning of whofe kingdom was in Shinar,
might extend themtelves eaftward, and thus fill the fer-
tile regions of the eaft with inhabifents, without think¬
ing it worth while for a long time to meddle with a
the lefs mild and rich countries to the weft ward. Thus Why the
would be formed that great and for fome time infu- fnclian* and
perable divifion betwixt the inhabitants of India and We.fterR
other countries ; fo that the weffern nations knew not wcrelgno-
even of the exiftence of the Indians but by obfeure re- rant of one
port; while the latter, ignorant of their own origin,anotlier*
invented a thoufand idle tales concerning the antiquity
of their nation, which fome of the moderns have been
credulous enough to believe and record as facts.
The firft among the weltern nations who diftinguilh-
ed themfelves by their application to navigation and
commerce, and who were of confequence likely to
difeover thefe diftant nations, were the Egyptians and
Phenicians. The former, however, foon loft their
inclination for naval affairs, and held all fea-faring peo- 3
pie in deteftation as profane perfons; though the ex-Accnunt
tenfive conqiiefts of Sefoftris, if we can believe them, Sc-
muft have in a great meafure fupplied this defeft. foftrU to *
Without regard to the prejudice of his people againft India,
maritime affairs, he is faid to have fitted out a fleet of
400 fail in the Arabian Gulph or Red Sea, which
conquered all the countries lying along the Erythrean
Sea ( a) to India ; while the army led by himfelf march¬
ed through Afia, and fubdued all the countries to the
Ganges;
(a) This muft not be confounded with the Red Sea, notwithftanding the fimilarity of names. The Ery-
threan fea was that part of the ocean which is rnterpofed betwixt the ftraits of Babelmandel and the Ma¬
labar coaft, now called the Indian fea or ocean.
1 N D [ 177 ] I N D
India. Ganges; after which he crofled that river, and ad-
vasced to the eaftern ocean.
Great difputes have been carried on with refpeft to
4 this conqueror, and the famous expedition juft now
Dr Robert- re]ated ; but the le arned Dr Robertfon, in his D'if-
fons^foTcif Quifit'19*1 concerning ancient India, declares himfelf in
believing doubt whether any fuch expedition ever was made, for
it. the following reaf ms. I. Few hiftorical fa&s feem to
be better eftabliftied than that of the averfion the E-
gyptians entertained to feafaring people and naval af¬
fairs ; and the Doftor confiders it as impoffible even
for the moll powerful monarch to change in a few years
a-national habit confirmed by time and fan&ified by
religion. The very magnitude of the armaments is an
argument againft their exiftence ; for befides the 400
{hips of war, he had another fleet in the Mediterra¬
nean ; and fuch a mighty na,vy could not have been con-
•ftru&ed in any nation unaccuftomed to maritime affairs,
in a few years 2. Herodotus makes no mention of
the conquefts of India by Sefoftris, though he telates
his hiftory at fome length. Our author is of opinion
that the ftory was fabricated betwixt the time of He¬
rodotus and that of Diodorus Siculus, from whurn we
have the firft account of this expedition. Diodorus
himfelf informs us that he had it from the Egyptian
priefts; and gives it as his opinion, that “ many
things they related flowed rather from a defire to pro¬
mote the honour of their country than from attention
to truth and he takes notice that both the Egyp¬
tian priefts and Greek writers differ widely from one
another in the accounts which they give of the aftions
of Sefoftris. 3. Though Diodorus declares that he
has fele&ed the moft probable parts of the Egyptian
narrative, yet there are ftill fo many improbabilities,
or rather impoffibilities. contained in his relation, that
we cannot by any means give credit to it. 4. For the
reafon juft mentioned, the judicious geographer Strabo
rejefted the account altogether, and ranks the exploits
of Sefoftris in India with the fabulous ones of Bacchus
5 and Hercules.
'tntercourfe But whatever may be determined with regard to the
liat s EgyPtians’ ^'s certa‘n that the Tyrians kept up a con-
,|ud«.Wlt ftant intercourfe with fome parts of India by naviga¬
ting the Arabian Gulf, now the Red Sea. Ofthis na¬
vigation they became mailers by taking from the
Idumeans fome maritime places on the coaft of the
Red Sea : but as the diftance betwixt the neareft place
of that Sea and Tyre was ftill confi erable, the land-
carriage would have been very tedious and expenfive;
for which reafon it was neceffary to become mafters of
a port on the eaftern part of the Mediterranean, near
er to the Red Sea than Tyre, that fo the goods
might be (hipped from thence to Tyre itfelf.. With
this view they took poffeffion of Rhinvelura, the neareft
port on the Mediterranean to the Arabian Gulf; and
to that port all the goods from India were conveyed
by a much (hotter and lefs expenfive route than over
land.—This is the firft authentic account of any in¬
tercourfe betwixt India and the weftern part of the
world : and to this we are without doubt in a great
meafure to afcribe the vaft wealth and power for which
the city of Tyre was anciently renov ned; for in o-
ther refpefts the whole territory of Phenicia was but
of little confequence. Noiwithftanding the frequency
of thefe voyages, howevet, the ancients are able to
Voi. IX. Fart L
give little or no account of them The moll particu- India,
lar defcription we have of the wealth, power, and
commerce of ancient Tyre, is in the prophefies of Eze¬
kiel; fo that if the Tyrians themfelves kept any jour¬
nals of their voyages, it is probable that they were
entirely loft when the city was deftroyed by Alexander
the Great.
Though the Jews, under the reign of David and Tews
Solomon, carried on an extenfive and lucrative com-did not vj.
merce, yet our author is of opinion that they did not fit India,
trade to any part of India. There are only two places
mentioned to which their (hips failed, n;^. Ophir and
Tarftiilh; both of which are now fup;< fed to have
been fituated on the eaftern coaft e . Aftica : the
ancient Tarftiilh, according to Mr Bruce, wasthe prefent
Mocha ; and Ophir the kingdom of Sofala, foremark-
able in former times for its mines, that it was called by
Oriental v. riterss the golden Sofala *. • g(.e oplit
Thus the Indians continued for a long time unknown a d Tar-
to the weftern nations, and undifturbed by them; pro-J®^*
bably in fubjeftion to the mighty empire of Babylon,
from which the country was originally peopled, or in
all ance with it; and the pofleffion of this va:( region
will eafily account for the immenfe and otherwife al-
moft incredible wealth and power of the ancient Baby-
lonifli monarchs. Soon after the deftruftion of that p, n ^ «
monarchy by the Perfians, h >wever, we find their mo- .o/'t^Ver-
narch Darius Hyftafpes undertaking an expedition a- fun- in In¬
gain ft the Indians f. His conquefts were not exten-°ia
five, as they did not reach beyond the territory watered \ ’ee
by the Indies; neverthelefs, fuch as they were, then z*
acquifition feems to have been very important, as the
revenue derived from the conquered territory, according
to Herodotus, was near a third of that of the whole
Perfian empire. According to his account, however,
we mull form a much core diminutive opinion of the
riches of the Perfian monarchs than has commonly been
done ; fince Herodotus tells us, that the empire was
divided into io fatrapies or governments ; all of which
yielded a revenue of 14,560 Euboic talents, amount¬
ing in the whole to 2,807,437 1. fterling The amount
of the revenue from the conquered provinces of India
therefore mull have been confiderably fhort of a mil¬
lion. Very little knowledge of the country was dif-
fufed by the expedition of Darius, or the voyage of
Scylax whom he employed to explore the coafts : for
the Greeks paid no regard to the tranfa&ions of thofe
whom they called Barbarians ; and as for Scylax him¬
felf, he told fo many incredible ftories in the account
he gave of his voyage, that he had the misfortune to
be dilbelieved in almoft every thing, whether true or
falfe. g
The expedition of Alexander is fo fully taken notice °I Alexaw
of under the article Hindostan, that nothing more re-the
mains to be faid upon it in this place, than that he went ljreat‘
no farther into the country than the prefent territory
of the Panjab, all of which he did not traverfe. Its
fouth weft boundary is formed by a river anciently cal¬
led the Hyfudrus, now the Settege. The breadth of
this diftrift from Ludhana on the Setlege, to Attock
on the Indus, is computed to be 259 geographical
miles in a ftraight line; and .ilexander’s march, com¬
puted in the fame manner, did not exceed 200 ; ne-
verthelefs, by the fpreading of his numerous army over
the country, and the exadt meafurement and delinea-
Z tioa
I N D [ i73 1 I N D
India, tion of all his movements by men of fcience whom he
employed, a very extenfive knowledge of the wdtern
part of India was obtained. It is, however, furpri-
fmg, that having marched through fo many countries
in the neighbourhood of India, where the people mud
have been well acquainted with the nature of the cli¬
mate, the Macedonian conqueror did not receive any
information concerning the difficulties he would meet
with from the rains which fell periodically at a certain
feafon of the. year. It was the extreme diftrefs occa-
fjoned by them which made his foldiers finally refolve
to proceed no farther; and no wonder indeed that they
did adopt this refolution, fince Diodorus informs us,
that it had rained inceffantly for 70 days before their
departure. Thefe rains, however, according to the
teftimony both of ancient and modern writers, fall
only in the mountainous parts, little or none being ever
feen in the plains. Ariftobulus informs us, that in
the country through which Alexander marched, though
heavy rains fell among the mountains, not a fiiower
was feen in the plains below. The diftrift is now fel-
dom vifited by Europeans; but major Rennel was in¬
formed by a perfon of credit, who had refided in the
Panjab, that during great part of the S. W. monfoon,
or at leaft in the months July, Auguft, and part of
September, which is the rainy feafon in mod other
parts of India, very little rain falls in the Delta of the
Indies, except very near the fea, though the at mofphere
is generally clouded, and very few ihowers fall through¬
out the whole feafon. Captain Hamilton relates, that
when he vifited Tatta, no rain had fallen there for three
years before. We may have fame idea of what the
Macedonians fuffered by what happened afterwards to
Nadir Shah, who, though poffeffed of vaft wealth and
power, as well as great experience in military affairs,
yet loll a great part of his army in croffing the moun¬
tains and rivers of the Panjab, and in battles with the
favage inhabitants who inhabit the countries betwixt
the Oxus and the frontiers of Perfia. He marched
through the fame countries, and nearly in the fame
direftion, that Alexander did.
By his voyage down the river Indus, Alexander
contributed much more to enlarge our geographical
knowledge of India than by all his marches and con-
quefts by land. According to Major Rennel, the fpace
of country through which he failed on the Indus, from
the Hyphafis to the ocean, was not lefs than 1000
miles ; and as, during the whole of that navigation,
he obliged the nations on both fides the river to fub-
mit to him, we may be very certain that the country
on each fide was explored to feme diftance. An ex-
aft account not only of his military operations, but of
every thing wrorthy of notice relating to the countries
through which he paffed, w^as preferved in the journals
of his three officers, Lagus, Nearchus, and Ariflobu-
9 lus; and thefe journals, Arrian informs us, he followed
State of In-jn the compefiu’on of his hiftory. From thefe authors
dia in the we iearnj tjiat ;n the time of Alexander, the vveftern
lewnderf* Part vaft traft named India was poffeffed by
feven very powerful monarchs. The territory of king
Porus, which Alexander firft conquered, and then re-
ftored to him, is faid to have contained no fewer than
2000 towns ; and the king of the Prafii had affembled
an army of 20,000 cavalry, 2000 armed chariots, and
a.great number^of elephants, to oppofe the Macedonian
monarch on the banks of the Ganges. The navigable India.
rivers with which the Panjab country abounds, afford- ' 
ed then, and ftill continue to afford, an intercourfe from
one part to another by water : and as at that time
thefe rivers probably had many fhips on them for the
purpofes of commerce, Alexander might eafily colleft
all the number he is faid to have had, viz. 2000; fince
it is reported that Semiramis was oppofed by double the
number on the Indus when fhe invaded India. When
Mahmud Gazni alfo invaded this country, a fleet was
collefted upon the Indus to oppofe him, confifting of
the fame number of veffels. From the Aycen Akbery,
alfo, we learn that the inhabitants of this part of India
ftill continue ta carry on all their communication with
each other by water; and the inhabitants of the Cir-
car of Tatta alone have 40,000 veffels of various con-
ftruftions. 10
Under the article Hindostan we have mentioned Why Alex-
Major Rennel’s opinion concerning the filence of Alex- ander’s Inl¬
ander’s hiftorians about the expedition of Scylax ; no^nodee o£
Dr Robcrtfon accounts for it in another manner. “ It the voyage
is remarkable (fays he), that neither Nearchus, norofScylas.
Ptolemy, nor Ariftobulus, nor even Arrian, once men¬
tion the voyage of Scylax. This could not proceed
from their being unacquainted with it, for Herodotus
was a favourite author in the hands of every Greek
who had any pretenfions to literature. It was proba¬
bly occafioned by the reafons they had to diftruft the
veracity of Scylax, of which I have already taken no¬
tice. Accordingly, in a fpeech which Arrian puts in
the mouth of Alexander, he afferts, that, except Bac¬
chus, he was the firft who had paffed the Indus ; which
implies that he difbelieved what is related concerning
Scylax, and was not acquainted with what Darius
Hyftafpes is faid to have done in order to fubjeft that
part of India to the Perfian crown. This opinion is
confirmed by Megafthencs, who refided a confiderable
time in India. He afferts, that, except Bacchus and
Hercules (to whofe fabulous expeditions Strabo is
aftonifhed that he (hould have given any credit), Alex¬
ander was the firft who h?d invaded India. Arrian
informs us that the Affaceni, and other people who in¬
habited the country now called Candahar, had been
tributary fit ft to the Affyrians and then to the Medes
and Perfians. As all the fertile provinces on the
narth weft of the Indus were anciently reckoned to
be part of India, it is probable that what was levied
from them is the fum mentioned, in the tribute roll-
from which Herodotus drew his account of the annual
revenue of the Perfian empire, and that none of the
provinces to the fouth of the Indus were ever fubjeft
to the kings of Perfia.”—The Doftor differs from Mr
Rennel with refpeft to the furprife which Alexander
and his army expreffed when they faw the high tides
at the mouth of the Indus. This he thinks might
veiy naturally have been the cafe, notwithftanding what-
Herodotus had written concerning the flux and reflux
obfervable in the Red Sea. All that has been men¬
tioned by Herodotus concerning this phenomenon is,
that “ in the Red Sea there is a regular ebb and flow*
of the tide every day.” No wonder therefore that
the Macedonians ftrould be furprifed and terrified at
the very high tides which prefented themfelves in the
Indian ocean, which the few words of Herodotus a-
bove mentioned had by no meaps led them to ex-
pefti.
I N D [ 179 ] I N D
India, peft. In the like manner the Romans were furprifed
at the tides in the Atlantic, when they had conquered
fome.of the countries bordering upon that ocean. Cec-
far defcribes the aftonilhment of his foldiers at a fpring
tide in Britain which greatly damaged his fleet; and
indeed, confidering the very little rife of the tide in the
Mediterranean, to which alone the Greeks and Romans
had accefs, we may reckon the account given us by
Arrian highly probable.
The country on each fide the Indus was found, in the
time of Alexander, to be in no degree inferior in popula¬
tion to the kingdom of Porus already mentioned. The
climate, foil, and productions of India, as well as the
manners and cuftoms of the inhabitants, are exaftly
deferred, and the deferiptions found to correfpond in
a furprifing manner with modern accounts. The Ha¬
ted change of feafons, now known by the name of
tnonfoons, the periodical rains, the fwellings and in¬
undations of the rivers, with the appearance of the
country during the time they continue, are particu¬
larly deferibed. The deferiptions of the inhabitants
are equally particular ; their living entirely upon vege¬
table food, their divifion into tribes or calls, with ma¬
ny of the particularities related under the article Hin¬
doo, are to be wret with in the accounts of Alexander’s
expedition. His military operations, however, ex¬
tended but a very little way intc^India properly fo
called ; no farther indeed than the modern province of
Labor, and the countries on the banks of the Indus
from Moultan to the fea ; though, had he lived to un¬
dertake another expedition as he intended, it is very
probable that he would have fubdued a vaftly greater
traft of country ; nor indeed could any thing proba¬
bly have fet bounds to his conquefts but death or re¬
volts in diftant provinces of his empire. In order to
fecure the obedience of thofe countries he fubdued,
jj Alexander found it neceffary to build a number of for-
Cities built tifed cities ; and the farther eallward he extended his
by Alex conquefts, the more neceflary did he find this talk,
snderinln-'j'hree he built in India itfelf; two on the banks of
la' the Hydafpes, and a third on the Acefines, both na»
, vigable rivers, falling into the Indus after they have
united their ftreams. By means of thefe cities he in¬
tended not only to keep the adjacent countties in awe,
but to promote a commercial intercourfe betwixt dif¬
ferent parts both by land and water. With this view
alfo, on his return to Sufa, he furveyed in perfon the
courfe of the Euphrates and Tigris, caufing the cata-
ia£ts or dams to be removed which the Perfian mo-
narchs had built to obilruft the navigation of thefe
rivers, in conformity to a maxim of their fuperftition,
that it was unlawful to defile any of the elements, which
they imagined was done by navigators. After the na¬
vigation was opened in this manner, he propofed that
the valuable commodities of India Ihould be imported
into the other parts of his dominions by means of the
Perfian Gulf; while through the Red Sea they were
conveyed to Alexandria in Egypt, and thence difper-
fed all over Europe.
The death of Alexander having put an end to all
his great fchemes, the eaftern part of his dominions
devolved firfi on Pytho the fon of Agenor, and after¬
wards on Seleucus. The latter was very fenfible of
the advantages to be derived from keeping India in
fubje&ion. With this view he undertook an ex- India,
pedition into that country, partly to eftablilh his
authority^ more perfedly, and partly to defend the E)(;pe^t;on
Macedonian territories againft Sandracottus king ofofSeleneus
the Prafii, who threatened to attack them. The par- to India,
ticulars of his expedition are very little known; Juftin
being the only author who mentions them, and his
authority is but of little weight, unlefs corroborated
by the teftimony of other hiftorians. Plutarch, who
tells us that Seleucus carried his arms farther into In¬
dia than Alexander, is fubjedt to an imputation of the
fame kind ; but Pliny, whofe authority is of confi-
derably greater weight, corroborates the teftimony of
Plutarch in this inftance, tho’ his words are fo obfeure,
that learned men differ in opinion concerning their
meaning. Bayer thinks they imply that Seleucus
marched from the Hyphafis, the boundary of Alexan¬
der’s conquefts, to the Hy fudrus, from thence to Paliboth-
ra,and then to the month of the Ganges; the diftances of
the principal ftations being marked, and amounting in
all to 2244 Roman miles. Notwithftanding this au¬
thority, however, Dr Robertfon thinks it very impro¬
bable that the expedition of Seleucus Ihould have con¬
tinued fo long, as in that cafe “ the ancients would
have had a more accurate knowledge of that part of the
country than they feem ever to have poffeffed.”
The career of Seleucus in the eaft was flopped by
Antigonus, who prepared to invade the weftern part
of his dominions. The former was therefore obliged
to conclude a treaty with Sandracottus, whom he al¬
lowed to remain in quiet poffdlion of his territories:
but Dr Robertfon is of opinion, that during the life¬
time of Seleucus, which continued 42 years after the
death of Alexander, 'no diminution of the Macedo¬
nian territories took place. With a view of keeping Conjedtufe#
up a friendly intercourfe with the Indian Prince, Se-concerning
leucus fent Megafthenes, one of Alexander’s officers, tj16
to Palibothra, capital of the kingdom of the Prafri, jlf11
fituated on the banks of the Ganges. This city is by * 0t a*
Dr Robertfon fuppofed to be the modern Allahabad,
feated at the conflux of the Juruna and Gauges, con*
trary to the opinion of Major Rennel, who fuppofes
it to be Patna.* As Megafthenes refided in this city • gcc
for a confiderable fpace of time, he had an opportunity doflan, nG 4.
of making many obfervations on the country of India
in general; and thefe'obfervations he w'as induced af¬
terwards to publilh. Unhappily, however, he mingled
with his relations the moil extravagant fables. To
him may be traced the ridiculous accounts of men with
ears fo large that they could wrap themfelves up in
them; of tribes with one eye, without mouths or nofes,
&c. whence the extra&s from his book given by Ar*
rian, Diodorus, and other ancient writers, can fcarcely
be credited, unlefs confirmed by other evidence.
After the embaffy of Megafthenes to Sandracottus,
and that of his fon Damaichus to Allitrochidas, the
fucceff r of Sandracottus, we hear no more of the af¬
fairs of India with regard to the Macedonians, until
the time of Antiochus the Great, who made a (hort
incurfion into India about 197 years after the death of
Seleucus. All that we know of this expedition is, Expedition
that the Syrian monarch, after finifhing a war he car- of Antio-
ried on sgainft the two revolted provinces of Paithiachu‘' th.e
and Baftria, entered India, where he obliged Sopha-
Z 2 gafenus,
India.
J5
Account of
the Grecian
kingdom of
Eahtna.
Jntercourfe
betwixt E-
EE“d
1 N D [ 180 ] I N D
gafeaus,king of the country which he invaded, to pay 258 Roman miles through the barren defart of The- India.
e fum of money, and give him a number of elephants, bais: but Ptolemy caufed diligent fearch to be made ——v—*#’-
It is probable that the fucceffors of Seleucus were obli- every where for fprings, and wherever thefe were found,
ged foon after his death to abandon all their Indian ter- he built inns or caravanferas for the acconmodation of
ritories. travellers ; and thus the commerce with India was car-
After the lofs of India by the Syrians, an intercourfe ried on till Egypt became fubjeft to the Romans. The
was kept up for fome time betwixt it and the Greek Ihips during this period fet fail from Berenice, and;
kingdom of Baftria. This laft became an independent coalling along the Arabian ihore to the promontory-
ilate about 69 years after the death of Alexander ; and, of Syagrus, now Cape Rafalgate, held their courfe a--
according to the few hints we have concerning it long the coaft of Perlia till they arrived at the mouth
in ancient authors, carried on a great traffic with of the weflern branch of the river Indus. They either1
India. Nay, the Baftrian monarchs are faid to have failed up this branch till they came to Pattala, now-
conquered more extenfive tra&s in that region than Tatta, fituated at the upper part of the Delta, on-
Alexander himfelf had done. Six princes reigned o- continued their courfe to fome other emporium on the-
ver this new kingdom in fueceffion; fome of whom, weftern part of the Indian coaft: A more.convenient-
elated with the conquefts they had made and the power ~ courfe was afterwards found by failisg direcity to Zi-
they had acquired, alfumed the title of Great King, zenis, a place concerning which there is now fome
by which the Perfian monarchs were diftinguiffied m difpute. Montefquieu will have it to be the kingdom-
their higheft fplendor. Strabo informs us, that the of Sigertis, on the coaft adjacent to the Indus,and which
Ba&rian princes were deprived of their territories by was conquered by the Bacirian monarchs ; but Major1
the Scythian Nomades, who came from the country Rennel is of opinion that it was a port on the Malabar
beyond the laxartes, and were known by the names of coaft. Dr Robertfon does not pretend to decide this
Afii, Pafiani, Tachari, and Scarauli. This is confirmed difpute; but is of opinion, that during, the time eft
by the tellimony of fome Chinefe hiftorians quoted by the Ptolemies very little progrefs was made in the.
M. de Guignes. According to them, about 126 years difeovery of India. He contefts, the opinion of Ma-.
before the Chriftian aera, a powerful horde of Tartars, jor Rennel, that “ under the Ptolemies the Egypt;-
pufhed from their native feats on the confines of China, ans extended their navigation to the extreme point of
and obliged to move farther to the weft, palfed the the Indian continent, and even failed up the Ganges
laxartes, and, pouring in upon Ba&ria like an irrefifti- to Palibothra, now Patna.” In this cafe he thinks
ble torrent, overwhelmed that kingdom, and put an end that the interior parts of India muft have been much
to the dominion of the Greeks after it had lafted near better known to the ancients than we have any reafoit
130 years. to believe they were. He owns indeed that Strabo
From this time to the clofe of the 15th century, mentions the failing up the Ganges, but then it is
all thoughts of eftablifhing any dominion in India were only curforily and in a fingle fentence ; “ whereas if
totally abandoned by the Europeans. The only ob- fuch a confiderable inland voyage of above 400. .miles, .
jedt now was to promote a commercial intercourfe with through a populous and rich country, had been cuf-.
that country ; and Egypt was the medium by which tomary, or even if it had been ever performed by the
that intercourfe was to be promoted. Ptolemy the fon Roman, Greek, or Egyptian traders, it muft have
of Lagus, and firft king of Egypt, firft raifed the merited a particular defciipiion, and muft have been
power and fplendor of Alexandria, which he knew mentioned by Pliny and other writers, as there was
had been Built by Alexander with a view to carry on nothing fimilar to it in the pradtice of navigation a-
a trade to India : and in order to make the navigation mong the ancients.”—The extreme danger of navi-
more fecure, he built the celebrated light-houfe at gating the Red Sea in ancient times (which even ir».
Pharos; a work fo magnificent as to be reckoned one the prefent improved ftate of navigation is not, entirely
of the wonders of the world. His fon Ptolemy’ Phi- got over) feems to have been the principal reafon which
ladclphus profecuted the fame plan very vigoroufiy. induced Ptolemy to remove the communication with
In his time the Indian commerce once more began to India from Arfinoe to Berenice, as there were other
centre in Tyre; but to remove it effedtually from harbours on the fame coaft confiderably nearer the Nil©
thence, he formed a canal between Arfinoe on the Red than it. After the ruin of Coptos by the emperor.
Sea, not far from the place where Suez now Hands, Dioclefian,theIndian commodities were conveyed fron*
and the Pelufiac or eaftern branch ot the Nile. This the Red Sea to the Nile from Cbffeir, fuppofed by Dr-
canal was iqo cubits broad and 30 deep ; fo that by Robenfon to be the Pbiloteras Portus of Ptolemy, to-
means of it the productions of India might have been Cous, the Vicus Apollmis, a journey ot four days,
conveyed to Alexandria entirely by water. We know Hence Cous from a fmall village became an opulent
not whether this work was ever finilhed, or whether it city ; but in procefs of time, the trade from India re*
was found ufelefs on account of the dangerous naviga- moved from Cous to Kene, farther down the river. la
lion towards the northern extremityoftheRcdSea; but modern times fuch Indian goods as are brought by the
whateverwas the caufe, it is certain that no ufe was made Red Sea come from Gidda to Suez, and are carried
of it, and a new city named Berenice, fituated almoft acrofs the Ifthmus on camels, or brought by the cara-.
under the tropic upon the weftern thore of the Red van returning Bom the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Sea, became the Itaple of Indian commerce From It was to this monopoly oi Indian commerce thatwh)rtj,e
thence the goods were tranfported|by land to Coptos, a Egypt owed its vaft wealth and power during thesyr.an m*.
city diftant only three miles from the Nile, to which time of its Macedonian monarchs; but it appears fur-narchs did
it was joined by a navigable canal. Thus, however, pnting that no attempt was, made by the Syrian ma* "y rfval the
there was a very tedious laad-carriage of no lefs than narchs to rival them in it, efpecially as the latter were Egyptians.
I N D [ i
Mia. in poflefiion of the Perfian gulf, from whence they
-y—w m;ghL have imported the Indian commodities by a
much fhorter navigation than could be done by the
Egyptians. For this negleA feveral reafons are alfi /n-
ed by our learned author, r. The Egyptians, under
theirGreekmonarchs, appliedthemfelves tomaritimeaf¬
fairs ; and were in polfeffion of fuch a powerful fleet as
gave them a decided fuperiority at fea. 2. No intercourfe
by fea was ever kept up betwixt Perlia and India,
on account of the averfion which the Perlians had to
maritime affairs. All the Indian commodities were
then conveyed in the moll tedious and difficult manner
over land, and difperfed throughout the various pro¬
vinces, partly by means of navigable rivers and partly
by means of the Cafpian fea. 3. Many of the ancients,
by an unaccountable error in geography, imagined the
Gafpian fea to be a part of the great northern ocean ;
and thus the kin^s of Syria might hope to convey the
Indian commodities tothe European countries without
attempting to navigate thofe feas which the Egyptian
monarchs deemedtheirown property. Seleucus Nicator,
the firil and greateft of the Syro-Macedonian monarchs,
formed a proje6tof joining the Euxine and Cafp:an feas
by a navigable canal, which would have effedlually
anfwered the purpofe, but was affalfiaated before he
could put'it in execution, and none of his fucceffors
had abilities-to execute fuch an undertaking. Alexan¬
der the Great had given orders, a little before his
death, to fit out a fquadron on the Cafpian fea, in order
to difeover whether it had any communication with
the northern ocean, the Euxine fea, or Indian ocean ;
but Dr Robertfon juifly thinks it furprifing that fuch-
errors concerning this fea fhould have exifted among
the ancients, as Herodotus had long before deferibed it
properly in the following words : “ The Cafpian is
a fea by itfelf, uuconne&ed with any other. Its
length is as much as a vtflel with oars can fail in 15
days; and its greateft. breadth as much as it can fail
in eight days.” Ariftotle deferibes it in like manner,
and infills that it ought to be called a great lake, and
not a fea.
Intercourfe Oa the conqueft of Egypt by the Romans the
of the Ro- Inciian commodities continued as ufualto be imported
todia W*£ 1:0 •A-le*andr'a *n Egypt, and from thence to Rome ;
but befides this, the moft ancient communication be¬
twixt the eaftern and weftern parts of Afia feems never
to have been entirely- given up. Syria and Paleiiine
are feparated from Mdopotamia by a defart; but the
paffage through it was much facilitated by its afford-'
ing a ftation which abounded in water. Hence the
poffeffion of this ftation became an objeft of fuch con-
fequence, that Solomon built upon it the city called in
.Syria Tadmor, and in Greek Palmyra. Both thefe
^names are expreffive of its ficuation in a fpot adorned
with palm-trees. Though its fituation for trade may
to us feem very unfavourable (being 60 miles from the
Euphrates, by which alone it could receive the Indian
commodities, and 203 from the neareft coaft of the
Mediterranean,) yet the value and fmall bulk of the
goods in queftion rendered the conveyance of them
by a long carriage over land not only pradtieable but
lucrative and advantageous. Hence the inhabitants be¬
came opulent and powerful, and long maintained its in¬
dependence even alter the Syrian empire became fubjedl
to Rome. After the, redutlion of Palmyra by the
3
Si 1 I N D
emperor Aurelian, however, it did not any more recover India,
its fplendoi*; the trade gradually turned intoother -“'Y*—
channels, and the city was reduced to ruins, which itill
exi.i, and manifeft its former grandeur. See Palmyra.
The excelfive eagernefs of the Romans for Aiiatic
luxuries of all kinds kept up an unceafing intercourfe
with India during the whole time that tile empire con--
tinued in its power; and even after the deftradtion of
the weftern part, it was kept up betwixt Conitantmople
and thofe parts of India which had been viliced former- ig
ly by, merchants from the weftern empire. Long be- New routes ■
fore this period, however, a much better method of
failing to India had been difeovered by one Hippalus Hippalus.
the commander of an i ndian (hip, who li vedabout bo years
after Egypt hadbeen annexedtoche Roman empire. This
man having obferved the periodical ihifting of the
monfoons, and how fteadily they blew from the eaft
or weft during fome months, ventured to leave the
coaft, and fail boldly acrofs the Indian ocean from the
mouth of the Arabian gulf to Muliris, a port on the
Malabar coaft ; which difeovery was reckoned a mat¬
ter of fuch importance, that the name of Hippalus was
given to the wind by which he performed the voyage.
Piiny gives a very particular account of the manner in
which the Indian traffic was now carried on, mention¬
ing the particular ftages, and the diftances between
them, which are as follow. From Alexandria to
Juliopolis was two miles ; and there the cargo deftined
tor India was Ihipped on the Nile, and carried to Coptos,
diftant 303 miles, the voyage being ufually performed
in twelve days. From Coptos they were conveyed by
land to Berenice, diftant 258 miles, and halting at dif¬
ferent ilations as occafion required. The journey was
finiftied on the 12th day ; but by reafon ®f the heat
the caravan travelled only in the night. The fhips
left Berenice about midlummer, and in 30 days reached
Qcelis, now Ge//a, at the mouth of the Arabian gulf, '
or Cane (now cape Fartaque) on the coaft of Arabia
Felix ; from whence they tailed in 40 days to Mufiris
already mentioned. Their homeward voyage began
early in the month of December ; when letting fail -
with a north-eaft wind, and meeting with a fouth or
fouth-weft one when they entered the Arabian gulf,
the voyage was completed in lefs than a year. With
regard to the fituation of Mufiris, as well as of Barace
another Indian port to which the ancients- traded.
Major Rennel is of opinion, and Dr Robertfon agrees
with him, that they ftood fomewhere between Goa and
Tellicherry ; and that probably the modern Meerzaw
or Merjee is the Mufiris, and Barcelore the Barace of
the ancients.1
Ptolemy, who flouriftied about 200 years after the^ie*^., ,
commencement of the Chriftian asra, having the ad-^ccount of .
vantage of fo many previous diicoveries, gives a more India,
particular defenption of India than what is to be met’
with in any of the ancient writers; notwithftanding
which, his accounts are frequently inconfiftent not only
with modern diicoveries, but with thofe of more ancient
geographers than himlelf. A moft capital error in his
geography is, that he makes the peninfula of -India
ftretch from the-dinus Barygazenus, or gulf ot Cambay,
from weft to eaft, infteau of extending, according to
its real direction, from north to iouth ; and this error*
mult appear the more extraordinary, when we confider*
that Megaithenes had publilhed a meafurement of thi$&
peniafula
India.
I N D [182
peninfula nearly confonant to truth, which had been
adopted with fome variations by Eratofthenes, Strabo,
Diodorus Siculus and Pliny. His information con¬
cerning the fituation of places, however, was much
more accurate. With refpeA to fome diftrifts on the
eaftern part of the peninfula, as far as the Ganges, he
comes nearer the truth than in his defcriptions of any
of the reft. Thefe are particularly pointed out by
M. D’Anville, who has determined the modern names
of many of Plolemy’s ftations, as Kilkare, Negapatam,
the mouth of the river Cauveri, Mafulipatam, See. The
river Cauveri is the Chalaru of Ptolemy; the kingdom
of Arcot, Arcati Regio ; and probably, fays Dr Robert-
fon, the whole coaft has received its prefent name of
Coromandel from Sor Mandulam, or the kingdom of
Soras, which is fituated upon it. Ptolemy had like wife
ncquired fo much knowledge concerning the
] I N D
Thus we fee that the peninfula of Malacca was in all India,
probability the boundary of the ancient difeoveries by ’ *
lea; but by land they had correfpondence with coun- Boundary
tries ftill farther diftant. While the Seleucidse conti- of the na-
nued to enjoy the empire of Syria, the trade with In- v^ation
dia continued to be carried on by land in the way al-°fthean-
ready mentioned. The Romans having extendedCientS"
their dominions as far as the river Euphrates, found
this method of conveyance ftill eftablilhed, and the
trade was by them encouraged and prote&ed. The pro-
grefs of the caravans being frequently interrupted by
the Parthians, particularly when they travelled towards
thofe countries where lilk and other of the moft valu¬
able manufa&ures were procured, it thence became an
objeft to the Romans to conciliate the friendlhip of
the fovereigns of thofe diftant countries. That fuch
an attempt was aftually made, we know from the Chi-
Ganges, that he deferibes fix of its mouths, though his nefe hiftorians, who tell us, that Antoun, by whom they
delineation of that part of India which lies beyond the
Ganges is bardly lefs erroneous than that of the nearer
peninfnla. M. D’ Anville, however, has been at
great pains to elucidate thefe matters, and to iiluftrate
thofe parts of the writings of Ptolemy w'hich appear
to be beft founded. According to him, the golden
Cherfonefus of Ptolemy is the peninfula of Malacca;
he fuppofes the gulf of Siam to be the great bay of
Ptolemy ; and the Sinse Metropolis of the fame writer
mean the Emperor Marcus Antoninus, the king of
the people of the weftern ocean, fent an embaffy to
Ounti, who reigned in China in the 166th year of the
Chriltian era ; but though the fad is mentioned, we
are left entirely in the dark as to the iflue of the nc-
gociations. It is certain, however, that during the
times of the Romans fuch a trade was carried on ; and
as we cannot fuppofe all thofe who vifited that diftant
region to be entirely deftitute of fcience, we may rea-
he looks upon to be Sin-hoa in the weftern part of the fonabiy enough conclude, that by means of fome of
kingdom of Cochin-China, though Ptolemy has erred thefe adventurers, Ptolemy was enabled to determine
fituatioh no lefs than 50 degrees of longitude
and 20 of latitude. M. Gofielin, however, differs
from his countryman M. D’Anville, in a late work
entitled “ The Geography of the Greeks analyfed ;
r the fyftems of Eratofthenes, Strabo, and Ptolemy,
the fituation of many places which he has laid down in
his geography, and which correfpond very nearly with
the obfervations of modern times. *
With regard to the Indian ifiands, confidering the Few India*
little way they extended their navigation, they could ifiands dif-
compared with each other, and with the knowledge not be acquainted with many of them. The principalcovered by
which the moderns have acquired.” In the opinion one was that of Ceylon, called by the ancients Tapro-
of M. Goffelin, the Magnum Promontorium of Ptole- bane. The name was entirely unknown in Europe be-
my is not Cape Romania at the fouthern extremity of fore the time of Alexander the Great ; but that con-
the peninfula of Malacca, as M. D’ Anville fuppofes,
but the point Bragu, at the mouth of the river Ava,
The great bay of Ptolemy he fuppofes not to be the
queror, though he did not viiit, had fome how or other
heard of it; with regard to any particulars, however,
he feems to have been very ilenderly informed ; and the
gulf of Siam, but of Martaban. He endeavours to accounts of ancient geographers concerning it
prove that the pofition of Cattipnara, as laid down by confufed and contradictory. Strabo fays, it is as
Ptolemy, correfponds with that of Mergui, a fea-port large as Britain, and fituated at the diftance of feven
on the weft of Siam; and that Thin*) or Sine Metropolis, days according to fome reports, or 20 days failing ac-
is not Sin-hoa, but Tana-ferim, a city on the fame river cording to others, from the fouthern extremity of the
with Mergui; and he contends, that the Ibbadii infula
of Ptolemy is not Sumatra, as D’Anville would have it,
ptninfula. Pomponius Mela is uncertain whether to
confider Taprobane as an iOand, or the beginning of an-
but one of the fmall ifles which lie in a clufter off this other world ; but inclines to the latter opinion, as no-
coaft. M- Goflelin is of opinion that the ancients ne¬
ver failed through the ftraits of Malacca, nor had any
knowledge of the ifland of Sumatra, or of the eaftern
ocean.
The errors of Ptolemy have given occafion to a
miftake of more modern date, viz. that the ancients
were acquainted with China. This arofe from the re-
femblance betwixt the name of that empire and the
Sine of the ancients. The Ayeen Akbery informs us,
body had ever failed round it. The account of Pliny
is ftill more obfeure ; and by his defeription he would
make us believe, that it was feated in the fouthern
hemifphere beyond the tropic of Capricorn. Ptole¬
my places it oppofite to Cape Comorin, at no great
diftance from ihe continent; but errs greatly with
regard to its magnitude, making it no lefs than 15
degrees in length from north to fouth. And Agathe-
marus, who wrote after Ptolemy, makes Taprobane
that Cheen was an ancient name of Pegu; whence, the iargeft iiland in the world, aftigning the fecond
favs T)r RnVierffnn. “as that rnnntrv borders nnnn nlare to Ttnta.'n To-om   
fays Dr Robertfon, “ as that country borders upon
Ava, where M. Goffelin places the great promontory,
this near refemblance of names may appear perhaps to
confirm his opinion that Sinas Metropolis was fituated
place to Britain. From thefe difeordant accounts,
fome learned men have fuppofed that the Taprobane
of the ancients is not Ceylon, as is generally believed,
but the ifland of Sumatra ; though the defeription of
on this coaft, and not fo far call as M. D’Anville has it by Ptolemy, with the figure delineated in his maps,
placed it*** ssiif’ it K#»ir/-»r»rl slnaili*. *.1  1 ^ 1
feems to put it beyond a doubt, that Ceylon, and not
3 Sumatra,
I N t) [ 183 ] I N I>
Indi'a. Sumatra, is the ifland to which'Ptolemy applies the of the Euphrates with the Tigris. Thus the com- India.
^ defignation of Taprobane. The other iflands defcribed mand of both rivers was fecured, and the new city 1 v——J
by that geographer to the eaft ward of Taprobane, are, foon became a place of fuch confequence as fearce to
according to Ur Robertfon, thofe called Andaman and yield to Alexandria itfelf. Here Ur Robertfon takes
Nicobar in the gulf of Bengal. notice, that from the evidence of an Arabian merchant
From the time of Ptolemy to that of the Emperor who wrote in the year 851, it appears, that not only
Juftinian, we have no account of any intercourfe of the the Saracens, but the Chinefe alfo, were deftitute of the 26
Europeans with India, or of any progrefs made in the mariner’s eompafs ; contrary to the general opinion,
Voyages of geographical knowledge of the country. Under that that this inftrument was known in the east long before theof
Cofmas to emperor one Cofmas, an Egyptian merchant, made it made its appearance in Europe. From this rela-the mari-
ludia. fome voyages to India, whence he acquired the furname tion, as well as much concurring evidence, fays our au- ner’s conV
of Indicoplertjlcs. •htaving afterwards turned monk, he thor, “ it is manifeft, that not only the Arabians but
publilhed feveral works ; one of which, named Chr'tjlian the Chiqefe were deftitute of this faithful guide, and
Topography, has reached us. In this, though mixed that their mode of navigation was not more adventu-
with many ftrange reveries, he relates with great fim- rous than that of the Greeks and Romans. They
plicity and appearance of truth what he had feen in fleered fervilely along the coall, feldom ftretching out
his travels or had learned from others. He deferibes to fea fo far as to lofe fight of land ; and as they fha-
feveral places on the weftern coaft of the hither penin- ped their courfe in this timid manner, their mode of
fula, which he calls the chief feat of the pepper-trade ; reckoning was defeftive, and liable to the fame errors
and from one of the ports on that coaft named Male, with that of the Greeks and Romans.” Notwith-
Ur Robertfon thinks that, the name may pro- Handing this difadvantage, however, they penetrated
bably be derived, as well as that of Maldives given to far beyond Siam, which had fet bounds to the naviga-
a clufter of iflands lying at no great diftance. Cofmas tion of the Europeans. They became acquainted .with
informs us alfo, that in his time the ifland of Tapro¬
bane had become a great ftaple of trade. He fuppofed
it to lie about half wmy betwixt the Perfian Gulf and
the country of the Sins ; in confequence of which
commodious fituation it received the filk of the Sinas,
and the precious fpices of the remote regions of the
Sumatra and other India iflands ; extending their na¬
vigation as far as the city of Canton in China. A
regular commerce was now carried on from the Perfian
Gulf to all the countries lying betwixt it and China,
and even with China itfelf. Many Saracens fettled
in India properly fo called, and in the countries be-
eaft, which were from thence conveyed to all parts of yond it. In the city of Canton particularly, they were
India, Perfia, and the Arabian Gulf. He calls it not
Taprolane, but Sieldibia, derived from Selendlb, or Sc-
rendib, the fame by which it is Hill known all over the
eaft. From him alfo we learn, that the Perfians having
overthrown the empire of the Parthians, applied them-
fielves with great diligence and fuccefs to maritime af¬
fairs ; in confequence of which they became formidable
rivals to the Romans in the India trade. The latter
finding themfelves thus in danger of lofing entirely  #   __ ^
that lucrative branch, partly by reafon of the rivalihip piial of which was Moultan. The fecond had the city-
juft mentioned, and partly by reafon of the frequent of Canoge, which, from the ruins of it remaining at
hoftilities which took place betwixt the two empires, this day, appears to have been a very large place. The
formed a fcheme of preferving fome fhare of the trade Indian hiftorians relate, that it contained 30,000 /hops
by means of his ally the emperor of Abyfiinia. In in which betel-nut was fold, and 60,000 fets of muii-
this he was difappointed, though afterwards he ob- cians and fingers who paid a tax to government. The
Silk worms tained his end in a way entirely unexpe&ed. This was third kingdom was that of Cachemire, firft mentioned
fo numerous, that the emperor permitted them to have
a cadi or judge of their own religion ; the Arabian
language was underftood and fpoken in every place of
confequtnce; and flrips from China are even faid to
have vifited the Perfian Gulf. ^
According to the Arabian accounts of thofe days, State of Ini
the peninfula of India was at that time divided into(lia whc«
four kingdoms. The firft was compofed of the pro- '?llted by
vinces fituated on the Indus and its branches, the ca- ^nAra"
niial of Which W3G TVfmiJfan. HThc f<»r»r*r»r4 ~ *
rope.
by Maffoudi, who gives a fliort defeription of it. The
fourth kingdom, Guzerat, reprefented by the fame
author as the mpft powerful of the whole. Another
Arab writer, who flouriftred about the middle of the
14th century, dividas India into three parts; the nor¬
thern, comprehending all the provinces on the Indus;
introduced by means of two monks who had been employed as mif-
fionarles in different parts of the eaft, and had pene¬
trated as far as the country of the Seres or China.
From thence, induced by the liberal promifes of Jufti¬
nian, they brought a quantity of the eggs of the filk-
worms'tn an hollow cade. They were then hatched by _ ^ _   
the heat of a dunghill; and being fed with the leaves or the middle extending from Guzerat to the Ganges ;
the mulberry, worked and multiplied as well as in and the fouthern, which he denominates Comar, from
thofe countries of which they are natives. Vaft num- Cape Comorin.
bers were foon reared in Greece; from whence they From the relation of the Arabian merchant above-
were exported to Sicily, and from thence to Italy; mentioned, explained by the commentary of another
in all which countries filk-manufadures have fince been Arabian who had likewife vifited the eaftern parts of
eftablifhed. Afia, we learn many particulars concerning the inha-
On the conqueft of Egypt by the Saracens in the bitants of thefe diftant reigions at that time, which
of the Sara-year 640, the India trade was of courfe transferred to correfpond with what is obferved among them at this
1 with them; and they foon began to purfue it with much day. They take notice of the general ufe of filk
^a* more vigour than the Romans had done. The city among the Chinefe; and the manufadure of porcelain
of Baflbra was built by the Khalif Omar upon the which they compare to glafs. They alfo deferibe the
^eft.eni banks of the great river formed by the union teaplant, with the manner of ufing itsleaves; whence it;
appears,..
Intercourfe
I N D [ 184 ] * M B
appears, that in the ninth century the ufe of this degree of independence than they formerly poffefled,
plant in China was as common as it is at prefent. They began firft to exert themfelves in promoting domeftic u
mention likewife the great progrefs which the Indians manufa&ures, and then to import the produ'dions of
had made in aftronomy ; a circumftance which feems India in much larger quantities than formerly Some
to have been unknown to the Greeks and Romans: traces of this revival of a commercial fpirit, according
they affert, that in this branch of fpience the Indians to Dr Robertfon, may be obferved from the end of the
were far fuperior to the moll enlightened nations of fevtnth century .The circumftanc. s which led to this
the weft, on which account their foveteign was called revival, however, are entirely unnoticed by hiftonans:
the “ King of wifdom.” The furperftitions, extra- but during the.feventh and eighth centuries, it is very
vagant penances, &c. known to exift at this day among .probable that no commercial intercourfe whatever took
-the Indians, are alfo mentioned by thofe writers ; all place betwixt Italy and Alexandria; for, prior to the
which particulars manifeft that the Arabians had a period we fpeak of, all the public deeds of the Italian
knowledge of India far fuperior to that of the Greeks and other cities of Europe had been written upon pa-
or Romans. The zeal and induftry of the Mohamme- per made of the Egyptian papyrus, but after that up-
dans in exploring the rnoft. diftarct regions of the on parchment,
call was rivalled by the Chrittians of Perfia, who ""
fent miflionaries all over India and the countries ad¬
joining, as fat as China itfelf. But while the weftern
Afiatics thus kept up a conftant intercourfe with thefe
parts, the Europeans had in a manner loll all know
ledge 6f them. The port of Alexandria, from which
they had formerly been fupplied with the Indian goods,
The mutual antipathy which the Chriftians and Mo¬
hammedans bore again ft each other, would no doubt
for a long time retard the progrefs of commerce be¬
tween them ; but at laft the khalifs, perceiving
the advantage which fuch a traffic would be of to
their fubjedls, were induced to allow it, while the
„ . cagernefs with which the Chriftians coveted the In¬
now fhut againft them ; and the Arabs, fatisfied dian products and manufa&ures, prompted them to
a8
•Tedious
d*r
goods to
'.Europe.
with fupplying the demands of their own fubjefts,
negkfted to fend any by the uiual channels to the
.towns
carry it on. But icarce was the traffic begun, when EffeCt of
it feemed in danger of being totally interrupted by thel.hc Cru"
the Mediterranean. The inhabitants of crulades. . Notwithllanding the enthufiaftical zeal of[^eejn0d”ai|
Conftantinople and Tome .other great towns were thefe adventurers, however, there were many to whom commerce*
fupplitd with. Chinefe. commodities by the mod te- commerce was a greater objedl than religion This
dipiis, and, difficult p^flage imaginable. The filk of had always been the cafe with numbers of the pilgrims
■ that country was purchafed in the moll wefterly pro- who vililed the holy places at Jerufalem even before
vince named Chenfi ; from thence it was conveyed by the commencement of the crufades: but thefe, after
a caravan, which marched 80 or 100 days, to the they took place, inftead of retarding the progrefs of this
r banks of the Oxus. Here it was embarked, and car- kind of commerce, proved the means of promoting it to
pied down the river to the Cafpian fea; whence, after a a great degree. “ Various circumftances (fays Dr Ro-
. dangerous voyage acrofs that fea, it was carried up bertfon) concurred towards this. Great armies, con-
the river Cyrus as far as that river is navigable ; after du&ed by the molt illuftrious nobles ofEurope, andcom-
which it was conduced by a land-carriage of five days pofedof men of themoftenterprifing fpirit in all the king-
to the river Phafis, then down that ftream inio doms of it, marched towards Paleftine, through coun-
the Euxine, and thence to Conftantinople. The paf- tries far advanced beyond thofe which they left in
fage of goods from Hindoftan was lefs.tedious ; they every fpecies of improvement. They beheld the dawn
being carried either dire&ly to the Cafpian or to the of profperity in the republics of Italy, which had be-
liver Oxus, but by a pafiage much ftiorter than that gun to vie with each other in the arts of induftry, and
from China ; after which they were conveyed down in their efforts to engrofs the lucrative commerce with
the Phafis to the Euxine, and thus to Conttan- the eafl. They next admired the more advanced ftate
tinople. of opulence and fplendor in Conftantinople, raifed to
It is evident that a commerce thus carried on muft a pre-eminence above all cities then known by its ex-
have been liable to a thoufand difadvantages. The
goods conveyed over fuch vaft tradls of land could not
be fold but at a very high price, even fuppofing the
journey -had been attended with no danger ; but
tenfive trade, particularly that which it carried on with
India and the countries beyond it. They afterwards
lerved in thofe provinces of Afia through which the
commodities of the eafl were ufually conveyed, and
the caravans were continually expofed to the affaults became mailers of feveral cities which had been flaples
of barbarians, it is evident that the price muft on that of that trade. They eftablifhed the kingdom of Je-
account. have been greatly enhanced. In fpite of rufalem, which fubftfled near 200 years. They took
every difficulty, however, even this commerce flouiifh- pofleflion of the throne of the Greek empire, and go-
ed, and Conftantinople became a confiderable mart for verned it above half a century Amidft fuch a va-
Eaft Indian commodities ; and from it all the reft of riety of events and operations, the ideas of the fierce war-
Europe was chiefly fupplied with them for more than riors of Europe gradually opened and improved; they
two centuries. The perpetual courfe of hoftilities in became acquainted with the policy and arts of the people
which the Chriftians and Mohammedans were during whom they fubdued: they obferved the fources of
this period engaged, contributed Hill to increafe the their wealth, and availed themfelves of all this know-
difficulty ; and it is remaikable, that the more this ledge. Antioch and Tyre, when conquered by the
difficulty increafed, the more defirous the Europeans crufaders, were flourifhing cities inhabited by opulent
•feemed to be of pofieffing the luxuries of Afia. merchants, who fupplied all the nations trading in the
About this time the cities of Amalphi and Venice, Mediterranean with the produAions of the eaft; and,
juvith feme others in Italy, having acquired a greater as far as can be gathered from incidental occurrence*
NaiBj. mentioned
I N D [ :
! India, mentioned by the hiflorians of the holy war, who be-
—■'v   ing moftly priefts and monks, had their attention di-
re6ted to objecfts very different from thofe relating to
commerce, there is reafon to believe, that both in
Conftantinople while fubjeft to the Franks, and in the
ports of Syria acquired by the Chriftians, the long¬
ed ablifhed trade with the eaft continued to be protect¬
ed and encouraged.”
Our author next goes on to fhow in what manner
the commerce of the Italian dates was promoted by
the Crulades, until at laft, having entirely engroffed
the Eaft India trade, they ftrove with fuch eagernefs
to find new markets for their commodities, that they
extended a tafte for them to many parts of Europe
where thev had formerly been little known. The ri-
valfhip of the Italian ftates terminated at laft in a
treaty with the fultan of Egypt in 1425, by which the
port of Alexandria and others in Egypt were opened
to the Florentines as well as the Venetians ; and foon
after, that people began to obtain a (hare in the trade
to India.
30 The following account of the manner in which the
How the India trade was carried on in the beginning of the 14th
Indian century, is given by Marino Sanudo a Venetian noble-
carriedon man The merchants of that republic were fupplied
in the 14th with the commodities they wanted in two different
century. ways. Thofe of fmall bulk and great value, fuch as
cloves, nutmegs, gems, pearls. Sec. were carried up
the Perfian gulf to Baffora, from thence to Bagdad,
and afterwards to fome port on the Mediterranean.
The more bulky goods, fuch as pepper, cinnamon, and
other fpiceries, were brought in the ufual manner to the
Red Sea, and from thence to Alexandria. The goods
brought by land, however, were always liable to be
feized by barbarians; and therefore the fupply that way
was fcanty, and the price extravagantly dear, while,
on the other hand, the Sultan of Egypt, by impofing
duties upon the Eaft India cargoes to the amount of
a full third of the value, feemed to render it impofiible
that the owners Ihould find purchafers for their goods.
This, however, was far from being the cafe; the de¬
mand for India goods continually increafed; and thus
a communication, formerly unknown, betwixt all the
nations of Europe, was begun and kept up. All this
time, however, there had been no direft communica¬
tion betwixt Europe and India, as the Mohammedans
would never allow any Chriftian to pafs through their
dominions into that country. The dreadful incurfions
and conquefts of the Tartars under Jenghiz-khan, how¬
ever, had fo broken the power of the Mohammedans
in the northern parts of Afia, that a way was now
opened to India through the dominions of thefe bar¬
barians. About the middle of the 13th century, there-
31 fore, Marco Polo, a Venetian, by getting accefs to the
Jomrey of khan of the Tartars, explored many parts of the Eaft
Marco which had long been unknown even by name to the
theiiaft0 EllroPeans’ He travelled through China from Peking
on its northern frontier to fome of its moft foutheily
provinces. He vifited alfo different parts of Hindof-
tan, and firft mentions Bengal and Guzerat by their
modern names as great and fiourifhing kingdoms. He
obtained alfo fome account of an ifiand which he called
Zipangri, and was probably no other than Japan : he
vifited Java with feveral of the iflands in itsneigbour-
hood, the ifland of Ceylon, and the coaft of Malabar
, Vol. IX. Part I.
85 ] I N D
as far as the gulf of Cambay; to all which he gave the India,
names they have at this day. The difeovery of fuch ‘ '
immenfe regions unknown before in Europe, furnifh-
ed vaft room for fpeculation and conje&ure; and while
the public attention was yet engaged by thefe difeo- 34
veries, the deftruftion of Conftantinople by the Turks Genoefe
gave a very confiderable turn to the Eaft India com- Jrac?e to.
merce, by throwing it almoft entirely into the hands ^ by’the*
of the Venetians. Hitherto the Genoefe had rivalled taking of
that ftate in the commerce we fpeak of, and they had Conftanti=
poffeffed themfelves of many important places on the n:'Ple‘
coaft of Greece, as well as of the port of Caffa on the
Black Sea. Nay, they had even eftablifhed themfelvea
at Conftantinople, in the fuburb of Pera, in fuch a
manner as almoft entirely to exclude the Greeks them¬
felves from any (hare in this commerce: but by the
deftruftion of Conftantinople they were at once driven
out of all thefe poffefiions, and fo thorougly humbled,
that they could no longer contend with the Venetians
as before ; fo that, during the latter part of the 15th
century, that republic fupplied the greater part of
Europe with the produftions of the eaft, and carried
on trade to an extent far beyond what had been known
in former times. The mode in which they now car¬
ried on this trade was fomewhat different from what
had been pradtifed by ancient nations. The Tyrians,.
Greeks, and Romans, had failed dire&ly to India in
queft of the commodities they wanted; and their
example has been imitated by the navigators of mo¬
dern Europe. In both periods the Indian commodi¬
ties have been paid for in gold and filver ; and great
complaints have been made on account of the drain of
thofe precious metals, which were thus buried as it
were in India, never to return again. The Vene- 33
tians, however, were exempted from this lofs; for
ving no direft intercourfe with India, they fupplied.he Vene-
themfelves from the warehoufes they found, in Egypt tians arifing
and Syria, ready filled with the precious commo- from
dities they wanted; and thefe they purchafed more
frequently by barter than with ready money. Thus
not only the republic of Venice, but all the cities which
had the good fortune to become emporia for the India
goods imported by it, were raifed to fuch a pitch of
power and fplendor as fcarce ever belonged to any Eu¬
ropean ftate. The citizens of Bruges, from which
place the other European nations were for a long, time
fupplied with thefe goods, difplayed fuch magnificence
in their drefs, buildings, and manner of living, as ex¬
cited even the envy of their queen Joan of Na¬
varre who came to pay them a vifit. On the removal
of the ftaple from Bruges to Antwerp, the latter foon
difplayed the fame opulence; and in fome cities of
Germany, particularly Augfburg, the great mart for
Indian commodities in the internal parts of that coun¬
try, there are examples of merchants acquiring fuch
large fortunes as intitled them to high rank and con-
fideration in the empire. The moft accurate method,
however, of attaining fome knowledge of the profits
the Venetians had on their trade, is by confidering the
rate of intereft on money borrowed at that time. This, 34
from the clofe of the ixth century to the com-Hl’gh inte-
mencement of the 16th, we are told, was no lefs than reft ™°“
20per cent, and fometimes more. Even as late asi^fhcen-8
1500, it was 10 or 12 in every part of Europe. Hence tury.
we are to conclude that the profits of fuch money as
A a was
I N D [ 186
was then applied in trade muft have been extremely
J high ; and the condition of the inhabitants of Venice
at that time warrants us to make the conclufion.
“ In the magnificence of their houfes (fays Dr Ro-
bertfon), in richnefs of furniture, in profufion of plate,
and in every thing which contributed either towards
elegance or parade in their mode of living, the nobles of
Venice furpaffed the ftate of the greateft monarch be¬
yond the Alps. Nor was all this difplay the elfedt of
an oftentatious and inconfiderate diffipation; it was the
natural confequence of fuccefsful indullry, which, ha¬
ving accumulated wealth with eafe, is intitled to enjoy
it in fplendor.”
This exceffive fuperiority of wealth difplayed by the
Venetians could not fail to excite the envy of the other
India.
1 I N D
with all imaginable demonftrations of kindnefs. The
Portuguefe nation, nay all the nations in Europe, the u—-v—■-»
Venetians alone excepted, rejoiced at the difcovery E
which had been made. The latter beheld in it the the Fortu-
certain and unavoidable downfal of their own pow- guefe in
er; while the Portuguefe, prefuming upon their right of lndia«
prior difcovery, which they took care to have confirm¬
ed by a papal grant, plumed themfelves on the thoughts
of having the whole Indian commerce centre in their
nation. The expeftations of the one, and the appre-
henfions of the other, feemed at firft to be well-
founded. A fucceffion of gallant officers fent in¬
to the eaft from Portugal accomplifhed the greateft
and moft arduous undertakings. In 24 years after the
voyage of De Gama, they had made themfelves mafters
ftates of Europe. They were at no lofs to difcover of many important places in India; and among the reft
that the Eaft India trade was the principal fource from
whence their wealth was derived. Some of them en¬
deavoured to obtain a fhare by applying to the fultans
of Egypt and Syria to gain admiffion into their
ports upon the fame terms with the Venetians; but
either by the fuperior intereft of the latter with thofe
princes, or from the advantages they had of being
long eftablifhed in the trade, the Venetians always
prevailed. So intent indeed were the other Eu¬
ropean powers in obtaining fome fhare of this lu-
of the city of Malacca, where the great ftaple of trade
throughout the whole Eaft Indies was eftablifhed. As
this city ftands nearly at an equal di fiance from the
eaftern and weftern extremities of all the countries
comprehended under the name of Indies, it was fre¬
quented by the merchants of China, Japan, of all the
kingdoms on, the continent, the Moluccas and other
iflands in that quarter, as well as by thofe of Malabar,
Ceylon, Coromandel, and Bengal. Thus the Portuguefe
acquired a moft extenfive influence over the internal
crative commerce, that application was made to the. commerce of India; while, by the fettlements they had
fovereign of Ruffia to open an intercourfe by land with
China, though the capitals of the two empires are up¬
wards of 6000 miles diftant from each other. This,
however, was beyond the power of the Ruffian prince
at that time ; and the Venetians imagined that their
power and wealth were fully eftablifhed on the moft
permanent bafis, when two events, altogether unfortfeen
and unexpe&ed, gave it a mortal blow, from which it
35 never has recovered, or can recover itfelf. Thefe were
The Vene difcovery of America and that of the paffage to the
ruineTby ^aft Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. The former
the difco- put Spain in poffeffion of immenfe treafures; wljich
very of the being gradually diffufed all over Europe, foon call-
Cape^ofi ecj forth the induftry of other nations, and made them
exert themfelves in fuch a manner as of itfelf muft
have foon leffened the demand for Indian produ&ions.
Good
Hope.
formed at Goa and Diu, they were enabled to engrofs
the trade on the Malabar coaft, and greatly to obftrudb
the long eftablifhed intercourfe of Egypt with India by
the way of the Red Sea. Their fhips now frequented
every port in the eaft where any valuable commodities-
were to be had, from the cape of Good Hope to the
river of Canton in China; and all along this immenfe
extent, of more than 4000 leagues, they had a chain of
forts and faftories eftablifhed for the convenience of
prote&ing their trade. They had likewife made them¬
felves mafters of feveral ftations favourable to com¬
merce along the fouthern coaft of Africa, and in
many iflands lying between Madagafcar and the Moluc¬
cas. In all places where they came, their arms had
{truck fuch tenor, that they not only carried on their
trade without any rival or control, but even prefcri-
The difcovery of the paffage to India by the Cape of bed tothe natives the termsoftheir mutual intercourfe;
Good Hope, however, was the moft effectual and nay, fometimes they fet what price they pleafed upon
fpeedy in humbling the Venetians. After a tedious the commodities they purchafed, and thus were ena-
courfe of voyages along the weftern coaft of Africa,
continued for near half a century, Vafco de Gama, an
bled to import into Europe the Indian commodities in
greater abundance and at a lower rate than had ever
a&ive and enterprifing Portuguefe officer, doubled the been done before. Not fatisfied with this, they formed
Cape of Good Hope, and, coafting along the eaftern a fcheme of excluding all other nations from any fhare
fhore of the continent, failed next acrofs the Indian
ocean, and landed at Calecut on the coaft of Malabar,
on the 22d of May 1498, ten months find two days
after leaving the port of Lifbon. On his arrival in In¬
dia he was at firft received with great kindnefs by the
fovereign of that country, ftyled the Samorin ; but af-
a fcheme of excluding all other nations from any fhare
of the trade they enjoyed ; and for that purpofe de¬
termined to make themfelves mafters of fuch ftationa
on the Red Sea and Perfian Gulf as might put them in
poffeffion of the navigation of both thefe feas, and
enable them not only to obftruft the ancient commerce
between Egypt and India, but to command the
terwards, from what caufes we cannot now well de- mouths of the great rivers which we have formerly
termine, the Indian prince fuddenly changed his kind- mentioned as the means of conveying the Indian goods
nefs into mortal enmity, and attempted to cut off Ga- through the internal parts of Alia. The conduct of
ma with his whole party. The Portuguefe general, thefe enterprifes was committed to Alphonfo Albu-
however, found means to efcape every plot that was querque, the moft diftinguifhed officer at that time in
laid again ft him ; and loaded his fhips not only with the Portuguefe fervice. By reafon of the vaft number
the products of that part of the country, but with many of the enemies he had to contend with, however, and
of the valuable produ&s of the more remote regions. the fcanty fupplies which could be derived from Por-
On his return to Portugal, De Gama was received tugal, he could not fully accoroplifh what was expelled
from
I N D [ 187 1 I N D
Ih4F*, from him. However, he took from the petty princes
» J- who were tributaries to the kings of Perfia the fmall
Iflaud of Ormus, which commanded the mouth of the
Perfian Gulf; and thus fecured to Portugal the poffeffion
of that extenfive trade with the call which the Perfians
had carried on for feveral centuries. On this barren
ifland, almoft entirely covered with fait, and fo hot
that the climate can fcarcely be borne, deftitute of a
drop of frelh water, except what was brought from
the continent, a city was ere&ed by the Portuguefe,
which foon became one of the chief feats of opulence,
fplendor, and luxury, in the eaftern world. In the
Red Sea the x\.rabian princes made a much more formi¬
dable refiftance; and this, together with the damage
his fleet fuftained in that fea, the navigation of
which is always difficult and dangerous, obliged Al-
.buquerque to retire without effedting any thing of
importance. Thus the ancient channel of conveyance
ftill remained open to the Egyptians; but their com¬
merce was greatly circumfcribed and obftrudted by the
powerful intereft of the Portuguefe in every port to
which they had been accuftomed to refort.
The Venetians now began to feel thofe effe&s of
neffedtual De Gama’s difcovery which they had dreaded from
truggles of-he beginning. To preferve the remains of their
iansto're- commerce» they applied to the fultan of the Mameluks
rieve their *n hgypt, who was no lefs alarmed than themfelves at
JFairs, the lofs of fuch a capital branch of his revenue as he
had been accuftomed to derive from the India trade.
By them this fierce and barbarous prince was eafily
perfuaded to fend a furious manifefto to Pope Julius II.
and Emmanuel king of Portugal. In this, after fla¬
ring his exclufive right to the Indian trade, he inform¬
ed them, that if the Portuguefe did not relinquifh that
new courfe of navigation by which they had penetra¬
ted into the Indian ocean, and ceafe from encroaching
on that commerce which from time immemorial had
been carried on between the eaft of Afia and his domi¬
nions, he would put to death all the Chriftians in
Egypt, Syria and Paleftine, and demoliffi the holy
fepulchre itfelf. To this threat, which fome centu¬
ries before would have alarmed all Chriftendom, no re¬
gard was paid ; fo that the Venetians, as their laft re-
iource, were obliged to have recourfe to a diSerent ex¬
pedient. This was to excite the fultan to fit out a fleet in
the Red Sea to attack the Portuguefe, and drive them
from all their fettlements in the eaft ; nay, in order to
affift him in the enterprife, he was allowed to cut down
their forefts in Dalmatia, to fupply the deficiency of
Egypt in timber forftrip-building. The timber was con¬
veyed from Dalmatia to Alexandria ; and from thence,
partly by water and partly by land, to Suez ;■ where
twelve men of war were built, on board which a body
of Mameluks were ordered to ferve under the com¬
mand of an experienced officer. Thus the Portuguefe
were aflaulted by a new enemy far more formidable
than any they had yet encountered ; yet fuch was the
valour and conduct of the admiral, that after feveral
fevere engagements, the fleet of the iqfidels was entirely
ruined, and the Portuguefe became ablolute mafters
of the Indian ocean.
This difafter was followed in no long time by the
total overthrow of the dominion of the Mameluks in
Egypt by Selim theTurkifti fultan ; who thus alfo be¬
came mailer of Syria and Paleftine. As hisintereft
was now the fame with that of the Venetians, a league buH*.
was quickly formed betwixt them for the ruin of the " "*
power of the Portuguefe in India. With this view Selim
confirmed to the Venetians the extenfive commercial
privileges they enjoyed under the government of the
Mameluks; publifning at the fame time an edift, by
which he permitted the free entry of all the produc¬
tions of the eaft imported diredtly from Alexandria into
any part of his dominions, but impofed heavy taxes
upon fuch as were imported from Lifbon. All this,
however, was infufficient to counteract the great ad¬
vantages which the Portuguefe had obtained by the
new pafiage to India, and the fettlements they had
eftablilhed in that country ; at the fame time that the
power of the Venetians being entirely broken by the
league of Cambray, they were no longer able to con¬
tribute any affiftance. They were therefore reduced to
the neceffity of making an offer to the king of Portu¬
gal to purchafe all the fpices imported into Lifbon,
over and above what might be requifite for the con-
fumption of his own fubjecls. This offer being reject¬
ed, the Portuguefe - for fome time remained uncon¬
trolled mafters of the Indian trade, and all Europe
was fupplied by them, excepting fome very inconfider-
able quantity which was imported by the Venetians
through the ufual channels. ,5;
The Portuguefe continued to enjoy this valuable Why the
branch of commerce undifturbed almoft for a whole Portuguefe
century ; to which, however, they were indebted moretradP was
to the political fituation of the different European na-rupte(i by
tions than to their own prowefs. After the acceffion other Eu-
of Charles V. tothe throne of Spain, that kingdom wasroPean
either fo much engaged in a multiplicity of operations,power*"
owing to the ambition of that monarch and his fon
Philip II. or fo intent on profecuting the difcoveries
and conquefts in the new world, that no effort was
made to interfere with the Eaft India trade of the
Portuguefe, even though an opportunity offered by the
difcovery of a fecond paffage by fea to the Eaft Indies
through the ftraits of Magellan. By the acquifitiou
of the crown of Portugal in 1580, Spain, inftead of
becoming the rival, became the proteClor and guardian
of the Portuguefe trade. The refources of France all
this time were fo much exhaufted by a continuance of
long and defolating wars, that it could beftow neither
much attention on objeCts at fuch a diftance, nor en¬
gage in any expenfive fcheme. England was defola-
ted by the ruinous wars between the houfes of York
and Lancafter; and afterwards its enteiprifing fpirit was
reftrained by the cautious and covetous Henry VII.
His fon Henry VIII. in the former part of his reign,
by en gaging in the continental quarrels of the Euro¬
pean princes, and in the latter part by his quarrel with
the pope and contefts about religion, left no time For
commercial fchemes. It was not therefore till the
reign of Queen Elizabeth that any attention was paid
to the affairs of the Eaft by that kingdom. The firft:
who (hook the power of the Portuguefe in India were
the Dutch ; and in this they were gladly feconded
by the natives, whom the Portuguefe had moft grie-
voufly oppreffed. The Engliffi foon followed their ex¬
ample ; and in a few years the Portuguefe were expelled
from their moft valuable, fettlements, while the moft
lucrative branches of their trade have continued ever
fince in the hands of thofe two nations.
A a 2
It
India.
I N D [i
It is not to be fuppofed that the other European
* J nations would fit Hill and quietly fee thefe two en-
RivaUhip gr°fs the whole of this lucrative commerce without at-
of the tempting to put in for a fhare. Eaft. India compa-
French and nies were therefore fet up in different countries : but
the*Eaft*n ^ waS on^ between France and Britain that the
Indies. great rivahhip commenced; nor did this fully dif-
play itfelf till after the peace of Aix la Chapelle.
40 Both nations had by this time made themfelves ma-
Enghfh fet- fters 0f confiderable fettlements in India. The prin-
Indh.ntSU1 c'P:d of thofe belonging to Britain were, 1. Surat,
fituated on the wettern fide of the peninfula within
the Ganges, between the 2irt and 2;d degrees of N.
Lat. This peninfula comprehended the kingdoms of
Malabar, Decan, Golconda, and Bifnagar, with the
principalities of Gingi, Tanjour, and Madura ; the
weftern coaft being diftinguifhed by the name of Ma¬
labar, and the eaftern by that of Coromandel. 2. Bom¬
bay, a fmall ifland in the kingdom of Decan, about
45 leagues to the fouth of Surat. 3. Dabul, about 40
leagues farther to the fouth, in the province of Cun-
can. 4. Carwar, in N. Lat. 150, where there was a
fmall fort and factory. 5. Tillicherry, to which place
the Englifh trade was removed from Calecut, a large
town 15 leagues to the fouthward. 6. Anjengo, be¬
tween eight and nine degrees of latitude, the moll
foutherly fettlement on the weftern coaft of the pen¬
infula. 7. On the Coromandel coaft they poffefled Fort
St David’s, formerly called Tegapatan, fituated in the
kingdom of Gingi, in 11° 40' N. Lat. 8. Madras, the
principal fettlement on this coaft, between 13° and
140 N. Lat. not far from the diamond mines of Gol¬
conda. 9. Vifigapatam, farther to the north. 10. Ba-
lafore, in latitude 220, a faftory of fmall confequence.
11. Calcutta, the capital of all the Britilh fettlements
in the Eaft Indies. Thefe were the principal places
belonging to Britain which we {hall have occafion to
mention in the account of the contefts which now
took place ; thofe of the French were chiefly Pondi-
41 chery and Chandernagore.
Origin of The war is faid to have been firft occafioned by the
the Eaft In- ;ntngues of the Frencn commandant M. Dupleix; who,
hetwixTthe immcdiately after the peace of Aix la-Chapelle, began
French and to fow difienfion among the nabobs, who had by this
Englifh in time ufurped the fovereignty of the country. Nizam
*747- Almuluck, viceroy of Decan, and nabob of Arcot, had,
as officer for the Mogul, nominated Anaverdy Khan to
be governor of the Carnatic, in the year 1745. On the
death ofNizam,his fecond fon Nazir-zing was appointed
to fucceed him in his viceroyalty, and his nomination
was confirmed by the Mogul. He was oppofed by his
coufin Muzaphier-zing, who applied to Dupleix for af-
fiftance. By him he was fupplied with a body of Eu¬
ropeans and fome artillery; after which, being alfo
joined by Chunda Saib, an active Indian prince, he
took the field againft Nazir-zing. The latter was fup-
ported by a body of Britilh troops under Colonel Lau¬
rence ; and the French, dreading the event of an en¬
gagement, retired in the night; fo that their ally was
obliged to throw himfelf on the clemency of Nazar-
zing. His life was fpared, though he himfelf was de¬
tained as a (late prifoner: but the traitor, forgetting
the kindnefs ffiowed him on this occafion, entered into
a confpiracy againft the life of Nazir-zing, and mur-
. ^dered him in his camp; in which infamous tranfa&ion
6
88
] I N D
he was encouraged by Dupleix and Chunda Saib, who India.'
had retired to Pondicherry. Immenfe riches were
found in the tents of Nazir-zing, great part of which
fell to the (hare of Dupleix, whom Muzapher-zing now
aflbeiated with himfelf in the government. By virtue
of this affociation the Frenchman aflumed the ftate
and formalities of an eaftern prince; and he and his
colleague Muzapher-zing appointed Chunda Saib na¬
bob of Arcot In 1749, Anaverdy Khan had been
defeated and killed by Muzapher-zing and Chunda
Saib, affifted by the French ; after which his fon Mo¬
hammed Ali Khan had put himfelf under the protec¬
tion of the Englifti at Madras, and was confirmed by
Nazir-zing as his father’s fucceffor in the nabobfliip or
government of Arcot. This government therefore
was difputed betwixt Mohammed Ali Khan, appoint¬
ed by the legal viceroy Nazir-zing,and fupported by the
Englifti company, and Chunda Saib nominated by the
ufurper Muzapher-zing, and prote&ed by Dupleix,
who commanded at Pondicherry. Muzapher-zing, how¬
ever, did not long enjoy his ill-got authority; for in
the year 1751, the nabobs who had been the means
of railing him to the power he enjoyed, thinking them¬
felves ill rewarded for their fervices, fell upon him fud-
denly, defeated his forces, and put him to death; pro¬
claiming Salabat-zingnext day viceroy of the Deccan.
On the other hand, the Mogul appointed Gauzedy
Khan, the elder brother of Salabat zing ; who was
confirmed by Mohammed Ali Khan in the government
of Arcot: but the affairs of the Mogul were at that
time in fuch diforder, that he could not with an army
fupport the nomination he had made. Chunda Saih
fn the mean time determined to recover by force the
nabobftiip of Arcot, from which he had been depofed
by the Mogul, who had placed Anaverdy Khan in his
room. With this view he had recourfe to Dupleix at
Pondicherry, who reinforced him with 2000 Sepoys,
60 Caffrees, and 420 French; upon condition that if
he fucceeded, he fhould cede to the French the town
of Velur in the neighbourhood of Pondicherry, with
its dependencies, confiding of 45 villages. Thus rein¬
forced, he defeated Anaverdy Khan who loft his life
in the engagement, reaffumed the government of Ar¬
cot, and pun&ually performed the engagements he had
come under to his French allies.
All this time Mohammed Ali Khan had been fup¬
ported by the Englifti, to whom hp fled after his fa¬
ther’s death. By them he was fupplied with a rein¬
forcement of men, money, and ammunition, under the
conduit of Major Laurence, a brave and experienced
officer. By means of this fupply he gained fome ad¬
vantages over the enemy; and repairing afterwards to
Fort St David’s, he obtained a farther reinforcement.
With all this affiftance, however, he accompliftied no¬
thing of any moment; and the Englifti auxiliaries
having retired, he was defeated by his enemies. Thus
he was obliged to enter into a more clofe alliance with,
the Englifti, and cede to them fome commercial points
which had been long in difpute; after which, Captain
Cope was difpatched to put Tfinchinopoli in a ftate
of defence, while captain de Gingis, a Swifs officer, ^
marched at the head of 400 Europeans to the affift- Mr Clive’s
ance of the nabob. On this occafion Mr Clive firft aPPea-
offered his fervice in a military capacity. He’ had a
been employed before as a writer, but appeared very capacity.
little
i n d ■ r i
India, li’ttle qualified for that or any other department in ci-
vil life. He now marched towards Arcot at the
head of 210 Europeans and 500 Sepoys. In his firft
expedition he difplayed at once the qualities of a great
commander. His movements were conducted with
fuch fecrecy and difpatch, that he made himfelf ma¬
tter of the enemy’s capital before they knew of his
march ; and gained the affeftions of the people by his
generofity, in affording prote&ion without ranfom.
His brave- In a Ihort time, however, he found himfelf invefted in
ry and fuc- Fort St David’s by Rajah Saib, fon to Chunda Saib,
ce *' an Indian chief, pretender to the naboblhip of Arcot,
at the head of a numerous army ; the operations of
the fiege being conduced by European engineers.
Thus, in fpite of his utmoft efforts, two praftidable
breaches were made, and a general affault given'; but
Mr Clive having got intelligence of the intended at¬
tack, defended himfelf with fuch vigour, that the af-
failants were every where repulfed with lofs, and
obliged to raife the fiege with ,the greateft precipita¬
tion. Not contented with this advantage, Mr Clive,
being reinforced by a detachment from Trinchinopoli,
inarched in quell of the enemy ; and having overtaken
them in the plains of Arani, attacked and entirely de¬
feated them on the 3d of December 1751.
This viilory was followed by the furrender of the
forts of Timery, Conjaveram, and Arani; after which
Mr Clive returned in triumph to Fort St David’s. In
the beginning of the year 1752 he marched towards
Madras, where he was reinforced by a fmall body of
troops from Bengal. Though the whole did not ex¬
ceed 300 Europeans, with as many natives as were fuf-
ficient to give the appearance of an army, be boldly
proceeded to a place called Koveripauk, about 15 miles
from Arcot, where the enemy lay to the number of
1500 Sepoys, 1700 horfe, with 150 Europeans, and
eight pieces of cannon. Vi&ory was long doubtful,
until Mr Clive having fent round a detachment to fall
upon the rear of the enemy while the Englilh attack¬
ed the entrenchments in front with their bayonets, a
general confufion enfued, the enemy were routed with
confiderable fiaughter, and only faved from total de-
ftru&ion by the darknefs of the night. The French
to a man threw down their arms, and furrendered
themfelves prifoners of war; all the baggage and can¬
non falling at the fame time into the hands of the
.. victors.
His exploits On the return of Mr Clive to Fort St David’s, he
under ma- was fuperfeded in the command by Major Laurence,
jor Lau- gy h;m he was detached with 400 Europeans, a few
ience. Mahratta foldicrs, and a body of Sepoys, to cut off
the enemy’s retreat to Pondicherry. In this enter-
prife he was attended with his ufual good fuccefs, took
ieveral forts, vanquilhed the French commander M.
d’Anteuil, and obliged him with all his party to fur-
render prifoners of war.
At Chunda Saib, in the mean time, lay encamped with
an army of 30,00c men at Syringham, an ifland in the
neighbourhood of Trinchinopoli; but Major Law¬
rence having found means to intercept his provifions,
he was obliged to fly. Being obliged to pafs through
the camp of the Tanjore general, he obtained a pafs
for the purptyfe; but was neverthelefs detained by the
nabob ; who was an ally of the Englilh, and his head
Death of
Chunda
Saib.
89 1 I N D
was ftruck off, in order to prevent any difputes that In Ha.
might arife concerning him. c—y—
After the flight of Chunda Saib, his army was at¬
tacked and routed by Major Lawrence ; and the illand
of Syringham furrendered, with about 1000 French fol-
diers under the command of Mr Law, brother to him
who fchemed the Miffifippi company. M. Dupleix, 46
exceedingly mortified at this bad fuccefs, proclaimed VT. Dupleix
Rajah Saib, fon to Chunda Saib, nabob of Arcot; Pr«te‘‘ds
and afterwards produced forged commilfions from the
Great Mogul, appointing him gcWernor of all the Car- the Mogul,,
natic from the river Kriftnah to the fea. The better and affcdts
to carry on this deception, a meffenger pretended totlie
come from Delhi, and was received with all the pompa i lncliaa
of an ambaffador from the Great Mogul. Dupleix, ^r‘nce’
mounted on an elephant, and preceded by mufic and
dancing women, after the oriental falhion, received
his commiffion from the hands of thiVimpoftor ; after
which he affefted the ftate of an ealtern prince, kept
his durbar or court, appeared fitting crofs legged on a
fopha, and received prefents, as fovereign of the coun¬
try, from his own council as well as from the na¬
tives.
Thus the forces of the Englilh and French Eaft
India companies were engaged in a courfe of hoftili-
ties at a time when no war exilled between the two-
nations ; and while they thus continued to make war
upon each other under the title of auxiliaries to the
contending parties, Gauzedy Khan took poffeffion of
the dignity appointed him by the Mogul; but had not
been in poffeffion of it above 14 days when he was
poifoned by his own fitter. His fou Scab Abadin Khan
was appointed to fucceed him by the Mogul; but the
latter being unable to give him proper affittance, Sala-
bat-zing remained without any rival, and made a pre-
fent to the French commander of all the Englilh pof-.
feflions to the northward.
Thus concluded the campaign of 175*2. Next year 4T
both parties received confiderable reinforcements; the Re'nforce“
Engliih, by the arrival of Admiral Watfon with from
fquadron of (hips of war, having on board a regiment England
commanded by Colonel Aldercroon ; and the French and France,
by M. Gadeheu, commiffary and governor-general of
all their fettlements, on whofe arrival M. Dupleix de¬
parted for Europe. The new governor made the mott:
friendly-propofals ; and defired a ceffatiori of arms un¬
til the difputes could be adjufted in- Europe. Thefe
propofals being readily liftened to on the part of the
Englilh, deputies were Tent to Pondicherry, and a pro-
vilional treaty and truce were concluded, on con-prov|f,onai
dition that neither of the two companies Ihould for treaty be-
the future interfere in any of the differences that might twkt tbe
take place in the country. The other articles related t^° na‘
to the places or fettlements that Ihould be retained or ‘
poffeffed by the refpe&ive companies, until frefh or¬
ders Ihould arrive from the courts of London and Ver-
failles; and till then it was ftipulated, that nei¬
ther of the two nations Ihould be allowed to procure
any new grant or cellion, or to build forts in defence
of any new ettablilhment; nor Ihould they proceed to-
any ceifion, retroceffion, or evacuation, of what thep
then poffeffed; but every thing Ihould remain on the
fame footing as formerly.
The treaty was publilhed. on the nth of January,
ms, k
I N D [ fQQ ] I N D
india. 1755 ; at the end of which month admiral Watfon re-
turned with his fquadron from Bombay, and M. Go-
rieheu returned to France in the beginning of Febru¬
ary, leaving M. Leyrit his fuccefibr at Pandicherry,
M. Buffy, with the Soubahdar Salabat-zing, command¬
ed in the north ; and M. de Sauflay was left to com¬
mand the troops at Siringham. Matters, however,
did not long continue in a liate of tranquillity. Early
in the year it appeared that the French were endea¬
vouring to get pofleffion of all the provinces of the
Deccan. M. Bully demanded the fortrefs of Golconda
from Sakbat-zing; and M. Leyrit encouraged the
phoufder or governor who rented Vein to take up
arms againft the nabob. He even fent 300 French
and as many fepoys from Pondicherry to fupport this
rebel, and oppofe the Englilh employed by the nabob
to colleft his revenues from the tributary princes. In
this office' they had been employed ever lince the cef-
fatioQ of hollilities ; one half of the revenue being paid
to the nabob, and the other to the company, which
now involved them in a kind of military expedition
E ijv n ‘nto t^ie countI7 l^e Polygars, who had been pre-
of the^n vioufly fummoned to fend agents to fettle accounts,
glilh into with the nabob. Four of them obeyed the fummons;
the country hut one Lachenaig refufed, and it was therefore refolved
ofthe Poly-tQ attack him. The country was very ftrong, being
*’3rS‘ almoft entirely fortified by nature or art; for it was
furrounded by craggy hills detached from one another,
and covered with bulhes fo as to be impaffabie for
any but the natives,' who had thrown up works from
hill to hill. Thefe works were indeed very rude, be¬
ing formed of large Ilones laid upon one another with¬
out any cement, and flanked at proper dillances by
round earthen towers; before the wall was a deep and
broad ditch, with a large hedge of bamboes in front,
fo thick that it could not be penetrated but by the
hatchet or by the lire. This was forced, though not
without fome lofs; after which another work of the
fame kind, but ftronger, made its appearance; but this
being likewife forced, Lachenaig was obliged to fub-
mit and pay his tribute.
50 The Englilh army now marched to Madura, a llrong
reduced Indian town about 60 miles fouth of Trinchinopoli. On
their approach it fubmitted without any oppofition,
and the inhabitants feemed pleafed with their change
Two new of government. Here a deputation was received from
fettlements a neighbouring poiygar, defiring an alliance, and as a
b the6 Pro°f °f his lincerity making an offer of two fettle-
Englifh. ments on the fea-coaft of his country oppofite to the
illand of Ceylon, which would greatly facilitate their
future commerce with Tihivelly. Before this time
they could not have reached that city but by a circui¬
tous march of 400 or 500 miles ; but from the new
fettlements the ditlance to Tinivelly was no more than
50 miles, and reinforcements or fupplies of any kind
might be fent them from Madras or Fort St David
Exploits of 1° f°ur or hve rfays- Tbis offer being accepted, Co-
Coiond lonel Heron, the Englilh commander, marched to at-
Heron. the governor of Madura, who had fled to a place
called Coilgoody : on the approach of the Englilh he
fled from this place alfo, leaving the .greateft part of
his troops to defend the place. The road was fo rugged,
tjjat the carriages of the cannon broke down; and as
the troops were not furnilhed with fealing ladders, there
feemed to be little hope of gaining the place, which
. 4
was very ftrong. The colonel, however, determined India,
to make an alfault after the Indian manner, by burn-
ing down the gates with bundles of ftraw ; and to en¬
courage his men in this new method of attack, he him-
felf carried the firll torch, being followed by Moham-
med UTouf, who bore the fecond. The place was ta- His jjnpru.
ken and plundered, not fparing even the temples;dence
which infpired the inhabitants with the utmoft abhor- n®
rence of the vigors on account of their contempt of temples?11
their religion.
After this exploit the army returned to Madura ;
and a garrifon being left in the place, they proceeded
to Tinivelly, which fubmitted without oppofition, and
owned the jurifdi&ion of the nabob ; though fome of
the Polygars Hill evaded payment, and therefore hoffi-
lities were commenced againft them. ^
The new expedition was marked by an a<ft of the Cruel m»f-
moft difgraceful cruelty at a fort named Nellecotah, face at
40 miles fouth of Tinenelly. It was fortified by a mud Nellecotah.
wall with round towers. The afiault was made with
great refolution, and the troops gained pofleffion of
the parapet without being repulfed. On this the gar¬
rifon called out for quarter, but it was barbaroufly re¬
fufed ; a general maflacre of men, women, and chil¬
dren enfued, only fix perfons out of 400 being fuffer-
ed to efcape with life.
It now appeared that the revenues colle&ed in this
expedition had not been fufficient to defray the ex-
pences of the army ; and a report being fpread that
Salabat-zing was advancing into the Carnatic at the
head of his army, along with M. Buffy the French
commander, to demand the Mogul’s tribute, it was
thought proper to recal Colonel Heron to Trinchino¬
poli. Before this, he had been prevailed on by the In¬
dian chief who accompanied him, to convey to him
(Mazuphe Cawn) an inveftiture of the countries of
Madura and Tinevelly for an annual rent of 187,500!.
fterling. In his way he was likewife induced by the
fame chief to make an attempt on a ftrong fort named
Nellytangaville, fituated about 30 miles weft of Tine¬
velly, and belonging to a refraftory Poiygar. This
attempt, however, proving unfuccefsful for want of
battering cannon, the colonel returned with Mazuphe
Cawn to Trinchinopoli, where he arrived on the zzd
of May 1755. . , .55
The laft expedition of this commander was againft Unfortu-
a mud fort named VolJynatamt fituated near the en- nate expe-
trance of the woods belonging to the Colleries. Thefe dij;’on and
people were highly incenfed at the plundering of Coil-
goody, and particularly at the lofs of their facred Heron,
images which the rapacious conquerors had carried off.
In confequence of this they had already llaughtered a
party of feppys whom the commanding officer at Ma¬
dura had fent out to colleft cattle. In their march the
Englifla army had to go through the pafs of Natam,
one of the moft dangerous in the peninlula. It begins
about 20 miles north of Trinchinopoli, and continues
for fix miles through a wood impaffabie to Europeans.
The road which lay through it was barely fufficient to
admit a Angle carriage at a time, at tire fame time that
a bank running along each fide rendered it impoffible
-to widen it. In moft places the wood was quite con¬
tiguous to the road ; and even where part of it had
been felled, the eye could not penetrate above 20
yards.—A detachment of Europeans, pioneers, and
fepoys.
J<s
Scheme
fomied hy
the Engiifli
againft the
Ertnch.
57
The expe¬
dition laid
alide.
I N D [ i
fepoys, were fent to fcour the woods before the main
body ventured to pafs through fuch a dangerous defile.
The former met with no oppofition, nor did any ene¬
my appear againft the latter for a long time. At laft
the march was ftopped by one of the heavieft tumbrils
{ticking in a flough, out of which the oxen were not
able to draw it. The officers of artillery fuffered the
iroops marching before to proceed ; and the officer
who commanded in the rear of the battalion, not fuf-
pedting what had happened, continued his march,
while molt of the fepoys who marched behind the rear
divifion of the artillery were likewife fuffered to pafs
the carriage in the flough, which choaked up the road,
and prevented the other tumbrils from moving forward,
as well as three field pieces that formed the rear divi¬
fion of artillery, and the whole line of baggage that
followed. In this divided and defencelefs ftate the rear
divifion of the baggage was attacked by the Indians;
and the whole would certainly have been deftroyed, had
it not "been for the courage and a&ivity of Capt. Smith,
who here commanded 40 Caffresand 200 fepoys, with
one fix-pounder. Confiderable damage, however, was
done, and the Indians recovered their gods; which
certainly were not worth the carrying off, being only
made of brafs, and of a diminutive fize.— Colonel He¬
ron was tried by a court-martial for mifcondudl in this
expedition ; and being found guilty, was declared in¬
capable of ferving the company any longer: foon after
which he returned to Europe, and died in Holland.
In the mean time Nanderauze, an Indian prince,
formed a fcheme to get poffeffion of Trinchinopoli y.
and in order to. compafs his end with greater facility,
communicated his defign to M. de Sauffay the com¬
mander of the French troops. But this gentleman ha¬
ving communicated intelligence to the Englifh comman-'
der, the enterprize mifcarried, and no difference be¬
twixt thefe two rival nations as yet took place. It
does not however appear that the Englifh were'in the
leaft more folicitous to avoid hollilities than the French}
for as foon as the company were informed of the ac-
quifitions made by M. Huffy in the Deccan, it was de¬
termined to encourage the Mahrattas to attack Sala-
bat-zing, in order to oblige him to difmifs the French
auxiliaries from his fervice.—In order to fucceed in this
enterprife, it was neceffary to have a commander well
experienced in the political fyftems of the country, as
well as ip military affairs ; and for this purpofe Mr
Clive, now governor of Fort St David’s, and inveflred
with a lieutenant-colonel’s commiffion in the king’s
troops, offered his fervice. Three companies of the
king’s artillery, confitling of too men each, and 300
recruits, were fent from England on this expedition,
who arrived at Bombay on the 27th of November;
when on a fudden the prefidency of Madras took it
into confideration that this expedition could not be
profecuted without infringing the convention made
with the French commander. “ This (fays Mr Grofe)
was a&ing with too much caution ; for every thing
relating to Salabat-zing and the French troops in his
fervice feemed to have been ftudioufly avoided. The
court of dire&ors had explained their whole plan to the
prefidency of Madras; but the ftiip which had the let¬
ters on board was unfortunately wrecked on a rock
about 800 miles eaft of the Cape of Good Hope.”
The whole expedition was therefore laid afide, and the
prefidency of Madras directed all their force for the
91 3 I N D
prefent againff Tulagee Angria, who had long been India■' >
a formidable enemy to the Englifh commerce in thofe v ’ "1
parts.
The dominions of this pirate confided of feveral Account of
i{lands near Bombay, and an extent of land on thep®1pirate
continent about 180 miles in length and from 30 to^ngif^
60 in breadth. He poffeffed alfo feveral forts that had
been taken from the Europeans by his ancedors ; the
trade of piracy having, it feems, been hereditary in the
family, and indeed followed by mod of the inhabitants
of this coad. This was the more dangerous for trading
veffels, as the land breezes do not here extend more
than 40 miles out at fea, fo that the {hips are obliged
. to keep within fight of land ; and there was not a
creek, harbour, bay, or mouth of a river along the
whole coad of his dominions, where Angria had not
erefted fortifications, both as dations of difcovery, and
places of refuge to his veffels. His fleet confided of
two kinds of veffels peculiar to this country, named
grabs and gallivats. The former have generally two -
mads, though fome have three ; the latter being about 0f hi#
300 tons burthen, and the former 150. They are flees,
built to draw little water, being very broad in propor¬
tion to their length ; but narrowing from the middle
to the end, where, indead of bows, they have a prow
projedfing like a Mediterranean galley, and covered
with a drong deck level with the main deck of the
veffel, from wh ch it is feparated by a bulk head that
terminates the fore-cadle. As this conftrudb’on fob-
jefts the grab to pitch violently when failing again!!
a head fea, the deck of the prow is not inclofed with
fides as the red of the veffel, but remains bare, that
the water which comes upon it may pafs off without
interruption. Two pieces of cannon are mounted on
the main deck under the forecadle, carrying balls of
nine or twelve pounds, which point forwards through
port-holes cut in the bulk-head, and fire over the prow ;
thofe of the broad-fide are from fix to nine pounders.
The gallivats are large row-boats built like the grab,
but fmaller ; the larged fcarce exceeding 70 tons bur¬
den. They have two mads, the mizen (lightly made,
and the main-mad bearing one large and triangular fail.
In general they are covered with a fpar-deck made of
fplit bamhoes, and carry only paterreroes fixed on fwi-
vels in the gunnel of the veffel; but thofe of a larger
fize have a fixed deck, on which they mount fix or
eight pieces of cannon from two to four pounders.
They have 40 or 40 dout oars, by which they may
be moved at the rate of four miles an hour.
Angria had commonly a fleet of eight or ten grabs,
with 40 or 50 gallivats ; which flipped their cables
and put out to fea as foon as any veflel had the misfor¬
tune to come within fight of the port or bay where
they lay. If the wind blew with any drength, their
condru£lion enabled them to fail very fwiftly : but if
it was calm, the gallivats rowed, and towed the grabs.
As foon as they came within gunfhot of the enemy, ^
they affembled adern, and the grabs began the attack, nerT/au**"
firing at find only at the mads, and choofing the mod tacking * '
advantageous pofitvons for this purpofe. If the veffel Ibips.
happened to be difmaded, they then drew nearer, and
battered her on alt fides till fhe druck ; but if the de¬
fence was obdinate, they fent a number of gallivats
with two or three hundred foldiers iu each, who board¬
ed from all quarters fword in hand.
This piratical date had for more than 50 years been:
formidable:
I N D [ IQ2 } - I N D
Tlil!ia- fcrmidable to all the nations in Europe ; the Englifli
Eaft lndia company had kept up a naval force for the
Unfuccefs- prote&ion of their trade at the rate of more than
ful at- 50,000!. annually, and after all found it fcarcely ade-
tempts to quate to the purpofe. An unfucceisful attempt had
pirate6 ^ ^ecI1 ma^e 'n t?'?* ky the prefidency of Bombay, a-
gainft the forts Qeriah and Kennary, the principal
llrong holds of Angria.— Another was made in 1722,
under Admiral Matthews, againft a fort named Coila-
bley, about 15 leagues fouth of Bombay r but this
alfo mifcarried through the cowardice and treachery
of the Portuguefe, who pretended to aflift the Englilh.
In 1735 f°rt Gmah was unfuccefsfully attacked by a
Dutch armament of feven Ihips, two bomb-ketches,
and a numerous body of land forces; while all this
time the piracies of Angria went on fuccefsfully, and
not only trading veflels, but even men of war belong¬
ing to different nations, were captured by him, parti¬
cularly in the month of February 1754, when three
Dutch (hips of 50, 36, and 18 guns, were burnt or
taken by the piratical fleet.
This laft fuccefs encouraged Angria fo much, that
he began to build veffels of a large flze, boafting that
he fhould be mafter of the Indian feas. The Mahrat-
tas having implored the affiftance of the Englifli againft
Succefs of tjyjg common enemy, Commodore William James was
James° ^ lent from Bombay on the 22d of March 1755, w't^1
againft his the Prote&or of 44, the Swallow of 16 guns, and two
forts. bomb-ketches ; but with inftruftions not to hazard the
fleet by attacking any of the pirate’s forts, only to
blockade the harbours, while the Mahratta army carried
on their operations by land. He had fcarce begun his
voyage when he fell in with a confiderable fleet of the
pirates, which he would certainly have taken, had
it not been for the timidity and dilatory behaviour of
bis allies, who could not by any means be induced to
follow him. They had, however, invefted three of
the forts, but after a very ftrange manner; for they
durft not approach nearer than two miles, and even
there entrenched themfelves up to the chin, to be fe-
cure againft the fire of the fort, which they returned
only with one four, pounder. The commodore, pro¬
voked at this pufillanimous behaviour, determined, for
the honour of the Britifli arms, to exceed the orders
he had got. Running within 100 yards of a fort
earned Severndroog, he in a few hours ruined the
walls, and fet it on fire ; a powder magazine alfo blow¬
ing up, the people, to the number of about 1000, a-
bandoning the place, and embarking on board of eight
large boats, attempted to make their efcape to another
fort named Goa, but were all intercepted and made
prifor.ers by the Englifh. The whole force of the at¬
tack being then turned upon Goa, a white flag was
foon hung out as a fignal to furrender. The governor,
however, did not think proper to wait the event of a
capitulation, but without delay paffed over to Severn¬
droog, where he hoped to be able to maintain his
ground notwithftanding the ruinous ftate of the forti-
cations. The fire was now renewed againft this for-
trefs; and the feamen having cut a paflage through one
of the gates with their axes, the garrifon foon furren-
dered, at the fame time that two other forts befieged
by the Mahrattas hung out flags of truce and capitu¬
lated : and thus were four of Angria’s forts, for fo
many years deemed impregnable, fubdued in one day.
165. '
Thefe fuccefleswere followed by the furrender of Ban- Tmfia.
coote, a ftrong fortified ifland now called Fort Vi Soria, y '   *
and which the Englifti retained in pofleffion ; but theT{ie6|r
other forts w'ere delivered up to the Mahrattas. On finally-'fub!,
the arrival of Admiral Watfon in the beginning of No-dued by
vember 1755, it w-as determined to root out the pirate Admiral
at once, by attacking Geriah the capital of his domi-Watfon,
nions ; but it was fo long fince any Engliftimen had
feen this place, and the reports of its ftrength had been
fo much exaggerated, that is was thought proper to
reconnoitre it before any attack was made. This was
done by Commodore James; who having reported that
the fort, though ftrong, was far from being inacceflible
or impregnable, it was refolved to profecute the en-
terprize with the utmoft expedition and vigour. It
was therefore attacked by fuch a formidable fleet, that
Angria, lofing courage at their approach, fled to the
Mahrattas. leaving Ceriah to be defended by his bro¬
ther. The fort, however, was foon obliged to furren¬
der, with no more lofs on the part of the Englifli than
19 men killed and wounded : but it was afterwards ac¬
knowledged, that this fuccefs was owing principally
to the terror of the garrifon occafioned by fuch a vio¬
lent cannonade; for their fortifications appeared to
have been proof againft the utmoft efforts of an ene¬
my. All the ramparts of this fort were either cut out
of the folid rock, or built of ftones at leaft ten feet
long laid edgeways.
In this fortrefs were found ago pieces of brafs can¬
non, with fix brafs mortars, .*rd a great quantity of
ammunition and military ftbehs,. befides money and
effects to the value of 125,000!. Angria’s fleet was
entirely defttoyed, one of the flips having been fet
on fire by a (hell from the Englifti fleet, and the flames
having fpread frpth thence to all the reft. About 2000
people were made prifoners: among whom were the
wife, children, mother, brother, and admiral of the pi¬
rate : but they were treated with the greateft clemency ;
and his family, at their own requeft, continued under
the prote&ion of the Englifti 'at Geriah. All the
other forts belonging to Angria foon fubmitted ; fo
that his power on the coaft of Malabar was entirely
annihilated. $4
While the affairs of the Englifh went on thus fuc- M. Bufijr
cefsfully, M. Buffy had been conftantly employed near
the perfon of Saiabat-zing, whom he had ferved in much a a '
the lame manner that the Englifti had Mahomed Ali *
Cawn. As he made ufe of his influence with that
prince, however, to enlarge the poffefiions of the
French, and was continually making exorbitant de¬
mands upon him, the prime minifter of Salabat-zing at
length reprefented to him the danger and fhame of al¬
lowing a fmall body of foreigners thus to give law to
a great prince ; and having formed a powerful combi¬
nation againft the French, at laft obtained an order
for their difmiflion. M. Buffy took his leave without
any marks of difguft, having under his command
about 600 Europeans, with 5000 fepoys, and a fine
train of artillery. His enemies, however, had no mind
to allow him to depart in fafety; and therefore fent
orders to all the Polygars to oppofe their paffage,
fending, 6000 Mahrattas after them to harafs them on
their march.
Notwithftanding this oppofition, M. Buffy reached
Hydrabad with very little lofs. Here he took pof-
felfion
65
A detach¬
ment of
Englifli
troops or¬
dered a-
India. feffion of a garden formerly belonging to the kings $f
—v Golconda, where he refolved to keep his poll until
fuccouts (hould arrive from Pondicherry and Mafuli-
patam. Here Salabat-zing propofed to attack him ;
and the better to attain his purpofe, applied to the
Englilh prefidency at Madras for a body of troops to
affift him in this fervice. Nothing could be more
agreeable to thofe who had the power at that place
than fuch an invitation ; and a detachment of 400 Eu¬
ropeans and 1500 fepoys was on the point of being
gain ft M. ordered to the affiftance of Salabat-zing, when exprefles
Buffy, but £Iom Bengal informed them of the greateft danger
manded. that had ever threatened the Britilh fettlements in In-
66 doftan.
Surajah This danger arofe from the difpledlure of Surajah
P“wl.a> na"Dowla the new nabob of Bengal. His grandfather
gal °an e" Aliverdy Khan having died in April or May 1756,
nemyto Surajah fucceeded to the naboblhip of Bengal, Ba¬
the Eng- bar, and Orixa. He was congratulated on his accef-
hto- fion by Mr Drake the Englilh prefident at Calcutta,
who requefted his favour and protection in behalf of
his countrymen. This was readily promifed, even to
a greater degree than what had been Ihown by his
grandfather ; but in a Ihort time his refentment was
incurred by the imprifonment, as it is faid, of Omi-
chund, an eminent Gentoo merchant, who had lived
feveral years under the protection of the Englifli go¬
vernment at Calcutta. Of this, however, Surajah
t)owla did not direCtly complain; but founded his
pretence of war upon the conduCt of the Englifli in
repairing the fortifications of Calcutta ; which indeed
was abfolutely neceffary on account of the great like¬
lihood of a war with the French. On this account,
however, the nabob fignified his difpleafure, and
threatened an attack if the works were not inftantly
demoliflied. With this requifition the prefident and
council pretended to comply; but neverthelefs went
on with their works, applying firft to the French and
then to the Dutch for affiftance ; but as neither of
thefe nations thought proper to interfere, the Englifli
were obliged to ftand alone in the quarrel.
His ex edi- Surajah Dowla took the field on the 30th of May
lion againft with an army of 40,000 foot, 30,000 horfe,
Calcutta, and 400 elephants ; and on the 2d of June detached
20,000 men to inveft the Englifti fort at Caflumbazar,
a large town fituated on an ifland formed by the
weftern branch of the Ganges. The fort was regular¬
ly built, with 60 cannon, and defended by 300 men,
but principally fepoys. The nabob pretending a de-
fire to treat, Mr Watts the chief of the faftory was
perfuaded to put himfelf in his power; which he had
no fooner done, than he was made a clofe prifoner,
along with Mr Batfon a furgeon who accompanied
him. The two prifoners were treated with great in¬
dignity, and threatened with death; but two of the
council who had been fent for by the tyrant’s com¬
mand were fent back again, with orders to perfuade
the people of the faftory to furrender it at difcretion.
This propofal met with great oppolition in the coun¬
cil ; but was at laft complied with, though very little
to the advantage of the prifoners; for they were not
only deprived of every thing they poflefled, but ftrip-
ped almoft naked, and fent to Huquely, where they
were clofely confined.
The nabob, encouraged by tfiis fuccefs, marched
V01. IX. Part I.
direftly to Calcutta, which he invefted on the I yth. Indi*.
Though he now threatened to drive the Englifli en- v—
tirely out of his dominions, yet he propofed an accom¬
modation with Mr Drake, provided he would pay him
his duty upon the trade for 15 years, defray the ex-
pences of his army, and deliver up the Indian mer- gg
chants who were in the fort. This being refufed, a Calcutta
fiege commenced, and the place was taken in three taken>ani^
days through the treachery of the Dutch guard * ofprifon-
who had the charge of a gate. The nabob promifed ersfuffo-
on the word of a foldier, that no harm ffiould be done cated.
the Englifh ; neverthelefs they were Ihut up in a pri- * See 6*^*
fon fo ft rail, that out of 146 all peri(bed in a fingle"'^'
night for want of air but 22. It was not, however,
fuppofed that any maffacre at this time was intended ;
and it is probable that he only gave orders to confine
the prifoners clofely for the night, without taking into
confideration whether the place they were confined in
was large or fmall.
The news of this difafter put an end to the expedi¬
tion projefted againft M. Bufly ; and Colonel Clive ,
was inftantly difpatched to Bengal with 400 Euro- Expedition
peans and f 000 fepoys, on board of the fleet com- of admiral
manded by Admiral Watfon. They did not arrive Watfon
till the 15 th of December, at a village called Fulta, fitu-
ated on a branch of the Ganges, where the inhabitants againft the
of Calcutta had taken refuge after their misfortune, nabob.
Their firft operations were againft the forts Bufbudgia,
Tanna, Fort-William, and Calcutta now in the hands of
the enemy. All thefe were reduced almoft as foon as
they could approach them. An expedition was then
propofed againft Huegley, a large town about 60
milts above Calcutta, and the place of rendezvous for
all nations who traded to Bengal ; its warehoufes and
ftiops being always filled with the richeft merchandife
of the country. This was likewife eafily reduced ; and
the city was deftroyed, with the granaries and ftore-
houfes of fait feated on each fide the river; which proved
very detrimental to the nabob, as depriving him of
the means of fubfiftence for his army.
Surajah Dowla, enraged at this fuccefs of the
Englifli, now feemed determined to crufli them at once
by a general engagement. From this, however, he
was intimidated by a fuccefsful attack on his camp,
which foon induced him to conclude a treaty. This
took place on the 9th of February 1757, on the fol-Treaty con-
lowing conditions. 1. That the privileges and im-cluded with
munities granted to the Englifh by the king (Mogul) him*
fliould not be difputed. 2. That all goods with Englifh
orders fliould pafs, by land or water, free of any tax,
fee, or impofition. 3. All the Company’s faftortes which
had been feized by the nabob fliould be reftored ; and
the goods, money, and effefts which had been plun¬
dered, fliould be accounted for. 4. That the Englifh
fliould have permiffion to fortify Calcutta as they
thought proper. 5. They fhould alfo have liberty to
coin their own imports of bullion and gold. yr
As certain intelligence was now received of a war be- War with
tween France and England, the firft object that na- 'l16 French^
turally occurred, after the conclufion of this treaty,
was the redu&ion of the French power in the eaft ;
in confequence of which it was reprefented to Admiral
Watfon, by a committee of the council of Bengal, that
this was the only opportunity he perhaps might ever
have of adting offenfively againft them. An attack
B b would
I N D [ 194 1 I N D
ftid'a. would therefore immediately have been made on
' Chandernagore, had not a deputation arrived from that
place, requefting a neutrality in this part of the world
until matters fhould be finally decided in Europe.
The negociation, however, was broken off on a fug¬
ged ion that the government of Chandernagore, being
fubordinate to that of Pondicherry^ould not render
any tranfaftion of this kind valid. It remained there-
11 fore only to obtain the confent of the nabob to make
The nabob an attack upon this place : but this feemed not likely
compla s to begot; for in ten days after theconclufion of the
]ifb.he £ng* treaty, he fent a letter to the admiral, complaining of
* ’ his intention. “ It appears (fays he) that you have a
delign to befiege the French faftory near Houghby,
and to commence hoftilities againft that nation. This
is contrary to all rule and cuftom, that you fiiould
bring your animofities and differences into my country ;
for it has never been known, fince the days of Timur,
that the Europeans made war upon one another in the
king’s dominions. If you are determined to befiege
the French factories, I fhall be neceffitated, in honour
and duty to my king, to aflifl them with my troops.
You are certainly bound to abide by your part of the
treaty ftriftly, and never to attempt or be the occafion
of any troubles or difturbances in future within the
provinces under my jurifdi&ion, &c.” To this Ad¬
miral Watfon replied, that “ he was ready to defift
from his intended enterprize if the French would a-
gree to a folid treaty of neutrality ; or if the nabob, as
foulahdar (viceroy) of Bengal, would, under his hand,
guarantee this treaty, and promife to protedl the En-
glifn from any attempts made by the French againft
their fettlements in his abfence.” This letter did not
prove fatisfaftory ; the nabob having been informed
by the French agent, that the Englifh defigned to
turn their arms againft him as foon as they had made
themfelves mafters of Chandernagore. This was ftre-
nuoufly denied by the admiral ; and a number of let¬
ters paffed between him and the nabob, in one of
which the latter made ufe of the following expreflions,
which were fuppofed to imply a tacit confent that
Chandernagore fhould be attacked. “ My forbidding
war on my borders was becaufe the French were my
tenants, and upon this affair defired my prote&ion:
on this I wrote to you to make peace, and no inten¬
tion had I of favouring or afiifting them. You have
underftanding and gecerofity: if your enemy with an
upright heart claims your protection, you will give
him his life ; but then you mull be cue// fatisfied of the
innocence of his intentions; if not, then whatfoever
you think right, that do.”
Having thus, as was fuppofed, obtained the con-
a^or^ta ^ent the an attack was made on Chanderna-
Jcerlry the gore, which was foon reduced to the neceffity of capi-
•Snglifli. tulating ; though the French made a gallant defence,
and, as Mr Ives informs us, “ flood to their guns as
long as they had any to fire.” A meffenger was dif-
patched with the news to Surajah Dowla three days
after the place had furrendered, intimating alfo that
the French had been purfued fome way up the country.
This intelligence, however, feemed to be by no means
agreeable, as he could fcarce be induced to return an
anfwer. At laft he pretended difpleafure on account
of the defign of the Englifh to infringe the treaties,
and complained that they had ravaged fome parts of
his dominions. This was denied on the part of the India,
admiral; who in his turn accufed the nabob of breach v~-*,
of promife, and negleft in fulfilling his engagements.
The laft letter fent by Admiral Watfon to the nabob,
of date 19th April 1757, concludes in this manner.
“ Let me again repeat to you, that I have no othef
views than that of peace. The gathering together of
fiches is what I defpife ; and I call on God, who fees
and knows the fpring of all our actions, and to whom
you and I mufl one day anfwer, to witnefs to the
truth of what I now write: therefore, if you would have
me believe that you wifh for peace as much as I do,
no longer let it be the fubjedt of our correfpondence for
me to afk the fulfilment of our treaty, and you to
promife and not perform it; but immediately fulfil all
your engagements : thus let peace flourifh and fpread
throughout all'your country, and make your people
happy in the re-eftablifbment of their trade, which
has fuffered by a ruinous and dcftriiAive war.” From
this time both parties made preparations for war. The
nabob returned no anfwer till the 13th of June, when
he fent the following declaration of war. “ According
to my promifes, and the agreement made between us,
I have duly rendered every thing to Mr Watts, ex¬
cept a very fmall remainder : Notwithftanding this, Mr
Watts, and the reft of the council of the faftory at
Caffembuzar, under the pretence of going to take the
air in their gardens, fled away in the night. This is
an evident mark of deceit, and of an intention to break
the treaty. I am convinced it could not have hap¬
pened without your knowledge, nor without your ad¬
vice. I all along expefted fomething of this kind, and
for that reafon 1 would not recal my forces front
Plaffey, expetting fome treachery. I praife God,
that the breach of the treaty has not been on my
part,” &c.
Nothing lefs was now refolved on in the Englifh Thedepo-
eouncil at Calcutta than the depofition of the nabob ; fltion of
which at this time appeared pratticable, by fupporting
the pretenfions of Meer Jaffier AH C^wn, who had
with other noblemen entered into a confpiracy againft
him. Meer Jaffier had married the filler of Aliverdy
Cawn, the predeceffor of Surajah Dowla; and was now
fupported in his pretenfions by the general of the
horfe, and by Jugget Sect the nabob’s banker, who
was reckoned the richeft merchant in all India. By
thefe three leading men the defign was communicated
to Mr Watts the Englifh refident at the nabob’s court,
and by him to Colonel Clive and the fecret committee
at Calcutta. The management of the affair being left
to Mr Watts and Mr Clive, it was thought proper to
communicate the fecret to Omichund, through whom
the neceffary correfpondence might be carrried on with
Meer Jaffier. This agent proved fo avaricious, that ^varici-
it was refolved to ferve him in his own way ; and by 0us and
a piece of treachery to him alfo, to gain their point treacherous-
with both parties. Two treaties were therefore writ- behaviour
ten out; in one of which it was promifed to comply ^und and
with Omichund’s demand, but in the other his name the Eng-
was not even mentioned; and both thefe treaties were lift,
figned by all the principal perfons concerned, Admiral
Watfon alone excepted, whom no political motives
could influence to fign an agreement which he did not
mean to keep. Thefe treaties, the fame in every re-
fpett excepting as tb Omichund’s affair, were to the
following
I N D C 195 ] I N D
India, following purpofe : 1. All the effe&s and faftories formed of the nabob’s efcape, he marched again to
v—-v——; btionging to the province of Bengal, Bahar, and O- his affiftance, and was within a few hours of joining ''““—v ‘ " f
Treatycon-”xa’ rema>n in pofTeffion of the Englifh, nor him when he was taken. Three days after he was
eluded with Ihould any more French ever be allowed to fettle in purfued by Major Eyre Coote at the head of 223
Meer Jaf- thefe provinces. 2. In confideration of the Ioffes fu- Europeans, three companies of Sepoys, 50 Lafcars or
ftained by the Englifh company by the capture and Indian failors, and 10 Marmutty men or pioneers to
plunder of Calcutta, he agreed to pay one crore of clear the roads, together with two pieces of cannon,
rupees, or L. 1,250,000 fterling. 3. For the effefts fix pounders. On this expedition the major exerted
plundered from the Englifh at Calcutta, he engaged his utmoft diligence to overtake his antagonift, and
to pay 50 lack of rupees, or L. 625,000. 4. For the fpent a very confiderable fpace of time in the puifuit;
effects plundered from the Gentoos, Moors, and other for though he fet out on the 6th of July, he did not
inhabitants of Calcutta, 20 lack, or L. 250,000. return to Muxadabad till the iff of September. Mr
7. For the effedts plundered from the American mer- Law, however, had the good fortune to efcape; but
chants,inhabitants ofCalcutta, feven lack. orL.87,500. though the major did not fucceed in what was propo*
S. The diftribution of all thefe fums to be left to Ad- fed as the principal end of his expedition, he was ne-
miral Watfon, Colonel Clive, Roger Drake, William verthelefs, fays Mr Ives, of confiderable fervice to the
Watts, James Kilpatrick, and Richard Becher, Efquires, company and to his country in general. He had
to be difpofed of by them to whom they think pro- obliged Ramnarain, the moll powerful rajah in the
jy per. country, to fwear allegiance to Meer Jaffier; he laid
Surajah Ail things being now in readinefs, Colonel Clive be- open the interior flate of the northern provinces ; and,
Dowla de- gan hig march againft Surajah Dowla on the 13th of in conjundfion with Mr Johnflone, gave the company
June, the very day on which Surajah Dowla fent off fome infight into the faltpetre bufmefs, from which
dsath. his lad letter for Admiral Watfon. Before any adl of fuch advantages have fince been derived to the public. 80
hoftility was committed, however, Colonel Clive wrote Before the return of Major Coote, Admiral Pocock
the nabob a letter, upbraiding him with his condudt, had fucceeded to the command of the fleet, in confe- vv^tfon
and telling him at laft, that “ the rains being fo near, quence of the deceafe of Admiral Watfon, who died on
and it requiring many days to receive an anfwer, he the 16th of Auguft. The joy of the Britifh was con-
had found it neceffary to wait upon him immediately.” fiderably damped by the lofs of this gentleman, who
This was followed by the decifive adlion at Plaffey ; in had gained a great and deferved reputation both in the
which the treachery of Meer Jaffier, who commanded military line and every other. News were alfo re¬
part of the nabob’s troops, and flood neuter during the ceived, that the French had been very fuccefsful on
engagement, undoubtedly rendered the vi&ory more the coafl of Coromandel. Salabat-zing, as has already
eafily acquired than it would otherwife have been, been obferved, had applied to the Englifh for affill-
The unfortunate nabob fled to his capital with a few ance againfl the French; but as they were prevented
that continued faithful to him. He reached the from performing their agreement by the di.alter at
city in a few hours ; but not thinking himfelf fafe Calcutta, he found himfelf under a neceffity of accom-
there, left it the following evening, difguifed like modating the differences with his former friends, and
a Faquir, with only two attendants. By thefe he to admit them again into his fervice. M. Buffy was
appears to have been abandoned and even robbed; for now reinforced by the troops under M. Law ; who
on the 3d of July he was found wandering forfaken had colle&ed as many Europeans in his journey as
and almoft naked on the road to Patna. Next day he made up 500 with thofe he had at firfl. With thefe sUCCefs 0f
was brought back to Muxadabad; and a few hours af- he undertook to reduce the Englifh fa£fories of Inge-the French
ter privately beheaded by Meer Jaffier’s eldeil fon, to ram, Bandermalanka, and Vizagapatnam. As none of"" the Co-
whofe care he had been committed. The ufurper took the two former places were in any Hate of defence, theromancle*
poffeffion of the capital in triumph; and on the 29th greatefl part of the company’s effefts were put onC°a^'
. ?8
_ * _ r —t    1— ’     o  I   ~   ^ vvv.it yut uu
fier^ro " °f June Colonel Clive went to the-palace, and in pre- fhipboard on the firft alarm; but as Vizagapatnam
claimtd fence of the rajahs and grandees of the court folemn- was garrifoned by 140 Europeans and 420 Sepoys, it
nabob of ly handed him to the mufnud or carpet and throne was fuppofed that it would make fome defence. If
Bengal. Gf ftate, where he was unanimoufly faluted foubahdar any was made, however, it appears to have been very
79 or nabob, and received the fubmiffion of all prefent. trifling ; and by the conqueft of this the French be-
Colonel While thefe tranfa&ions were going forward with came maflers of all the coafts from Ga'njam to Maffuli-
Coote s tjie nab0b, the utmofl efforts were ufed to expel the patnam. In the fouthern provinces the like bad fuc-
inqueft°of French entirely from Bengal. By the articles of ca- cefs attended the Britifn caufe. The rebel Pen gars
Mr Law. pitulation at Chandernagore, the whole of that garri- having united their forces againll Mazuphe Cawn,
fon were to continue prifoners of war; but about the obtained a complete victory over him ; after which
time of figning the treaty, Mr Law with a fmall body the Englifh fepoys, being prevailed upon to quit Ma-
of troops made his efcape out of Caffembuzar, and dura, the conqueror .feized upon that city for him-
bent his march towards Patna. There he had been fclf.
prote£led by the late nabob ; and on the commence- In the beginning of 1758, the French made an at-
xnent of frefh hoflilities, had colledted about 2CO tempt on Trinchinopoli. The command was given
French, the only remains of that nation in Bengal, to to M. d’Autreuil, who invefled the place with 900
make an attempt to fuccour him. With thefe he was men in battalion, with 4000 fepoys, too huffars, and
within two hours march of Surajah Dowla’s camp a great body of Indian horfe. Trinchinopoli was then
when the battle of Plaffey was fought: on hearing the in no condition to withfland fuch a formidable power,
news of which he flopped ; but afterwards being in- as moft of the garrifon had gone to befxege M dura
B b 2 under
I N D [ 196 ] I N D
Jn^a- under Captain Gaillaud ; but this commander having
received intelligence of the danger, marched back with
all his forces, and entered the town by a difficult road
which the enemy had neglefted to guard; and the
French general, difconcerted by this fuccefsful ma¬
noeuvre, drew off his forces, and returned to Pondi¬
cherry.
This fortunate tranfaftion was fucceeded by the
fiege of Madura in which the Englifh were fo vigo-
oufly repulfed, that Captain Caillaud was obliged to
turn the fiege into a blockade in order to reduce the
place by famine. But before any progrefs could be
made in this way, Mazuphe Cawn was prevailed upon
to give it up for the fum of 170,000 rupees. A large
garrifon of fepoys was again put into the place, and
Captain Caillaud returned to Trinchinopoli.
An unfuccefsful attempt was now made by Colonel
Ford on Nellore, a large town furrounded by a thick
mud-wall, with a dry ditch on all fides but one, where
there is the bed of a river always dry but in the rainy
feafon. The enterprife is faid to have proved unfuc¬
cefsful through the unheard-of cowardice of a body of
ftpoys, who having fheltered themfelves in a ditch, ab-
folutely refufed to ftir a ftep farther, and rather chafe
to allow the reft of the army to march over them to
the affault, than to expofe themfelves to danger. Se¬
veral other enterprifes of no great moment were un¬
dertaken; but the event was on the'whole unfavourable
to the Englifh, whofe force by the end of the cam¬
paign was reduced to 1718 men, while that of the
French amounted to 3400 Europeans, of whom 1000
were fent to Pondicherry.
n?h Both parties now received confiderable reinforce-
fested at6* ments from Eutope ; Admiral Pocock being joined
fea by ad- on the 24th of March by Commodore Stevens with a
mira! Po- fquadron of five men of war, and the French by nine
ceck. men 0f War and two frigates, having on board General
Tally with a large body of troops. The Englifh ad¬
miral no fooner found himfelf in a condition to cope
with the enemy than he went in queft of them ; and
an engagement took place, in which the French were
defeated with the lofs of 600 killed and a great many
wounded, while the Englifh had only 29 killed and 89
wounded. The former returned to Pondicherry, where
they landed their men, money, and troops. After
the battle three of the Britifh Captains were tried
for mifbehaviour, and two of them difmiffed from
the command of their fhips. As foon as his veffels
were refitted, the admiral failed again in queft of the
enemy, but could not bring them to an adfion be-
defeated'a fore the 3d of Auguft, when the French were de-
fecond feated a fecond time, with the lofs of 251 killed and
time., 602 wounded..
Notwithftandlng this fuccefs at fea, the Englifh
were greatly deficient in land forces; the re-eftablifh-
ment of their affairs in Bengal having almoft entirely
drained the fettlements on the coaft of Coromandel of
T . 84f the troops neceffary for their defence. The confe-
StVavidL quence of this was the lofs of Fort St David,, which
General Tally reduced, deftroying the fortifica¬
tions, demolifliing alfo the adjacent villages, and ra-
vaging the country in fuch a manner as filled the na¬
tives with indignation, and in the end proved very pre¬
judicial to his affairs. He proved fuccefsful, however,
in the redu&ion of Devicottah, but was obliged to re¬
treat with lofs from before Tanjore, his army being fndfa..
greatly diftreffed for want of provifions ; and money —r-^
in particular being fo deficient, that on the 7th of
Auguft the French feized and carried into Pondi¬
cherry a large Dutch fhip from Batavia, bound to
Negapatnam, and took out of her about T. 5000 in
fpecie.
From this time the affairs of the French daily de¬
clined, On their retreat from Tanjor*, they aban¬
doned the ifland of Seringham ; however, they took
Tripaffore, but were defeated in their defigns on the
important poft of Chinglapet,. fituated about 45 miles
fouth-weft of Madras. Their next enterprizes on Fort
St George and Madras were equally unfuccefsful.
The latter was befieged from the 12th of December
1758 to the 17th of February 1759, when they were
obliged to abandon it with great lofs; which difafter
greatly contributed to deprefs their fpirits, and abate
thofe fanguine hopes they had entertained of beco-
ming mailers in this part of the world.
The remainder of the year 1759 proved entirely fa¬
vourable to the Britifh arms. M. d’Ache the French
admiral, who had been very roughly handled by Ad¬
miral Pocock on the 3d of Auguft 1758, having re¬
fitted his fleet, and being reinforced by three men of
war at the iflands of Mauritius and Bourbon, now ven¬
tured once more to face his antagonift, who on his
part did not at all decline the combat. A third battle prencf1(je,
enfued on the 10th of September 1759, when thefeated a
French, notwithftanding their fuperiority both in num- third tinae
ber of fhips and weight of metal, were obliged to re-b/ a<i'u‘ral
treat with confiderable lofs; having 1500 men killed1 °C0C*’
and wounded, while thofe on board the Englifh fleet
did not exceed 569. By the 17th of O&ober the
Englifh fleet was completely refitted; and Admiral
Pocoek having been joined by a reinforcement of four
men of war, fbon after returned to England.
All this time the unfortunate General Tally had
been employed in unluccefsful endeavours to retrieve
the affairs of his countrymen : ftill, however, he at¬
tempted to adl on the offenfive ; but his fate was at- .
laft decided by laying fiege to Wandewafh, which hadLuUylte-
lately been taken by Colonel Coote. The advantage feated at
in numbers was entirely in favour of the French ge- Wande-
neral; the Englifh. army confilting only of 1700 Eu-Wa^4
ropeans including artillery and cavalry, while the
French amounted to 2200 Europeans. The auxilia¬
ries on the Englifh fide were 3000 black troops, while
thofe of the French amounted to 10,000 black troops
and 300 Caffres; nor was the odds lefs in proportion
in the artillery, the Englifh bringing into the field
only 14 pieces of cannon and one howitzer, while the
French had 25 pieces in the field and five on their
batteries againft the fort. The battle began about
eleven o’clock on the 22d of January 1760, and in
three hours the whole French army gave way and fled
towards their camp ; but quitted it on finding them¬
felves purfued by the Englifh, who took all their can¬
non except three fmall pieces. They colle&ed them*
felves under the walls of Cheltaput, about 18 miles
from the field of battle, and foon after retired to Pon¬
dicherry. Colonel Coote caufed the country to be
wafted to the very gates of this fortrefs by way of re¬
taliation for what the French had done in the neigh¬
bourhood of Madras. He then fet about the fiege of
Chela
I N D [ i
Ihdia. Cheltaput, which furrendered in one day : a confi-
derable detachment of the enemy was intercepted by
Captain Smith; the Fort ofTimmery was reduced
by Major Monfon, and the city of Arcot by Captain
Wood. This laft conqueft enabled the Engltih to re-
ftore the nabob to his dominions, of >Vhich he had
been deprived by the French ; and it greatly weak¬
ened both the French force and intereft in India.
M. Lally, in the mean time, had recalled his forces
from Seringham, by which means he augmented his
army with 500 Europeans. All thefe were now fhut
up in Pondicherry, which was become the laft hope of
the French in India. To complete their misfortunes.
Admiral Corniftr arrived at Madias with fix men of
war ; and as the French had now no fleet in thefe
87 parts, the admiral readily engaged to co-operate with
All the the land forces. The confequence was the reduftion
f "r ^ ^ In Carical, Chellambrum, and Verdachellum, by a
dia Sa!” n" ftrong detachment under Major Monfon ; while Colo-
Pondicher- nel Coote reduced Permucoil, Alamperva, and Wal-
ry their dour. Thus he was at laft enabled to lay fiege to
capital, ta- Pondicherry itfelf. Previous to this, however, it had
tn* been blockaded by fea and land, which reduced the
place to great ftraits for want of proviiions, and in¬
duced a mutinous difpoiition among thegairifon. The
batteries were not opened till the beginning of De¬
cember 1760; and the place capitulated on the 15th
of January 1761, by which an end was put to the
gg power of the French in this part of the world.
Difagree- While the Englilh w ere thus employed in efFe&ually
able fitua- reducing the power of their rivals in every part of In-
nabolfof6 ^‘a’ ^eer Jd;ffier> the nabob of Bengal, who had been
Bengal. raifed to that dignity by the ruin of Suiajah Dowla,
found himfelf in a very difagreeable fituation. The
treafure of the late nabob had been valued at no lefs
than 64 crore of rupees, about 80 millions fterling;
and in expectation of fuch a vaft fum, Meer Jaffier had
no doubt thoughtlefsly fubmitted to the enormous ex¬
actions of the Englilh, already mentioned. On his
accefiion to the government, however, the treafure of
which he became mailer fell fo much (hort of expecta¬
tion, that he could by no means fulfil his engagements
to them and fupply the expences of government at the
fame time. This foon reduced him to the neceffity of
mortgaging his revenues to fupply prefent demands;
and by this ruinous expedient he put it out of his own
power ever to extricate himfelf. In this dilemma his
grandees became faCtious and difcontented, his army
mutinous for want of pay, and he rendered hirnfelf o-
dious to his fubjeCts by the exaCtions he vras neceffi-
tated to lay upon them. The Englilh, who for their
own intereft had raifed him to the fupreme power, no
fooner found that he was incapable of anfwering their
purpofe any longer, than they began to fcheme againll
Shameful 1'm ” an<^ orc^er to ^ave f°me colour of reafon for
behav our Piling down the man whom they had juft ftt up, they
of the Eng. either invented or gave ear to the molt malicious ca-
lifluowanlslumnies againll him. The charges brought againft him
him, were (hortly thefe: I. That foon after his advance¬
ment he had refolved to reduce that power which
raifed him to the dignity. 2. That, to efl'eCt this, he
affaffinated or banifhed every perfon of importance
whom he fufpeCted of being in the Englilh intereft.
3. That he negociated with the Dutch to introduce
an armament for the exgulfion of the Englilh. 4. That
97 1
I N D
he had in different inflances been guilty of the India,
deepell deceit and treachery towards the Englifh, his —v—
bell benefactors and allies. 5. That at three different
periods the Englilh commander in chief had been
bafcly deferted both by the nabob and his fon, when
he and the troops were hazarding their lives for them.
6. That he meditated a fecret and feparate treaty with
Shah-Zaddah, the Mogul’s fon, and had intended to
betray the Englilh to him. 7. That the whole term
of his government had been one uninterrupted chain
of cruelty, tyranny, and oppreffion. 8. That he me¬
ditated, and was near carrying into execution, an in¬
famous fecret treaty with the Mahrattas, which would
have proved the total deftruCtion of the country if it
had taken place. 9. That he threw every pofiible ob-
ftruCtion in the way of the collection of the Englilh
tunkas or alfignments upon lands. 10. That he en¬
couraged the ©bftruCtions given to the free currency
of the Englilh ficcas ; by which the company fuf-
fered heavy Ioffes. 11. That by his cruelties he had
rendered it fcandalous for the Englifh to fupport his
government any longer; and, 12. That by his mif-
conduCt, he had brought the affairs of the company
as well as his own into the utmoft danger of ruin.
In what manner thefe charges were fupported it is
difficult to know, nor perhaps were the accufers very
folicitous about the ftrength of their evidence. This
feems the more probable, as the accufations of cruelty
were, in fome inftances at leaft, void of foundatiom
On the 13th of June 1760, Mr Holwel wrote from
Calcutta to Mr Warren Haftings, that by exprefs he
had received intelligence of the murder of the princeffcs
of Aliverdy Khan and Shah Amet, in a moll inhuman
manner, by Meer Jaffier’s orders. He was faidto have
fent a Jemmatdaar with 100 horfe to Jefi'eraut Khan
to carry this bloody fcheme into execution ; with fe¬
parate orders to the Jemmatdaur to put an end to
their lives. He refufed aCting any part in the tra*-
.gedy, and left it to the other ; who carried them out
by night in a boat, tied weights to their legs, and
threw them overboard. They ftruggled for fome
time, and. held by the gunwale of the boat ; but by
ftrokes on their heads, and cutting off their hands, they-
were at laft forced off and drowned. In like manner
we were told that many others-of Surajah Dowla’s re¬
lations had perilhed ; yet when it was thought pro¬
per to replace Mttr Jaffier in 1761, all thefe dead
perfens were found alive excepting two. It muft alfo,
be remembered, in behalf of the unfortunate nabob,
that belidts the firms exaCted of him by the Englilh at
his acceflion, he had ceded to them a large extent of
territory, and granted them fo many immunities in
trade, that he had in a manner deprived himfelf of all
his reiources ; and it was impoffrble for him to defray
the neceffary expences without either extorting money,
from his fubjeCts, or infringing the privileges he had fo
inconfiderately granted.
_ There were two accounts'of this remarkable revolu- n fF5>0
tion publiftred, materially differing from one another,
The fir ft was given in a memorial drawn up at a of his de^
confukation at Fort William, November 10. 1760, pofidon.
where were prefent Henry Vanfitart, Efq; prelrdent;
William Ellis, B. Sumner, William M‘Guire, Henry
Vereft, and Henry Smyth, Efqs. “ We refolved (fays
the governor) to give the nabob the next day (OCto-
berr
India.
I N D [ 198 ] I N D
ber 19. 1760) to n.fte<St upon the letters I had de¬
livered him, proposing feme m.afures for regulating
thefe abufes. I heard nothing from him all that day;
but found by my intelligence that he had been in
council at his old advifers, whofe advice, I was fure,
would be contrary to the welfare of the country and
of the company. I therefore determined to- ad im¬
mediately on the nabob’s fear. There could not be
a better opportunity than the night of the 19th of¬
fered, it being the conclufion of the Gentoo feaft,
when all the principal people of that call; would be
pretty well fatigued with their ceremonies. Accord¬
ingly I agreed with Colonel Caillaud, that he Ihould
crofs the river with the detachment between three and
four in the morning ; and having joined Coffim Ali
Khan and his people, march to the nabob’s palace,
and furround it juft at day-break. Being extremely
defirous to prevent difturb^nce or bloodftied, I wrote
a letter to the nabob, telling him, I had been waiting
all the day in expe&ation that he would have fettled
the urgent affairs upon which I conferred with him
yefterday ; but his having favoured me with no anfwer,
plainly {bowed that all I could reprefent to him for
the good of his country would have no eftedt, as long
as his evil counfellors were about his perfon, who
would in the end deprive him of his government and
ruin the company’s affairs. For this reafon I had
fent Colonel Caillaud with forces to wait upon him,
and to expel th'ofe bad counftllors, and place his af¬
fairs in a proper ftate, and I would fhortly follow.
This letter I gave to the colonel, to fend to the nabob
at fuch a time as he ftiould think moft expedient. Mea-
fures were taken at the fame time for feizing his three
tmworthy minifters,and to place Coffim Ali Khan in the
full management of all the affairs, in quality of deputy
and fucceffor to the nabob.
“ The neceffary preparations being made with all
care and fecrecy poffible, the colonel embarked with
the troops, joined Coffim Ali Khan without the leaft
alarm, and marched into the court-yard of the palace
juft at the proper inftant. The gates of the inner court
being ftrut, the colonel formed his men without, and fent
the letter to the nabob, who was at firft in a great
rage, and long threatened that he would make what
rdiftance he could, and take his fate. The colontl
forbore all hoftilities, and feveral meffages paffed be¬
tween him and the nabob. The affair remained in
this doubtful ftate for two hours, when the nabob,
•finding his perfu ing was to no purpofe, fent 3 meffage
to Coffim Ali Khan, informing him that he was ready
to fend the feals and all the enfigns of dignity, pro¬
vided he would agree to take the whole charge of the
government upon him, to difeharge all arrears due to
the troops, to pay the ufual revenue to the king, to
fave his life and honour, and to give him an allowance
fufficient for his maintenance All thefe conditions
being agreed to, Coffim Ali was proclaimed ; and the
old nabob came out to the colonel, declaring that he
depended on him for his life. The troops then took
poffcffion of all the gates; and the old nabob was
told, that not only his perfon was fafe, but his govern¬
ment too if he pleafed, of which it was never intend¬
ed to deprive him. He anfwered, that he had now no
more bulinefs in the city, where he Ihould be in con¬
tinual danger from Coffim Ali Khan j and if he was India,
permitted to go and live at Calcutta, he ft^ould be —v—
contented. Coffim Ali Khan was now placed on the
mufnud, and the people in general feeraed much
pleafed with the revolution. The old nabob did not
think himfelf fafe even for one night in the city. Coffiin
Ali Kh»n fupplied him With boats, and permitted
him to take away about 60 of his family, with a rea-
fonable quantity of jewels. He begged that he might
fleep in his boat that night; which he according did,
and on the morning off the 2 2d of Odlober he fet
out for Calcutta, and arrived there on the 29th.
He was met by a deputation from the council, and
treated with every mark of refpedk due to his former
dignity.”
The fecond account of this affair was not publifhed
till the 1 ith of March 1762, and was figned Eyre
Coote, P. Amyatt, John Cavnac, W. Ellis, S- Batfon,
H. Verelft. “ In September 1760 (fay they), when
there was not the leaft appearance of a rupture or
difguft between us and the nabob, but friendftu'p and
harmony fubfifting, Meer Coffim Khan his fon-in-law
came down to Calcutta, and having ftaid a ihort time
returned to Moorfhebad. A few days after, Mr Van-
fittart went up to that city on the pretence of a vifit to
the nabob Meer Jaffier. Colonel Caillaud, with 200
Europeans and fome fepoys, attended him ; who, it
was pretended, were going to join the army at Patna.
When Mr Vanfittart arrived at Moradbaug, the nabob
paid him two vilits; at the laft of which Mr Vanfit¬
tart gave him three letters, propoling the reformation
of the abufes in his government, infifted on his naming
fome perfon among his relations to take charge of the
fubahfliip, and particularly recommended Coffim Ali
Khan, who was fent for, and the nabob defired to
ftay till he came : But the nabob, being greatly fa¬
tigued, was fuffered to depart to his palace. The
night and following day paffed in concerting meafurea
with Coffim Ali how to put in excution the plan be¬
fore agreed on in Calcutta, where a treaty was Ggned
for this purpofe. In confequence of thefe delibera¬
tions, our troops croffed the river next night, and be¬
ing joined by Coffim and his party, furrounded the na¬
bob’s palace. A letter from Mr Vanftttart was fent
in to the nabob, demanding his compliance with what
had been propofed to him. To this the nabob return¬
ed for anfwer, ‘ that he never expedted fuch ufage
from the Englifti; that while a force was at his gates,
he would enter into no terms.’ A meffage was fent
in, that if he did not dire&ly comply, they ftiould be
obliged to ftorm the palace. Aftonifhed and terrified
at this menace, he opened the gates, exclaiming, that
‘ he was betrayed; that the Englifh were guilty of
perjury and breach of faith; that he perceived their
defigns againft his government; that he had friends
enough to hazard at leaft one battle in his defence:
but although no oaths were facred enough to bind the
Englifh, yet as he had fworn to be their faithful friend,
he would never fwerve from his engagement, Hnd ra¬
ther fuffer death than draw his fvvord againft them.’
So fufpicious was he of being fold, that he defired to
know what fum of money Coffim Ali Khan was to
give for the fubahftiip, and he would give half as much
more to be continued. He hoped, however, if they
in- f
I N D [ i
India, intended to dethrone him, that they would not leave
'“"“"v him to the mercy of his fon-in law, from whom be
feared the worft ; but wifhed they would carry him
from the city, and give him a place of fafety in Calcut¬
ta. “ This laft requell of the nabob was conftrued in
the light of a voluntary refignatiom Our troops took
pofieffion of the palace; Meer Coflim was raifed to the
mufnud ; and the old nabob hurried into a boat with
a few of his domeftics and neceffaries, and fent away
to Calcutta in a manner wholly unworthy of the high
rank he fo lately held, as was alfo the fcanty fubfiftence
allowed him for his maintenance at Calcutta by His fon-
in-law. Thus was Jaffier Ali Khan depofed, in breach
of a treaty founded on the moft folemn oaths, and in
violation of the national faith.”
According to this account, the fervants of the Com¬
pany. who were the proje&ors of the revolution, made
no fecret that there was a prefent promifed them of 20
lacks of rupees from Coffim, who was defirous of ma¬
king the fir ft aft of his power the alfalfination of Jaf¬
fier, and was very much difpleafed when he found that
the Englifh intended giving him prote&ion at Calcutta.
It could fcarce be fuppofed that Meer Coffim, raifed
to the nabobifh in the manner we have related, could
be more faithful to the Engliffi than Meer Jaffier had
been. Nothing advantageous to the interefts of the
company could indeed be reafonably expected from fuch
a revolution. No fucceffor of Meer Jaffier could be
more entirely in fubjedtion than the late nabob, from
his natural imbecility, had been. This laft confide-
ration had induced many of the council at firft to op-
pofe the revolution ; and indeed the only plaufible pre¬
tence for it was, that the adminiftration of Meer Jaf¬
fier was fo very weak, that, unlefs he was aided and
even controuled by fome perfons of ability, he him-
felf muft foon be ruined, and very probably the in-
Meer Cof. terefts of the company along with him. Meer Coffim,
fimfchemcs ];10Wever, was a man of a very different difpofition
Kfl/6 from his father in-law. As he knew that he had not
been ferved by the Engliffi out of friendffiip, fo he
did not think of making any return of gratitude; but
infteadof this, confidered only how he could moft eafi-
ly get rid of fuch troublefome allies. For a while,
however, it was neceffary for him to diffemble, and to
take all the advantage he could of the power of his
allies whilft it could be ferviceable to him. By their
affiftance he cleared his dominions of invaders, and
ftrengthened his frontiers againft them; he reduced,
by means of the fame affiftance,, the rajahs or independ
ent Indian chiefs who had rebelled in the time of his
predeceffor, obliging them to pay the ufual tribute ;
by which means he repaired his finances, and thereby
fecured the difcipline and fidelity of his troops. Ha¬
ving thus, by the affiftance of the Engliffi forces,
brought his government into fubjedion, he took the
moft effeftual means of fecuring himfelf againft their
power. As the vicinity of his capital, Muxadabad, to
Calcutta, gave the Engliffi fa&ory there an opportu¬
nity of infpeCting his aftions, and interrupting his de-
figns when they thought proper, he took up his refi*
dence at Mongheer, a place 200 miles farther up the
Ganges, which he fortified in the beft and moft ex¬
peditious manner he could. Being very fenfible of
the advantages of the European difcipline,. he refolved
5
99 1 I N n
to form his army on a new model For this purpofe *ndia-
he colle&ed all the Armenian, Perfian, Tartar, and v—•
other foldiers of fortune, whofe military characters he
fuppofed might ferve to raife the fpirits of his Indian
forces, and abate their natural timidity He alfocare-
fu’lycolleded every wanderingEuropean who had borne
arms, all the Sepoys who had been difmiffed from the
Englilh fervice, diftribut.ing them among his troops, in
order to teach them the Englifn exercife. He changed
the faffiion of the Indian mulkets from matchlocks to
firelocks; and as their cannon were almoft as deficient
as their fmall arms, he procured a pattern of one from
the Engliffi, by which he foon formed a train of artille¬
ry : and having thus done every thing in his power to
enable himfelf to withftand the Engliihby force of arms,
he refolved alfo to free his court from their emiffaries,
by imprifoning or putting to death every perfon of any
confequence in his dominions who had ffiown any at¬
tachment to their irttereft.
His next ftep was to free himfelf from fome of
thofe reftraints which his predeceffor Meer Jaffier, and
even he himfelf, had been obliged to lay upon the trade
of the country, in order to gratify the avarice of his
European allies. At his acceffion indeed he had ce¬
ded to the company a tra£t of land worth no lefs than
700,000!. annually, befides 70,000!. a-year on other
accounts. All this, however, was not fufficient; the
immunities granted them in trade wpre of ftill worfe
confequence than even thofe vaft conceffions. He
knew by experience the diftrefs which thefe immuni¬
ties had brought upon his predeceffor, and therefore
determined to put an end to them. In purfuance of He fays
this refolution, he began, in the year 1762, every duties on
where to fubjedft the Engliffi traders to the paymentthe
of certain duties throughout his dominions, and re-jfhtra'’:
quired that their difputes, if beyond the limits of their ^
own jurifdiftion, ffiould be decided by his magiftrates.
This gave fuch an alarm at Calcutta, that, in Novem¬
ber 1762, the governor Mr Vanfittart waited on him
in perfon at Mongheer, in order to expoftulate with
him upon the fubjeft. The nabob anfwered his re-
monllrances in the following manner. “ If (faid he)
the fervants of the Engliffi company were permitted
to trade in all parts, and in all commodities, cuftom
free, as many of them now pretend, they muft of
courfe draw all the trade into their own hands, and my
cuftoms would be of fo little value, that it would be
much more for my intereft to lay trade entirely open,
and colleft no cuftoms from any perfon whatever upon
any'kind of merchandize. This would draw a num¬
ber of merchants into the country, and increafe my
revenues by encouraging the cultivation and manu-
fa&ure of a large quantity of goods for fale, at the
fame time that it would effedlually cut off the princi¬
pal fubjedt of difputes which had difturbed the good
underftanding between us, an objedt which I have
more than any other at heart.”
By thefe intimations Mr Vanfittart was very much
difconcertcd ; nor indeed was it in anyperfon’s power
to devife a plaufible anfwer. What thj nabob had
threatened was evidently in his power; and though
he had laid the trade entirely open, no reafonable fault
could have been found with him. The proceeding,,
however, tended, evidently to deftroy the private trade;
sarriea:
I N D [ 200 ] 1 N D
Tn3ia. carried on by the gentlemen of the fa&ory; and even
to prejudice, as they faid, that of the company itfelf.
A new a- Vanfittart therefore thought proper to fubmit to
greement certain regulations, by which the trade of the Englilh
concluded was put under certain reftri&ions.
Vanfittart This new agreement being inftantly put in execu-
and dif ’ t*on on Part t^ic nahob, excited the utmofl. in-
owned by dignation at Calcutta. On the 17th of January 1763,
the cou* the council pafled a refolution, difavowing the treaty
C1' made by the governor, and affirmed that he affumed <t
right to which he was by no means authorized ; that
the regulations propofed were difhonourable to them as
Englifhmen, and tended to the ruin of all public and
•private trade ; and that the prefident’s iffuing out re¬
gulations independent of the council was an abfolute
breach of their privileges. They fent orders therefore
to all the fa&ories, that no part of the agreement be¬
tween the governor and nabob fhould be fubmitted to.
Application was again made to Meer Coffim to per-
fuade him to a third agreement; but before the fuc-
cefs of this negociation could be known, hoflilities
94 commenced on the part of the Englilh.
The city There was at that time in the city of Patna {fitua-
taken1!)1 tef^ °n ^ ^anges» about 300 miles above Calcutta),
the^ng^ a fortified faftory belonging to the Eaft India com-
lifti, but pany, where were a few European and Indian foldiers.
immediate By this fadtory the city was fuddenly attacked on the
take^16 ?5t^ °f June I7^3» ant^ inftantly taken, though it
a ei>* was defended by a ftrong garrifon, and the fortifica¬
tions had been newly repaired. The governor and
garrifon fled out into the country on the firft appear-
' ance of danger: but perceiving that the vidtors took
no care to prevent a furprife, he fuddenly returned
with a reinforcement from the country, retook the
city, and either cut in pieces or drove into their fort
all the Englifh who were in it, after having been only
four hours in pofleffion of the place. The Englilh,
dilheartened by this difafler, did not now think them-
lelves able to defend their fort againft the Indians; for
which reafon they left it, with a defign to retreat into
the territories of a neighbouring nabob; but being pur-
fued by a fuperior force, they were all either killed or
taken.
Maffacre This piece of perfidy, for fuch it certainly was, the
of the nabob repaid by another, viz. llaughtering the depu-
^ ^e‘ties who had been fent him by the council of Calcut-
J3U ies. about a new agreement with regard to com¬
mercial affairs. They fet out from Mongheer on the
24th of June, having been unable to bring Meer Coffim
to any terms; and though he furnilhed them with the
ufual paffports, yet, as they were palling the city
of Muxadabad, they found themfelves attacked by a
number of troops affembled for that purpofe on both
fides of the river, whofe fire killed feveral gentlemen
in the boats. Mr Amyatt, the chief of the embaffy,
landed with a few fepoys, whom he forbid to fire, and
endeavoured to make the enemy’s troops underftand
that he was furnilhed with the nabob’s paflports, and
had no defign of committing any hoftilitiesj but the
enemy’s horfe advancing, fome of the fepoys fired not-
withftanding Mr Amyatt’s orders to the contrary. On
this a general confufion enfued, and Mr Amyatt, with
moll of the fmall party who attended him, were cut
in pieces.
Thefe a£ts of treacherous hoftility were foon follow-
N° 165.
ed by a formal declaration of war. Meer Jaffier, not- India,
withftanding the crimes formerly alleged againft him,-v**i=4
was proclaimed nabob of Bengal, and the army im- 96T
mediately took the field under the command of Major fier again"
Adams. The whole force, however, at firft confifted proclaimed
only of one regiment of the king’s troops, a few ofnabob-
the company’s, two troops of European cavalry, ten 97
companies of fepoys, and 12 pieces of cannon. Thefe Major
very foon came to a&ion with the enemy; and having Adam*
got the better in two lkirmilhes? cleared the country
of them as far as Caffimbuzar river, a branch of the Meer Cof-
Ganges, which lay between Calcutta and Muxadabad, fim.
or Murlhudabad, the capital of the province.
The war was now carried on with uninterrupted
fuccefs on the part of the Englilh ; nor does it appear
that all the pains taken by Meer Coffim to difeipline his
troops had made them in the leaft more able to cope
with the Europeans. The Englilh were fuffered to
pafs the river without oppofition; but an army of
10,000 Indians were advantageoufly polled between _•
the river and the city. Thefe were entirely defeated, The In-
and Major Adams pulhed on diredtly for the capital, dians de»
In his way he found the Indians again ftrongly polledfeated*
with intrenchments 15 feet high, and defended by a
numerous artillery. This ftrong poll was taken by
ftratagem ; a feint being made with a fmall body of
troops againft that part where the enemy had collefted
their greateft ftrength. Thus the attention of the
enemy was drawn entirely to that place, without re¬
garding others where no attack was apprehended. The
greateft part of the Englilh army, however, had in the
night-time marched round the Indian fortification, and
by day break made a furious aflault on a place where
there was only a flight guard. Thefe inftantly fled ;
the intrenchments were abandoned ;.and the city, which
was protefted only by them, fell of courfe into the
hands of the conquerors.
This fuccefs of the Englilh ferved only to make them
redouble their diligence. They now penetrated into
the heart of the province, crofled the numerous branch¬
es of the Ganges, and traverfed morafles and forefts in
quell of their enemy. Meer Coffim, on the other hand,
was not wanting in his defence ; but the utmoft efforts
he could ufe were totally infufficient to Hop the career
of an enemy fo powerful and now flulhed with vi&ory. 99
The two armies met on the banks of a river called IVu- Meer Cof-
nss Nullas, on the 2d of Auguft 1763. The Indians
had chofen their poll with great Judgment, and hadat^ima*
much more the appearance of an European army than Nullas.
ever was obferved before, not only in their arms
and accoutrements, but in their divifion into brigades,
and even in their clothing. The battle was much
more obftinate than ufual, being continued for four
hours; but though the Indian army confifted of no
fewer than 20,000 horfe and 8000 foot, the Eng¬
lilh proved in the end viftorious, and the enemy were
obliged to quit the field with the lofs of all their can¬
non.
From this time the Indians did not attempt any re¬
gular engagement with the Englilh. They made a
ftand indeed at a place called sluda Nulla, which they
had fortified infuch a manner that it feemed proof againft
any hidden attack. But here alfo they fuffered them¬
felves to be deceived in a manner fimilar to that above-
mentioned, and the place was taken with great flaugh-
t ter.
IOI
'-Xrhurmn
•murder of
'the Eng'iih
^prifonert at
-i'atna.
iaa
Patna ta¬
ken, and
Bengal en¬
tirely redo
ced '■) the
Enghih.
I N D i zoi 1 I N I>
ter. They now abandoned a vaft traA of country; and from Calcutta to Sujah Dowla, propofing an alliance
tho’ there were feveral very defetifible pofts one behind with him and the Mogul, who was along with him,
an’other, fo much were they difheartened by this mif- and offering to affift them againlt Meer Coffim or any
fortune, that they never attempted to ftop the pro- other enemy who fhould attempt an invafion of their '
grefs of the Engliih, but laid open the whole country dominions; in return for which, it was expe&ed that^
to the very gates of Mongheer. they fhould declare themfelves open enemies to Meer D
The next operation was the fiege of Mongheer it- Cefiim, and ufe their utmoit endeavours to feiie and
felf; which, notwithftanding all the pains Meer Coffim deliver him up with all his efte&s. This defign was
had been at to fortify it, held out no more than nine communicated to Major Adams on the 8th of Decem-
days after the trenches were opened i fo that nothing ber 1763 ; but as he was next day to refign the com-
now remained to complete the conqueft of Bengal but mand of the army, Major Carnac was delired to take
the redmflion of’the city of Patna. The unfortunate the command upon him, and to watch the motions of
Meer Coffim, in the mean time, enraged at the irre- Meet Coffim, as well as to guard the dominions of Meer
fiftible progrefs of the Englifh, vented his rage on the Jaffier againlt any hoftilities which might be attempt-
unbappy prifonere taken at Patna; all of whom, to the ed. It was alio refolved, that in cafe Mter Coffim fhould
number of about 200, he caufed to be inhumanly mur- prevail upon the Mogul and tiujah Dowla to affift;
dered. This villany was perpetrated by one ■So»?«\r, a him, Major Carnac was defired to advance to the
^ German, who had originally been in the French fer- banks of the river Carumnafia, and there oppofe the
vice, but deferted from them to the Englifh Eaft In- entrance of any hoitile army.
dia company, and from the company to Meer Coffim. It foon appeared that the friendfhip of the Englifh
This afiaffin, by the Indians called .SWtzfhje, having in- was not what Sujah Dowla defired. Pie confidered
vited the Englifh gentlemen to fup with him, took the them as rapacious ufurpers, who having got a foot-
opportunity of borrowing their knives and forks, on ing in the country under pretence of commerce, could
pretence of entertaining them after the Englifh manner, be fatisfied with nothing lefs than the entire pofieffion
At night, when he arrived, he flood at feme diftance in of it, to the ruin of the natural inhabitants. In the Pr
the cook-room to give his orders ; and as foon as the two beginning of February 1764, therefore, it was knownail
fir ft: gentlemen, Mr Ellis and Lufhington, entered, the that Sujah Dowla had determined to affift Mter Coffim
former was feized by the hair, hiV head pulled backward, in attempting to recover Bengal. Pbe prefident andj^
•and his throat cm by another On this Mr Lufhington council on this wrote him, that though they heard fuch
•knocked down the murderer with his fill, feized his a report, they could not believe it, confidering the
fword, wounded one and killed two before he himfelf former connexions 1 fubfifting between him and the
•was cut down. The other gentlemen being now a- chiefs of the company, and were perfuaded he would
larmed, defended themfelves, and even repulfed the fe- not aX in fuch an unjuft; manner : but if it really was
■poys with plates and bottles. Somers then ordered his intention to efpoufe the caufc of Meer Coffim, they
them on the top of the houfe to fire down on the pri- informed him that they were refolved to keep Bengal
foners; which they obeyed with reluXance, alleging free from troubles, and carry the war into the domi-
tha; they could not think of murdering them in that nions of Sujah Dowla himfelf. To this the nabob re-
manner, but if he would give the prifoners arms, they plied by enumerating the many favours conferred on
would fight them ; on which he knocked feveral of the Englifh by the Mogul. “ Notwithftanding t iefe
them down with bamboes. The confequence was. that (fays he) you have interfered in the king’s country,
all the gentlemen were either fhot or had their throats poflefled yourfelves of diftriXs belonging to thegovern-
cut . Dr Fullartcn was the only perfon who efcaped ment, and turned out and eftablifhed nabobs at pieafure,
having received a pardon from the tyrant a few days without the confent of the imperial court. Since you
before the maflacre. have impriioned dependants on the court, and expofed
This inhumanity was far from being of any fervice the government of the king of kings to contempt and
to the caufe of Meer C ffim. Major Adams marched diftionour ; fince you have ruined the trade of the mer-
without delay from Mongheer to Patna ; and as the chants of the councry, granted prottXion to the king**
place was but indifferently fortified, it could make but fervants, injured the revenues of the imperial court, and
a feeble refiftance The cannon of the Englifh foon crufhed the inhabitants by your aXs of violence ; and
made a praXicabk breach, and in no longer time than fince you are continually fending fiefh people from
eight days this great city was taken by (form. Thus Calcutta, and invading different parts of the royal do-
the nabob was deprived of all his fortified places, his minions; to what can all thofe wrong proceedings be
army reduced to a fmall body, and himfelf obliged to attributed, but to an abfolute diiregard to the court,
•fly to Sujah Dowla nabob of Oude, who aXed as and a wicked defign of feizing the country to yottrfelves?
grand vizier to the Mogul. Here he was kindly re- If thefe difturbances have arifen from your own impro-
ceived, and an afylum promifed for his perfon, but ad- per defires, defift from fuch behaviour in future ; in-
mittance was refufed to his army, nor would this prince terfere not in the affairs of government; withdraw
confent at any rate to make his country a feat of war. your people from every pare, and fend them to their
The Englifti were now entire mafters of Bengal ; for own country ; carry on the company’s trade as former-
though Meer Jaffier was proclaimed nabob, if is not to ly, and confine yourfelves to commercial affairs,” &c.
be fuppofed that he had now any authority farther than Another letter, much to the fame purpofe, was fent to
what they pleafed to give him Major Adams did not Major Carnac ; but the prefident and council of Cal-
long furvive the conquett of Patna, which was taken cutta, mftead of paying any regard to the remonflrah-
on the 6th of November 1763; he died in the month ecs of the nabob, determined to commence an imme-
e>f March 1764. diate and oftenltve war againit him.
Meer Coffim being thus driven out, an agent was lent Notwithftanding this refolution, feveral difficulties
Vot. IX. Parti, Cc occurred
India.
jpofed
th Sujah
i.nce re*
fl ed by
j ihDoW.
I N D [ 202 1 I N D
India, occurred in carrying on a war at this time. The prin-
ll-—v ' cipal were the death of Major Adams, whofe name had
105 becortie formidable to the Indians, and the mutinous
Sir Hedfor <3ifp0fition of the army. The former was obviated by
the appointment of Colonel Heftor Munro, who, in
jor Adams military flcill, appeared nothing inferior to his prede*
cefibr; and the mutinous difpoiition of the foldiery
was got the better of by a molt fevere example of the
fnutineers, 24 of whom were blown away from the
mouths of cannon. Hoftilities were commenced on
the part of Meer Cdffim, who cut off a fmall party of
Englilh troops, and fent their heads to the mogul and
Sujah Dowlah. An army of 50,000 men was col-
!e<Sed, with a mod formidable train of artillery, fuch as
inight be fuppofed to follow an European army of
equal numbers. This prodigious armament feems to
have effaced all the caution of Meer Cofftm; for though
he had formerly experienced the bad effects of enga¬
ging the Englifh in a pitched battle, yet he now thought
ts6 proper to try his fortune a fecond time in the fame
Defeat*the way. The t<vo armies met on the 22d of Oftober
Indians at j ^4. at a place called Buxard, on the river Carum-
uxar ’ naffa, about 100 miles above the city of Patna. The
• ’ event was hmilar to that of other engagements with
the-Englifh, to whom it never was poffible for any
advantages either in fituation or number to make the
Indians equal. The allied army was defeated with
the lofs of 6co6 killed on the fpot, 130 pieces of can-
tirin, a proportionable quantity of military ftbres, and
all their tents ready pitched ; while, on the fide of the
conquerors, only 32 Europeans and 239 Indians were
107 killed, and 5) Europeans and 473 Indians wounded,
fcrepulfed The only place of flrength now belonging to the
at Lhanda a]ljes on this fide the river was a fort named Chanda
eer‘ Geer. The redu&ion of this place, however, might
well have been deeihed imprafticable, as it Rood on the
top of a high hill, or rather rock, fituated on the very
brink of the Ganges, by which it could be conftantly
fupplied with provifions; and as to military {lores, it
cbuld not Hand in need of any as long as ftones could
be found to pour down on the affailants. Not wit h-
ftanding all thofe difficulties, however, Colonel Munro
tanfed his foldiers advance to the aittack; but they
Were received with fuch vollies of fton'es, which the
Indians threw both with hands and feet, that they were
rfpidfed in a very fhbrt time ; and though the attack
Ws renewed the next day, it was attended with no
better fuccefs; on which the Englifh commander tn-
fcamped with his army under the walls of Benares.
Sbon tffter this, Colonel Munro being recalled, the
cbmmand'of the arttiy devolved on Sir Robert Fletcher,
a major in the company’s troops. The nabob in the
mean time, inflead of attacking the Englifh army at
Once, co'nfented himfelf with fending out parties of
light horfe to fkirmifli with their advanced polls, while
the main body lay at the diflanc'e of about 15 miles
from Benares, which rendered it very dangerous for
them to move from their place. On the 14th of
January 1765, however, Sir Robert'ventured at mid¬
night to break up his camp under the walls of Benares,
and to march off towards the enemy, leaving a party
to pro!eft that place againd any attempt during his
ah fence. In three days he came up with the main
body c*f Indians, who retreated before him ; on which
he refolved to make another attempt on Chanda Geer,,
before which the late commander had been foiled. India.
His fuccefs would in all probability have been no {y*t- ™~v—^
ter than that of his predeceffor, had not the gatWfon 108
mutinied for want of pay, and obliged the commander
to furrender the place. ]iy rq.
The reduftion of Chanda Geer was followed bybertFkt-
that of Eliabad, the capital of the enemy’s country, ac^er*
large city on the Ganges, between 60 and 70 miles a-
bove Chanda Gter, defended by thick and high walls
and a ftrong fort; foon after which Sir Robert was
feperfeded in the command of the army by Major 109
Carnac. Sujah Dowla in the mean time had been Sujah Dow.
abandoned by the Mogul, who concluded a treaty !a.aiIlftedl>y
with the Englifh foon after the battle of Buxard. He^^1*11’
did not, however, give himfelf up to defpair, but ga¬
thered together, with great affiduity, the remains of
his routed armies ; and feeing that his own territories
could not fupply him with the requifke number of
troops, he now applied to the Mahrattas for affillance.
But thefe people, though very formidable to the other
nations of Indoflan, were far from being able to cope IIfJ
with the Englifh. On the 20th of May 1765, Gene- Who arc
ral Carnac having affembled his troops, marched im- defeated,
mediately to attack them ; and having gained a com-ai1^
plete viftory at a place called Calpi, obliged, them to limits;
retreat with precipitation acrofs the Yumna into their
own country.
Sujah Dowla, now deftitute of every refource, de¬
termined to throw himfelf on the clemency of the
Englifh. Previous to this, however, he allowed Meet
Cofiim and the affaffin Somers to efcape; nor could
any confideration ever prevail upon him to deliver them
up. Three days after the battle of Calpi, the nabob
furrendered himfelf to General Carnac, without ftipu-
lating any thing in his own favour, farther than that
he fhould await the determination of Lord Clive con¬
cerning him. ur
In the beginning of February this year died MeerYoungna-
Jaffier Ali Cawn, nominal nabob of Bengal. ^ ^^hardL*
fucceffion was difputed betwixt his eldeft furviving fon^e(jby ^
Najem ii Doula, a youth of about 18 years of age, and Englifh,
a grandfon by his deleft fon Miran, at that time only
fever, years old. As the Englifh were in reality abfo-
lute fovereigns of the country, it was debated in the
council of Calcutta whether Meer Jaffier’s fon fhould
be allowed to fucceed, according to the cuftom of tbt
country, or the grandfon, according to.the Englifh
cuftom. The point being carried in favour of Najem,
it was next debated on what terms he fhould be ad¬
mitted to the fucceffion. The late nabob, among
other impofitions, had obliged himfelf to fuppoit an
army of 12,000 horfe and as many foot. It was
alleged on this occafioti, that he had not fulfilled
his engagement ; that he had difbanded moft of the
troops ; that at heft they were but an ufelefs bur¬
den, having never anfwtred any purpofe in real fer-
vice, for which reafon the company had beer, obliged
to augment their military eftablifhment: it was there¬
fore now judged expedient that the nabob fhould fettle
a funs, upwards of 800,000 1. annually, on the com¬
pany, to be paid out of the treafury ; that he fhould
alfo difeard his prime minifter and great favourite
Nuncomar, and receive in his place a perfon appointed
by the council, who was to aft in the double capacity
of minifter and governor to affilt and inftruft him.
The
II*
3Lord Clive
arrives in
Bengal
with un¬
limited
powers.
I N D t 1 I N D
The council were alfo to have a negative upon the no* treaty with Sujah Dowla. The Mogul was fatisfied Tndl'a»
mination of all the fuperintendants and principal of- by obtaining a more ample revenue than he had for ^v—~J
fleers .employed in collecting or receiving of the re- fome time enjoyed ; by which means he might be ena- Affairs <ff
venues; that he fliould take their advice, and have their bled to march an army to Delhi to take poffeffion of Bengal fet-
confent to flfch nominations whenever they thought his empire. For the company his lordfhip obtained ded by _
proper to interfere in them. He was alfo to receive the office of duan or collector of revenues for the
their complaints, and pay a due attention to them upon province of Bengal and its dependencies. Thus Sujah
the miibehaviour of any of the officers who either Dowla was again put in pofleffion of his dominionSj
were appointed already or ffiould be in time to come. excepting a fmall territory which was referved to the
With thefe extravagant requifitions the young na- Mogul, and eitimated at 20 lacks of rupees, or
bob was obliged to comply, though he had diicern- 250,000 1. annually. The company were to pay 26
ment enough to perceive that he was now an abfolute lacks of rupees, amounting to 325,000 ]. fterling.
flave to the council of Calcutta. Though obliged by They engaged alfo to pay to the nabob of Bengal aq
treaty to difmifs Nuncomar from the office of prime annual fum of 53 lacks, or 662,500!. for the expence?
miniiter, he ftill continued to (how him the fame favour, of government, and the fupport of his dignity. The
until at laft he was charged with carrying on a treafon- remainder of the revenues of Bengal were allotted to
able correfpondence with Sujah Dowla, for which the the company, ■who on their part quaranteed the terri-
nabob w'as enjoined to fend him to Calcutta to take tories at that time in poffeffion of Sujah Dowla and
his trial. The unfortunate prince ufed every method the Mogul.
to deliver his favourite from the impending danger. Thus the Eafl India company acquired the fovef
but to no purpofe : he was obliged to fubmit to the reignty of a territory equal in extent to the mod flou-
mortification' of having all his offers with regard to his rifhing kingdom in Europe. By all this, however, they
releafe reje&ed, though the committee at Calcutta af- were fo far from being enriched, that the diforder of
terwards thought proper to fet him at liberty without their affairs attracted the attention of government, and
any trial. gave the Britiih minidry an opportunity at lad of de-
Thefe extraordinary powers, exerted in fuch a def- priving them of their territorial poffeffions, and fubr
potic manner by the council of Calcutta for fuch a jedting the province of Bengal to the authority of the
length of time, could not but at lad induce their fupe- crown *. New misfortunes alfo fpeedily occurred, and * See EaJI
riors to circumfcribe them in fome degree, by appoint- the company found a mod formidable enemy in Hyder Jn‘i‘a Com~
ing others who (hould a£t independently even of this Aly, or Hyder Naig. This man, from the rank of
council, and who might be fupptffed to be actuated by common fepoy, had raifed himfelf to be one of thewarwith
more upright and honourable principles than had hi- mod conflderable princes in the empire of Indbdao. Hyder AJy*
therto appeared in their conduct. The great character Being fenfible that the powef of the Englifh was an in-
which Lord Clive had already gained in the ead, judly fuperable bar to his ambitious defigns, he praCtifed on
marked him out as a proper perfon for adjuding the . the nizam of the Decan, and partly by promifes part-
affairs of Bengal. On the 3d of May 1765 he arrived ly by threats, engaged him to renounce his alliance
in the ead, with full powers as commander in chief, with the-company, and even to enter into a war a-
prefident, and governor of Bengal. An unlimited power gaind them. As he had been at great pains to
was alfo committed to a feleft committee, confiding introduce the European difcipline among his troops,
of his lordlhip and four gentlemen, to aft and deter- and had many renegadoes in his fervice, he imagi-
mine every thing themfelves, without dependence on ned, that with the advantage of numbers he Humid cer-
the council. It was, however, recommended in their in- tainly be ,able to cope with his antagonids in the open n6
druftions, to confult the council in general as often as field. In this, however, he was deceived ; for on theH? is cte-1
it could be done conveniently; but the foie power of 26th of September 1767, his army was entirely defeat-(eated ^
determining in all cafes was left with them, until the ed by colonel Smith at a place called Errour near Tri-
troubles of Bengal fliould be entirely ended. Bythefc nomailee ; after which.the nizam thought it advifable
gentlemen a plan of reformation was inflantly fet a- to defert his new ally, and conclude another treaty with
bout; by which, however, violent difputes were occa- the Englidi From the latter, however, he did not
fioned: but the committee, difregarding thefeimpotent obtain peace but at the expence of ceding to them the
efforts, exerted their authority to the full extent, fel- Duanny of the Balegat Carnatic, which includes the
dom even acquainting the council with theur tranfac- dominions of Hyder Aly and fome petty princes,
tions, and never allowing them to give their opinion on Hyder, thus deferted by his ally, transferred the feat
any occafion. of war to a moyntainous country, where, during the
On taking the affairs of Bengal into thorough con- year 1767, nothing deciuve could be effefted ; while tire
fideration. Lord Clive found that the fuccefs of the Indian cavalry was fometimes enabled to cut off the
Britiih arms could be produftive of nothing but wars; fupplies, and interrupt the communications of their
that to ruin Sujah Dowla was to break down the antagonids. During thefe operations fome Ihip., were
flranged barrier which the Bengal provinces could fitted out at Bombay, which conveyed 400 European
have againd the incurfions of the Mahrattas and other foldiers and about 800 fepoys to attack Mangalore,
barbarous people to the wedward, who had long defola- one of Hyder Aly’s principal fea-ports, where all his
ted the northern provinces; and the Mogul, with whom flops lay. This enterprize proved fuccefsful, and nine
the compay had concluded a treaty, was utterly unable (hips were brought away ; but too fmall a garrifon ha-
to fupport himfelf, and would require the whole Englilh ving Ipeen left in the place, it was almod immediately
power in the ead to fecure him in his dignity. His after retaken, and all who were in it made prifoneisby
iordffiip therefore found it neceffary to conclude a Hycfer Aly.
C c 2 Is
I N D [ 204 1 I N D
India 1 In tlie mean time, an injudicious meafure, adopted by
the Englifh in their method of managing the army,
Decline of Prove^ not 0IJ^y l^e utmoft detriment to their caufe,
the E e;- but occafioned difgraces hitherto unheard of in the hi-
lifli affair#, ftory of the nation, viz. the defertion of officers from
cmif o'/ t^ie ^erv‘ce Br'ta'n to 'bat of a barbarous prince, and
their had ^ g'v'ng UP f°rts in fttch a fhameful manner as
fcccefs. could not but fuggeft a fufpicion that they had been
betrayed.—The original caufe of all this mifchief was
the appointment offield-deputies Xo attend the army, and
to control andfuperintend the conduct, of the commander
in chief; and thefe, in the prefent inftance, being deeply
concerned in the contra&s for the army, took care to re¬
gulate its motions in fuch a manner as beft fuited their
private intereft or convenience. HyderAlydid not
fail to improve the errors conlequent upon this kind of
management to his own advantage. General Smith had
penetrated far into his country, taken feveral of his for-
treffes, and was in a fair way of becoming mafter of his
capital, when all his operations were checked at once
by the field~deputies. His antagonift being thus allow¬
ed fome refpite, fuddenly entered the Carnatic with a
numerous army of horfe, ravaging and dettroying every
thing at pleafure. Thus the Englilh were obliged-to
Jclinquifli all their conquefls in order to defend their
own territories; while this reverfe of fortune not only
difeouraged the allies of the Englifh, but even produ¬
ced in them an inclination to defert their caufe, and go
over to Hyder Aly, while thofe who remained faithful
paid dearly for their attachment. The nabob of Arcot,
the moft faithful ally the Englifh ever had, fuffered ex*
tremely on this occafion. Hyder Aly had long enter¬
tained a violent enmity againft this prince ; moft pro¬
bably on account of his inviolable attachment to the
Ent,lifh. His dominions were therefore ravaged with-
cut mercy; and thus, while Hyder gratified his perfo-
»al refentment againfl him, he cut off from the Englifh
one of the principal refources they had for carrying on
the war.
On the return of the company’s forces to the de¬
fence of the Carnatic, they found themfelves very little
able to cope with their adverfary; for, befides the
continuance of the fame caufes which had formerly
contributed to their want of fuccefs, they had been
very much weakened in their expedition. Hyder Aly
had alfo the prudence to avoid a general engagement,but
frequently intercepted the convoys of the Englifh, cut off
their detached parties, and wearied them out with long
and continual marches. The news of his fuccefs againft
an enemy hitherto invincible by all the powers of In¬
dia, fo raifed his reputation, that adventurers flocked
to him from all parts; by which means his cavalry were
foon increafed to upwards of 90,000 ; to which, how¬
ever, his infantry bore no proportion.
Notwithflanding all his fuccefs. it appears that the
forces of Hyder Aly were altogether unable to cope
with thofe of Britain, even when there waathe greateft
imaginable dilparity of numbers. \ detachment of
the company’s forces had made an affault upon a fort
called Mulwaggk, in which they were repulfed with
fomc lofa. This, with the fmall number of the de¬
tachment, encouraged Hyder Aly to march, at the
head of a great part of his army, to the p.oteftionof
the fort. The commanding officer, however, Colonel
Wood, did not hefitate, with only 460 Europeans and
zjooTepoys, to attack this army, confifting of 14,000 India.
horfe,•. 12,000 men armed with matdilock guns, and  *
fix battalions- of fepoys. The engagement la tied fix Hyde^Aly
hours ; when at laft Hyder AJy, notwithilanding his defeated b^-
numbers, was-obliged to retreat, leaving-the field co-Uolonel
vered with dead bodies ; the lot's of the Britifh being Woud*
upwards of 300 killed and wounded.- This engage¬
ment, however, was attended with no confequences af*
fe&ing the war in general, which went on for fome
time in the fame manner; and greatly to the difadvan-
tage of> the company. The divifions and difeontents
among the officers and council daily inereafed, the fob
diers deferted, and every thing, went to ruin. The ret
venues of the eftablHhment of Madras being at laft un¬
equal to the expences-of the war, large remittances were
made from Bengal toanfwerthat purpofe; and as thefe
were made in a kind of bafe gold coin,.the company
is faid by. that means alone to have loft 40 000I. in the
difference of exchange only. At lad Hyder Aly ha-
ving given the Englilh army the flip, fuddenly appeared
within a few miles of Madras ;. which occalioned fuch
an alarm,, that the prefidenoy. there were induced to
enter into a negociation with him. I he Indian prince,.
on his part, was-very ready to hearken to propol'als -of
peace upon any reafonable terms. An offenftve and \ trea^y
defenfive treaty was therefore concluded on the 3d of concluded'
April 1769, on the ftmple condition that the forts
places taken on both fides fhould be reftored, and each
party fit down contented with their own expences.
By this treaty it was particularly ftipulated, that in Broken by.
cafe of either party being, attacked by their enemies, the Eng-
the other fhould give them affiftanee ; and in this cafe
even the number of troops to be fupplied by each was
fpecified. It foon after appeared, however, that the
prefidency of Madras were refolved to pay very little
regard to their engagements. Hyder Aly having in
a little time been involved in a war with the Mahrattas,
applied for affiftance, according to agreement; but
was refufed by the prefidency, who pretended to fear a •
quarrel with the Mahrattas themfelves. As the latter
are a very powerful and warlike nation, Hyder Aly.
found himfelf overmatched, and therefore applied feve¬
ral times-to the Englifh for the affiftance he had a right
to expeft; but was conttantly refufed on various pre¬
tences: which convinced him at laft that he could place
no dependence on the friendfhip of the Englifh, and
filled him with an. implacable hatred againft them. As
foon, therefore, as he could make up his differences
with the Mahrattas, he refolved- to recover his Ioffes,
and revenge himfelf on thofe faithlefs allies. With this
view he applied himfelf to their rivals the Frenchj,
whom no Indian nation ever found backward in fupply-
ing them with the means of defence againft the Englifh.
By their means he obtained military ftores in the greateft;
abundance, a number of experienced officers and fol-
diers; and the European difeipline was brought to
much greater perfe&ion than even he himfelf had ever
been able to bring it before this period. Thus, in a
fhort time, imagining himfelf a match for the Mahrat¬
tas, he renewed the war ; and gained fuch deciiive ad¬
vantages, as quickly obliged them to conclude an ad¬
vantageous treaty with him. I4f
It now appeared that the Englifh, notwithftanding War be-
their pretended ill-will to quarrel with the Mahrattas, tween the
had not the leaft befitation at doing fo when their in- and
0 „ Mahrattas.
tereft
r N D [ 205 ] I N D
Isdia; tereft. was concerned. In order to underftand the fab- commanded by colonel Lally, a man of great bravery In<b’s*
fequent tranfadions, however, we mud obferve, that and experience in war. y—
the Mahrattas, like other nations of Indoftan, were The alarm was given on the 24th of July 1780 that
originally governed by princes calledwho reign- Hyder Aly’s horfe were only nine miles diftant from
ed at Setterah ; and though in proqefs of time they Madras. The inhabitants inftantly deferted their
came to be divided into a number of petty dates, yet houfes and fled into the fort; while the unrefided bar-
they paid a nominal refped to the ram-rajah, who had barian burnt the villages, reduced the inferior forts,
a right to affemble the chiefs, and order out their and prepared to lay flege to the capital. It being now
troops on any neceflary occafioo. By degrees this dig- abfolutely neceflary to make fome refidance, meafurea
nity of ram-rajah or fou-rajah (as he was alfo called), were taken for affembling the troops ; in doing which
became merely titular, the adminidration being entire- an exprefs was fent to colonel Baillie, at that time at
ly poflefled by the paifhwa or chancellor. This office
being ufurped by one particular family, Nana-row, the
reigning pailhwa, feized the ram-rajah, and confined
him in a fortrefs near Setterah. At his death he left
two fons Mada-row and Narain-row; of whom the
former, as being the elder, fucceeded him in the paifh-
wadiip. lonogee Boofla, or Bouncello, the immediate
predeceflbr of Moodagee Boofla, rajah of Berar, was
one of the pretenders to the dignity of ram rajah,
as being the neared of kin ; at the fame time that
Roganaut-row, called alfo Ragqbah, uncle to Mada-
row himfelf, pretended to the. paifhwafhip. On this ac-
' count the latter was confined by Mada-row, but who
imprudently releafed hirma little before his death, and
even recommended to him in the moft affectionate man¬
ner the care of his brother Narain-row, who was to
fucceed to the paifhwafhip. The care he took, in con-
. fequence of this recommendation was fuch as might
eafily have been imagined; the unhappy Narain-row
was murdered,, and Roganaut row the affaffin fled
to Bombay; where, on promifmg a ceffion of terri¬
tory, he was protefted and encouraged in his preten-
fions. The Mahrattas remonftrated againft this be¬
haviour ; but the Englvfh had determined at all events
to profit by the civil diflenfions of the Indians, and
therefore paid no regard to the juftice or injuflice of
their caufe. The Mahrattas therefore not only made
up their differences with Hyder Aly, as has been al¬
ready mentioned, but became determined enemies to
the Englifh, at the fame time that a dangerous confe¬
deracy was formed among the moft powerful princes of
India to expel from that part of the world thofe intru¬
ders whofe avarice could be fatisfied with no conceffions,
and whom no treaties could bind when it ferved their
turn to break them.
The refentment of Hyder Aly was particularly di-
refted againft the prefidency of Madras for the rea-
fons already given ; he had alfo received frefh provoca¬
tion by their caufing a body of troops march through
bis dominions without his leave, and that to the affift-
ance of a prince for whom he had no great friendfhip;
alfo by the capture of the French fettlement of Mahie,
on the coaft of Malabar, which he faid was within his
dominions, and confequently that the French were un¬
der his prote&ion. His troops were therefore aflem-
bled from every quarter, and the greateft preparations
made for a powerful invafion. The prefidency of Ma¬
dras in the mean time fpent their time in mutual al¬
tercations, negle&iag even to fecure the paffes of the
mountains, through which only an invafion could be
made, until their a&ive antagonift, having feized and
Dreadful- guar^c^ thofe paffes, fuddenly poured out thro’ them
invafion by at the head of 100,000 men, among whom was a large
Hyder Aly. body of European troops under French officers, and
Gumeroponda, about 28 miles from Madras, to pro¬
ceed from thence direftly to Conjeveram with the corps
under his command, where the main body was to meet jz
him. But when the latter was under marching or-Unfortu-
ders, the firft regiment of cavalry pofitively refufed tona'e expes?
move without money; and as they perfifted in their c'lti.on
refolution, were at la ft made prifoners and fent to Ma- Bailh>e
dras. The main body, then, confifting of 1500 Eu¬
ropeans and 4200 fepoys, under Sir Heiftor Munro,
with their train of artillery, proceeded towards Conje¬
veram : and fuch were the fatigues of their march,
that 200 men belonging to the 73d regiment were
left lying on the road. On their arrival at Conje-
'veram, they found the town in flames, great bodies of
the enemy’s cavalry advancing on both flanks, and no
appearance of colonel Baillie’s detachment. The march
of this body had been impeded by a fmall river fwelled
by a fudden fall of rain. On this occafion, the o ficer
who gives the account of his difafter makes the fol¬
lowing obfervation. “ In this incident we have a moft
remarkable proof and example of the danger of pro-
craftination, and on what minute circumftances and ■
fudden fprings of the mind the fortune and the general
iffue of war may depend. Had colonel Baillie paffed
over the Tripaffore without halting, asTome advifed,
and. encamped on its fouthern inftead of its northern
banks, the difafter that foon followed would have been
prevented, and an order of affairs wholly different
from that which took place would have fucceeded.”
Hyder Aly having now raifed the fiege of Ar-
cot, in which he had been employed, marched towards
Conjeveram ; in the neighbourhood of which he en¬
camped, and in the courfe of feveral days, at different
times, offered battle. On the 6th of September he
detached his fon Tippoo Saib with the flower of his ar¬
my to cut off the detachment under colonel Baillie,
who was now at Perrambaukam, a fmall village diftant
from the main body about 15 miles, he himfelf remain¬
ing, in the neighbourhood of Conjeveram, in order to
watch the motions of Sir Heftor Munro.
The detachment under Tippoo Saib confifted of He is at-
30,000 horfe, 8000 foot, with 12 pieces of cannon.taclteJ
Notwithflanding this fuperiority in number, however, -
they were bravely repulfed by Colonel Baillie’s hand-repulfes-
ful of troops ,; and a junction was effe&ed with a de-hmi.
tachment under Sir Robert Fletcher, fent by Sir Hec¬
tor Munro. on firft hearing the noife of the engage¬
ment.
This junction was effe&ed on the 9th of September,
and next morning orders were given for the whole ar¬
my to march; Colonel Fletcher’s detachment being
difperfed in different parts of the line. From the I, again -
moment they began to march the enemy played offtacked,
their rockets, which, however, did but little execu:
tion;
I N D
[ 206 ]
I N D
tkm; bat about ten at night feveral guns began to mong the fepoys, of horfe! horfe! The camp follow- India.
^ open on the rear of the Englifh. Colonel Baillie, ers, whofe numbers were nearly five to one of the
therefore, after fome proper manoeuvres, caufed his troops under arms, were driven on a part of our line
troops form a line, while the enemy cannonaded them by the numerous and furrounding forces of Hyder
inceffantly with great execution. On this Colonel Aly ; who being informed of the embarraffing fitua-
   -L-J 0—w c-“ "■—"—tion of Colonel Baillie, had left his camp without flri-
king his tents, with a view to conceal his march from
the Englifh. A great confufion among our troops
was the unavoidable confequence of this fudden onfet.
The Europeans were fuddenly left on the field of ac¬
tion alone: and at that critical moment a detachment
Baillie detached Captain Rumley with five companies
of fepoy grenadiers to ftorm their guns ; which fervice
they would have Undoubtedly accomplifhed, had not
their march been interrupted by a torrent of water
which at that time happened to be unfordable. Cap¬
tain Rumley therefore returned about half an hour af¬
ter eleven, when the guns of the enemy were heard from the advanced guard of Hyder’s army preffed on
drawing off towards the Englifh front, and a general with great celerity between our line and Captain
alarm was perceived throughout their camp ; owing, Rumley's party. The commanding officer, therefore,
as was fuppofed, to their having received intelligence apprehenfive of being cut off from our little army,
of the party that had been fent to ftorm their guns, judged it moft prudent to retreat.
“ From their noife, confufion, and irregular firing “ Colonel Baillie, when he was informed that an
(fays our author), one would have imagined that a immenfe body of horfe and infantry was marching
detachment of our men had fallen upon them with towards him, and that this was fuppofed to be Hyder’s
fixed bayonets. At that critical moment, had a party main army, faid, ‘Very well, we fhall be prepared
of grenadiers been fent againft them, they would have to receive them.’ Hyder’s whole forces now appear-
routed without difficulty the whole of Tippoo’s army, ed inconteftably in view ; and this barbarian chief,
Having about ten o’clock in the evening advanced a who, as was obferved of the Roman general by Pyr-
few hundred yards into an avenue, the detachment rc- rhus, had nothing barbarous in his difcipline, after dt-
mained there in perfe£! filence till the morning. viding his guns agreeably to a preconcerted plan, open*
“ Colonel Fletcher being afked by fome officers, ed from 60 to 70 pieces of cannon, with an innumer-
\vhy Colonel Baillie halted? modeftly anfwered, that able quantity of rockets.
Colonel Baillie was an officer of eftablifhed reputation, “ Hyder’s numerous cavalry, fupported by his re-
and that he no doubt had reafons for his conduft. gular infantry and European troops, driven on by
It cannot, however, be concealed, that this halt af- threats, encouraged by promifes, and led on by his
forded an opportunity for Tippoo Saib to draw off moft diftinguiftied officers, bore on our little army in
his cannon to a very ftrong poll by which the Englilh different quarters without making the leaft impreffion.
■were obliged to pafs; and at the fame time of in- Our men, both Europeans and fepoys, repeatedly pre¬
forming Hyder of their fituation, and fuggefting to fented and recovered their fire-arms as if they had
him the expediency of advancing for the improvement been manceuvring on a parade. The enemy were re-Gallant b?A
of fo favourable a conjuncture. pulfed in every attack ; numbers of their heft cavalry havumr of
“ On the 1 oth of September, at five o’clock in the were killed, and many more were wounded ; even
morning, our little army marched off by the right in their infantry were forced to give way : and Hyder11
fubdivifions, having their baggage on their right flank woul£ have ordered a retreat, had it not been for the
and the enemy on their left. A few minutes after advice of General Laliy, who informed him that it
fix two guns opened on their rear, on which the line was now too late, as General Munro was moft pro-
halted a few minutes. Large bodies of the enemy’s bably advancing on their rear from Conjeveram ; for
cavalry now appeared on their right flank ; and juft at which reafon nothing remained but to break the de-
the moment wlien the pagoda of Conjeveram appeared tachment by their artillery and cavalry,
in view, and our men had begun to indulge the hopes “ Tippoo Saib had by this time colle&ed his party
of a refpite from toils and dangers, a rocket-boy together, and renewed the cannonade ; and at the fame
was taken prifoner, who informed them, that Hy- time that the Englilh were under the neceffity of fuf-
der’s whole army was marching to the affiftance taining an attack both from the father and fon, two
of Tippoo. Four guns now opened on their left of their tumbrils were blown up by Hyder’s guns, and
with great effedl. So hot was the fire they fuftained, a large opening made in both lines. They had now
and fo heavy the lofs, that Colonel Baillie ordered the no other ammunition ihan grape ; their guns difcon-
whole line to quit the avenue, and prefent a front to tinned firing : and in this dreadful fituation, under a
the enemy ; and at the fame time difpatched Captain terrible fire not only of guns but rockets, lofing great
Rumley with ten companies of fepoy grenadiers to numbers of officers and men, they remained from half
ftcrm the enemy’s guns. paft feven till nine o’clock.
“ Within a few minutes after Captain Rumley had “ On this Hyder Aly, perceiving that the guns
left the line Tippoo’s guns were filenced. Rumley’s were quite lilenced, came with his whole army round
little detachment immediately took poffeffion of four their right flank. The cavalry charged them in dif-
of the enemy’s guns, and completely routed the party tin& columns, and in the intervals between thefe the
attached to them. Captain Rumley, overcome with infantry poured in vollies of mufketry with dreadful
fatigue, ordered Captain Gowdie, the officer next in effeft. Mhiar Saib, with the Mogul and Sanoor ca-
ia6 . command, to lead on the party, and take poffeffion of valry, made the firft impreffion. Thefe were followed They are
is attacked fome more guns placed a few hundred yards in their by the elephants and the Myforean cavalry, which com-3t la^ dc6!
whdetr-5 front- But in a few minutes after, as they were ad- pleted the overthrow of the detachment. Colonel Bail-^eate '
toy.° *31 vancing for this purpofe, a fudden cry was heard a- lie, though grievoufly wounded, rallied the Euro-
3 peans,
I N D t 207 ] I N D
peans, and once more formed them into a fquare and
with this handful of men he gained an eminence,
where, without ammunition, and molt of the people
wounded, he refilled and repulfed 13 feparate attacks ;
but frelh bodies of cavalry continually pouring in, they
were broken without giving way. Many of our men,
defperately wounded, raifingthemfelves from the ground
received the enemy on their bayonets.
“ Captain Lucas’s battalion of fepoys, at the time
when our men moved up to a riling ground, was Ita-
tioned to the right of the European grenadiers ; but
that corps, feeing the Europeans in motion, and mif-
underftanding perhaps this evolution for a retreat, broke
in the utmoft confufion. The Europeans, bravely fuf-
taining their reputation for intrepid valour, remained
in this extremity of diltrefs Heady and undaunted,
though furrounded by the French troops, and by Hy-
der’s cavalry to the number of 40,000. They even
exprelfed a delire, though their number did not exceed
400, of being led on to the attack. A party of To-
paffes, who lay at the diftance of about 30 yards iu onr
front, kept up an incelfant fire of fmail arms with
great efFeft. Many attempts were made by the ene¬
my’s cavalry to break this fmaU.body of men; but by India,
the Heady condu£l of both our officers and men they —
were repulfed.
“ Colonel Baillie, finding that there was now no
profpeft of being relieved by General Munro, held
up a flag of truce to one of the chiefs of Hyder’s
army. But this was treated with contempt, and the
furdar endeavoured at the Tame time to cut off the co¬
lonel. The reafon the enemy affigned for this was,
that the fepoys had fired after the fignal was hoilled. I2^
A few minutes after this, our men received orders to Throw
lay down their arms, with intimation that quarterdown the'9
would be given. This order was fcarcely compliedarms’
with, when the enemy rulhed in upon them in the
moll favage and brutal manner, fparing neither age
nor infancy nor any condition of life ; and, but for
the humane interpofition of the French commanders
Lally and Pimoran, who implored and infilled with
the conqueror to Ihow mercy, the gallant remains of
our little army muH have fallen a facrifice to that
favage thirfi of blood with which the tyrant difgraced
his victory.”(a)
In this unfortunate adtion near 700 Europeans were
killed
(a) In a narrative of the fufferings of the Englith who furvived this fatal day, faid to be publilhed by an of¬
ficer in Colonel Baillie’s detachment, we find it related, that “ Hyder Aly, feated in a chair in his tent, en¬
joyed the fight of the heads of the flain, as well as of his prifoners. Colonel Baillie, who was himfelf very
much wounded, was brought to his camp on a cannon, and with feverat other gentlemen in the fame fituation
laid at the tyrant’s feet on the ground and in the open air. In this fituation they faw many of the heads
of their countrymen prefented to the conqueror, fome of them even by Englilh officers, who were forced to
perform that horrid talk ; -in a little time, however, Hyder ordered no more heads to he brought to him while
the Englilh gentlemen were prelent. A tent was fitted up for Colonel Baillie and his officers, but without
firaw or any thing elfe to lie upon, though many of them were dangeroufly wounded ; and as the tent could
only contain 10 perfons, the reH were obliged to lie in the open air. When the prifoners were removed from
place to place, they were wantonly infulted, and even beaten by thofe who had the charge of them. If the
latter halted to refrelh themfelves under a tree, they would be at the trouble of carrying their prifoners to the
fide next the fun, leff they Ihould enjoy the benefit of the lhade. Sometimes they were tormented with thirft,
at others the people allowed them to drink water out of the palms of their hands, it being reckoned a profa¬
nation to allow an European to brink out of a veffel belonging to an Indian,” See.
In this narrative are likevvife mentioned fome examples of a recovery from wounds, which, if we can depend
on their authenticity, muff undoubtedly fhow a reflorative power in the human, body altogether unknown in thir
climate.
“ Lieutenant Thomas Bowfer received a mulket ball in his leg, and after that eight defperate wounds with
a feymitar. He lay for feven hours on the fpot, deprived of ell fenfation ; but, towards evening, awakened
from his trance, ffripped of all his clothes, except a pair of under drawers and part of his Ihirt, with an in-
tenfe thirfi, calling out, and imploring a little water from the enemy. Some were moved with compaffionr
while others anfwered his intreaties only with infults end threats of immediate death. Some water, however,
was brought from a pool in the field of battle, about 50 or 60 yatds from the place where he lay. It was
deeply tinged with blood ; neverthelefs, Mr Bowfer being furnilhed by one of Hyder’s foldiers with an earthen
chatty, or pot containing about a pint, and direfted to the place, crawled thither as well as he could. Though
ftruck with horror at the fight of the dead and wounded with which it w'as filled, he quenched his thirff with
the liquid ; and having filled his chatty, endeavoured to proceed towards Conjeveram. He had not, however,
moved from his place above 300 or 400 yards, when, being quite overcome, he was obliged to lie all night
in the open air, during which time there fell two heavy Ihowers of rain. Next morning he proceeded to Con-
jeveram ; but after walking about a mile, was met by Tome of the enemy’s horfemen, by whom he was
brought back prifoner, and obliged to walk without any affiflance. When delivered up to the enemy’s fepoys,
he was fo ffiff with his wounds, that he could not Hoop or even bend his body in the fmalleff degree.
“ The quarter-maffer ferjeant of artillery received fo deep a cut acrofs the back-part of his neck, that he
w'as obliged to fupport his head with his hands in order to keep it from falling to a fide all the journey. The
leaff (hake or unevennefs of the ground made him cry out with pain. He once and again ceafed from all at¬
tempts to proceed ; but being encouraged and conjured by his companions to renew his efforts, he did fo,
teached the camp, and at lail, as well as Mr Bowfer, recovered.”—It is alfo remarkable, that, according to
©ur author, out of 32 wounded perfens only fix died ; though one would be apt to think that the exccffivdv.
fevere ufage they met with would have killed every one.
Sir Eyre
Ooote ap¬
pointed1 t<
the cotn-
tnand of
the arm}'*
I31
-Jpondicher-
ry revolts,
but is
quickly
reduced.
1 N D [ 208 ] I N D
killed on the fpot: the lofs on Hyder Aly’a part was His army amounted to 200,000 men, 40,000 of whom India.
fo great that he induftrioufly concealed it, being en- were cavalry and 15,000 well difciplined fepoys. Still,
raged that the conqued of fuch an inconfiderable body however, he durft not openly attack the Britilh army
fhould coil him fo many of his braved troops. He in the field, but toak. a drong pod from whence he
feemed ever after to confider the Englilh with an ex- might harafs them on their march. Sir Eyre Coote,
treme degree of terror ; infomuch that, notwithdanding however, was not on his part backward to make the
his pretended exultation on account of the prefect vie- attack ; and on the other hand Hyder Aly prepared
tory, he no fooner heard a report of Sir He&or Mun- to engage him with all poflible advantage. The battle
ro’s march to attack him, than he left his camp in the was fought on the id of July 1781 ; and notwith-
utmoft confufion, abandoning great part of his tents Handing the vad fuperiority of Hyder Aly’s army,
and baggage, as well as the vad numbers that had been he was routed with great daughter. The Indians, Defeats
wounded in the late aftion. however* made a much more obdinate reiillance than Hyder Aly.’
On the news of -Colonel Baillie’s difader, the fu- ufual; the engagement laded from nine in the morn-
preme council of Bengal requeded Sir Ayre Coote ing till four in the afternoon, and the deficiency of the
to take upon him the management of the war ; for the Englifli in cavalry prevented them from purfuing the
carrying on of which a large fupply of men and money advantage they had gained.
was indantly decreed. This was readily undertaken Notwithdanding thelofsofthisbattle. HyderAly Gainsa fis-
; by the illudrious officerqud mentioned, notwithdand- was foon encouraged to venture another. This was condvidia-
ing his very precarious date of health at that time; and fought on the 27th of Augud the fame year, on thery*
from the moment he took upon him the management very fpot where Colonel Baillie had been defeated. It
©f affairs, the fortune of the war was changed. was more obdinately conteded than even the former.
The fpirit of diffention, which for a long time had being continued with great fury from eight in the
infedted the prefidency of Madras, was indeed the true morning to near dufle. A number of brave officers
caufe of all the misfortunes that had happened. This and foldiers fell on the part of the dritilh, owing chief-
was found by Sir Eyre Coote to be even greater than ly to the terrible fire of the enemy’s artillery and
he had heard by report: the refpedl and confidence of , the advantageous pofition of their troops At lad,
-the natives was wholly lod ; the complaints of the of- however, the Indian army was totally defeated, and
ficers and foldiers were loud and acrimonious ; an in- driven from every pod it had occupied ; though from,
a&ivity prevailed in all the councils and operations, the obftinate refiltance made at this time, Hyder be-
while the enemy carried every thing before them. Sir gan to entertain hopes that his forces might, by a
He&or Munro had been greatly haraffed on his march fucceffion of fuch battles, be at lad enabled to cope with j34
to Madras, whither he had retreated after Colonel the Engliffi. He therefore ventured a third battle in Hyder de-
-Baillie’s difafler; the forces of Hyder Aly had in- fome weeks after, but was now defeated with greater f<^ted ?
felted all the places in that neighbourhood in fuch a lofs than before. Undifcouraged by this bad fuccefs,tllird tlInc•,
manner as in a great meafure to cut off all fupplies ; however, he laid fiege to Vellore; and expecting
and Arcot, the capital city of the mod faithful ally the that the relief of it would be attempted, feized a drong
Britifh ever had, was taken-by dorm, together with an pafs through which he knew the Britilh army mud
adjoining fort, by which means an immenfe quantity diredl their march. The Britiffi commander accord-
of ammunition and military dores fell into the hands ingly advanced, and found the enemy in poffeffion of
of the enemy. fome very drong grounds on both fides of a marlh
No fooner had Sir Eyre Coote taken upon him the through which he was obliged to pafs. Here he was
command of the Britilh forces, than his antagonift attacked on all fides, but principally on the rear, the
thought proper to change his plan of operations en- enemy dire&ing their force principally againit the
tirely. He now detached large parties of his nume- baggage and convoy of provifions defigned for the gar-
rous forces to lay fiege to the principal fortreffes be- rifon. Their utmoft efforts, however, were unfuc-
longing to the company; while, with the bravell and cefsful, and Sir Eyre Coote forced his way to Vellore
bed difciplined part, he kept the field againd the Bri- in fpite of all oppofition Hyder Aly did not fail
tilh commandet in perfon. On the very fird appear- to wait his return through the fame pafs; and having
ance of the Britilh army, however, his refolution fail- exerted his utmod Ikill in poding his troops, attacked t3S
ed, and he abandoned the fiege of every place he had him with the utmod vigour: but though the Englilh A fourth
inveded, retiring to a confiderable diftance on the were affaulted in front and in both flanks at once, and v’<aor>r
a heavy cannonade kept up during the whole time of
the engagement, the Indians were at lad defeated with
great Slaughter.
By thefe fuccefles the prefidency of Madras were
now allowed fo much refpite, that an enterprife was
planned againd the Dutch fettlement of Negapatam,
They were, however, eafily difarmed, their magazines fituated to the fouth of Madras, and in the neighbour-
feized, and all the boats in their poffeffion dedroy- hood of Tanjour. A very inconliderable force, bow¬
ed ; in confequence of which precaution, a French ever, could yet be fpared for this purpofe, as Hyder
fquadron that foon after appeared off Pondicherry was Aly, though fo often defeated, was dill extremely ,^5
obliged to depart without being furnilhed with any formidable. -Sir Ht&or Munro had the management Dutch fet-
neceffaries. But in the meantime Hyder Aly having of the expedition : and fo furious was the attack oftlemento*
drawn large reinforcements from all parts of his domi- the Britilh failors, that the troops left to guard the ^ucedf13
pions, refolved to try his fortune ia a pitched battle, avenues to the place were defeated at the very fird rC c
16$. 2 «nfet.
other fide of the river Palaar, without even dxfputing
the paffage of it, as it was expe&ed he would have
done.
A refpite being thus obtained from the incurfions of
this formidable enemy, the next operation was to fe
cure Pondicherry, whofe inhabitants had revolted.
And like*
•wife Triii-
eoniale.
T38
Admiral
Suflrein ar
rives with i
powerful
fleet from
.Europe,
139
En^ge-
tween him
and <ir Ed-
Hu^hes.
I N D [ 209 ] I N D
onfet. A regular fiege enfued ; which, however, killed and wounded, but that of the French exceeded ttidia.
was of very (hort duration, a breach being foon made, 250. ■ »- J
and the garrifon furrendering prifoners of war. After the battle Sir Edward returned to Madras;
The lofs of Negapatam was quickly followed by but meeting with no intelligence of Suffrein at that
that of Trincomale. Admiral Hughes, who had con- place, he made the belt of his way for Ttincomale^
veyed Sir Heftor Munro with the land forces to that being apprehenfive of an attack upon that place, or of
place, and affifted him with his Tailors, immediately the intercepting of a convoy of ftores and reinforce-
after its furrender fet fail for Trincomale, where he ments at that time expefted from England. Suffreiit
arrived about the middle of January 1782. The fort had indeed got intelligence of this convoy, and was at
of that name was quickly reduced; but the main that time on his way to intercept it. This brought
ftrength of the fettlement confifled in a fort named the hoftile fleets again in fight of each other 5 and as
Oftenburgh, the principal place on the ifland, and by the Britifli admiral had been reinforced by two fliips
the capture of which the whole fettlement would be of the line, he was now better able to encounter his
reduced. This fort Hands on a hill which commands adverfary. A defperate battle enfued, which conti- A fr4° .
the harbour, but is itfelf overlooked by another hill at nued till towards night, when the Ihips on both fidesi,a,te|^0n
the diftance of no more than 200 yards. Though the were fo much /battered, that neither could renew the
gaining of this poll was undoubtedly to be attended engagement next day.
with the lofs of the fort, it does not appear that the Though thefe engagements produced nothing deci-
governor even attempted to defend it. A Britifli de- five, they were neverthelefs of the utmoft prejudice to
tachment of Tailors and marines therefore took poflef- the affairs of Hyder Aly, who was thus prevented
fion of it, when the admiral fent a fummons of furren- from receiving the fuccours he had been promifed
der, reprefenting the inutility of making any farther from France; and he was ftill farther mortified by the I4r
defence after the lofs of fuch a port ; and being ex- defeat of his forces before Tellicherry, which place he Hyder
tremely defirous of avoiding an effufion of blood, re- had blocked up fince the commencement of hoftilities. A1y’s forces
peated his arguments at feveral different times. The This laft misfortune was the more fenfibly felt, as anif^h* at
governor, however, proving obftinate, the place was open paffage was now left for the Englilh into thofe **
taken by ftorm, with the lofs of about 60 on the part countries bell affe&ed to Hyder. His bad fuccefa
of the Britifh, and very little on that of the Dutch, here, however, was in feme meafure compenfated by
the vidlors giving quarter the moment it was alked. the entire defeat of a detachment of about 2000 Eng-
Four hundred Europeans were taken prifoners; a large lifli infantry and 300 cavalry under Colonel Braith- *43
quantity of ammunition and military ftores, with a waite, a brave and experienced efScer. This detach-
numerous artillery, were found in the place; and two ment,confifting of chofen troops from Sir Eyre Coote’s waite’s de*
Indiamen richly laden, with a number of fmall trading army, lay encamped on the banks of the Coleroon, tachment
vefl’els, were taken in the harbour. which forms the northern boundary of Tanjour. Tip- cu.t off by
A more formidable enemy, however, now made his poo Saib having procured exadt intelligence of the ft- sjjjf00
appearance on the coaft of Coromandel. This was tuation of this party, formed a defign of attacking it
Suffrein the French admiral; who fetting out from while no danger was fufpedled on account of the di-
his native country with 11 ftiips of the line and feveral fiance of Hyder Aly’s army. He fet out on this
flout frigates, had fallen in with the Hannibal of 50 defign with an army of 15,000 horfe and 5000 foot,
guns, and taken her when feparated from her conforts. accompanied by a body' of French regulars ; and ha-
This Ihip, along with three others, a 74, a 64, and a ving croffed the Coleroon, fuddenly furrounded the
50, had been fent out to the affiftance of Sir Edward ; Britilh forces on all fides. The colonel, perceiving his
and the three laft had the good fortune to join him danger, formed his men into a fquare, diftributing the
before the arrival of M. de Suffrein. The letter, fup- artillery to the feveral fronts, and keeping his cavalry
pofing that he had not yet received this reinforcement, in the centre. In this fituation he refilled for three
bore down upon the Englilh fquadron at Madras, to days the utmoft efforts of his numerous enemies, al-
which place they had failed immediately after the cap- ways compelling them to retreat with great lofs. At
ture of Trincomale. Perceiving his miftake, however, laft General Lally, rightly conje&uring that the
he inftantly bore away. The Englifh admiral pur- ftrength of the Englilh mull be exhaufted and their
fued, took fix veffels, five of them Englifh prizes, and numbers thinned by luch defperate fervice, propofed
the fixth a valuable tranfport laden with gunpowder that the French infantry, which was frelh and entire,
and other military ftores, befides having on board a Ihould attack one of the fronts of the fquare, while
number of land-officers and about 300 regular troops, the forces of Tippoo Ihould do the fame with the
This brought on an engagement, in which M. Suf- other three. .This laft attack proved fuccefsful; the j
frein, perceiving the rear divifion of the Bntifti fleet Britilh forces were broken with great llaughter, which,
unable to keep up with the reft, direfted his force however was flopped by the humanity of the French
principally againft it. The Ihips of Admiral Hughes commander; who even obtained from Tippoo Saib
himfelf and Commodore King fuftained the moll vio- the care of the prifoners, and treated them with a
lent efforts of the French, having moftly two, and tendernefs and humanity they certainly would not
fometimes three, veffcls to contend with. Thus the otherwife have experienced. A number of Britilh of-
commodore’s Ihip was reduced almoft to a wreck; but fleers, however, perilhed in the engagement, and only
about fix in the evening, the wind becoming more fa- one remained unwounded.
vourable to the Englilh, the fquadron of the enemy In the meantime, the fuccours from France, fo Cuddalorej
were obliged to draw off. The lofs of rnen on the long expefted by Hyder, made their appearance. As taken.
part of the Britilh amounted to little more than 130 foon as ajun&ion was formed, they proceeded, under
Von. IX. Part I. D d the
I N D [a
India, the command of M. Duchemin, to inn ft Cuddalore ;
^ which not being in any fituation to ftand a fiege, was
furrendered on capitulation. In like manner fome
other place* of fmaller confequence were reduced, un¬
til at laft being joined by Hyder’s numerous forces,
they determined to lay liege to Vandervalh, a place of
great importance, and the lofs of which would have
been extremely detrimental to the Englilh. This
quickly brought Sir Eyre Coote with his army to its
relief; but Hyder Aly, notwithftanding his being re¬
inforced by the French, durft not yet venture a battle
in the open field. On this the Britilh commander pro¬
ceeded to attack Arnee, the principal depofit of Hy¬
der’s warlike (lores and neceffaries. Thus the latter
was obliged to quit his advantageous ground ; but he
did fo with fuch fecrecy and fpeed, that he came upon
„ *44 the Britiftr army unawares while preparing for its laft
Aiyy^gffat. march to Arnee, now only five miles diftant. Per-
ed a fifth ceiving that the march of the Britifti troops was thro’
time by Sir low grounds, encompafled on moft parts with high
EyreCootc.lui]Sj he planted his cannon upon the latter; from
which he kept a continual and heavy fire on the troops
below, while his numerous cavalry attacked them
on every fide. Notwithftanding all difadvantages,
the Britifti commander at laft clofed in with the
enemy; and after an obftinate difpute completely
routed them. Neither this, however, nor any other
engagement with Hyder Aly,. ever proved decifive ;
for as the want of cavalry prevented the Britifti gene¬
ral from purfuing his advantage, fo that of his anta-
gonift was fo numerous, that by it he; always covered his
retreats in fuch an efFeftual manner as to lofe but few
men, and in a ftiort time to be in a condition to adt
again on the offenfive. This was remarkably the cafe
at prefent; for notwithftanding this defeat, which hap¬
pened on the zd of June 1782, he cut off an advanced
body of the Britifti army five days after ; and haraffed
the whole in fuch a manner, that Sir Eyre Coote,
notwithftanding his fuccefs, was obliged to move near¬
er Madras ; foon after which, he was obliged, on ac¬
count of his bad ftate of health, to relinquifti the com¬
mand of the army to General Stuart.
Hyder Aly now perceiving that he was likely to be
attended with no fuccefs by land, began to reft his
hopes on the fuccefs of the French byfea. He there¬
fore earneftly requefted M. Suffrein, who poffeffed at
that time a decilive fuperiority in the number of (hips,
to lofe no time in attacking the Britifti fquadron be-
145 fore it could be joined by a reinforcement which was
A thirdfea-1jien on ;ts anci was reported to be very formi-
ftahle- As the French commander was by no means
advantage deficient in courage, a third engagement took place
of the on the 5th of July 1783. At this time the Britifti
french. had the advantage of the wind, the battle was much
more clofe, and the viftory more plainly on their fide.
It is faid indeed, that had not the wind fortunately
drifted in fuch a manner as to enable the French to
difengage their (hips, a total and ruinous defeat would
have enfued. After the engagement, the French ad¬
miral proceeded to Cuddalore, having received intelli¬
gence that a large body of French troops in tranfports
was arrived off the iftand of Ceylon, in company with
three (hips of the line. As this feemed to afford.hopes
of retaliation, he ufed fuch dilgence in refitting his
Clips, that the fleet was able to put to fea in the be-
10 1 I N D
ginning of Auguft. His intention was to make an India.
attempt on Trincomale ; and fo well were his defigns ' v"—*
condufted, that Sir Edward received no intelligence
of the danger, till a Britifli frigate chafing a French
one, which took (belter with the fquadron at Trinco¬
male, difeovered it by this accident, and haftened back
with the news to Madras. It was now, however, too
late ; the place was not in a condition to refill a liege; ^
and the French batteries having filenced thofe of the
fort in two days, a capitulation took place on the laft take Trin*
day of Auguft. comale.
Sir Edward Hughes having been detained by con¬
trary winds, did not arrive at Trincomale before the
2d of September, when he had the mortification to fee,
the forts in the hands of the French, and that Suffrein
1 the harbour with 15 fail of the line while he
had only 12. He did not hefitate at venturing 147
an engagement with this inferiority, nor did M. Suf- £fl’urth'
frein decline the combat. The event of the battle was no tween th*e
other than {battering the fleets and killing and wound- French anir
ing a number of men on both tides. In this, however, Enghfli
as well as in the other engagements, the fuperiority of fleets*
the Englifli was very manifdl; and in entering the
harbour of Trincomale the French loft a 74 gun
(hip.
The lofs of Trincomale was feverely felt by the Eng¬
lifli ; for while the French lay fafely in the harbour
refitting their fquadron, the Englifti were obliged for
that purpofe to fail to Madras. Here the fleet was ^1'^^
affailed by one of the moft dreadful tempefts ever tered by a,
known on that coaft. Trading veffels to the number dreadful
of near 100 were wrecked, as well as thofe for Madras
laden with rice, of which there was an extreme fcarcity
at that place. Thus the fcarcity was augmented to a
famine, which carried off vaft numbers of the inhabi¬
tants before fupplies could arrive from Bengal.. The
continuance of the bad weather obliged Sir Edward
with his whole fquadron to fail to Bombay ; and there
he did not arrive till towards the end of the year, when
his fquadron was fo much lhattered, that, in;order to
repair it with proper expedition, he was obliged to di--
llribute it between the dock-yards of Bombay and the
Portuguefe fettlement at Goa.
In the mean time Sir Richard Bickerton arrived at
Bombay from England with five men of war, having
on board 5000 troops, after a very favourable paffage ;
having neither feen nor heard of the bad weather whicli
had defolated the coafts of India. It was likewife the
intention of France to fignalize the campaign of this
year by an immenfe force both by fea and land in In¬
dia. Excluiive of the forces already on the coaft of Co¬
romandel, they were to be joined by 5000 more, all
regulars, from their illandson the African coaft. Suf¬
frein was to be reinforced by feveral (hips of the line,
when it was hoped that a decided fuperiority at fea
would be obtained over the Englifti; while their fupe-
rior numbers and artillery on fnore would render them
invincible by any force that could be brought againft
them. To oppofe thefe defigns it was deemed necef-
fary by the prelidency of Bombay to make a power¬
ful diverfion on the coaft of Malabar. Here was fitua-
ted the kingdom of Myfore, the fovereignty of which
had been ufurped by Hyder Aly under the title of
Dayva, as that of the Mahrattas was by a perfon llykd
Peu/hwa. This kingdom is nearly ia the fame parallel
I N D [ 2ii ] I N D
India, with Arcet. To the northward is the kingdom of fured, but at the fame time the juft and merited, ven-
Canara, which is faid to have been the favourite pof- geance that was inflifted upon them by the prince
feflion of Hyder Aly ; the name of its capital is Bid- whofe dominions they were ravaging!" In fupport
nore, which a!fo gives name to an extenfive territory, of this dreadful exclamation the following account is
and was by Hyder changed to that of Hydernagur. given of the expedition. It began with the putting in
*4?' The expedition had been fet on foot as early as the end execution a defign formed by General Matthews of
oKMone" t^3e ^ear I^1 ’ a ^rong body of forces under the carrying the war into the heart of Hyder Aly’s domi-
Hunber- command of Colonel Humberftone had taken the two nions. For this purpofe the Englifti invefted the city
jftone. cities of Calicut and Panyan, befides others of lefier of Onore, lituated about 300 miles to the fouth of
note, and penetrated into the inland country, which Bombay, and one of the principal places in the country
is there difficult and dangerous. Having here made of Canara. “ It was taken by affault (fays Dr An-
himfelf mafter of a place called Mongarry Cotta, of drews) with great daughter, and plundered with cir-
which the fxtuation commanded the entrance into the cumftances of avarice and rapine that difgraced the vic-
inner parts of the country, he proceeded to attack Pa- tors ; among whom, at the fame time, great difcontents
latacherry, a confiderable town at feme miles diftance; arofe concerning the divifion of the fpoil." “ No
but being fuddenly environed with a numerous and ho- quarter (fays the Annual Regifter) was given by the
ftile army, inftead of making himfelf mafter of the viftorious Englifh ; every man they met was put to
place, it was not without the utmoft difficulty that he the fword. Upon this occafion we beg leave to trau-
made his efcape after lofingall his provifions and baggage, fcribe three lines from the private letter of one of the
A great army, confifting of 20,000 foot and 10,000 officers concerned in the expedition. ‘ The carnage
horfe, under Tippoo Saibj alfo advanced againft him (fays he) was great: we trampled thick on the bo-
with fuch celerity, that the colonel had only time to dies that were ftrewed in the way. It was rather
•retreat to Panyan, where he was fuperfeded in the ihocking to humanity ; but fuch are only fecondary
command by Colonel Macloed, and foon after the place confiderations, and to a foldier, whofe bofom glows
was invefted by the forces of the enemy, among whom with heroic glory, they are thought only accidents of
was General Daily with a confiderable body of French, courfe ; his zeal makes him afpire after farther vic-
Two Britiih frigates, however, having come to the af- tory.’ This part of the peninfula had hitherto been
fiftance of the place,-rendered all the attempts of the untouched by the barbarous and unfparing hands of
enemy to reduce it abortive. At laft, Tippoo Saib, im- Europeans, and of confequence was full of riches and
patient of delay, made a vigorous effort againft the fplendor. In the fortrefs of Onore were found fums
Britifh lines; but though both the Indian and French of money to an unknown amount, befides jewels and
commanders behaved with great bravery, the attack diamonds. A confiderable part of this appears to have
not only proved unfuccefsful, hut they were repulfed been fecured as private plunder by General Matthews,
with fuch lofs as determined Tippoo to abandon the The complaints of the military were loud; they thought,
fiege of the place, and retire beyond the river of Pan- and naturally, that the acquifition of riches was the
yan. fair and reafonable confequence of the perpetration of
TJnfortu- ^oon as t^ie Prefldency Bombay were acquaint- bloodihed. But their commander turned a deaf ear to
nate exptdi-ed wlt^ fuccefs of Colonel Humberftone, General their reprefentations; and haftened, by adding newlau-
tion of Ge- Matthews was difpatched to his affiftance with a power- rels to his fame, to hide the dander that might other-
neral Mat- ful reinforcement. This expedition, which began the wife reft upon him."
•thews. compaign of 1783 in the kingdom of Canara, has been From Onore the army proceeded to the neareft forr
related with circumftances fo difgraceful, and fo ex- treffes on the fea-coaft, More and Cundapour. Here
ceedingly contrary to the behaviour for which the Bri- they were joined by a reinforcement from Bombay un-
tifh troops are remarkable, that we are totally at a lofs der the command of Colonels Macleod and Humber¬
to account for them. On the one hand, it feems fur- fton, with pofitive orders to proceed for Bidnore or
prifing how the national charafter could be forfeited Hydernagur the capital of Canara. On this General
by a particular body, and not by any other part qf the Matthews marched for the mountains called the Ghauts,
army ; and on the other, it feems equally furprifing where there is a pafs three miles in length, though only
why fuch calumnies (if we fuppofe them to be fo) eight feet wide, and which was then ftrongly fortified
fhould have arifen againft this particular body and no and defended by a vaft number of the natives. “ The
other part of the army. Such accounts of it, however, Englifh (fay our authors), however, had already ob-
*J* were publifhed as railed the indignation of the military tained a confiderable reputation by their executions;
"w ^T7 £entlemen’ wll° proper to publifh a vindica- and the ufe of tin; bayonet, the moft fatal inflrument
wkffgreat t'on themfelves. In the Annual Regifters, from of war, and which was employed by them on all oc-
cruelty in whence, next to the Gazettes and News papers, the cafions, created fuch an extreme terror in the enemy,
this expcdi generality receive what they look upon to be authentic as to enable them to furmount this otherwife impreg-
tion. intelligence, the character of this army is treated with nable defile."
the higheft afperity. “ In the ftory of the conqueft The gaining of this pafs laid open the way to Bid-
and recovery of Canara (fays the New Annual Regi- nore the capital, to which a fummons was now fent.
fter), the Spaniards may be faid to be brought a fe- An anfwer was returned, that'the place was ready to
cond time upon the fcene, but not to fit down in ful- fubmit, provided the inhabitants were not molefted,
len and infolent profperity after all their crimes. The and the governor was permitted to fecure his property.
Spaniards of Britain were overtaken in the midft of The wealth of this city was undoubtedly great, but
their career ; and he who is more of a man than an the eftimates of its amount are very different. By the
Englifhman, will rejoice in the irregular and unmea- accounts of Bombay it was Hated only at 175,000!.
D d 2 while
I N D [21
India, while the officers concerned in the expedition fay that
it was not lefs than 1.200,000I, or even 1,920,000!.;
and even this was only public property ; that feized
upon by the foldiers, and which belonged to private
perfons, was undoubtedly very confiderable alfo.
This treafure was at firft fhown by the general to
his officers, and declared to belong to the army ; but
he afterwards told them that it was all the property of
the Mahommedan governor, and had been fecured to
him by the terms of the furrender. It was therefore
fent to Cundapour under the convoy of Lieutenant
Matthews, brother to the general, to be thence,tranf-
mitted to Bombay ; but whether any part of it ever
reached that fatlement or not was never known. The
difcontents of the army were now carried to the ut-
moft height; and the conteft became fo ferious, that
Colonels Macleod, Humberftone, and Shaw, quitted the
fervice altogether, and returned to Bombay. The of¬
ficers charged their general with the moft infatiable
and (hameful avarice ; while he, in return, accufed his
whole army of doing every thing difrefpeftful and in¬
jurious to him; of paying no regard to order and dif-
cipline, and of becoming loofe and unfeeling as the
moft licentious freebooters.
From Bidnore detachments were fent to reduce fe-
veral fortrelfes, the principal of which was Ananpour
or Anantpore. Here orders were iffued for a ftorm
and no quarter. Every man in the place was put to
death, except one horfeman who made his efcape after
being wounded in three places. “ The women, un¬
willing to be feparated from their relations, or expo-
fed to the brutal licentioufnefs of the foldiery, threw
themfelves in multitudes into the moats with which
the fort was furrounded. Four hundred beautiful wo¬
men, pierced with the bayonet, and expiring in one
another’s arms, were in this fituation treated by the
Britifh with every kind of outrage.”
This exploit was fucceeded by the redu&ton of
Carwa and Mangalore, which completed the redu&ion
of Canara, when General Matthews put his army in
cantonments for the rainy feafon.
This rapid fuccefe was owing to the death of Hyder
Aly, which happened in the end of the year 1782.
His fon Tippoo Saib, however, having taken poffef-
fion of the government, and fettled his affairs as well
as time would allow, inftantly refumed his military
operations. On the 7th of April 1783 he made
his appearance before Bidnore, fo that General Mat¬
thews had fcarce time to colleft a force of 2000 men,
and to write to Bombay for a reinforcement. But,
however neceffary the latter muft have been in his cir-
oumftances, the prefidency were fo much prejudiced
againft him by the unfavourable reports of his officers,
that they fufpended him from his commiffion, appoint¬
ing Colonel Macleod to fucceed to the command of the
army.
Tippoo Saib now advanced with a vaft army, fup-
fofed not to be fewer than 150,000 men, covering the
hills on each fide of the metropolis as far as the eye
could reach. The army of General Matthews, alto¬
gether unable to cope with fuch a force, were quickly
driven from the town, and forced to take refuge in
the citadel. Tippoo having cut off their retreat by
gaining poffeffion of the Ghauts, laid clofe fiege to
the fortrefs j which in lefs than a fortnight was obliged
2 ] r n d
to capitulate. The terms propofed were, that all pub¬
lic property (hould remain in the fort; that the Eng-
liffi fiiould engage not to aft againft Tippoo for a fti-
pulated time ; that they Ihould march out with the
honours of war ; that they fhould pile their arms, and
have full liberty to proceed unmolefted with their pri¬
vate property to the fea coaft, from thence to embark
for Bombay ; and in this capitulation the garrifons of
Annanpour and other inland fortreffes were alfo in¬
cluded.
All thefe terms were broken by Tippoo, who faid
that they had forfeited their title to liberty by a breach
of the articles of capitulation, in embezzling and fe-
creting the public money, which was all, in good faith,
to be delivered up. That this was really the cafe feems
to be univerfally acknowledged. In the Annual Re-
gifter we are told, that “ to prevent too much money
being found in the poffeffion of one man, the general
ordered his officers to draw on the paymafter-general
for whatever fums they wanted. When the fort was
furrendered to the Sultan, there was not a fingle rupee
found in it.” By this circumftance the fate of the
garrifon was decided. General Matthews was fent for
next morning to a conference. He was not, however,
admitted to his prefence, but immediately thrown into
chains. Moft of the other principal officers were, on
various pretences, feparated from the army. The ge¬
neral and his companions were condufted to Seringa-
patnam the capital of Myfore; and after having expe¬
rienced a variety of feverities, were at laft put to death
by poifon. In this manner the general and 20 officers
periffied. The poifon adminiftered was the milk of the
cocoa-tree, which is faid to be very deadly.
The above account was repeatedly complained of as
partial, and at laft openly contradifted in a pamphlet
intitled “ A Vindication of the Conduft of the Eng-
liffi Forces” employed in that expedition, and publifhed
by order of the Eaft India Company. In this pamph¬
let the circumftance moft found fault with was that,
regarding the women at Anantpore, which was pofi-
tively contradifted. On this account therefore the
publiffiers of the above-mentioned work retraft that
part of their narrative, as being founded in mifrepre-
fentation. Notwithftanding this vindication, however,
they ftill draw the following conclufions. “ It is al¬
ready fufficiently evident, how little has been effefted
by this vindication of the Bombay officers. The great
outlines of the expedition remain unaltered. It is ftill
true that a remarkable degree of feverity was employed
in the field; that, in the capture of the fortreffes of
Canara, the principle of a ftorm and no quarter was
very frequently applied; and that the acquifition of
money was too much the governing objeft in every
ftage of the undertaking. The vindication of the of¬
ficers has therefore done them little fervice ; and it
happens here, as it generally does in the cafe of an ira-
perfeft reply, that the majority of the fafts are rather
ftrengthened and demonftrated by the attempt to refute
them. With refpeft to the conclufion of the ftory,
the treafures of Hydernagur, and the charge brought
againft them by Tippoo, that they had broken the,
terms of the capitulation, and that when the fojt was
furrendered not a rupee was to be found in it; thefe
circumftances are paffed over by the officers in the pm-
foundeft filence. It was this that roufed the Sultan to
6 ^
I N D [ 213 ] I N D
Indi'a. vengeance 5 and it is to this that he appeals for his juf- fortrefs in his dominions named Guajlior, garl-ifoned by India-
u-V 1 tification in difregarding a capitulation which had been the Mahrattas, and hitherto reckoned impregnable. t
firft difiblved by the vanquilhed Englifli.” Thefe fuccelTes were followed by the dreadful incur-
The vindication above alluded to was figned by one fions of Hyder Aly already related, which put a ftop
major and 52 fubaltern officers. It feems not, how- to the conquefts of General GoBdard ; all the forces
ever, to have given entire fatisfa&ion to the military he could fpare being required to affill the army under
gentlemen themfelves, as other vindications have ap- Sir Eyre Coote. The laft exploit of General God-
peared faid to be written by officers; but thefe being dard was the reduftion of the ifland of Salfette, and
anonymous, can be fuppofed to add very little weight of a ftrong fortrefs named Bajfein in its neighbour-
to that already mentioned, where fuch a refpe&able hood. The army of Sindia, confiding of 30,000
body have figned their names. >We ffiall therefore men, was alfo defeated this year by Colonel Carnac;
drop a fubjedt fo difagreeable, and the inveftigation of and the Mahrattas, diftieartened by their Ioffes, con-
which at the fame time is entirely foreign to the plan fehted to a feparate peace with the Englifh, leaving
of this work. Hyder Aly to manage the war as he thought proper.
It now remains to give fome account of the war In the mean time, however, the expences incurred
with the Mahrattas, begun, as was formerly hinted, by thefe wars were fo high, that Mr Railings, who
on account of the prote&ion afforded to the affaffin was obliged to furnifh them fome how or other, was
rj» Roganaut-row. This man had formerly obliged the reduced 10 the greatefl difficulties. For this purpofc
Aw™1’* Mogul to take fhelter in the Englifh fadtory at Ben- not only all the treafure of Bengal was exhaufled, but
ta'war ” ? kut being unable to keep up his credit among it was found neceffary to draw extraordinary contribu-
his countrymen, was expelled as already related. On tions from the Britifh allies, which was produdlive °fReJoit 0ft
his arrival at Bombay, an alliance was formed betwixt many difagreeable circumftances. One of the moft Benares,
him and the Englifh government; by which the latter remarkable was the revolt of Benares. The rajah of
engaged to replace him in the Mahratta regency in this country had formerly put himfelf under the pro-
confideration of fome valuable ceffions of territory, tedlion of the Englifh, who on their part agreed to fe-
The fupreme council of Bengal, however, difowned cure his dominions to him on condition of his paying
this treaty, and concluded one with the Mahrattas in an annual fubfidy to the nabob of Oude. In 1770
the month of March 1776^ by which it was agreed the rajah died, and was fucceeded by his fon Cheit
that they fhould provide for Ragobah’s fubfiflence ac- Sing, who held the fovereignty at the time we fpeak
cording to his rank, on condition «f his refiding in of. On the death of the nabob in 1775, a new trea-
their country. This being not at all agreeable to Rago- ty was made with his fucceffor, by which the fovereign-
bah, he fled once more to Bombay, where a new con- ty of Benares was transferred to the Eaft India com-
federacy was entered into for his reftoration. The pany, an acquifition equivalent to 240,0001. per an-
council of Bengal approved of this on account of the num; at the fame time that the fubfidy paid by Suja.
approaching rupture with France ; and in confequence Dowla, and which, by Lord Clive, had been fixed at
of this, a detachment was, in February 1778, ordered 36,000!. and afterwards raifed to 252,000!. was now
to march acrofs the continent of India. By fome mif- augmented to $i2,ooo\.per annum.
managements in this expedition the whole army was On receiving intelligence in July 1778, that war had.
obliged to capitulate with the Mahratta general on actually commenced between France and England,
the 9th of January 1779. One of the terms of the Cheit Sing was required to pay 50,000!. as his {hare
capitulation was, that a body of troops which were of the public burdens. Such a demand was paid with,
advancing on the other fide fhould be obliged to extreme reluctance on the part of a prince who already
return to Bengal. But General Goddard, the com- contributed 240,000!. and probably thought that an,
mander of thefe forces, denying the right of the abundant equivalent for the protection enjoyed. The
council'of Bengal to remand him, proceeded on his fame requifition, however, was made the two fucceed-
march, and arrived on the 18th of February. Here ing years, but with a promife that the demand fhould
he received orders to conclude a new treaty, if it could ceafe when peace was reftored. Inftead of any prefent
be obtained on eafier terms than that of the capitula- alleviation, however, a body of troops was alfo quar-
tion by which it had been engaged to cede all our tered upon him, and he was likewife obliged to pay
 .u   r -u- for their maintenance, left he fhould not voluntarily pay
the additional 50,000!. In November 1780, in ad¬
dition to all thefe demands, he was alfo required to
fend into the field fuch a body of horfe as he could
fpare ; but this requifition, owing to fome mifunder-
ftanding, was never complied with-
In July 1781 Mr Haftings having, it is faid, re- CheifSin®,
of Guzerat. Madajee Sindia the Mahratta general ceived fome intelligence that the opprefled rajah me- arretted
advanced to oppofe him ; but as he did not choofe to dilated rebellion, fet out on a vifit to the nabob ofand t3eP11?.i
Oude, and in his way propofed to clear up the mif-led"
underftanding with him. The method by which he
intended to clear up this mifupderftanding was to lay
acquifitions in the country of the Mahrattas.
Such extreme difregard to any ftipulations that
could be made, undoubtedly provoked the Mahrattas,
and induced them to join in the confederacy with Hy¬
der Aly already mentioned. The war, however, was
fuccefsfully begun by General Goddard in January
1780. In three months he reduced the whole province
venture a battle, the Englifh general ftormed his camp,
and totally routed him. Other exploits were performed
in the courfe of this campaign ; during which the go¬
vernor-general (Mr Haflings) feeing no hopes of an ac- a fine upon the poor prince of 400,000!. or 500,000!.;
commodation, entered into a treaty with the rajah of and as a reafon for doing fo, it was alleged that the
Gohud, and with his confent Major Pogham reduced a fate rajah had left a million fterling in his treafuxy ; a.
kiHh
1 N D [2
India, fum which was continually increafing. Cheit Sing,
—1 advanced to the borders of his territories to meet the
governor general, behaved with all imaginable fub-
miffion ; and having got private intelligence of what
was meditated againlt him, offered to pay down
200,0001. This was refufed; and the governor gene¬
ral having reached the capital, forbid the rajah his
prefence, and by a letter acquainted him with his
caufes of complaint. Cheit Sing fent a very fub-
miflive anfwer; but as he endeavoured to exculpate
himfelf, Mr Haftings was fo far from being fatisfied,
that he put the prince under an arreft.
Such an unheard-of proceeding excited the utmoft
furprife "and refentment in fubje&s accuftomed to re¬
gard their foveteign with a degree of reverence little
Ihort of adoration. On the very day of the arreil
they affembled tumultuoufly, cut in pieces the guard
which had been let on the palace, and carried off their
prince in triumph. It does not appear, however, that
this was any other than a tranfitory tumult; for though
they could eafrly have cut off the governor-general,
they made no attempt againft him. Cheit Sing pro-
tefted his innocence, and made the molt unlimited of¬
fers of fubmiffion, but all in vain. His government
was declared vacant, and the zemirtdary bellowed on
the next heir ; the annual fubfidy to the government
of Bengal was augmented from 2 4.0,000!. to 400,000!.
annually. The miferable rajah was forced to fly his
country; and his mother, though promifed leave to
retire upon conditions, was attacked in her retreat and
plundered by the foldiers, After all his endeavours
to procure money, however, Mr Haftings found this
adventure turn out much le.fs profitable than he had
expe&ed ; for the treafury of the fugitive prince was
15$ feized and retained by the foldiery.
New trea- As to the nabob of Oude, a new treaty was con-
with cjuc[eci with him ; the defign of which was evidently to
of Oude.5 cafe him of fome of the burdens to which he was at
that time fubje&ed. Part of the Britifh troops were
therefore withdrawn from his dominions. As Fizulla
Khan, the moil profperous of his dependents, had been
called upon to furnifh a body of 5000 horfe to join the
nabob’s army, and had not complied with the requifi-
tion, the guarantee of his treaty with the nabob, for¬
merly executed, was withdrawn ; but it being after¬
wards difcovered that his territory was not equiva¬
lent to the claims of the governor, the treaty was re¬
newed on payment of a flight fine. As the widow of
Sujah Dowla was fufpe&ed of favouring the late ra¬
jah Che it Sing, the reigning prince was allowed to
reclaim the treafures of his father in her pofTeffion,
and likewiie to deprive her of a fmall province fhe had
in poffeffion, on condition of paying her a certain
ilipulated allowance annually. The treafures were
feized as payment of the debts of the prince to the
company.
Hoftilities continued in India between the French
•and Englifh till the year 178,3 was far advanced, and
long after tranquillity had been reftored to other parts
of the world. In the beginning of the feafon for
adlion the governor and council of Bengal determined
to fend an ample fupply to the prefidency of Madras,
that fo they might be enabled to put an end to the
war, which Tippoo deemed willing to profecute with
«ven more vigour than his father had done. For this
4
14 ] I N D
purpofe Sir Eyre Coote, who, for his health, had gone
to Bengal by fea, fet fail once more for Madras, being u
intrufled with a large fum of money for the neceflary
expences of the war. In his palfige he was chaced
for 48-hours by two French men of war. The foli-
citude and fatigue he underwent during this time, be¬
ing almoft conftantly upon deck, occafioned a relapfe,
fo that he died in two days after his arrival at Madras.
His death was greatly lamented, as the greateft ex¬
pectations had been formed of an happy conclufiou
being put to the war by his extraordiary military ta¬
lents, for which he had already acquired fo great repu¬
tation in India.
The invafion of Tippoo’s dominions having called
him off from the Carnatic, general Stuart took the op¬
portunity of attacking him in another quarter. Colo¬
nel Fullarton was difpatched with a large body of
troops to invade the province of Coimbatour. This
he executed with great fuccefs; over-running the coun¬
try, taking feveral fortreffes, and making a very alarm¬
ing diverfion on this fide of Tippoo’s dominions. Gene¬
ral Stuart, however, having Hill greater defigns in view,
was obliged to recal this gentleman in the midll of his ? ^
fuccefs. The fiege of the ftrong fortrefs of Cuddalore was Cuddalore
the operation which now engaged his attention. It was unfuccefs-
now become the principal place of arms belonging to
the French ; was ftrongly fortified, and garrifoned by thfe£n„^
a numerous body of the beft troops in France, as well
as a confiderable number of Tippoo’s choiceft forces.
The fiege therefore proved fo difficult, that though
the Englilh difplayed the utmoft valour and military
fkill, they were not able to reduce the place until ho-
llilities were interrupted by the news of a general pa¬
cification having taken place in Europe. In this fiege
a remarkable circumllance took place, viz. that of a
corps of fepoy grenadiers encountering and overcoming
the French troops oppofed to them with fixed bay¬
onets. For this remarkable inftance of valour, they
not only received the higheft applaufe at the time, but
provifion was made for themfelves and families by the
prefidencies to which they belonged.
After the redu&ion of Hydernagur, and the de-
ftruction of the army under general Matthews, the
Englilh poffeffed only three places of confequence in
the kingdom of Canara. Thefe were Mangalore, O-
nore, and Carwa. The fiege of all thefe places was
undertaken at once. Mangalore, the principal port in
the country, was defended by a very numerous garrifon
under Major Campbell. Tippoo fat down before it on
the 19th of May; and the attack and defence wer^
both conduced with the greateft; fpirit and adlivity. Not-
withHanding the utmoft efforts of the befiegers, however,
and that the garrifon were reduced to the lall extremi¬
ty for want of provifions, they held out in fpite of every
difficulty, until the general pacification being concluded,
the place was afterwards delivered up. _ In other parts
nothing more happened than an indecifive engagement
between M. Suffrein and admiral Hughes ; fo that the
Bntifh empire in Bengal was for that time fully eita-
blilhed, and has fince continued unmolefled by foreign
enemies, till very lately, that the ambition of Tippoo
Saib has again prompted him to invade the territories
of the nabob, an ally of Britain. This has again
brought on a war with that reftlefs, but able prince;
whom the Britilh, however, in conjuadion with the
Mah-
X N D [ 2
■ India Mahrattas, under the conduft of Lord Cornwallis, are
, H purfuing towards his capital; of the redu&ion of which,
Indiftment. ag ag 0f ^ ent;re ruin 0f Tippoo, the moft fan-
guine hopes are entertained.
India Company. See Company.
India Rubber. See Caoutchouc.
INDIAN, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing be¬
longing to the Indies, Eaft or Weft.
Indian Berry. See Menispermum.
Indian Bread. See Jatropha.
Indian Corn, or Mai%e. See Zea.
Indian Crejfes. See Tropaeolum.
Indian Fig. See Cactus.
Indian Pagod-tree See Ficus.
Indian Ink. See Ink.
Indian Reed. See Can nA.
INDICATION, in phyfic, whatever ferves to di-
re& the phyfician how to atl.
INDICATIVE, in grammar, the firft mood or
manner of conjugating a verb, by which we Amply
affirm, deny, or alk fomething: as, amant, they love ;
non amant, they do not love ; amantne ? do they love ?
See Grammar.
INDICTION, in chronology, a cycle of 15 years.
See Cycle.
INDICTMENT, in law, one of the modes of pro-
fecuting an offender. See Prosecution.
In Englifti law, it is a written accufation of one or
more perfons ef a crime or mifdemeanor, preferred to,
and prefented upon oath by, a grand jury. To this
end, the ftieriff of every county is bound to return to
filaclft every feflion of the peace, and every commiffion of oyer
Comment. an(^ terminer, and of general gaol-delivery, twenty-
four good and lawful men of the county, fame out
of every hundred, to inquire, prefent, do, and exe¬
cute all thofe things, which on the part of our lord the
king ftiall then and there be commanded them. They
ought to be freeholders; but to what amount is un-
cettain : which feems to be cafus omijfus, and as pro¬
per to be fupplied by the legiflature as the qualifica¬
tions of the petit jury ; which were formerly equally
vague and uncertain, but are now fettled by feveral
a&s of parliament. However, they are ufually gentle¬
men of the belt figure in the county. As many as
appear upon this pannel, are fworn upon the grand
jury, to the amount of twelve at the leaft, and not
more than twenty three; that twelve may be a majo¬
rity. Which number, as well as the conftitution itfelf,
Wi!k. L L. we find exa&ly deferibed fo early as the laws of king
ylnn. Lex. Ethelred : Exeant feniores duodecim thani, et prafecius
117• cum eis, ut jurent fuper fanQuarium quod eis in manus da-
tur, quod nolint ullum innocentem accufare, nec aliquem nox-
ium celare. In the time of king Richard I. (according
to Hoveden), the procefs of eledling the grand jury,
ordained by that prince, was as follows : Four knights
were to be taken from the county at large, who chufe
two more out of every hundred ; which two affociated
to tbernfelves ten other principal freemen, and thofe
twelve were to anfwer concerning all particulars rela¬
ting to their own diftrift. This number was probably
found too large and inconvenient; but the traces of this
inftituticn ftill remain, in that tome of the jury mult
be fummoned out of every hundred. This grand jury
are previoufly inftrufted in the articles of their inquiry,
by a charge from the judge who prefides upon the
15 I 1 n n
bench. They then withdraw to fit and receive indiA-Indidltnent*
ments, which are preferred to them in the name of the v—"-.
king, but at the fuit of any private profecutor; and
they are only to hear evidence on behalf of the profe-
cution : for the finding of an indiftment is only in the
nature of an inquiry or accufation, which is afterwards
to be tried and determined ; and the grand jury are on¬
ly to inquire upon their oaths, whether there be fuffi-
cient caufe to call upon the party to anfwer it. A
grand jury, however, ought to be thoroughly perfuaded
of the truth of an indiftment, fo far as their evidence
goes ; and not to reft fatisfied merely with remote pro¬
babilities : a doftrine that might be applied to very
oppreffive purpofes.
The grand jury are fworn to inquire only for the-
body of the county, pro corpore comitatus ; and there¬
fore they cannot regularly inquire of a faft done out of*
that county for which they are fworn, unlefs particu¬
larly enabled by aft of parliament. And to fo high a
nicety was this matter anciently carried, that where a
man was wounded in one county, and died in another,
the offender was at common law indiftable in neither,
becaufe no complete aft of felony was done in any one
of them : but by ftatute 2 and 3 Ed. VI. c. 24. he is-
now indiftable in the county where the party died.
And, by ftatute 2 Geo. II. c. 21. if the ftroke or
poifoning be in England, and the death upon the
fea or out of England, or <vice verfa, the offenders,
and their acceffories, may be indifted in the county
where either the death, poifoning, or ftroke, fhall hap¬
pen. And fo in feme other cafes ; as particularly, where
treafon is committed out of the realm, it may be in¬
quired of in any county within the realm, as the king
lhall direft, in purfuance of flatutes 26 Hen. VIII.
c. 13. 33.; Hen. VIII. c. 23, 35.; Hen. VIII. c. 2.
5. 6. ; Edw. VI. c. 1 x. And counterfeiters, walkers,,
or minilhers, of the current coin, together with all
manner of felons and their acceffories, may, by fta¬
tute 26 Hen. VIII. c. 6. (confirmed and explained
by 34 a"d 35 Hen. VIII. c. 26. $ 75. 76.) be in¬
difted and tried for thofe offences, if committed in
any part of Wales, before the jufticesof gaol-delivery
and of the peace, in the next adjoining county of Eng¬
land, where the king’s writ runneth : that is, at pre¬
fent in the county of Hereford or Salop ; and not, as
it Ihould feem, in the county of Chefter or Mon¬
mouth: the one being a county palatine where the
king’s writ did not run ; and the other a part of Wales,
in 26TIen. VIII. Murders alfo, whether committed;
in England or in foreign parts, may, by virtue of the
ftatute 33 Hen. VIII. c. 23. be inquired of and tried*
by the king’s fpecial commiffion in any (hire or place-
in the kingdom. By ftatute 10 and 11 W. III.
c. 25. all robberies, and other capital crimes, commit¬
ted in Newfoundland, may be inquired of and tried in
any county in England. Offences againft the black
aft, 9 Geo. I. c. 22. may be inquired of and tried
in any county of England, at the option of the pro¬
fecutor. So felonies, in deftroying turnpikes, or works
upon navigable rivers, erefted by authority of par¬
liament, may, by fiatutes 8 Geo. II. c. 20. and5
13 Geo. III. c. 84. be inquired of and tried in any '
adjacent county. By ftatute 26 Geo. II. c. 19. plun¬
dering or Healing from any veffel in diftrefs or wreck¬
ed, or breaking any Ihip contrary to 12 Ann, ft. 2i.
c. idf
I N D C 216 1 I N D
In^ment. c. 18. may be profecuted either in the county where
v—-v  the faft is committed, or in any county next adjoin¬
ing ; and if committed in Wales, then in the next ad¬
joining Englifh county : by which is underftood to be
meant, fuch Englifh county as, by the ftatute 26
Hen. VIII. above mentioned, had before a concur¬
rent jurifdiAion of felonies committed in Wales. Fe¬
lonies committed out of the realm, in burning or de-
ftroying the king’s (hips, magazines, or ftores, may, by
ftatute 12 Geo. III. c. 24. be inquired of and tried
in any county of England, or in the place where the
offence is committed. By ftatute 13 Geo. III. c. 63.
mifdemeanors committed in India may be tried upon
information or indidlment in the court of king’s-bench
in England ; and a mode is marked out for examining
witneffes by commiflion, and tranfmitting their depo-
fttions to the court. But, in general, all offences muft
be inquired into, as well as tried, in the county where
the faft is committed. Yet if larciny be committed in
one county, and the goods carried into another, the
offender may be indi&ed in either; for the offence is
complete in both. Or he may be indifted in England
for larciny in Scotland, and carrying the goods with
him info England, ox vice verja ; or for receiving in
one part of the united kingdom goods that have been
ftolen in another. But for robbery, burglary, and the
like, he can only be indifted where the faft was ac¬
tually committed: for though the carrying away and
keeping of the goods is a continuation of the original
taking, and is therefore larciny in the fecond county,
yet it is not a robbery or burglary in that jurifdi&ion.
And if a perfon be indi&ed in one county for larciny of
goods originally taken in another, and be thereof cpn-
vi&ed, or ftands mute, he {hall not be admitted to his
clergy ; provided the original taking be attended with
fuch circumftances as would have ouiled him of his cler¬
gy by virtue of any ftatute made previous to the year
1691.
When the grand jury have heard the evidence, if
they think it a groundlefs accufation, they ufed former¬
ly to endorfe on the back of the bill, Ignoramus; or,
We know nothing of it: intimating, that though the
fa&s might poflibly be true, that truth did not appear
to them. But now they ^affert in Englifti more ab-
folutely, Not a true bill; or (which is the better way)
Not found: and then the party is difcharged without
farther anfwer. But a freftt bill may afterwards be
preferred to a fubfequent grand jury. If they are fa-
tisfied of the truth of the accufation, they then endorfe
upon it, “ A true billanciently, Billa vera. The
indictment is then faid to be found, and the party
ilands indided. But to find a bill, there muft at leaft
twelve of the jury agree; for fo tender is the law
of England of the lives of the fubjefts, that no man
can be convidted at the fuit of the king of any capi¬
tal offence, unlefs by the unanimous voice of twenty-
four of his equals and neighbours ; that is, by twelve
at leaft of the grand jury, in the firft place, affenting
to the accufation ; and afterwards by the whole petit
jury of twelve more, finding him guilty upon his
trial. But if twelve of the grand jury affent, it is a
good prefentment, though fome of the reft difagree.
And the indictment, when fo found, is publicly deli¬
vered into court.
Indictments muft have a precife and fufficient cer-
'Nf 166,
tainty. By ftatute t Hen. V. c. 5. all indictments
muft fet forth the Chriftian name, furname, and addi- 1—v’"—
tion of the ftate and degree, myftery, town, or place,
and the county of the offender •, and all this to identify
his perfon. The time and place are alfo to be afcer-
tained, by naming the day and townftiip in which "he
faCt was committed : though a miftake in thefe p .6
is in general not held to be material, provided the
time be laid previous to the finding of the indictment,
and the place to be within the jurifdiCtion of the court;
unlefs where the place is laid, not merely as a venue,
but as part of the defcription of the faCt. But
fometimes the time may be very material, where there
i* any limitation in point of time afiigned for the pro
fecution of offenders; as by the ftatute 7 Will. III.
c. 3. which enaCts, that no profecution ftiall be had
for any of the treafons or mifprifions therein mention¬
ed (except an affaffination defigned or attempted ora
the perfon of the kingunlefs the bill of indictment
be found within three years after the offence commit¬
ted: and, in cafe of murder, the time of the death
muft be laid within a year and a day after the mortal
ftroke was given. The offence itfelf muft alfo be fet
forth with clearnefs and certainty; and in fome crimes
particular words of art muft be ufed, which are fo ap¬
propriated by the law toexprefs the precife idea which
it entertains of the offence, that no other words, how¬
ever fynonymous they may feem, are capable of doing
it. Thus, in treafon, the faCts muft be laid to be done
“ treafonably, and againft his allegiance ;” anciently,
proditorie-et contra ligeant'ue fua debitumelfe the in¬
dictment is void. In indictments for murder, it is
neceffary to fay that the party indiCted “ murdered,”
not “ killed” or “ flew,” the other ; which, till the
late ftatute, was expreffed in Latin by the word mur-
dravit. In all indictments for felonies, the adverb
“ felonioufly,” felonice, muft be ufed; and for burg¬
laries alfo, burglariter, or, in Englifh, “ burglarioufiy
and all thefe to afcertain the intent. In rapes, the
word rapuit, or “ ravifhed,” is neceffary, and muft
not be expreffed by any periphrafis, in order to render
the ciime certain. So in larcinies alfo, the words fe¬
lonice cepit et afportavit, “ felonioufly took or carried
away,” are neceffary to every indictment; for thefe
only can exprefs the very offence. Alfo, in indictments
for murder, the length and depth of the wound fhould
in general be expreffed, in order that it may appear to
the court to have been of a mortal nature : but if it
goes through the body, then its dimenfions are imma¬
terial ; for that is apparently fufficient to have been
the caufe of the death. Alfo, where a limb, or the
like, is abfolutely cut off, there fuch defcription is
needlefs. Laftly, in indictments, the value of the
thing which is the fubjeCt or inftrument of the offence
muft fometimes be expreffed. In indictments for lar¬
cinies this is neceffary, that it may appear whether it
be grand or petit larciny; and whether intitled or not
to the benefit of clergy. In homicides of all forts it is
neceffary ; as the weapon with which it is committed
is forfeited to the king as a deodand. For the manner
ofprocefs upon an indictment, fee Process.
Indictment, in Scots law, the name of the fum-
mons, or libel, upon which criminals are cited before
the court of jufticiary to itand trial. See Law,
Part III. n° clxxxvi, 44.
Plea
4
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/5
I N D [ :
iiiflment Plea to Indictment. See Plea,
11 INDIES, Eaft. and Weft. See Indja and Ame-
d’gfera- rica, and Plates CCLIV. CCLV.
INDIGENOUS; oi indigena, denotes a native of a
country, or that which was originally born or pro¬
duced in the country where it is found. In thisfenfe,
particular fpecies of animals and plants are faid to be
indigenous in the country where they are native, in op-
pofition to Exotic.
INDIGESTION, a crudity or want of due coc-
tion of the food in the ftomach. See Digestion.
INDIGETES, a name which the ancients gave to
fome of their gods.
There are various opinions about the origin and fig-
nification of this word. Some pretend it was given
to all the gods in general; and others, only to the de¬
migods, or great men deified. Others fay, it was gi¬
ven to fuch gods as were originally of the country, or
rather fuch as were the gods of the country that bore
this name ; and others again hold it was afcribed to
fuch gods as were patrons and prote&ors of particular
cities. Laftly, others hold indigetes to be derived from
inde genitus or in loco degens, or from inde and ago, for
dego, “ I live, I inhabitwhich laft opinion feems the
moil probable.
In effcft it appears, t. That thefe indigeles were alfo
called local gods (dii locales), or topical gods, which is the
fame thing. 2. The indigetes were ordinarily men dei¬
fied, who indeed were in effect local gods, being
efteemed the proteftors of thofe places where they
were deified ; fo that the fecond and third opinions are
very confiftent. 3. Virgil joins pair'd with indigetes,
as being the fame thing, Georg, i. ver. 498. 11 Dii pair'd,
indigetes.” 4. The gods to whom the Romans gave the
name indigetes were, Faunus, Vefta, iEneas, Romulus,
all the gods of Italy; and at Athens, Minerva, fays
Seryius ; and at Carthage, Dido. It is true, we meet
with Jupiter indiges : but that Jupiter indiges is -dineas,
not the great Jupiter; as we may fee in Livy, lib. i.
cap. 3. in which laft fenfeServiusaffures us, indiges comes
from the Latin in did ago, “ I am among the gods.”
Among thefe indigetes gods, there is none more
celebrated, nor more extenfively worfhipped, than
Hercules.
INDIGO, a dye prepared from the leaves and
fmall branches of the Indigofera PinSoria. See the
next article.
INDIGOFERA, the indigo plant : A genus of
the decandria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
32d order, Papilionace/e. The calyx is patent; the
carina of the corolla furniihed with a fubulated patu¬
lous fpur on each fide; the legumen is linear.—
There are five fpecies; the moft remarkable of which
is the tinfloria, a native of the warm parts of Afia,
Africa, and America, and from which the Indigo
dye is made. The root of this plant is three or four
lines thick, and more than a foot long, of a faint
fmell fomething like parfley. From this root iflues
a fingle Item nearly of the fame thicknefs, about two
feet high, ftraight, hard, almoft woody, * covered
with a bark flightly fplit, of a grey afh-colour towards
the bottom, green in the middle, reddifh at the ex¬
tremity, and without appearance of pith in theinfide.
The leaves, ranged in pairs around the ftalk, are of
Vol. IX. Part. I.
117 ] I N D
an oval form, fmooth, foft to the touch, furrowed Indigofera.
above, of a deep green on the under-fide, and con- ■» 1 -f
nedted by a very fhort peduncle. From about one third
of the Item to the extremity there are ears that are
loaded with very fmall flowers from a dozen to 15, but
deftitute of fmell. The piftil, which is in the midft of
each flower, changes into a pod, in which the feeds are
inclofed.
This plant requires a fmooth rich foil, well tilled,
and not too dry. The feed of it, which, as to figure
and colour, refembles gun-powder, is fown in little
furrows that are about the breadth of the hoe, two
or three inches deep, at a foot’s diftance from each
other, and in as ftraight a line as pollible. Continual
attention is required to pluck up the weeds, which
would fodn choak the plant. Though it may be
fown in all feafons, the fpring is commonly preferred.
Moifture caufes this plant to (hoot above the furface
in three or four days. It is ripe at the end of two
months. When it begins to flower, it is cut with
pruning-knives; and cut again at the end of every fix
weeks, if the weather is a little rainy. It lafts about
two years, after which term it degenerates ; it is then
plucked up, and planted afrefli. As this plant foon ,
exhaufts the foil, becaufe it does not abforb a fufficient
quantity of air and dew to moiften the earth, it is of
advantage to the planter to have a vaft fpace which
may remain covered with trees, till it becomes necef-
fary to fell them in order to make room for the
indigo.
Indigo is diftinguilhed into two kinds, the true and
the bajlard. Though the firft is fold at a higher
price on account of its fuperiority, it is ufually advan¬
tageous to cultivate the other, becaufe it is heavier.
The firft will grow in many different foils ; the fecond
fucceeds beft in .thofe which are moft expofed to the
rain. Both are liable to great accidents. Sometimes
the plant becomes dry, and is deftroyed by an infect
frequently found on it; at other times, the leaves,
which are the valuable part of the plant, are devoured
in the fpace of 24 hours by caterpillars. This laft
misfortune, which is but too common, has given
occafion to the faying, “ that the planters of in¬
digo go to bed rich, and rife in the morning totally
ruined.”
This produdtion ought to be gathered in with great
precaution, for fear of making the farina that lies on
the leaves, and is very valuable, fall off by fhaking it.
When gathered, it is throwninto the fteeping-vat, which
is a large tub filled with water. Here it undergoes a
fermentation, which in 24 hours at furtheft is com¬
pleted. A cock is then turned, to let the water run
into the fecond tub, called the mortar or pounding tub.
The fteeping-vat is then cleaned out, that frefti plants
may be thrown in; and thus the work is continued
without interruption.
The water which has run into-the pounding-tub is
found impregnated with a very fubtile earth, which
alone conftitutes the dregs or blue fubftance that is
the objedt of thisprocefs, and which muft be feparated
from the ufelefs fait of the plant, becaufe this makes
the dregs fwim on the furface. To effedt this, the
water is forcibly agitated with wooden buckets, that
are full of holes and fixed to a long handle. This
part of the procefs requires the greateft precautions.
E e If
I N D
tndigofcra.J If the agitation be difcontinued too foon, the part
v  that is ufed in dying not being fufficiently feparated
from the fait, would be loft, Jf, on the other hand,
the dye were to be agitated too long after the com¬
plete reparation, the parts would be brought together
again, and form a new combination; and the fait re¬
acting on the dregs would excite a fecond fermenta¬
tion, that would alter the dye, fpoil its colour, and
make what is called burnt indigo. Thefe accidents
are prevented by a clofe attention to the leaft alterar
tions that the dye undergoes, and by the precaution
which the workmen take to draw out a little of it
from time to time in a clean veffd. When they per¬
ceive that the coloured particles colleA by feparating
from the reft of the liquor, they leave off fhaking the
buckets, in order to allow time to the blue dregs to
precipitate to the bottom of the tub, where they
are left to fettle till the water is quite clear.—
Holes made in the tub, at different heights, are
then opened one after another, and this ufelefs water
is let out.
The blue dregs remaining at the bottom having
acquired the confiftence of a thick muddy liquid,
cocks-are then opened, which draw it off into the
fettler. After it is Hill more cleared of much fuper-
fluous water in this third pnd laft tub, it is drained
into facks; from whence, when water no longer filters
through the cloth, this matter, now become of a thicker
confiftence, is put into chefts, where it entirely lofes
its moifture. At the end of three months the indigo
is fit for fale.
It is ufed, in wafhing, to give a bluifh colour to
linen: painters alfo employ it in their water colours ;
and dyers cannot make fine blue without indigo.
The ancients procured it from the Eaft-Indies; in
modern times, it has been tranfplanted into America.
The cultivation of it, fucceffively attempted at diffe¬
rent places, appears to be fixed at Carolina, St Do¬
mingo, and Mexico. That which is known under the
name of Guatimala indigo, from whence it comes, is
the moft perfect of all.
There are two kinds of indigo prepared in the
Eaft-Indies, particularly on the coaft of Coroman¬
del, at Pondichery, &c. Of thefe the worft kind
is ufed for giving the body of colour to the dyed
fubftance, the other being employed only to give it a
glofs afterwards. The fineft is prepared on the coaft
of Agra, Mafulipatam, and Ayanoo, but efpecially in
the ifland of Java; but this laft, being extremely dear,
is very little ufed by the dyers. The beft ought to
float on the furface of water; its colour ought to be a
very dark blue inclining to violet, bright and fpark-
ling, efpecially when broken. It may be tried by
diffolving a little in a glafs of water : if pure, it will
mix equably with the liquor ; but if otherwife, will
feparate and fall to the bottom. Another method of
frying the goodnefs of this fubftance is by fire ; for the
pure indigo will be entirely confumed, while the ex¬
traneous particles will remain. The pounded indigo
is much more fubje 61 to adulteration than fuch as is
fold in cakes or tablets ; as the alhes or dirt with
which it is mixed are very apt to feparate from the
pure colouring fubftance when Handing in a liquid
ftate, as it mull always do before the moifture is eva¬
porated : whence, on breaking a bit of indigo fo adul-
I NT D
terated, the extraneous matter will be perceived in ftrata Individual
of a different colour. II
INDIVIDUAL, a particular being of sfhy fpecies, Ind„fn’
or that which cannot be divided into two or more be- *
ings equal or alike.
The ufual divifion in logic is made into gcnera> or
into genufes ; thofe genera into fpecies ; and thofe /pe¬
eks into individuals.
INDIVISIBLE, among metaphyficians—A thing
is faid to be abfolutely indivifible, that is a fimple be¬
ing, and confifts of no parts into which it may be di¬
vided. Thus, God is indivifible in all refpefts ; as is
alfo the human mind ; not having extenfion, or other
properties of body.
Indivisibles, in geometry, the elements or prin¬
ciples into which any body or figure may be ultimately
refolvedwhich.dements are fuppofed to be infinitely
fmall: thus, a line may be faid to con fill of points, a
furface of parallel lines, and a folid of parallel and fi-
milar furfaces.
INDORSEMENT, in law, any thing written on the
back of a deed ; as a receipt for money received.
There is likewife an indorfsment, by way of aflign-
ment, on bills of exchange and notes of hand ; which
is done by writing a perfon’s name on the back
thereof.
INDOSTAN, or Hindostan, proper India, or
the Empire of the Great Mogul. See Hindostan.
INDUCTION, in logic and rhetoric, a confe-
quence drawn from feveral propofitions or principles
firft laid down. See Logic ; and Oratory, n° 32.
Induction, in law, is putting a clerk or clergy,
man in poffeffion of a benefice or living to which he
is collated or prefented. See the article Parson.—.
Induction is performed by. a mandate from the bifhop
to the arch-dfacon, who ufually iffues out a precept-
to other clergymen to perform it for him. It is
done by giving the clerk corporal poffeflion of the
church, as by holding the ring of the door, tolling a
bell, or the like; and is a form required by law, with
intent to give all the parifhioners due notice and fuf-
ficient certainty of their new minifter^ to whom their
tythes are to be paid. This therefore is the invefti-
ture of the temporal part of the benefice, as inftitu-
tion is of the fpiritual. And when a clerk is thus
prefented, inllituted, and indudted into a redfory, he
is then, and not before, in full and complete poffef¬
fion ; and is called in law perfona imperfonata, ot parfon
imparfonce.
INDULGENCES, in the Romifh church, are a
remiffion of the puniftrment due to fins, granted by
the church, and fuppofed to fave the finner from Pur¬
gatory.
According to the dodfrine of the Romifh church,
all the good works of the faints over and above thofe
which were neceffary towards their own juftificatioa,
are de.pofited, together with the infinite merits of Jefus.
Chrift, in one inexhauftible treafury. The keys of this
were committed to St Peter, and to his fucceffors the
popes, who may open it at pleafure, and by tranf-
ferring a portion of this fuper abundant merit to any
particular perfon, for a fum of money, may convey
to him either the pardon of his own fins, or a releafe
for any one in whom he is interefted, from the pains
of Purgatory. Such indulgences were firft invented
[ 2l8 ]
I N D [
IndulgeD- in the nth century, by Urban II. as a recompence
^ for thofe who vrent in perfon upon the glorious enter-
* prize of conquering the Holy Land. They were af¬
terwards granted to thofe who hired a foldier for that
purpofe; and in procefs of time were bellowed on
fuch as gave money for accomplilhing any pious work
enjoined by the Pope.
The power of granting indulgences has been greatly
abufed in the church of Rome. Pope Leo X. in
order to carry on the magnificent ftru6lure of St Pe¬
ter’s at Rome, publilhed indulgences, and a plenary
remifiion, to all fuch as Ihould contribute money to¬
wards it. Finding the projeft take, he granted to
Albert eleftor of Mentz, and archbilhop of Magde¬
burg, the benefit of the indulgences of Saxony and
the neighbouring parts, and farmed out thofe of other
countries to the highelt bidders ; who, to make the bell
of their bargain, procured the ableft preachers to cry
up the value of the ware. The form of thefe indul-
ioiertfon's gences was as follows: “ May our Lord Jefus Chrift
'harhs V have mercy upon thee, and abfolve thee by the merits
01.11.89. cf jjjg moft holy paffion. And I, by his authority,
that of his bleffed apoftles Peter and Paul, and of the
nioft; holy Pope, granted and committed to me in thefe
parts, do abfolve thee, firft from all ecclefiaftical cen-
fures, in whatever manner they have been incurred ;
then from all thy fins, tranfgreffions, and excelfes, how
enormous foever they may be, even from fuch as are
referved for the cognizance of the holy fee, and as
far as the keys of the holy church extend : I remit to
you all punilhment which you deferve in Purgatory on
their account; and I reftore you to the holy facra-
ments of the church, to the unity of the faithful, and
to that innocence and purity which you pofTefied at
baptifm ; fo that when you die, the gates of punifli-
ment (hall be Ihut, and the gates of the paradife of
delight fhall be opened: and if you lhall not die at
prefent, this grace fhall remain in full force when you
are at the point of death. In the name of the Father,
and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghoft.”
The terms in which the retailers of indulgences
defcribed their benefits and the neceffity of purchafing
them, are fo extravagant, that they appear almoft in¬
credible. If any man (faid they) purchafes letters of
indulgence, his foul may reft fecure with refpeil to
its falvation. The fouls confined in Purgatory, for
whofe redemption indulgences are purchafed, as foon
as the money tinkles in thechett, inftantly efcape from
that place of torment, and afcend into heaven. That
the efficacy of indulgences was fo great, that the moft
heinous fins, even if one fhould violate (which was
impoffible) the mother of God, would be remitted
and expiated by them, and the perfon be freed both
from punifhment and guilt. That this was the un-
fpeakable gift of God, in order to reconcile men to
himfelf. That the crofs erefted by the preachers of
indulgences was equally efficacious with the crofs of
Chrift itfelf. “ Lo! the heavens are open ; if you
enter not now, when will you enter ? For twelve pence
you may redeem the foul of your father out of Pur¬
gatory ; and are you fo ungrateful, that you will not
refcue your parent from torment ? If you had but one
coat, you ought to ftrip yourfelf inftautly, and fell it,
in order to purchafe fuch benefits,” &c.
It was this great abufe of indulgences that contri-
219 ] I N E
buted not a little to the firft reformation of religion Indult
in Germany, where Martin Luther began firft to de- jnetr|^ntJ
claim againft the preachers of indulgences, and after-
wards againft indulgences themfelves : but fince that
time the popes have been more fparing in the exercife
of this power : however, they ftill carry on a great
trade with them to the Indies, where they are puf-
chafed at two rials a piece, and fometimes more.
The pope likewife grants indulgences to perfons at
the point of death ; that is, he grants them, by a brief,
power to choofe what confeffor they pleafe, who is
authorized thereby to abfolve them from all their fins
in general.
INDULT, in the church of Rome, the power of
prefenting to benefices granted to certain perfons by
the pope. Of this kind is the indult of kings and fo-
vereign princes in the Romifh communion, and that
of the parliament of Paris granted by feveral popes.
By the concordat for the abolition of the pragmatic
fandlion, made between Francis I. and Leo X. in 1516,
the French king has the power of nominating to biftiop-
rics, and other confiftorial benefices, within his realm.
At the fame time, by a particular bull, the pope granted
him the privilege of nominating to the churches of
Brittany and Provence. In 1648 pope Alexander VIII.
and in 1668 Clement IX. granted the king an indult
for the biftioprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which
had been yielded to him by the treaty of Munfter ; and
in 1668 the fame pope Clement IX. granted him an
indult for the benefices in the counties of Roufillon,
Artois, and the Netherlands. The cardinals like¬
wife have an indult granted them by agreement between
pope Paul IV. and the facred college in 15:55, which
is always confirmed by the popes at the time of their
ele&ion. By this treaty the cardinals have the free
difpofal of all the benefices depending on them, and
are empowered likewife to bellow a benefice in commen-
dam.
INDULTO, a duty, tax, or cuftom, paid to the
king of Spain for all fuch commodities as are imported
from the Weft Indies in the galleons.
INDUS, a large river of Afia, which rifes in the
mountains which feparate Tartary from India, and
difcharges itfelf into the Indian ocean. See Hindos-
tan and India.
INEBRIANTS, are defined to be fuch things as
affeft the nerves in a particular and agreeable manner,
and through them alter and difturb the fun&ions of
the mind. They are properly divided into native and
artificial; the former chiefly in ufe among the orien¬
tal and other nations, the latter principally throughout
Europe.
Natural Inebriants, are, I. Opium ; in ufe all over the
eaft, and of which the Turks, through cuftom, fwallow
a drachm. 2. Peganum harmala, Syrian rue. The feeds
are fold in Turkey for this purpofe ; and with thefe, as
Bellonius relates, the Turkilh emperor Solyman kept
himfelf intoxicated. 3. Maflacof the Turks, orbangue
of the Perlians ; prepared from the dull of the male-
flower of hemp, or from the leaves. 4. Eangue of
the Indians, from the leaves of the hibifeus fabdariffa.
5. Seeds of various fpecies of the datura, or thorny
apple. 6. Pinang, or betel of the Indians. 7. Roots
of black henbane. 8. The hyofeyamus phyfaloides,
9. Berries of the deadly nightfliade. to. Leaves of
e 2 millfojl,
INF r 220 1 INF
mill foil, are ufed by theDalekarlians to render their beer
intoxicating. 11. Tobacco, and feveral others lefs ma¬
terial are mentioned; fuch as clary, faffron, and darnel.
Artificial Inebriants, are fermented liquors from fari¬
naceous feeds; wines, and fpirits drawn by diftillation.
With thefe is ranked the nedtar of the gods, and the
anodyne medicine of Homer, commonly called nepen¬
thes ; and the fpells by which Medea and Circe pro¬
duced their inchantments.
INERTIA o/'Matter, in philofophy, is defined
by Sir Ifaac Newton to be a paifive principle by which
bodies perfiil in their motion or reft, receive motion
in proportion to the force imprefling it, and refift as
much as they are refifted. It is alfo defined by the
fame author to be a power implanted in all matter, -
whereby it refills any change endeavoured to be made
in its ftate. See Mechanics.
INESSE is applied to things which are attually
exifting.
Authors make a difference between a thing in ejfet
and a thing in pojfie : a thing that is not, but may be,
they fay is in pojfe, or potentia ; but a thing apparent
and vifible, they fay is in ejfie, that is, has a real be¬
ing eo injlanti; whereas the other is cafual, and at beft
but a pofiibility.
INFALISTACIO, an ancient punilhment of fe¬
lons, by throwing them among the rocks and fands,
cuftomarily ufed in port-towns. It is the opinion of
fome writers, that infalifiatus, did imply fome capital
punifhment, by expoling the malefa&or upon the fands
till the next tide carried him away; of which cuftom,
it is faid, there is an old tradition. However the pe¬
nalty feems to take its name from the Norman falefe,
or falefia, which fignified not the fands, but the rocks
and cliffs adjoining, or impending on the fea-lhore.
Commifit feloniam ob quam fuit fufpenfus, utlegatus, yel alio
tnodo morti damnatus, &c. vel apud Dover infaliftatus,
apud Southampton fubmerfus, &c.
INFALLIBLE, fomething that cannot err, or be
deceived.
One of the great controverfies between the Prote-
ftants and Papifts, is the infallibility which the latter
attribute to the pope ; though, in fa6t, they them-
felves are not agreed on that head, fome placing this
pretended infallibility in the pope and a general coun¬
cil.
INFAMY, in law, is a term which extends to
forgery, perjury, grofs cheats, &G. by which a perfon
is rendered incapable of being a witnefs or juror, even
though he is pardoned for his crimes.
INFANCY, the firft part of life.—Fred. Hoffman
fays, that the human fpecies are infants until they be¬
gin to talk, and children to the age of puberty.—Ana¬
tomy difcovers to us, that during infancy there is much
imperfeftion on the human frame ; e. g. its parts are
difproportioned, and its organs incapable of thofe
functions which in future life they are defigned to per¬
form. The head is larger in proportion to the bulk
of the body than that of an adult. The liver and
pancreas are much larger in proportion than in ad¬
vanced life ; their fecretions are more in quantity alfo.
The bile is very inert; the heart is ftronger and larger
than in future life ; the quantity of blood fent through
the heart of an infant, in a given time, is alfo more
in proportion than in adults. Though thefe circum-
ftances have their important ufefulnefs, yet the imper¬
fection attending them fubjeCts this age to many in¬
juries and dangers from which a more perfeCt ftate is
exempted. Dr Percival obferves, in his Effays Med.
and Exp, that of all the children who are born alive,
two thirds do not live to be two years old.
Infants have a larger proportion of brain than adults,
hence are moft fubjeft to nervous diforders; and hence
the diagnoftics of dileafes are in many refpetts obfeure
or uncertain, as particularly thofe taken from the pulfe,
which, from the irritability of the tender bodies of in¬
fants, is fuddenly affected by a variety of accidents
too numerous, and feemingly too trivial to gain our
attention. However, no very great emharraffment
arifes to the praftitioner from hence ; for the diforders
in this ftate are generally acute, lefs complicated than
thofe in adults, and are more eafily difcovered than is
generally apprehended.
INFANT, denotes a young child. See Infancy.
Infants, aipongft the Jews, Greeks, and Romans,
were fwadled as foon as they were born, in a manner
fimilar to that praCtifed by the moderns. The Jews
circumcifed and named their infant children on the 8th
day from the birth. Upon the birth of a fon, the
Grecians crowned their doors with olive—of a daugh.
ter, with wool. The infant was walhed in warm water,
and anointed with oil—by the Spartans with wine; it
was then dreffed, and laid in a balket, or on a Ihield if
the father was a warrior, particularly amongft the Spar¬
tans. At five days old they ran with it round the fire,
and the mother’s relations fent prefeuts. The Greeks
named their children on the tenth day, the Romans
on the ninth : The naming was attended with facri-
fices and other dcmonftrations of joy. The maternal
office of fuckling their own children was never decli¬
ned, when circumftances would permit. How much
different is. this from the unnatural delicacy obferved
by modern mothers, a delicacy which to the child is
cruelty ! The 40th day Was a day of folemHity for the
mother. The names of children were regiftered both,
by the Greeks and Romans. See Register..
For an account of the cuftom of expofing infants,,
fee Exposing.
Infants were kept from crying in the ftreets by
means of a fponge foaked in honey. Nurfes had alfo
their bugbears and terrible names to frighten the chil¬
dren into peace :—The figure with which they were
principally intimidated was Mopftoyvxsiov, a fort of raw-
head and bloody bones.
Infant,, in law, is a perfon under 21 years of age ;
whole capacities, incapacities, and privileges, are va¬
rious. ,
1. In criminal matters. The law of England does,
in fome cafes privilege an infant under the age of 21,
as to common mifdemeanours; fo as to efcape fine,
imprifonment, and the like: and particularly in the
cafes of omiffion, as not repairing a bridge, or a high
way, and other fimilar offences ; for, not having the
command of his fortune till the age of 21, he wants
the capacity to do thofe things which the law requires.
But where there is any notorious breach of the peace, ^
a riot, battery, or the like, (which infants when full-
grown are at leaft as liable as others to commit) ; for
thofe, an infant above the age of 14-is equally liable
to fuffer, as a perfon of the full age of 21.
r With
Infant.
INF [2
With regard to capital crimes, the law is ftill more
J minute and circumfpe& ; diftinguilhbg with greater
nicety the feveral degrees of age and diferetion. By
the ancient Saxon law, the age of twelve years was
eftablifhed for the age of poffible diferetibn, when firft:
the underftanding might open : and from thence till
the offender was 14, it was atas pulertati proximo, in
which he might, or might not, be guilty of a crime,
according to his natural capacity or incapacity. This
was the dubious ftage of diferetion : but, under twelve,
it was held, that he could not be guilty in will, neither
after fourteen could be fuppofed innocent, of any ca¬
pital crime which he in fadt committed. But by the
law, as it now Hands, and has flood at lead ever fince the
time of Edward III. the capacity of doing ill, or con-
trafting guilt, is not fo much meafured by years and
days, as by the ftrength of the delinquent’s under-
flanding and judgment. For one lad of 11 years old
may have as much cunning as another of 14; and in
thefe cafes our maxim is, that malitia fupplet atatem.
Under feven years of age, indeed, an infant cannot
be guilty of felony; for then a felonious diferetion is
almoft an impoffibility in nature : but at eight years
old, he may be guilty of felony. Alfo, under 14,
though an infant fhall beprimafacie adjudged to be dolia
in capax, yet if it appear to the court and jury that he
is dolicapax, and could difeern between good and evil.
21 ] INF
to have fufficient diferetion, may bequeath' her perfonal Infant.
eftate ; at 14 is at years of legal diferetion, and may '' Y—^
choofe a guardian; at 17 may be executrix; and at 21
may difpofe of herfelf and her lands. So that full age
in male or female is 21 years, which age is completed
on the day preceding the anniverfary of a perfon’s
birth ; who till that time is an infant, and fo ilyled in
law. Among the ancient Greeks and Romans, women
were never of age, but fubjeft to perp tual guardian-
(hip, unlefs when married, tiifi convenient in manuni
viri: and, when that perpetual tutelage wore away in
procefs of time, we find that, in females as well as
males, full age was not till 25 years. Thus by the
conilitution of different kingdoms, this period, which
is merely arbitrary, and juris pc/itivi, is fixed at dif¬
ferent times. Scotland agrees with England in this
point; (both probably copying from the old Saxon
conflitutions on the continent, which extended the age
of minority ad annum vigfimum prinum, et eo ufque ju~
venes fub tutelam reponunt): but in Naples perfons are
of full age at 18; in France, with regard to mar¬
riage, not till 30 ; and in Holland at 25.
The very difabilities of infants are privileges ; in
order to fecure them from hurting themfelves by their
own improvident a&s. An infant cannot be fued but
under the protedtion, and joining the name, of his
guardian ; for he is to defend him againft all attacks
he may be convicted and fuffer death. Thus a girl of as well by law as otherwife; but he may fue either by
13 has been burnt for killing her miftrefs: and one
boy of ten, and another of nine years old, who had
killed their companions, have been fentenced to death,
and he of ten years adtually hanged; becaufe it ap¬
peared upon their trials, that the one hid himfelf, and
the other hid the body he had killed; which hiding
manifefted a confcioufnefs of guilt, and a diferetion
to difeern between good and evil. And there
old was tried at Abington for firing two barns; and,
it appearing that he had malice, revenge, and cunning,
he was found guilty, condemned, and hanged accord-
his guardian, or prochein amy, his next friend who is
not his guardian. This prochein amy may be any per-
fon who will undertake the infant’s caufe ; and it fre¬
quently happens, that an infant, by his prochein amyt,
inftitures a fuit in equity againft a fraudulent guar¬
dian.
With regard to eftates and civil property, an infant
bath many privileges. In general, an infant fhall lofe:
inftance in the laft century, where a boy of eight years nothing by nonclaim, or negleft of demanding his
-u au:—r__ e-:— -— 1-  -- J right ; nor fhall any other laches or negligence be im¬
puted to an infant, except in fome very particular cafes.
It is generally true, that an infant can neither aliene
ingly. Thus alfo, in very modern times, a boy of his lands, nor do any legal afr, nor make a deed, nor
ten years old was convidled on his own confefiion of indeed any manner of contradl, that will bind him.
murdering his bedfellow ; there appearing in his wholeBut ftill to all thefe rules there are fome exceptions ;
behaviour plain tokens of a mifehievous difpofition ; part of which were juft now mentioned in reckoning
and, as the fparing this boy merely on account of his up the different capacities which they affume at differ-
tender years might be of dangerous conftquence to ent ages: and there are others, a few of which it may
the public, by propagating a notion that children might not be improper to recite, as a general fpecimen of the
commit fuch atrocious crimes with impunity, it was whole. And, firft, it is true, that infants cannot aliene
unanimoufly agreed by all the judges, that he was a their eftates ; but infant-truilees, or mortgagees, are
proper fubjeft of capital punifhment. But, in all enabled to convey, under the direction of the°ccurt of
fuch cafes, the evidence of that malice, which is to chancery or exchequer, or other courts of equity, the
fupply age, ought to be ftrong and clear beyond all eftates they hold in truft or mortgage, to fuch peVfon
doubt and contradiction. as the court fhall appoint. Alfo°it is generally true,
2. In cm/matters. The ages of male and female are that an infant can do no, legal a6t: yet an infant, who
different for different purpofes. A male at 12 years old has an advowfon, may prefent to the benefice when it
may take the oath of allegiance; at 14 is at the years becomes void. For the law in this cafe difpenfes with
of diferetipn, and therefore may confent or difagree to
marriage, may choofe his guardian, and, if his difere-
one rule, in order to maintain others of far greater
 fequence : it permits an infant to prefent a clerk
tion be a&ually proved, may make his teftament of his (who, if unfit, may be reje&ed by the bifhop), rather
perfonal eftate; at 17 may be an executor; and at 21 than either fuffer the church to be unferved' till he
is at his own difpofal, and may aliene his lands, goods, comes of age, or permit the infant to be debarred of
and chattels. A female alfo at feven years of age may his right by lapfe to the bifhop. An infant may alfo.
be betrothed or given in marriage; at nine is intitled purchafe lands, but his purchafe is incomplete ; for,
to dower; at 12 is at years of maturity, and therefore when he comes to age, he may either agree or difagree
may confent or difagree to marriage, and, if proved to it, as he thinks prudent or proper, without alleging- 1
an^r
INF [22
1- fante any reafon; and fo may his heirs after him, if he dies
Infatuate v ‘t*lout h2v^ng completed his agreement. It is, far-^
. ther, generally true, that an infant, under 21, can make
no deed but what is afterwards voidable : yet in fome
cafes he may bind himfelf apprentice by deed indented
or indentures, for feven years; and he may by deed or
will appoint a guardian to his children, if he has any.
Lalily, it is generally true, that an infant can tnake
no other coutraft that will bind him: yet he may bind
himfelf to pay for his necefiary meat, drink, apparel,
phyfic, and fuch other neceflaries ; and likewife for his
good teaching and inftrudlion, whereby he may profit
himfelf afterwards.
INFANTE, and Infanta, all the fonsand daugh¬
ters of the kings of Spain and Portugal, except the
eldeR ; the princes being called infantes, and the prin-
cefles infantas.
INFANTRY, in military affairs, the whole body
of foot-fo!diers, whether independent companies or re¬
giments.— The word takes its origin from one of the
infantas of Spain, who, finding that the army com¬
manded by the king her father had been defeated by
the Moors, affembled a body of foot-foldiers, and with
them engaged and totally routed the enemy. In me¬
mory of this event, and to diftingrifh the foot-foldiers,
who were not before held in much confideration, they
received the name of infantry.
Heavy-armed Infantst, among the ancients, were
fuch as wore a complete fuit of armour, and engaged
with broad rtffelds and long fpears. They were the
flower and llrength of the Grecian armies, and had
the higheft rank of military honour.
Light-Armed Infantry, among the ancient 1, were
defigned for fkirmifhes, and for lighting at a diltance.
Their weapons were arrows, darts, or flings.
Light Infantry, among the moderns, have only
.been in ufe fince the year 1656. They have no camp-
equipage to carry, and their arms and accoutrements
are much lighter than thofe of the infantry. Light
infantry are the eyes of a general, and the givers of
fleep and fafety to an army. Wherever there is
found light cavalry, there fliould be light infantry'.
They Ihould be accuftomed to the pace of four miles
an hour, as their ufual marching pace, and to be able
to march at five miles an hour upon all particular oc-
cafions. Moft of the powers on the continent have
light infantry. It is only of late years that light infantry
came to be ufed in the Britifh army : But now every
regiment has a company of light infantry, whofe lla-
tion is on the left of the regiment, the right being oc¬
cupied by the grenadiers.
INFATUATE, to prepoffefs any one in favour of
fome perfon or thing that does not deferve it, fo far as
that he cannot cafily be difabufed.—The word infa¬
tuate comes from the Latin Jatuus “ foolof fan,
“ to fpeak out,” which is borrowed from the Greek
f«", whence pai-ur, which fignifies the fame with votes
in Latin, ox prophet in Englifh ; and the reafon is, be-
caufe their prophets or pric-fts ufed to be feized with a
kind of madntfs or foliy, when they began to make
their predi&ibns, or deliver oracles.
The Romans called thofe perfons infatuati, who fan¬
cied they had feen vifions, or imagined the god Faunus,
whom they called Fatuus, had appeared to them.
2 ] INF
INFECTION, among phyficians. See Conta- InfeAloft
G ION. II
INFEFTMENT, in Scots law, the folemnity of ln^
the delivery of an heritable fubjedt to the purchafer. ■ t ' *
, INFERLE, facrifices offered by the Romans to
the I)ii Manet, or the fouls of deceafed heroes or other
illuftrious perfons, or even any relation or perfon whofe
memory was held in veneration. Thefe facrifices con¬
fided of honey, water, wine, milk, the blood of vic¬
tims, variety of balfamic unguents, chaplets, and loofe
flowers. The vidfims upon thefe occafions were ge¬
nerally of the fmaller cattle, though in ancient times
they Sacrificed flaves or captives : But what a (hock¬
ing view does this give us of their fentiments of hu¬
man nature, as if nothing but murder, cruelty, and
human blood, could fatisfy or prove acceptable to an
human foul! The facrifices were ufually black and
barren. The altars on which they were offered were
holes dug in the ground.
The honey, water, wine, &c. were ufed as libations,
and were poured on the tombs of children by children,
on thofe of virgins by virgins, and on thofe of married
men by women. The inferia were offered on the 9th
and 30th days after interment amongft the Greeks, and
repeated in the month Anthefterion. The whole of
this article applies equally to the Greeks and the Ro¬
mans.
INFIBULATION, in antiquity. It was a cu-
ftom among the Romans to infibulate their finging
boys, in order to preferve their voices: for this ope¬
ration, which prevented their retracing the prepuce
over the glans, and is the very reverfe to circumcifion,
kept them from injuring their voices by premature and
prepotterous venery : ferving as a kind of padlock, if
not to their inclinations, at lead to their abilities. It
appears by fome paffages in Martial, that a lefs decent
ufe was made of infibulation among the luxurious Ro¬
mans : for fome ladies of diftinftion, it feems, took
this method of confining their paramours to their own
embraces. Juvenal alfo hints at fome fuch pra&ice. Cel-
fus, a drake author,faysinfibulafionwasfometimesprac-
tifed for the fake of health, and that nothing deftroys
it more than the filly pra&ice this operation feems in¬
tended to prevent. This pradice is not perhaps like¬
ly to be revived; if, however, any one who has fuffered
in his conftitution by prepofterous venery, fliould be
able to get children, and (houid be inclined to prevent
the fame misfortune in them by infibulation, the me¬
thod of doing it is thus: The (kin which is above the
glans is to be extended, and marked on both fides with
ink, where it is perforated, and then fuffered to tetrad
itfelf. If the marks recur upon the glans, too much
of the (kin has been taken up, and we mud make the
marks farther ; if the glans remain free from them,
they (how the proper place for affixing a fibula: then
pafs a needle and thread through the (kin where the
marks are, and tie the threads together ; taking care
to move it every day, until the parts about the perfo¬
rations are cicatrifed: this being effeded, take out the
thread, and put in the fibula ; which the lighter it is
the better.
Authors have not determined vrhat the fibula of the
ancient furgeon was, though no doubt it was for
different purpofes. In the preient cafe, the fibula
feems
INF [2.
Infidel, feems to mean a ring of metal, not unlike what the
Infidelity. country people put through the nofes of fwine.
INFIDEL, a term applied to fuch perfons as are
not baptized, and that do not believe the truths of the
Chriftian religion. See Deist.
INFIDELITY, in a general fenfe, denotes want
of faith or belief in regard to any fubjedt or tranfa&ion.
Religious Infidelitt fignilies a dilbelief of Chriilia-
nity.
• Knox's Of all the methods (fays an elegant modern Ef-
Ejfays, fayift *) which the vanity of man has devifed with a
n°i6. view to acquire diftinftion, there is none ealier than
that of profeffing a dilbelief of the ellablilhed religion.
That which Ihocks the feelings of thofe with whom
we converfe, cannot fail of attrafting notice; and as
the vain are ufually confident, they utter their doubts
with an air fo oracular and decifive, as induces the
Ample to think them profoundly wife. Audacity, with
little ingenuity, will attract the eyes of fpeftators, and
this will fufficiently anfwer the pufpofe of many among
the profefled unbelievers. One might be diverted, if
one were not hurt, at feeing a circle of filly admirers,
gaping and fixing their eyes on fome half-learned and
impudent prater, who throws out oblique infinuations
againll the Bible,.the clergy, or the facrament. Thefe
are fertile topics of wit and ingenuity j but it might
mortify the vanity of fome very vain writers and talk¬
ers, if they were to recoiled!, what is undoubtedly true,
that it is a fpecies of wit and ingenuity which not only
the vileft, but the moft fiupid and illiterate of man¬
kind, have frequently difplayed in all its poffible per¬
fection.
There is indeed no doubt, but that vanity is one of
the principal caufes of infidelity. It mull be the foie
caufe of communicating it to others, by writing or
converfation. For let us fuppofe the cafe of a very
humane, judicious, and learned man, entertaining doubts
of the truth of Chritiianity : if he cannot clear his
doubts by examination, he will yet recoiled! that doubts
are no certainties ; and, before he endeavours to pro¬
pagate his fceptieifm, he will alk himfelf thefe que-
ftions: “ Am I quite convinced that what I doubt of
cannot poffibly be true ? If I am convinced of it, am I
fure that the publication of my opinions will not do
more harm than good l Is not the difturbing of any
long-efiablilhed civil conllitution attended with confu-
fion, rebellion, bloodshed, and ruin ? And are not the
majority of men more flrongly attached, to the religion
than the government of their forefathers ? Will it
ferve my country to introduce difcontent of any fpeciesi
May not thofe innovations in religion, which difcon-
tent may introduce, lead to all the evils which are
caufed by frenzy and fanaticifm ? Granting that I
were able to make a party formidable enough to crulh
oppofition and to exterminate Chrifiianity, ftill am I
certain that I adt, in this inftance, like a good member
of fociety ? For is not this fyftem, whether well or ill
founded, friendly to fociety ? I mull confefs it; its
greateft enemies have acknowledged it. What motive
then can induce me to divulge my doubts of its authen¬
ticity ? Not the good of mankind ; for it is already
allowed by unbelievers, that the good of mankind is
intereijed in the belief of its divine original. Is it for
my own good, and-with a view to be convinced ? I
will net deceive myfelf: my motive, I fufpedi, is of
23 ] In f
another kind ; for do I read thofe books which have h fn!«
been already written to fatisfy fimilar doubts ? No- '“"'v
thing but the vanity of appearing to be wiier than my
credulous neighbours can induce me to interrupt the
happinefs of their belief. But vanity of this fort,
which tends to difturb fociety, to injure the national
morals, and to rob many thoufand individuals of a co¬
pious fource of fweet and folid comfort, muft be pro¬
nounced extreme wickcdnefs, even according to the
obvious dictates of natural religion. I (hall act the
part of a good citizen and a good man, by conforming
to a fyftem whofe beneficial influence I feel and con¬
fefs, and by endeavouring to acquire a belief in that
which has for fo many centuries been eftabhfned,
and which promifts to foothe me in diftrefs with the
fweeteft confolations, and to brighten the difmal hour
of death, by the hope of a more glorious and happy
Hate of exiitence. At all events, I lhall have the
fatisfaftion of having commanded myfelf fo far, as not
to have run the hazard of endangering the welfare of
my fellow-creatures, either here or hereafter, by in¬
dulging a degree of vanity, which, in a creature fo
weak and fo (hort-lived as myfelf, is a folly very in-
confiftent with the fuperior wifdom which I feem to
arrogate.
“ I will venture to repeat (continues our author), that
all writers againft Chriltianity, however they may af-
fed! even the extremes of benevolence, honour, philo-
fohpy, and enlargement of mind, are adluated by vani¬
ty and wickednefs of heart. Their motives are as mean,
felfilh, narrow, and in every refped! unjuiliSable, as
the tendency of their writings is mifehievous. Their
malice is often impotent, through the foolilh fophiftry
of their arguments; but, if ever it be fuccefsful, it is
highly injurious : and indeed, confidering their motives
and the probable confequences of their endeavours, the
infidel writer is a greater enemy to fociety, and confe-
.quently guiltier, according to all the principles of fo-
cial union, than the thief or the traitor. Perfecmioa
would, however, only promote his caufe, and his pro¬
per puniflin>ent is contempt.
“T-t is certainly no derogation from the charadler of 3
man of fenfe, to conform, even while he is fo unfortu¬
nate as to doubt their truth, to the opinions of his
country. His conformity will probably lead him to 3
train of adiions and of thought, which, in due time
will induce him to believe. But, if that (houid not
happen, yet he will adt, as very wiie and very great
men have adted, in paying a refpedlful deference to the
avowed conviAion of others. The moft intelligent and
powerful men of ancient Rome, not only appeared to
believe a veiy abfurd and hurtful fyftem, but affifted in
all its ceremonies as priefts. Even Socrates, who evi- '
dently entertained fome notions adequate to the dig-
nity of the one great and fiipreme Being, yet thought
it was a duty which .he o wed to his country, fo far iny
conform to the wretched eftabhftiment, as to order in
his dying words a facrifice to iEfculapius. This ex¬
ternal conformity to the national religion ought not to-
be confounded with hypocrify. If indeed it is carried
to extremes, or zealoufiy affected, it certainly is very
blameable and contemptible deceit; but while it keeps-
within the bounds of reafon and moderation, it ought'
to be called a decent deference to the opinions of the-
majority, ariiing from humility, and from a ddire to
I N F
Infraction informs againft, or profecutes in any of the king’s
.11 . courts, thofe that offend againft any law or penal fta-
[ 226 ]
I N G
In ellheim court3> l^at offend againft any
nge eim«tiitg- See Information.
Informers were very common both in Greece and
Rome. Every corner of the ftreets was peftered with
fwarms of turbulent rafcals, who made it their conftant
bufinefs to pick up ftories and catch at every occafion to
accufe perfons of credit and reputation : Thefe by the
Greeks were called 2uxo9av7«i; for a more particular ac¬
count of whom, fee the article Sycophant.
Amongft the Romans, informers were of two forts,
mandatores and delaiorss. Thefe played into each other’s
hands ; the former marking down fuch perfons as they
pretended to have found guilty of any mifdemeanor,
and the other profecuting them. What tended to in-
creafe the number of thefe peftilent fellows was, that
the informers were entitled to a fourth part of the
effe&s of the perfons convi&ed. Wicked princes re¬
warded and countenanced this mifchievous tribe; but
Titus fet on foot a moft diligent fearch after them,
and punifhed fuch as he found with death or baniih-
ment. Trajan alfo is praifed by Pliny for a fimiiar
conduft.
INFRACTION, (formed from/«, and the fupine
of frango, “ I break,”) a rupture or violation of a
treaty, law, ordinance, or the like.
INFRALAPSARII, the name of a feft of prede-
ftinarians, who maintain, that God has created a cer¬
tain number of men only to be damned, w'ithout allow¬
ing them the means neceffary to fave themfelves, if
they would ; and they are thus called, becaufe they
hold that God’s decrees were formed infra lapfum, af¬
ter his knowledge of the fall, and in confequence
thereof; in contradiftinftionto theSupRALAPSAR 1 ans.
INFRA-scapularis, in anatomy. See Anatomy,
falle of ''the Mufcles.
Infra Spinalus, in anatomy. See Anatomy, ibid.
INFULA, in antiquity, was a mitre worn by the
Romans and Grecian priefts, upon the head, from
which on each fide hung a ribband. The covering
the head with a mitre was rather a Roman than a
Grecian cuftom, introduced into Italy by tineas, who
covered his head and face at the performance of facri-
fice, left any ill-boding omen fhould difturb the rites.
The infulse were commonly made of wool, and were
not only worn by the priefts, but were put upon the
horns of the victims, upon the altar and the temple.
The infnlas were alfo called vitta.
INFUNDIBULIFORM, in botany, an appella¬
tion given to fuch monopetalous or one-leaved flowers
as refemble a funnel in fhape, or which have a narrow
tube at one end, and gradually widen towards the limb
or mouth.
INFUSION, in pharmacy, an operation whereby
the virtues of plants, roots, and the like, are drawn
out, by letting them fteep in. fome convenient fluid
menftruum, without boiling them therein ; fince boiling
is found to difllpate the finer parts of many bitter and
aromatic fubitances, without carefully extrafting their
medicinal principles.
INGELSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the pala¬
tinate of the Rhine, remarkable for having been the
refidence of the emperors; feated on the river Salva,
on an eminence, from whence there is a charming pro-
fpeS. E. Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 49. 58,
INGENUOUS, in a general fenfe, fignifies open, Ingenuous
fair, and candid. 11
Ingenuous, (ingcnuus), in Roman antiquity, an Ingra^ltutle*
appellation given to perfons born of free parents, who * 1
had never been Haves : for the children of the liberti,
or perfons who had obtained their liberty, were call¬
ed libertini, not ingenui; this appellation of ingenuus
being referved for their children, or the third genera¬
tion.
INGEST A, is ufed by fome authors to exprefs all
forts of aliment taken into the body.
INGLIS (Sir James), a Scottiflr poet who flouriflr-
ed towards the middle of the 16th century. Accord¬
ing to Mackenzie, he was defcended from an ancient
family in Fifelhire, where he was born in the reign of
James IV. He was educated at St Andrew’s, went to
Paris, and returned in the minority of James V. into
whofe favour he ingratiated himfelf by his poetry, ha¬
ving written fundry tragedies and comedies, and other
poems, that were much applauded by good judges.
He joined the French faction againft the Engliih; and,
in fome fldrmiftres preceding the fatal battle of Pinkie,
fo diftinguilhed himfelf, that he was knighted on the
field. After the lofs of that day, he retired into Fife,
and amufed himfelf with his favourite fludies; and in
1548 publiflred at St Andrew’s his noted Complaint
of Scotland.'* This is a well-written work for the
time ; and {hows abundance of learning. He appears
from it to have read much both in Greek and Latin
authors, to have been well-(killed in mathematics and
philofophy, and to have been a great lover of his coun¬
try. Unpublifhed and in MS. (fays Mackenzie) are
Poems, confifting of Songs, Ballads, Plays, and Farces.
He died at Culrofs in 1554.
INGLUVIES, the crop or craw of granivoroua
birds, ferving for the immediate reception of the food,
where it is macerated for fome time before it is tranf-
mitted to the true ftomach.
INGOLSTADT, a handfome town of Gehnany,
and the ftrongeft in Bavaria, with a famous univetfity
and a handfome church. The houfes are built with
ftone, and the ftreets large. It is feated on the Danube,,
in E. Long. 11. 10. N. Lat. 48. 42.
INGOT, a mafs of gold or filver melted down, and
caft in a mould, but not coined or wrought.
INGRAFTING, in gardening. See Graft-
INGRATITUDE, the oppofite of gratitude. See
Gratitude.
Ingratitude is a crime fo ftiameful, that there ne¬
ver was a man found who would own himfelf guil¬
ty of it ; and, though too frequently pradtifed, it
is fo abhorred by the general voice, that to an un¬
grateful perfon is imputed the guilt or the capability
of all other crimes.
The ungrateful are neither fit to ferve their Maker,
their country, nor their friends.
Ingratitude perverts all the meafures of religion and.
fociety, by making it dangerous to be charitable and
good-natured. (See Gratitude). However, it is
better to expofe ourfelves to ingratitude than to be
wanting in charity and benevolence.
Great minds, like Heav’n, are pleas’d with doing good
Though the ungrateful fubje&s of their favours
Are barren in' return.
I N G t 4J7 1 I N G
tude. i. In a little work in titled Friendly Cautions to
“'■“l Officers^ the following atrocious Inftance of ingratitude
is related. An opulent city in the weft of England,
little ufed to have troops with them, had a regiment
fent to be quartered- there : the principal inhabitants
and wealthieft merchants, glad to ihovv their hofpita-
lity and attachment to their fovereign, took the firft
opportunity to get acquainted with the officers, in¬
viting them to their houfes, and fhovving them every
civility in their power. This was truly a defirable
fit nation. A merchant, extremely eafy in his circum-
ftances, took fo prodigious a liking to one officer in
particular, that he gave him an apartment in his own
houfe, and made him in a manner abfolute mafter of
it, the officer’s friends being always welcome to his
table. The merchant w’as a widower, and had only
two favourite daughters ; the officer in fo comfortable
a ftation call; his wanton eyes upon them ; and too fa¬
tally fucceeding, ruined them both. Dreadful return
to the merchant’s mifplaced friendlhlp ! The confe-
quence of this ungenerous aftion was, that all of¬
ficers ever after were ftiunned as a public nuifance, as
a peft to fociety: nor have the inhabitants perhaps
yet conquered their averfion to a red-coat.
2. We read in Rapin’s Hiftory, that during Mon¬
mouth’s rebellion, in the reign of James II. a certain
perfon knowing the humane difpofition of one Mrs
Gaunt, whofe life was one continued exercife of bene¬
ficence, fled to her houfe, where he was concealed and
maintained for feme time. Hearing, however, of the
proclamation, which promifed an indemnity and re¬
ward to thofe who difeovered fuch as harboured
the rebels, he betrayed his benefaftrefs; and fuch
was the fpirit of juftice and equity which prevailed
among the minifters, that he was pardoned and recom-
penfed for his treachery, while ffie was burnt alive for
her charity !
3. The following inftance is alfo to be found in the
fame Hiftory.—Humphry Bannifter and his father
were both fervants to and raifed by the duke of Buck¬
ingham ; who being driven to abfeond, by an unfortu¬
nate accident befalling the army he had raifed againft
the ufurper Richard III. he without footman or
page retired to Bannifter’s houfe near Shrewfbury, as
to a place where he had all the reafon in the world to
expeft fecurity. Bannifter, however, upon the king’s
proclamation promifing 1000I. reward to him that
fhould apprehend the duke, betrayed his mafter to John
Merton high ftieriff of Shroplhire, who fent him un¬
der a ftrong guard to Salifbury, where the king then
was, and there in the market-place the duke was be¬
headed. But Divine vengeance purfued the traitor
Bannifter; for demanding the 10001. that was the
price of his mailer’s blood, King Richard refufed
to pay it him, faying, “ He that would be falfe to
fo good a mafter, ought not to be encouraged.”
He was afterwards hanged for manflaughter, his eldeft
fon run mad and died in a hog-fty, his fecond became
deformed and lame, and his third fon was drowned in a
fmall puddle of water. His eldeft daughter was got with
child by one of his carters, and his fecond was feized
with a leprofy whereof Ihe dik&.—Hift. of Eng. 8vo.
vol. 1. p. 304.
The following barbarous inftances are from ancient
Hiftory.
4. When Xerxes king of Perfia was at Celene, a Ingratitude
city of Phrygia, Pythius, a Lydian, who had his e- II
fidence in that city, and next to Xerxes was the moft . »
opulent prince of thofe times, entertained him and his ViJ. Herod
whole army with an incredible magnificence, and made *; ?• c- 38*
him an offer of all his wealth towards defraying the^16^*
expences of his expedition. Xerxes, furprifed and c?i7.' 3*
charmed at fo generous an offer, had the curiofity to
inquire to what a fum his riches amounted. Pythius
made anfwer, that having the deiign of offering them
to his fervice, he had taken an exaft account of them,
and that the filver he had by him amounted to 2000
talents (about 255,000!. Sterling), and the gold to
4,000,000 of daries (about 1,700,0001. Sterling),
wanting 7000. Ail this money he offered him,
telling him, that his revenue was fufficient for the
fupport of his houfehold. Xerxes made him very
hearty acknowledgments, and entered into a particular
friendlhip with him, but declined accepting his prefent.
The fame prince who had made fuch obliging offers
to Xerxes, having defired a favour of him fome time
after, that out of his five fons who ferved in his army,
he would be pleafed to leave him the eldeft, in order
to be a comfort to him in his old age : the king was
fo enraged at the propofal, though fo reafonable in it-
felf, that he caufed the eldeft fon to be killed before
the eyes of his father, giving the latter to underftand,
that it was a favour he fpared him and the reft of his
children. Yet this is the fame Xerxes who is fo much
admired for his humane refledtion at the head of his
numerous army, “ That of fo many thoufand men, in
100 years time there would not be one remaining ; on
which account he could not forbear weeping at the
uncertainty and inftability of human things.” He
might have found another fubjedl of refle&ion, which
would have more juftly merited his tears and afflidtion,
had he turned his thoughts upon himfelf, and confi-
dered the reproaches he deferved for being the inftru-
ment of haftening the fatal term to millions of people,
whom his cruel ambition was going to faciifice in an
unjuft and unneceffary war.
5. Bafilius Macedo the emperor, exercifing himfelf in Zonor. An\
hunting, a fport he took great delight in, a great (tag tom. 3^
running furioufly againft him, faftened one of theP" I5I*
branches of his horns in the emperor’s girdle, and
pulling him from his horfe, dragged him a good dif-
tance, to the imminent danger of his life; which a
gentleman of His retinue perceiving, drew his fword
and, cut the emperor’s girdle afunder, which difen-
gaged him from the beaft, with little or no hurt to his
perfon. But obferve what reward he had for his pains:
“ He was fentenced to lofe his head for putting his
fword fo near the body of the emperor and fuffered
death accordingly.
INGRESS, in aftronomy, fignifies the fun’s enter¬
ing -the firft fcruple of one of the four cardinal figns,
efpecially Aries.
INGRIA, a province of the Ruffian empire, lying
on the gulf of Finland, being about 130 miles in
length, and 50 in breadth. It abounds in game and
fi(h ; and here are a great number of elks, which come
in troops from Finland in the fpring and autumn. It
was conquered by the Czar Peter the Great, and Pee
terlburgh is the capital town. It is bounded by th-
river Nieva, and the gulf of Finland, on the north ;
F f 2 by
3
I N G [ 228 ] IN H
Ingroffer by Great Novogorod, on the eaft and fouth; and by
{I Livonia, on the weft.
■ gu^p ll?‘, INGROSSER, or Engrosser., in common law,
is one who buys up corn growing, or any provifions by-
wholefale, before the market, to fell again. See Eore.-
STALLING.
It alfo fignifies a clerk who writes records or inftru-
ments of law on fkins of parchment. See Engros»
SING*
INGUEN, in anatomy, the fame with what isother-
W'ife called groin.
INGULPHUS, abbot of Croyland, and author of
the hiftory of that abbey, was born in London about
A. D. 1030. He received the firft part of his edu¬
cation at WeftminRer; and when he viftted his father,
who belonged to the court of Edward the Confeffor,
he was fo fortunate as to engage the attention of queen
Edgitha. That amiable' and learned princefs took a
pleafure in examining our young ffcholar on his pro-
grefs in grammar,, and in difputing with him in logic;
nor did ftie ever difmifs him without fome prefent as a
mark of her approbation. From Weftminfter he went
to Oxford, where he applied to the ftudy of rhetoric,
and of the Ariftotelian philofophy, in which he mads
greater proficency than many of his contemporaries.
When he was about 21 years of age, he was intro¬
duced to William duke of Normandy (who vifited the
court of England, A. D> 1051), and made himfelf
fo agreeable to that prince, that he appointed him his
fecretary, and carried him with him into his own do¬
minions. In a little time he became the prime faT
vourite of his prince, and the difpenfer of all prefer¬
ments, humbling fome, and exalting others, at his
pleafure ; in which difficult ftation, he confeffeth, hs
did not behave with a proper degree of modefty and
prudence. This excited the envy and hatred of many
of the courtiers; to avoid the effe&s of which, he ob¬
tained leave from the duke to go in pilgrimage to the
Holy Land, which was then become faffiionable. With
a company of 30 horfemen, he joined Sigfrid duke
of Mentz, who, with many German nobles, biffiops,
clergy, and others, was preparing for a pilgrimage
to Jerufalem. When they were all united, they form¬
ed a company of no fewer than 7000 pilgrims. In
their way they fpent fome time at Conftantinople, per¬
forming their devotions in the feveral churches. In
their paffage through Lycia, they were attacked by
a tribe of Arabs, who killed and wounded many of
them, and plundered them of a prodigious mafs of
money. Thofe who efcaped from this difafter, at
length reached Jerufalem, vifited all the holy places,
and bedewed the ruins of many churches with their
tears, giving money for their reparation. They in¬
tended to have bathed in Jordan ; but being prevented
by the roving Arabs, they embarked on board a Ge-
noefe fleet at Joppa, and landed at Brundulium, from
whence they travelled through Apulia to Rome. Ha¬
ving gone through a long courfe of devotions in this
city, at the feveral places diftinguifhed for their fanc-
tity, they feparated, and every one made the beft of
his way into his own country. Whep Ingulph and
his company reached Normandy, they were reduced
to 20 half ftarved wretches, without money, deaths, or
horfes: A faithful pidture of the foolifli difaftrous
journeys into the Holy Land, fo common in thofe Inhale?-
times.. Ingulph was now fo much difgufted with the l(. *
world* that, he refoived to forfake it, and became a !!lhll,ltK,n^
monk in the abbey of 'Fontenelle-in- Normandy ; in y -1
which, after fome years, he was advanced to the office
of prior. When big old mafter was preparing for his.
expedition into England* A. 1066, he was fent by
his abbot, with io.q,merits in money, and 12 young
men, nobly mounted and completely armed, as a pre-
fent.from their abbey. Ingulph having found a fa¬
vourable opportunity, prefented his men and money,
to his prince, who received him very gracioufly; fome
part of the former affedion for him reviving in his -
bofom. In confequence of this he raifed him to the
government of the rich abbey of Croyland in Lincoln-
ftiire, A. D. 1076* in which-he-fpent the laffi 34 years.
of his life, governing that fociety with great prudence*
and prote&ing their pofleffions from the rapacity of
the neighbouring barons by the favour of his royal
mafter. The lovers of Englifh hiftory and antiquities
are much indebted to this learned abbot, for his ex¬
cellent hiftory of, the abbey of Croyland, from its
foundation, A. D. 664, to A. D- 1091, into which
he hath introduced much-of the general hiftory of the
kingdom, with a variety of curious anecdotes that are
nowhere elfe to be found. Inguiph died of the gout,
at his. abbey,. A. H. 1J 09, in the 79th year of his,
age, .
INHALER, in medicine, a machine for breathing
in warm fteams into the lungs, recommended by Mr
Mudge- in the cure of the catarrhous cough. The
body of the inftrument hblds about a, pint ; and the
handle, which is fixed to the fide of it, is hollow. la
the lower part of the veflel, where it is foldered to the
handle, is a hole, by means of which, and three others
on the upper part of the handle, the water, when it is
poured into the inhaler, will rife to the fame level in
both. To the middle of the. cover a flexible tube
about five or fix inches long is fixed, with a mouth-piece
of wood or ivory. Underneath the cover there is a.
valve fixed, which opens and (huts the communication
between the upper and internal part of the inhaler
and the external air. When the mouth is applied ta
the end of the tube In the aft of infpiration, the air
nifties into the handle, and up through the body of
warm water, and the lungs become, confequently* .
filled with hot vapours. In expiration, the mouth,
being ftill fixed to the tube, the breath, together
with the fleam on the furface of the water in the
inhaler, is forced up through the valve in the co¬
ver. In this manner, therefore, the whole aft of
refpiration is performed through the inhaler, with¬
out the neceffity, in the aft of expiration, of either
breathing through the nofe, or removing the pipe from
the mouth.
INHERITANCE, a perpetual right or intereft
in lands, invefted in a perfon and his heirs. See
Descent.
INHIBITION, a writ to inhibitor forbid ajudgq
from farther proceeding in a caufe depending before
him.
Sometimes prohibition and inhibition are put toge¬
ther, as of the fame import; but inhibition is moft
commonly a writ ifluing out of a higher court-chriftiaa
to
TNT
C 229 T
Ssfinma- to a lower; and prohibition out of the king’s court to
l1™?.’ an inferior court.
, ^ 10 Inhibition, in Scots law, a diligence obtained at
the fuit of a. creditor againft his debtor, prohibiting
him from felling or contrafting debts upon his eftate to
the creditor’s prejudice.
INHUMATION, in chemiftry, a method of di-
gefting fubftances, by burying the veflel in which they
are contained in horfe-dung or earths
INJECTION, the forcibly throwing certain liquid
medicines into the body by means of a fyringe, tube,
clyfter-pipe, or the like.
Injection, in furgery, the throwing in fome liquor
or medicine into a vein opened by incifion. This
praftice, and that of transfuiion, or the conveying the
arterial blood of one man, or other animal, into ano¬
ther, were once greatly, praftifed, but are now laid
afide.
Anatomical Injection, the filling the velfels of a hu¬
man, or other animal body, with fome coloured fub-
ftance, in order to make their figures and ramifica¬
tions vifible.
I. The bell account of the method of inje&ing the
fanguiferous vcffels of animals^ is that by the late Dr
Monro, publifhed in the Medical Effays, vol. i. p. 79.
‘ The inftrument with which the liquor is commonly
I N J
ken off from the pipe fixed in the veffel, fome of the Injeftiom
inje&ion would be loft, and what was expofed to the' '
air would cool and harden ; therefore fome of the pipes
ought to have a refledted curve tube coming out of
their fide, with a valve fo difpofed, that no liquor
can come from the ftraight pipe into the crooked one,
but, on the contrary, may be allowed to pafs from the
crooked to the ftraight one.: the inje&or then, taking
care to keep the extremity of the refledted pipe im-
merfed in the liquor to be injedled, may, as foon ashe
has pufhed out the firft fyringeful, fill it again by
only drawing back the fucker; and, repeating this
quickly, will be able to throw feveral fyringefuls into
the veffels.
“ All thefe different forts of pipes are commonly
made of brafs.
“ The liquors thrown into the veffels, with a defign
to fill the fmall capillary tubes, are either fuch as
will incorporate with water, or fuch as are oily;
both kinds have their advantages and inconveniences ;
which I Ihall mention in treating of each, and ftiall
conclude with that which I have found by experience
to fucceed beft.
“ Aill the different kinds of glue, or ichthyocolla,
fyths, common glue, &c. diffolved and pretty much
diluted, mix eafily with the animal-fluids, which is of
thrown into the veffels is a tight eafy going fyringe of great advantage, and will pafs into very fmall veffela
brafs, to which feveral ftiort pipes are fitted, and can
be fixed by fcrews, the other extremities of thefe pipes
being of different diameters without any fcrew, that
they may Hide into other pipes, which are fo exaftly
adapted to them at one end, that when they are preffed
a little together, nothing can pafs between them : and
becaufe their cohefion is not fo great as to refill the
of a well-chofen and prepared fubjedt, and often an*
fwer the intention fufficiently, where the defign is on¬
ly to prepare fome very fine membrane, on which no
veffels can be expedted to be feen fo large as the eye
can difcover whether the tranfverfe fedlions of the vef¬
fels would be circular, or if their fides are collapfed.
But when the larger veffels are alfo to be prepared.
pulhing force of the injedlion, which would drive off there is a manifeft difadvantage. to the ufefulnefs and
this fecond pipe, and fpoil the whole operation; there¬
fore the extremity of this fecond fort of pipes, which
receives the fisfl: kind, is formed cn the ouffide into a
fquare, bounded behind and before by a riling circle,
which hinders the key that clofely grafps the fquare
beauty of the preparation ; for if nothing but the glu¬
tinous liquor is injedled, one cannot keep a fubjeft fo
long as the glue takes of becoming firm ; and there¬
fore, in diffedling the injedled part, feveral veffels will
probably be cut and emptied. To prevent this, one
part from Hiding backwards or forwards ; or a bar of may indeed either foak the part well in alcohol, which
brafs mull Handout from each fide of it to be held with
the fingers. The other extremity of each of thefe fe-
cond fort of pipes is of different diameter; and near it
a circular notch, capable of allowing a thread, to be
coagulates the glue ; but then it becomes fo brittle,
that the lead handling makes it crack ; and if the pre¬
paration is to be kept, the larger veffels appear quite
Ihrivelled, when the watery part of the injedlion is
funk into it, is formed ; by this, the thread tying the evaporated : or the efflux of the injedlion may be pre-
-I e:„u ...:n l. vented, by carefully tying every veffel before we are
obliged to cut it; ftill, however, that does not hinder
the veffels to contradl when the glue is drying. If, to
obviate thefe difficulties, the glutinous liquor ihould
firft be injedled in fuch quantity as the capillary veffels
will contain, and-the common oily or waxy injedtion is
pulhed in afterwards to keep the larger veffels diftended,
the wax is very apt to harden before it has run far
enough; the two forts of liquors never mifs to mix ir¬
regularly, and the whole appears interrupted and bro¬
ken by their foon feparating from each other ; which
ployed in making the injedlion mull either continue, is Hill more remarkable afterwards, when the watery
all that while in the fame pofture ; or, if the fyringe particles are evaporated.
veffel at which the injedtion is to be made, v/ill not be
allowed to Hide off.
Befides this form defcribed, common to all this
fecond fort of pipes, we ought to have fome of the
larger ones, with an additional mechanifm, for particu¬
lar purpofes; as, for inftance, when the larger veffels
are injedled, the pipe faftened into the veffel ought ei¬
ther to have a valve or a ftop:cock, that may be turn¬
ed at pleafure, to hinder any thing to get out from
the veffel by the pipe ; otherwife, as the injedlion, in
fuch a cafe, takes time to coagulate, the people em-
istoo foon taken off, the injedled liquor runs out, and
the larger veffels are emptied. When the fyringe is
not large enough to hold at once all the liquor necef-
fary to fill the veffels, there is a neceffity of filling it
again. If, in. order to do this, .the fyringe was to be ta-.
Spirits of wine coloured mixes with water and
oils, and fo far is proper to fill the very fmaller vef¬
fels with: but, on the other hand, it coagulates any
of our liquor it meets, which fometimes blocks up the
veffels fo much, that no more injedlion will pafs ,* then
i n j r 230 ] 1 n j
fnjeition. It fcarce will fufpend fome of the powders that prove
the moft durable colours ; and as it entirely evaporates,
the veflels muft become very fmall; and the fmall quan¬
tity of powder left, having nothing to ferve for connec¬
ting its particles together, generally is feen fo inter¬
rupted, that the fmall ramifications of velTels rather
have the appearances of random fcratches of a pencil,
than of regular continued canals.
“ Melted tallow, with a little mixture of oil of tur¬
pentine, may fometimes be made to fill very fmall vef-
ieis, and keeps the larger ones at a full ftretch ; but
where any quantity of, the animal liquors are ftill in
the veffels, it is liable to Hop too loon, and never can
be introduced into numbers of veffels which other li¬
quors enter; and it is fo brittle, that very little hand¬
ling makes it crack, and thereby renders the prepara¬
tion very ugly (a).
ft The method I have always fucceeded belt with,
in making what may be called /ui/i/e or fine injeaions,
is, firft to throw in coloured oil of turpentine,|in fuch a
quantity as might fill the very fmall veffels ; and, imme¬
diately after, to pufh the common coarfe inje&ion into
the larger ones. The oil is fubtile enough to enter
rather fmaller capillary tubes than any colouring can ;
its refinous parts, which remain after the fpirituous
are evaporated, give a fufficient adhefion to the par¬
ticles of the fubfiance with which it is. coloured, to
keep them from feparating, and it intimately incor¬
porates with the coarfer injeaion ; by which, if the
injeftion is rightly managed, it is impofiible for the
fharpeft eye to difeover that two forts have been made
ufe of (b). .
“ All the liquors with which the veflels of animals
are artificially filled, having very faint, and near the
fame colours, would not all appear in the very fmall
veflels, becaufe of their becoming entirely diaphanous,
without a mixture of fome fubftance to impart its co¬
lour to them ; and where feveral forts of even the lar-
geft veflels of any part were filled, one fort could not
be diftinguifhed from another, unlefs the colour of each
was different; which has KEewife a good effeft in
making preparations more beautiful. Wherefore ana-
tomilts have made ufe of a variety of . fuch fubftances,
according to their different fancies, or intentions ; fuch
as gamboge, faffron, ink, burnt ivory, &c. which can
be eafily procured from painters. My defign. being
only to confider thofe that are fit to be mixed with the
injefting liquors propofed to fill capillary veffels, which
is fcarce ever to be done in any other, except the branch¬
es of the arteries and of fome veins, I fhall confine
myfelf to the common colours employed to thefe laft
named two forts of veflels, which colours are red, green,
and fometimes blue, without mentioning the others,
which require very little choice.
“ Anatomifls have, I imagine, propofed to imitate Injefftioa;
the natural colours of the arteries and veins in a living ^ "" ‘
creature, by filling the arteries with a red fubftance,
and the veins with a blue or green: from which, how¬
ever, there are other advantages, fuch as the ftrong
refle&ion which fuch bodies make of the rays of light,
and the unaptnefs moft fuch bodies have to tranfmit
thefe fame rays, without at leaft a confiderable reflec¬
tion of the rays peculiar to themfelves; or, in other
words, their unfitnefs to become completely pellucid ;
without which, the very fine veflels, after being in-
je&ed, would ftill be imperceptible. The animal or
vegetable fubftances made ufe of for colouring injec¬
tions, fuch as chochineal, laque, rad. auchufit, brazil¬
wood, indigo, &c. have all one general fault of being
liable to run into little knots which flop fome of the
veflels; their colour fades fooner when kept dry; they
more eafily yield their tin&ure when the parts are pre-
ferved in a liquor ; and rats, mice, and infedts, will
take them for food ; for which reafons; though I have
frequently fucceede/i in injefting them, I rather prefer
the mineral kind, fuch as minium or vermilion for red;
of which this laft is, in my opinion, the bell, becaufe
it gives the brighteft colour, and is commonly to be
bought finely levigated. The green-coloured powder
generally ufed is verdigreafe ; but I rather choofe that
preparation of it called dlflilled verdigreafe ; becaufe its
colour is brighter, and it does not fo often run into
fmall knots as the common verdigreafe, but diflblves in
the oily liquors.
“ The method of preparing the injeftion compofed
of thefe materials, is to take for the fine one, a pound
of clear oil of turpentine, which is gradually poured on
three ounces of vermilion, or diftilled verdigreafe finely
powdered, or rather well levigated by grinding on
marble; ftir them well with a fmall wooden fpatula till
they are exaftly mixed, then ftrain all thro’ a fine linen
rag. The feparation of the grofler particles is, how¬
ever, rather better made, by pouring fome ounces of
the oil upon the powder, and, after ftirring them to¬
gether ftrongly, flop rubbing with the fpatula for a
fecond or fo, and pour off into a clean veffel the oil
with the vermilion or verdigreafe fufpended in it; and
continue this fort of operation till you obferve no
more of the powder come off; and all that remains is
granulated. The coarfer injeftion is thus prepared :
Take tallow, 1 pound; wax, bleached white, 5 oun¬
ces ; fallad oil, 3 ounces; melt them in a flullet put
over a lamp : then add Venice turpentine, 2 ounces;
and as foon as this is diffolved, gradually fprinkle in
of vermilion or verdigreafe prepared, 3 ounces; then
pafs all through a clean, dry, warmed linen-cloth,
to feparate all the groffer particles ; and, when you
defign to make it run far into the veffels, fome oil
(a) Rigierus (IntroduS. in notiiiam rerum natur, &c. 4/17, Hague, 1743, titul. Balfamum) gives Ruyfch’s me¬
thod of injefting and preferving animals, which, he fays, Mr Blumentroil, prefident of the Peterfburgh aca¬
demy affured him was copied from the receipt given in Ruyfch’s own hand-writing to the Czar. According to
this receipt, melted tallow, coloured with vermilion, to which, in the fummer, a little white wax was added,
was Ruyfch’s injefting ceracia materies.
(b) Mr Ranby’s injefting matter, as publifhed by Dr Hales, {Heemaji. Ex. 21.), is white rofin and tallow,
of each two ounces, melted and drained through linen ; to which was added three ounces of vermilion, or finely
ground indigo, which was firft well rubbed with eight ounces of turpentine varniih.
I N J [ 231 ] I N J
trjedlion. of turpentine may be added immediately before it is
ufe(J.
“ The next thing to be confidered, and indeed what
chiefly contributes to the fuccefs of injections, is the
choice and preparation of the fubjeCt whofe veffels are
to be filled.
“ In choofing a fit fubjeCt, take thefe few general
rules: 1. The younger the creature to be inje&ed is,
the injeCtion will, caterls paribus, go far the ft, and vice
verfa. 2. The more the creature’s fluids have been dif-
folved and exhaufted in life, the fuccefs of the operation
will be greater. 3. The lefs folid the part defigned to
be injeCted is, the more veflels will be filled. 4. The
more membranous and tranfparent parts are, the injec¬
tion fhows better ; whereas,- in the folid very hard parts
of a rigid old creature, that has died with its veflels
full of thick ftrong blood, it is fcarce poffible to injeCt
great numbers of fmall veflels.
“ Therefore, in preparing a fubjeCt for injeCting,
the principal things to be aimed at, are, To diflblve
the fluids, empty the veflels of them, relax the folids,
and prevent the injection’s coagulating too foon. To
anfwer all thefe intentions, authors have propofed to
injeCt tepid or warm water by the arteries,' till it re¬
turns clear and untinged by the veins, and the veflels
are thereby fo emptied of blood, that all the parts ap¬
pear white ; after which, they puflt out the water by
forcing in air; and, laftly, by prefling with their hands,
they fqueeze the air alfo out. After this preparation,
one can indeed injeCt very fubtilely ; but generally there
are inconveniences attend it. For in all the parts where
there is a remarkable tunica cellulofa, it never mifies to
be full of the water, which is apt to fpoil any parts de¬
figned to be preferved either wet or dry ; and fame
particles of the water feldom mifs to be mixed in the
larger as well as fmaller veflels with the oily injeCtion,
and make it appear cflfcontinued and broken: where¬
fore it is much better to let this injedion of water a-
lone, if it can be poffibly avoided, and rather to mace¬
rate the body or part to be inje&ed a confiderable time
in water, made fo warm (c) as one can hold his hand
eafily in it; taking care to keep it of an equal warmth
all the time, by taking out fame of the water as it cools,
and pouring in hot water in its place ; by which the
vefiels will be fufficiently foftened and relaxed, the blood
will be melted down, and the injeCtion can be in no
danger of hardening too foon ; whereas, if the water
is too hot, the veflels fhrink, and the blood coagu¬
lates. From time to time we fqueeze out the liquids
as much as pofiible at the cut veflel by which the in¬
jection is to be thrown in (d). ' The time this mace¬
ration is to be continued, is always in proportion to
the age of the fubjeCt, the bulk and thicknefs of what
we defign to injeCt, and the quantityof blood we ob-
ferve in the veffels, which can only be learned by ex -
perience; at lead, however, care ought to be taken, Injeafo
that the whole fubjeCt, or part macerated, is per--—v”
feCtly well warmed all through ; and that we conti¬
nue the preffure with our hands till no more blood can
be brought away, whatever pofition we put the fub¬
jeCt in.
When the fyringe, injections, and fubjeCt, are all
in readinefs, one of the fecond fort of pipes is chofen,
as near to the diameter of the veffel by which the injec¬
tion is to be thrown as pofiible ; for if the pipe is too
large, it is almoft needlefs to tell it cannot be introdu¬
ced. If the pipe is much fmaller than the veffel, it is
fcarce polfible to tie them fo firmly together, but, by
the wrinkling of the coats of the veffel, fome fmall
paffage will be left, by which part of the injeClion will
fpring back on the injeCtor in the time of the opera¬
tion, and the neareft veflels remain afterwards undi-
ftended, by the lofs of the quantity that oozes out.
Having chofen a fit pipe, it is introduced at the cut
orifice of the veffel, or at an incifion made in the fide
of it; and then a waxed thread being brought round
the veffel, as near to its coats as pofiible, by the help
of a needle, or a flexible eyed probe, the furgeon’s knot
is made with the thread, and it is drawn as firmly as
the thread can allow ; taking care that it lhall be funk
into the circular notch of the pipe all round, other-
wife it will very' eafily Aide off, and the pipe will be
brought out probably in the time of the operation,
which ruins it.
“ If there have been large veflels cut, which com¬
municate with the veffels you defign to injeCl, or if
there are any others proceeding from the fame trunk,
which you do not refolve to fill, let them be all care¬
fully now tied up, to fave the injedled liquor, and
make the operation fucceed better in the view you then
have.
“ When all this is done, both forts of irjeftions are
to be warmed over a lamp, taking care to,ftir them
conftantly, left the colouring powder fall to the bot¬
tom and burn (e). The oil of turpentine needs be
made no warmer than will allow' the finger to remain
in it, if the fubjedl has been previoufly well warmed
in water; when the maceration has not been made,
the oilj ought to be fcalding hot, that it may wayn
all the parts w’hich are defigned to be inje&ed. The
coarfe inje&ion ought to be brought near to a boiling.
In the mean time, having wrapt feveral folds of linerv
round the parts of the fyringe which the operator is
to gripe, and fecured the linen with thread, the fyringe
is to be made very hot by fucking boiling water feve*
ral times up (f), and the pipe within the veffel is to
be warmed by applying a fponge dipped in boiling wa¬
ter to it (e).
“ After all is ready, the fyringe being cleared of
the water, the inje&or fills it with the finer inje&ion ;
andi
(c) Ruyfch orders a previous maceration for a day or two in cold water; which muft have a better effe& im
melting the blood than warm water has.
(d) When Ruyfch intended to injecf the whole body, he put one pipe upwards,.and another downwards, in
the defcending aorta.
( e) Ruyfch melts his tallow by the heat of warm water, into which he puts the veffel containing the in¬
jection.
(f) He warms his fyringe by laying it on hot coals.
(g) He warms his pipe, by putting the body, after the pipe is fixed in the veflel, into hot water. When.
thi®
I N J
[ 232 ]
I N J
tinclly feen. The injedling of the vefTels is likewife Injnaion.
rendered more difficult in the open air by the cafe 1 
with which the humidity is evaporated from them. It
will likewife be neceflary to incline the part in various
wrays to the light, as fome of the veflels' are moll ea»
fily difcoverable in one pofitio'n and fome in another.
The la&eal trunks under the peritioneal coats of
the inteftines, and the lymphatics on the external
furface of the liver, &c. particularly require this
Jnjeftron. an(J then introducing the pipe of the fyringe into that
jn the veffel, he preffes them together, and either with
one hand holds this laft pipe firm, with the other gripes
the fyringe, and wuth his bread pulhes the fucker; or,
-giving the pipe in the veffel to be held by an affiftant, in
any of the ways mentioned in the defeription of thefe
forts of pipes, he gripes the fyringe with one hand, and
puffies the fucker with the other, and confequently
throws in the injedtion, which ought to be done flow- „   r.... ]   „„„
ly, and with no great force, but proportioned to the method. He difeommends the ufe of magnifying
length and bulk of the part to be injeded and ftrength glaffes. “ l am perfuaded (fays he), thatthofe who
of the veffels. The quantity of this fine injedion to attempt to find them through this medium, will not
be thrown in is much to be learned by ufe. The only -acquire that vifus eruditus which is obtained to a fur-
rule I could ever fix to myfelf in this matter was to priiing degn e by thofe who have been much experien-
continue pulhing till I was fenfible of a Hop which -ced in injeding lymphatic vtffels. A lateral light is
would require a confiderable force to overcome. But likewife preferable to an horizontal, or even to an
this will not hold where all the branches of any veffel oblique Iky-light.
-are not injeded; as for inftance, when the veffels of “ The fubjeds muft be laid upon a table of fufficient
the thorax only are to be injeded : for the aorta bears height, which might be contrived with a ledge fixed
too great a proportion to the branches fent from it, to the table in fuch a manner as to be water proof f
and therefore lefs fine injedion is requifite here. As which would be ufeful for preventing the quickfilver,
foon as that flop is felt, the fucker sf the fyringe is to which is aim oft always neceffary for^injeding thefe
be drawn back, that the neareft large veffels may be veffels, from being loft. The furface of the table ihould
-emptied. Then the fyringe is taken off, emptied of liktwife be hollowed, fo that the mercury which falls
the fine injedion, and filled with the coarfer, which is may be colleded in the middle, where an hole with
to be puftied into the veffels quickly and forcibly, ha- a ftopper may be made to take out occalionally the
ving always regard to the ftrength and firmnefs of the quickfilver uhich colleds. Such a table would alfo be
.veffels, bulk, &c. of the part. rContinue to thruft the convenient for holding water for the purpofe of fteep-
fucker, till a full flop, or a fort of pulh backwards, ing membranous parts which are frequently to be in¬
is felt, when you muft beware of thrufting any more, jeded; and which, from being expofed to the air, be-
©therwife fome of the veffels will be burfted, and the come dry; which alfo it is inconvenient and hazardous
whole, or a confiderable fhare of the preparation you to move into water during the time of operation,
defigned, will be fpoiled by the extravafation, but ra- Even a common table with a hole cut in the middle
ther immediately ftop the pipe by the turn-cock, and may anfwer the purpofe: the hole may be round or
take out the fyringe to clean it, and allow fufficient fquare according to the fancy of the anatomirt; but
time for the coarfe injedion to coagulate fully, before the table muft be conftruded of fuch materials as are
any part is diffeded. Ruyfch,immediately after throw- not liable to warp in warm water. Should the anato-
. ing in the injedion, put the body into cold water, and
rftirred it continually for fome time, to prevent the ver-
;niilion to feparate from the tallow.”
II. The injedion of the lymphatic fy item is much more
..difficult than that of the fanguiferous, on account of
-the extreme fmallnefs of the veffels; fo that till very
lately it was almoft‘quite impradicable. Methods in-
-deed had been attempted for this purpofe; but by rea-
-fon of the improper form of the inftruments, and the
mill not be provided with either of thefe tables, the
parts muft be laid in a tray or earthen dilh, that the
quickfilver may be faved.”
The materials for injeding thefe veffels are only
quickfilver, and dhe ceraceous or coarfe injedion of
anatomifts; the former being always ufed in injeding
the lymphatics and ladeals, it being almoft impoffible
to fill them with another fluid in the dead body. The
ceraceous xnjediqn is chiefly ufed for the thoracic
inferior fkill of anatomifts in former times, we may dud; and in fome particular inftances, where the
juftly look upon this as one of the moft modern im¬
provements in anatomy.
The firft thing to be confidered, when the lympha¬
tics are to be injeded, is a proper method of difeover-
•ing them ; for this is by no means an eafy matter, on
lymphatic trunks have been found larger than the
ordinary fize, a coarfe injaftion has been made ufe
of.
Injedions of the lymphatics may be made’ even
while the animal is alive, and that without any great
account of their fmallnefs and tranfparency.—To find cruelty,, by feeding it with milk previous to its being
.out thefe veffels, the fubjed muft be viewed in a proper
place, where the light is neither very ftrong nor very
•weak. Mr Sheldon, who has written a treatife upon
this fubjed, recommends a winter forenoon from ten to
two ; it being chiefly in the winter feafon that anato-
*nical preparations are made, and becaufe at that time
ftrangled. Of all the barbarous methods of opening
the animal while alive, the m'jft ufeful feems to be that
of Mr Hunter, who direds to perforate the fmall in¬
teftines, and throw in ftarch-water with folutions of
mufk, or indigo and ftarch water. “ In a word (fays
Mr Sheldon), any gelatinous fluids rendered opaque
of the day the light is more clear and fteady. He with fuch colours as will be abforbed, are extremely
Ays alfo from his own experience, that the light paff-
ing through the glafs of a window is better for this
purpofe than the open air, as the veffels are more di(-
N J i66.
ufeful for experiments of this kind ; for much more
may be feen by examining the veffels diftended with a
coloured fluid from natural abforption, than by ana¬
tomical
this to be is done, a cork ought to be put into the pipe, to prevent the water getting into the veffel that is to
jbe injeded.
I N J
Itije&ion. tomtcal injeftion praftifed in the dead body.” Liber-
“ kuhn firft difcovered the ampullulas by feeding chil¬
dren in whom the l^fteal glands were obftrufted pre¬
vious to their death with milk; by which means
not only the la&eal trunks became diftended with
chyle, but • likewife the ampullula;. Thus abforbing
mouths of the lafteal veffels were difcovered by Liber-
kuhn ; and in a fimilar manner Afellius difcovered the
lafteals themfelves. Thus alfo Euftachius difcovered
the thoracic duft in a horfe; and Mr Hewfon traced
[ 233 1
I N J
nine inches and an half in length, and half an inch wide Injedion.'
where wideft. The collar is a full quarter of an inch —v——<
broad, and three quarters of an inch long; a Reel piece
and capillary tube being fcrewed to it as in the other.
The lancets are to be exquifitely fharp, in order to
cut into the lymphatic veffels. The latter are eafdy
inflated by the fmall fdver blow-pipes ufually put up
in the differing cafes by the London mathematical in-
ftrument makers r differing knives, fine-pointed fcif-
fars, accurately made diffefting forceps, with ftraight
.•the la&eal veffels, lymphatics, and thoracic duft, in or crooked needles, are likewife fubllituted with ad-
birds, by making ligatures on the root of the mefen-
tery, and other parts, which had been previoufly fed
with barley. Mr Hunter likewife was enabled to ob¬
serve the la&eals of a crocodile when diftended with
. chyle.
vantage, as not being affefted by the quickfilver.
We muft next confider the proper fubje&s for injec¬
tion. Mr Sheldon recommends, that they fhould be
as free from fat as poflible : he has always found in
the human fubjeft thofe who died univerfally dfopfi-
The coarfe injedtion for the lymphatics is made of cal, or of an afcites or anafarca, to be the beft, for the
mutton-fuet and yellow refin, in the proportion of two
thirds of refin to one of fuet. If required of a thick¬
er confiftence, we may add a fmall quantity of pure
wax; if of a foftcr quality, we may augment the quan¬
tity of fuet: Orpiment or king’s yellow is generally
made ufe of; though others are equally proper, provi¬
ded they be fine enough.
The inftruments neceffary for inje&ing the lympha¬
tic veffels are the injefting tube and pipes, lancets,
blow-pipes, knives, fciffars, forceps, needles, and thread.
The old inje&ingtube has been found in a manner en-
following reafons, viz. in fuch there is little c
animal oil, and but a very fmall quantity of red blood;
both of which, when they occur in great abundance,
very much impede the difcovery of the lymphatic vef¬
fels ; but when the cellular veffels are loaded with wa¬
ter, the abforbents are more readily traced, and with
lefs rifle of wounding them in diffe&ion : the prepa¬
rations alfo, particularly the dried ones, are more lad¬
ing. This circumftance is found to be of moft confe-
quence in preparing the abforbent veffels of the trunk
and extremities of the human fubjed. Of all the vif-
tirely ufelefs, the pipe being fixed in a glafs tube two cera in young fubje&s, only the liver and lungs can be
or three feet long ; which is one of the reafons why,
before the time of Hewlon, fo little of the lymphatic
ije&ed with fuccefs ; and thefe may be fuccefsfully
injedled even in the foetus. It will be moft pro-
fyftem could be injedted. Tubes of fuch a length are per to begin the operation upon the fubjedl imme-
entirely unmanageable by one perfon, and it is impof- diately after death, as lymph or chyle will then be
fible to perform the operation properly with two. To more readily found in the veffels, than when we
perform it in the beft manner, the inftrument fhould
be held in the hand like a pencil or pen. The inftru-
longer time. In preparing the ladleals, previ¬
oufly diftended with milk in the living fubjedt, it is
ments ufed by our author are tubes made either of proper to have the inteftines and mefentery plunged
glafs or of brafs ; which, when filled with mercury,
rnay be held in the hand like a pen : a glafs tube,
however, is preferable to the metallic one. It is fome-
(with the ligature upon the root of the latter) into
redtified fpirit of wine. This procefs will coagulate
the chyle ; and the fluid being opaque, the veffels will
what in the fhape of a trumpet; fix inches and an half be beautifully feen when we mean to prepare the parts,
In length, an inch and an half broad where broadeft,
and three eighths of an inch where narroweft. A
by preferving them in proof-fpirit as wet fpecimens:
‘ In this way (fays Mr Sheldon) I have made in the
collar of fteel half an inch broad and three qqarters of dog one of the moft natural preparations that can be
an inch long is cemented to this pipe, and a fmaller feen of the ladleals injedled from their orifices by the
tube of the fame metal is fcrewed upon the end of the natural abforption.” We may alfo prepare the ladlea's
-collar; the whole terminating in a capillary tube about by the method ufed by Mr Hunter, already mention-
an inch in length. This laft is the moft difficult part
©f the whole work to execute ; it fhould be drilled out
ed; by which they will be very confpicuous, by the
indigo abforbed from the cavity of the inteftines. By
of a folid piece of metal, and not made of a thin bit of tying the thoracic du& near its infertion into the angle
plate foldered, as thefe are apt to turn ragged in the
edges, and the folder is alfo liable to be deftroyed by
the mercury. Thofe ufed by Mr Sheldon were made
formed between the fubclavian and jugular veins on
the left fide, or by tying thefe veins on both fides,
may diftend almoft all the abforbents of the animal.
by drilling a fmall hole lengthwife through a bit of Thus we are enabled to purfue thefe veffels in many
well-tempered wire. It is cleaned by means of a very
fmall piece of fteel-wire capable of paffing through the
bore of the tube. This ought tc be annealed left it
jhould break ; in which cafe the broken bit could not
eafily be got out. Very fmall tubes may be made of
glafs drawn out as fine as we choafe; and though very
apt to break, they are eafily repaired. They ought
parts where they have not yet been difcovered, where
they can fcarcely be traced by injeftion, and even in
fome parts where it is utterly impoffible for the injec¬
tions to reach them.
Another method fometimes fuccefsfully ufed by our
author, was firft praftifed by Malpighi. In this the
part is to be fteeped in water, and the liquid changed
to be very thin, that they may be eafily melted. Some- as long as it appears tinged with blood ; fuffering the
times it has been found convenient to fit the collar parts afterwards to remain in the fame water till the
with a fteel ftop-cock. putrefa&ion begins. As foon as this begins to take
The brafs tube reprefented by our author is about place, the air which is extricated will diftend the lym-
Vol. IX. Part I. G g phatics.
I N J [ 2,34 ] I N J
?nje<fthn; pJiatfca, fo thst they may be eafily feen, and then in*
"“"’■v""’-' je£led with quickfilver. It is, however, remarkable,
that this method will not in general anfwer fo well in
the human fpecies as in quadrupeds; the air having
never pafled by putrefa&ion into the human la&eals in
any of the fubje&s which Mr Sheldon tried, though
it will take place in thofe of the horfe or afs, and
many other animals : drawing of thelafteals may like-
wife be made in this method to very great advantage.
In feme parts ef the human body alfo, this method
may be employed to advantage; as the liver, heart,
&c. It may likewife be ufeful to make ligatures on
the large trunks of the velfels previous to the macera¬
tion, that thus the air may be confined as foon as it is
extricated from the coats by putrefaction. Our au¬
thor adds, that if ligatures were made upon the wriils
and legs in articuh mortis, or immediately after death,
the lymph would be flopped in the veffels, the latter
would become diftended, and might be injeCted with
the greateft facility by the common method after ta¬
king off" the ligature. Mr Sheldon in fuch a cafe re¬
commends the tourniquet. “ I have reafon (fays he)
to believe, that abforption goes on as long as mufcular
irritability remains; which laft continues a confiderable
time after the general life of the animal is loft.” On
this, however, we cannot forbear to remark, that ma¬
king ligatures for fuch purpofes upon a human crea¬
ture in articulo mortis, or even immediately after death,
favours fo much of barbarity, that we cannot think it
will be often praftifed. In fome cafes, even in the
dead fubjeft, ligatures are ufeful; as when we are
fearching for the lymphatics in the fingers and toes.
In theft it is ufeful to ftroke up the parts with the
finger, by which mtans the fmall quantity of lymph
remaining in the veffels will be forced upwards, and
flopped by the ligature ; after which the veflels may
be eafily injefted with quickfilver, as already men¬
tioned.
To inje& the veffels, we muft open one or more of
them, direding the point of the lancet almoft always
towards the trunk or trunks of the veffels, and taking
care not to carry the incifion through the oppofite
fide. If the veffels happen to lie under the perito¬
neum as the laCteals, or under the pleura as the lym¬
phatics of the lungs, we may cut into their cavity
through thefe membranes. In injefting thofe of the
extremities, however, and in many other parts of the
body, it is abfolutely neceffary to diffeCt the veffels we
defign to fill away from the fat and reticular fubftance
before we attempt to open them with the lancet. The
tube with the pipe affixed to it is previoufly to be fill¬
ed with mercury: the anatomift then inflates the veffel
by means of the blow-pipe, takes the tube from the
affiftant, and introduces the fmall tube into the punfture.
In this operation it will be found neceffary not to
carry the tube farther into the veffel than is fufficient
to give the mercury a free paffage; for if we introduce
it farther, the paffage of the mercury will be impeded
by the pipe being pufhed againft the fide of the veffel.
Should not the fluid be able to effeCt a paffage, it will
then be neceffary to prefs upon the fqrface of it in the
tube with our fingers. If it defeend freely, and with¬
out any of it palling between the fide of the veffel and
finall pipe, we have only to fill up the tube with mer¬
cury as the latter defeends; but if it gets out, we muft
then tie the veffel. This, however, Ihould always be fi'je&'on.
avoided if poflible; becaufe, if not very dexteroufly per-
formed, the operator will be apt to feparate the tube
from the veffel; and on this account the pim&ure
ought always to be very fmall, no larger indeed than
is neceffary to allow the pipe to get in with difficulty.
As the injeAion proceeds, the preffure upon the fur-
face of the quickfilver muft be carried on higher and
higher in the courfe of the lymphatic, till we come
near the gland or glands into which the veflels termi¬
nate ; otherwife we fhall feldom get the cells of the
glands, ®r the veffels emerging from the oppofite fide
of the glands, well injefted- In injeCting the lympha¬
tic veffels of the extremities, it will be ufeful to raife
the part where the pipe is inferted higher than the
other end of the limb, and to make the affiftant prefj
with his hands along the flein in the courfe of the
veffels, which will favour the progrefs of the injection.
When the veffels are fufficiently filled, which may be
known by the fwelling of them, and by the refiftancc
the mercury meets with, the affiftant paffes a ligature
about the vtffel and ties it above the punCture before-
the anatomift withdraws the injeCtion-pipe.
The method of injeCting the larger trunks or tho¬
racic duCt with the coarfe injeCtion is exaCtly fimilar to
that already deferibed for the fanguiferous veffels.
Mr Sheldon, however, recommends the ufe of fome
pipes of a particular cenftruCtion invented by himfelf.
The improvement confifts in {haping the ends of the
pipes like a pen ; taking care to make the edges and
point blunt, to avoid cutting the veffel when we intro¬
duce them. Thus much larger tubes than thofe com¬
monly in ufe may be admitted ; and there is no occa-
fion to make any bulb or rifing near the extremity of
thefe fmall pipes to prevent the thread from flipping
off: -for this will certainly hinder us from inferting
pipes of fuch diameter as might otherwife be done.
Having thus fliown the method of injeCiing the
lymphatics, our author next proceeds to deferibe the
method of differing and preparing them either for
immediate demonftration, or for prefervation f
i for any
length of time. In the diffe<ftion, great care is requi-
fite, on account of the exquifite thirtnefs of their coats:
but if this fliould happen by accident, it will then be
neceffary to introduce the pipe at the ruptured part 5
and having fecured it above and below with ligatures,
to fill it again as before directed. Our author recom¬
mends, for the purpofe ofdiffedion, fuch knives as are
made ufe of by the Germans and French in tracing
the nerves. They muft be made thin in the blade
like lancets, and not much larger. A variety of dif¬
ferent ftiaped blades, fome Angle and others double-
edged, will be neceffary for various parts of the body ;
the fault of the common differing knives being that
they are too thick in the blade, which makes them
foon blunt, and occafions the trouble of perpetual
grinding, which is not the cafe with thofe juft recom¬
mended. A {harp-pointed forceps is neceffary, in or¬
der to lay fall hold of the fmalleft portion of cellular
fubftance ; but they ought not to be fo {harp as to en¬
danger the pun&uring of the veffels: nor ffiould they
by any means be bowed or ftiff in the fpring, to pre¬
vent the fingers of the operator from being wearied in
the operation. They fliould alfo be made in fuch a
manner as to hold large as well as fmall portions of ie-
ticuk*
I N J [ 235 ] INI
'fnje&Ion. ticular fubftance. For diffeftlons of this kind, fine-
pointed fciffars and lancets fixed in handles ate fome-
times neceffary ; and it is frequently of ufe to plunge
the parts into water, in order to loofen the reticular
membrane conne&ed with the outfide of the coats of
the veffels; by which means they may be difle&ed
more eafily, and with lefs danger of wounding them.
The blood may be extra&ed by frequently changing
the water. After being inje&ed with quickfilver, the
parts fhould not be allowed to remain long in the wa¬
ter, becaufe the volatile alkali formed by putrefa&ion
is apt to change the colour of the mercury.
The difie&ion being performed, the preparation is
then to be preferved either in a wet or dry ftate, ac¬
cording to its nature. Preparations of the larger parts,
as the trunk or extremities, ftiould be preferved dry;
and to dry them effe&ually, they fhould be expofed to
a free current of air, but not to the rays of the fun ;
and the vefiels fhonld be difplayed in their natural fi-
tuation. When fully dried, they ought then to be
varnifhed over with tranfparent fpirit or copal varnifh ;
which will not only preferve them from infefts, but
render them more beautiful, and the veffels more
eonfpicuous. They fhould then be inclofed in glafs
cafes, where they are to be placed in a horizontal
pofition, and handled as little as poffible.
To make preparations of the thoracic du&, we mufl
in the firft place fill the aorta, vena cava fuperior, and
vena azygos or intercoftalis, with coarfe inje&ion ;
then fill, with the fame, the vefiels below the right
crus or little mufcle of the diaphragm. The duft is
fometimes prepared with quickfilver ; but Mr Sheldon
recommends to anatomifts to make drawings of any
thing new or remarkable in their preparations of the
lymphatic vefiels with quickfilver; as moft of thofe
fpecimens, particularly fach as are dried, become at
laft totally ufelefs by reafon of the drying of the vef¬
fels and the efcape or blackening of the mercury ; or
from the varnifh growing more and more opaque with
age. The quickfilver inje&ion, however, in fome
cafes is very ufeful. Thus, for inftance, if we wifh
to demonftrate the valves in the thoracic du&, or any
other large abforbent veflel, we need only injeft the
vefitls with quickfilver, difleit and dry them, then cut
them open, and let the mercury run out} after which
the valves will appear by making fe&ions in the coats
of the vefiels. This may be done (till better by varnifh-
ing the vefiels three or four times before the fe&ions
are made ; becaufe the varnifh will flrengthen the fides
of the veflel. In wet preparations the valves in the
cavities of thefe parts may likewife be demonftrated
by opening them ; or by inverting the veflels and fuf-
pending them in proof malt-fpirits. Thus the valves
that cover the terminations of the thoracic dud on the
infide of the angle formed between the jugular and
fubclavian veins on the left fide, and thofe which ter-
-minate the lymphatics on the right fide of the neck,
arm, and lungs, may be beautifully demonftrated. Spe¬
cimens of the la&eal vefiels, of the abfovbents of the
heart, lungs, liver, fpleen, diaphragm, kidneys, &c.
maybe kept wet or dry, according to the particular
nature of the preparation or view of the anatomift.
Some preparations are the better for being dried and
afterwards immerfei in vials full of oil of turpentine {
by which means the flefh will be rendered tranfparent,
the veflels diftin&Iy feen, and the vefiels appear ex- Injedfoa.
tremely beautiful. The only difadvantage of this me- ’■ V " 1
thod is, that the parts on which the veflels pafs, do
not at all preferve their natural bulk by reafon of their
fhrinking up ; and as the wet preparations are free
from this inconvenience, Mr Sheldon does not hefitate
at afiigning them a decided fuperiority over the dry
ones.-—Sometimes it is neceflary to fix the preparations
upon ftiff paper or pafteboani, on account of their
weight after being inje&ed with mercury. The paper
or pafteboard on which they are fattened ought to be of
various colours, according to the nature of the prepa¬
ration, in order to form a proper ground for ihowing
the lymphatic veffels. Such fmall preparations as are
preferved in fpirits, or oil of turpentine, may be kept
in bottles well clofed with {toppers; and the larger in
common preparation glaffes. Our author defcribes a
Ample method of (lopping the mouths of thefe prepa¬
ration glafles, by which means the ftopper is rendered
nearly as durable as the glafs itfelf, “ In order to
execute it, let the anatomift take care to have the up¬
per furface of his bottles made plane, by defiring the
workmen at the glafs-houfe to flatten them in the ma¬
king. This they will eafily do in forming the round
ones, but the flat bottles are attended with confiderable
difficulty. The right way to make them, I believe,
would be to blow them in moulds of various fizes; the
workman (hould likewife form the bottoms of the bot¬
tles perfectly flat, that the may (land upright and ftea-
dy. Bottles of this form being provided for the larger
preparations, we grind the upper furface of them on
a plain plate of lead, about a quarter of an inch thick,
and two feet in diameter ; firft with fine emery and wa¬
ter, then with powdered rotten ftone, or putty firft wet
with water and at laft dry ; fo that the furface may be
reduced to an exatt horizontal plane, and of as fine a
polilh as plate-glafs. This will foon be done, as the
manoeuvre requires but little dexterity ; and the ana¬
tomift fhould be provided with a confiderable number
of thefe glafles prepared as above directed. To the
top of each bottle a piece of plate-glafs, cut by a dia¬
mond, is to be adapted fo as completely to cover, but
not project over, the edge of the bottle. When thefe
two fmoath furfaces are put upon each other, with a
drop of water between, the attraction of cohefion is
fo confiderable, that it requires great force to feparate
them.”
Many preparations of the lymphatics, and other
parts preierved in bottles, do not require any firings
to fufpend them 5 particularly when fixed on pafteboard
or paper: fuch as require fufpenfion fiiould be tied to
ft tings fixed, to the preparation below, and to fmall
holes drilled in the fubftance of the glafs at the bottom
of the neck ; or td fmall bits of glafs that may be
fixed on the infide of the fame part- The preparation
is thus fufpended in limpid proof malt-fpirit, the
bottle being almoft completely filled; the upper and
polifhed furface of the bottle, and the plate of glafg,
are to be wiped clean and dry 5 a drop of folution of
gum aiabic is to be put on the poliftied furface of the
bottle, the top ftrongly and Iteadily prefled upon it,
fo as to bring the two furfaces into as clofe contaft as
pofiible; after which the bottle is to be placed in a
cool airy place to dry. A piece of wet ox-bladder,
freed from fat, and fouked in water till it becomes mu-
G g 2 cilaginouij
INI [ 236 1 INK
Inje&ion cilaginous, is then to be placed over the top, the air ning of the myfteries, or of ceremonies of lefs import- InjuBAioB”
. . JI . preffed out from between it and the glafs; after which ance. _
, nit^at it muft be tied with a pack-thread dipped in the folu- The ancients never difcovered the deeper myfteries wwi
' tion of gum arable. The bladder being cut off neatly of their religion, nor even permitted fome of their
under the laft turn of the thread, is then to be dried, temples to be open, to any but thofe who had been ini-
the ftring taken cautioufly off, and the top and neck tiated. See Mystery.
painted with a compofition of lamp-black mixed with INJUNCTION, in law, a writ generally grounded
japanners gold fize : this foon dries, and leaves a fine upon an interlocutory order or decree out of the court
fmooth gloffy furface, from which the dirt can at of chancery or exchequer, fometimes to give poffefiion
any time be as readily wiped off as from a mirror. By to the plaintiff, for want of the defendant’s appearance;
this method large bottles are as eafily and effe&ually fometimes to the king’s ordinary court, and fometimes
fecured as fmall ones; and it is found to anfwer as well to the court-chriftian, to flop proceedings in a caufe,
as the hermetical fealing of glaffes, which in large vef- upon fuggeftion made, that the rigour of the law, if
fels is altogether impracticable. If the bottoms have it take place, is againft equity and confcience in that
any inequalities which prevent them from {landing cafe, that the complainant is not able to make his de-
fteady, they may be eafily made perfeftly flat by grind- fence in thefe courts, for want of witneffes, &c. or
ing them with emery on the plate above mentioned, that they aft erroneoufly, denying him fome juft ad-
The tops, if well gummed, will even remain perfe&ly vantage. The writ of injun&ion is directed not only
fixed on the glaffes without the bladder : though in to the party himfelf, but to all and Angular his coun-
the common upright ones it may be advifable to put it fellors, attornies, and folicitors ; and if any attorney,
o n,,- — —, that fince after having been ferved with an injunflion, proceeds
on as a defence. Our author informs
his making this difeovery, he has ufed glafs faucers ;
with flat tops gummed on. In thefe veffels the prepa¬
rations, by reafon of their horizontal pofture, appear
to great advantage. Thus he has exhibited very early
abortions in their membranes, and fome other prepa¬
rations that cannot be fufpended or viewed conveni¬
ently in the perpendicular direftion. Some very deli¬
cate preparations, particularly thofe intended to be
viewed with the microfcope, thofe of the ampullulas
lafteie of Liberkuhn, and of the valves of the abfor-
bents, may be preferved either in f^irits or dry in
tubes clofed in the manner juft mentioned, and will
appear to great advantage. Some of the dry ones
may alfo be advantageoufly placed in fquare oblong
afterward contrary to it, the court of chancery will,
commit the attorney to the Fleet for contempt. But
if an injunction be granted by the court of chancery-
in a criminal matter, the court of king’s bench may
break it, and proteft any that proceed in contempt
of it.
INJURY, any wrong done to a man’s perfon, re¬
putation, or goods. See Assault.
INK, a black liquor ufed in writing, generally
made of an infufion of galls, copperas, and gum-arabic.
The properties which this liquor ought to have, are,
1. To flow freely from the pen, and fink a little into
the paper, that the writing be not eafily difeharged.
| P , t  o 2. A very deep black colour, which ihould be as deep-
boxes, made of pieces of plate or white glafs neatly at firft as at any time afterwards. 3. Durability, fo-
gummed together, w ith narrow flips of white or co¬
loured paper, and the objefts may be conveniently
With refpeft to the ftoppi
viewed in this manner.
that the writing may not be fubjeft to decay by age.
4. Ink fhould be deftitute of any corrofive quality,,
that it may not deftroy the paper, or go through it
bottles, which are very convenient for holding fmall in fuch a manner as to render the writing illegible.,
preparations, our author advifes the ftoppers to be No- kind of ink, however, hath yet appeared which is
periettly well ground ; that they pafs rather lower down poffeffed of all thefe qualities. The ink ufed by the
than the neck of the bottle for the convenience of ancients was poffeffed of the fecond, third, and fourth
drilling two holes obliquely through the inferior edge qualities above-mentioned, but wanted the firft. Dr
of the fubftance of the ftopper, oppofite to each other, Lewis hath difcovered its compofition from fome paf-
for the convenience of fixing threads to hold the fub- fages in ancient authors. “ Pliny and Vitruvius (fays
jedt; for if the threads pafs between the neck and ftop- he) exprefsly mention the preparation of foot, or what
per, a fpace will be left; or if the ftopper be well we now call lamp-black, and the compofition of wri-
ground, the neck of the bottle will be broken in en- ting-ink from lamp-black and gum. Diofcorides is
deavouring to prefs it down. On the other hand, if more particular, fetting down the proportions of the
any fpace be left, the thread, by its capillary attradlion, two ingredients, was. three ounces of the foot to one
will ad from capillary attradion, raife the fpirits from of the gum. It feems the mixture was formed into cakes-
thehottle, and caufe evaporation, which willlikewifetake or rolls ; which being diied in the fun, were occafion-
place from the chink between the ftopper and neck. ally tempered with water, as the cakes of Indian ink
INISTIOGE, a poft town of Kilkenny, in the are among us for painting.”
province of Leinfter ; 63 miles from Dublin. It is In Mr Delaval’a Treatife on Colours, p. 37. he ac-
alfo a borough, and returns two members to parlia- quaints us, that with an infufion of galls and iron fi-
ment; patronage in the reprefentative of Sir William lings, he had not only made an exceedingly black and
Fownes.—It has two fairs. durable ink, but by its means, without the addition of
INITIATED, a term properly ufed in fpeaking any acid, dyed filk and woollen cloth of a good and
of the religion of the ancient heathens; where it fignifies lading black. This kind of ink, however, though
being admitted to the participation of the facred my- the colour is far fiiperiouto that of any other, hath
fteries. The word comes from the Latin initiatus, of the inconvenience of being very eafily difeharged, ei-
itihtare, initiari; which properly fignifies to begin fa- ther by the fmalleft quantity of any acid, or even by
crificing, or to receive or admit a perfon to the begin- fimple water ; becaufe it doth not penetrate the paper
4 in
INK [ 237 ] INK
in fuch a manner as is necefiapr to preferve it from the
inftantaneous a&ion of the acid or of the water. Du¬
ring the a<ftion of the infufioh of galls upon the iron
in making this kind of ink, a very confiderable effer-
vefcence takes place, and a quantity of air is difcharged,
the nature of which hath not yet been examined.
The materials ufually employed for the making of
ink are, common green vitriol, or copperas and galls ;
but almoft all of them are deficient in durability, which
is a property of fuch importance, that Dr Lewis hath
thought the fubjeft of ink-making not unworthy of his
attention. From experiments made by that author,
he infers, that the decay of inks is chiefly owing to a
deficiency of galls; that the galls are the moil perifh-
able ingredient, the quantity of thefe, which gives
the greateft blacknefs at firft (which is about equal
parts with the vitriol), being infufficient to maintain the
colour : that, for a durable ink, the quantity of galls
cannot be much lefs than three times that of the vitriol;
that it cannot be much greater without leffening the
blacknefs of the ink: that by diminilhing the quantity of
water, the ink is rendered blacker and more durable;
that diftilled water, rain-water, and hard fpring-water,
have the fame effects; that white-wine produces-a deep¬
er black colour than water ; that the colour produced
by vinegar is deeper than that by wine; that proof-
fpirit extrafts only a reddilh brown tinge; that the
laft-mentioned tinfturc finks into, and fpreads upon,
the paper; and hence the impropriety of adding fpi-
rit of wine to ink, as is frequently dire&ed, to prevent
mouldinefs or freezing: that other aftrirtgents, as oak-
bark, biftort, floe-bark, &c. are not fo effe&ual as
galls, nor give fo good a black, the colour produced
by moft of thefe, excepting oak-bark, being greenifli:
that the juice of floes do not produce a black colour
with martial vitriol; but that, neverthelefs, the wri¬
ting made with it becomes black, and is found to be
more durable than common ink : that inks made with
faturated folutions of iron in nitrous, marine, or acetous
acids, in tartar, or in lemon-juice, were much inferior
to the ink made with martial vitriol: that the co¬
lour of ink is depraved by adding quicklime, which
is done with an intention of deflroying any fupera-
bundant acid which may be fuppofed to be the caufe
of the lofs of the colour of ink : that the beft method
of preventing the effe&s of this fuperabundant acid is
probably by adding pieces of iron to engage it; and
that this conjefture is confirmed by an inftance the
author had heard, of the great durability of the co¬
lour of an ink in which pieces of iron had been long
immerfed: and laflly, that a deco&ion of logwood
ufed inftead of water, fenfibly improves both the beau¬
ty and deepnefs of the black, without difpofing it to
fade. The fame author obferves, that the addition of
gum-arabic is not only ufeful, by keeping the colour¬
ing matter fufpended in the fluid, but alfo by prevent¬
ing the ink from fpreading, by which means a greater
quantity of it is collefted on each ftroke of the pen.
Sugar, which is fometimes added to ink, is found
to be much lefs effectual than gums, and to have the
inconvenience of preventing the drying of the ink..
The colour of ink is found to be greatly injured by
keeping the ink in veffels made of copper or of lead,
and probably of any other metal, excepting iron, which
the vitriolic acid can diffolve.
The foregoing experiments point out for the bed;
proportions of the ingredients for ink, One part
of green vitriol, one part of powdered logwood,
and three parts of powdered galls. The beft men-
ftruum appears to be vinegar or white-wine, though
for common ufe water is fufficient. If the ink be re¬
quired to be of a full colour, a quart, or at moft three
pints, of liquor, may be allowed to three ounces of
galls, and to one ounce of each of the other two in¬
gredients. Half an ounce of gum may be added to
each pint of the liquor. The ingredients may be all
put together at once in a convenient vefl'el, and well
fhaken four or five times each day. In 10 or 12 days
the ink will be fit for ufe, though it will improve by
remaining longer on the ingredients. Or it may be
made more expeditioufly. by adding the gum and
vitriol to a decodlion of galls and logwood in the men-
ftruum. To the ink, after it has been feparated from-
the feculencies, fome coarfe powder of galls, from
which the fine duft has been fifted, together with one
or two pieces of iron, may be added, by which its du¬
rability will be fecured.
In fome attempts made by the Do&or to endow
writing ink with the great durability of that of the an¬
cients, as well as the properties which it has at pre¬
fect, he firft thought of ufing animal glues, and then
of oily matters. “ I mixed both lamp-black (fays
he) and ivory-black with folution of gum arable, made
of fuch confiftence as juft to flow fufficiently from the
pen. The liquors wrote of a fine black colour; but
when dry, part of the colour could be rubbed off,
efpecially in moift weather, and a pencil dipped in wa¬
ter waihed it away entirely.
“ I tried folutions of the animal-glues with the
fame event. Ifinglafs or fiih-glue being the moft dif¬
ficultly diffoluble of thefe kinds of bodies, I made a
deco&ion of it in water, of fueh ftreogth that the li¬
quor concreted into a jelly before it was quite cold:
with this jelly, kept fluid by fufficient heat, I mixed
fome ivory-black : characters drawn with this mix¬
ture on paper bore rubbing much better than the
others, but were difcharged without much difficulty
by a wet pencil.
“ It was now fufpe&ed, that the.colour could not
be fufficiently fixed on paper without an oily cement.
As oils themfelves are made mifcible with watery fluids
by the intervention of gum, I mixed fome of the fofter
painters varnifh, after mentioned, with about half its
weight of a thick mucilage of gum arabic, working
them well together in a mortar till they united into
a fmooth uniform mafs: this was beaten with lamp¬
black, and fome water added by little and*little, the
rubbing being continued till the mixture was diluted
to a due confiftence for writing. It wrote freely, and
of a full brownifli-black colour: the characters could
not be difcharged by rubbing, but water waftied them
out, though not near fo readily as any of the foregoing.
Inftead of the painters varnifti or boiled oil, I mixed
raw linfeed oil in the fame manner with mucilage and
lamp-black; and on diluting the mixture with water,
obtained an ink not greatly different from the other.
“ Though thefe oily mixtures anfwertd better than
thofe with fimple gums or glues, it was apprehended
that their being difehargeabie by water would render-
them unfit for the purpofes intended. The only way
ofi
INK [238
Ink. of obviating this imperfe&ion appeared to be, by
i"V”,"r' ufihg a paper which fhould admit the black liquid to
fink a little into its fubftance. Accordingly 1 took
fome of the more finking kinds of paper, and common
paper made damp as for printing; and had the fatif-
faftion to find, that neither the oily nor the Ample
gummy mixtures fpread upon them fo much as might
have been expe&ed, and that the charafters were as
fixed as could be defired, for they could not be walked
out without rubbing off part of the fubltance of the
paper itfelf.
“ All tbefe inks mull be now and then ftirred or
fhaken during the time of ufe, 'to mix up the black
powder, which fettles by degrees to the bottom : thofe
with oil muft be well lhaken alfo, though not ufed,
once a-day, or at leaft once in three or four days, to
keep the oil united with the water and gum; for if
once the oil feparates, which it is apt to do by Hand¬
ing at reft for fome days, it can no longer be mixed
with the thin fluid by any agitation. But though this
imperfedf union of the ingredients renders thefe inks
lefs fit for general ufe than thofe commonly employed,
I apprehend there are many occafions in which thefe
kinds of inconveniences will not be thought to coun¬
terbalance the advantage of having writings which we
may be affured will be as lafting as the paper they are
written upon. And indeed the inconvenience maybe
in a great meafure obviated by ufing cotton in the ink-
ftand, which, imbibing the fluid, prevents the fcpara-
tion of the black powder diffufed through it.
“ All the inks, however, made on the principle
we are now fpeaking of, can be difcharged by walh-
ing, unlefs the paper admits.them to fink into its fub-
ftance. The ancients were not infenfible of this im¬
perfection ; and fometimes endeavoured to obviate it,
according to Pliny, by ufing vinegar, inftead of water,
for tempering the mixture of lamp-black and gum. I
tried vinegar, and found it to be of fome advantage,
not as giving any improvement to the cement, but by
promoting the finking of the matter into the paper.
As this walhing out of the ink may be prevented by
ufing a kind of paper eafy enough to be procured, it is
fcarcely to be Confidered as an imperfeflion ; and in¬
deed, on other kinds of paper, itisan imperfeftion only
fo far as it may give occafion to fraud, for none of thefe
inks are in danger of being otherwife difcharged than
by defign. The vitriolic inks themfelves, and thofe of
printed books and copperplates, are all difchargeable ;
nor can it be expe&ed of the ink-maker to render wri¬
tings fecure from frauds.
« But a further improvement may yet be made,
r.amely, that of uniting the ancient and modern inks
together ; or ufing the common vitriolic ink inftead of
water, for tempering the ancient mixture of gum and
lamp-black. J3y this method it ftiould feem that the
writings would have all the durability of thofe of for¬
mer times, with all the advantage that refults from
the vitriolic ink fixing itfelf in the paper. Even where
the common vitriolic mixture is depended on for the
Ink, it may in many cafes be improved by a fmall ad¬
dition of the ancient compofition, or of the common
Indian ink which anfwers the fame purpofe : when the
-vitriolic ink is dilute, and flows fo pale from the pen,
that the fine ftrokes, on firft writing, are fcarcely vi-
fible, the addition of a little Indian ink is the readieft
] INK
means of giving it the due blacknefs. By this admix- Ink.
ture it may be prefumed alfo that the vitriolic ink will —
be made more durable, the Indian ink’in fome meafure
covering it, and defending it from the a&ion of the air.
In all cafes, where Indian ink or other fimilar compofi-
tions are employed, cotton fliould be ufed in the ink-
ftand, as already mentioned, to prevent the fettling of
the black powder.”
Since the invention of printing much lefs attention
than formerly has been paid to the making of ink, fo
that now the art feems to be in a great meafure loft.
This will appear from a comparifon of fome ancient
manufcripts with the writings of modern times. It
being of the utmoft importance, however, that public
records, wills, and other valuable papers, which cannot
admit of being printed, Ihould be written with irfk of
a durable quality, this inattention feems to have been
very culpable, and a reftoration of the method of ma¬
king writing ink a very valuable acquifition. “The ne-
ceflity (fays Mr Aftle* ) of paying greater attention to * Origin
' this matter may readily be feen, by comparing the rolls Alphab, ,
and records thtft have been written from the 15th Wrtting,
century to the end of the 17th, with the writings we
have remaining of various writings from the 5th to
the 12th centuries. Notwithftanding the fuperior
antiquity of the latter, they are in excellent preferva-
tion; but we frequently find the former, though of
more modern date, fo much defaced that they are
fcarcely legible.”
Our author agrees with Dr Lewis in the qpinion
that the ancient inks were compofed of foot or ivory
black inftead of the galls, copperas, and gums, which
form the compofition of ours. Befides their black
inks, however, the ancients ufed various ocher colours,
as red, gold and filver, purple, &c. Green ink was
frequently ufed in Latin manuforipts, efpecially in the
latter ages ; a-nd it was frequently employed in figna-
tures by the guardians of the Greek emperors till
their wards were of age. Blue or yellow ink was fel-
dom ufed except in manufcripts; but (fays Mr Aftle)
“ the yellow has not been much in ufe, as far as we
can learn, thefe 600 years.” Some kinds of charac¬
ters, particularly the metallic, were burniihed. Wax
was ufed by the Latins and Greeks as a varnilh, but
efpecially by the forme?, and particularly in the 9th
century. It continued a long time in vogue.
A treatife upon inks was publilhed by Peter Cani-
parius profeffor of medicine at Venice ; of which an
edition was printed at London in 1660. It is divided
into fix parts. The firft treats of inks made from py¬
rites, ftones, and metals; the fecond of fuch as are
made from metals and calces ; the third from foots and
vitriols; the fourth of the different kinds of inks ufed by
the librarii or book-writers, by printers, and engravers;
likewife of ftaining or writing upon marble, ftucco,
or fcaliolia, and of encauftic modes of -writing; alfo
of liquids for painting or colouring leather and linen
or woollen cloths; reftoring inks that had been decay¬
ed by time; together with many methods of effacing
writing, reftoring decayed paper, and different modes
of fecret writing. The fifth treats of writing inks
made in different countries from gums, woods, the
juices of plants, &c. as well as of different kinds of
varnilhes. The fixth treats of the different methods
of extra&ing vitriol, and the chemical ufes of it.
Weckerut
INK T aw 1 INK
Wechm dt Secretis, a treatife printed at liafil in they were wadied over with fome kind of varnilh, tho* Ink.
1612, contains a number of curious particulars con- not fuch as gave any glofs.’' —-v«.
earning ink. He gives alfo receipts for making gold Among the fpecimens with which our author was
and filver inks, compofed both with thefe metals and favoured by Mr Aftle, there was one which differed
without them ; directions for making inks for fecret very materially from the left. It was faid to be & ma-
writing, and for defacing them; though in this laft nufeript of the 15th century: the letters were of a
part there are many particulars bordering too much full engroffing hand, angular without any fine ftrokes,
on the marvellous. broad, and very black. None of the chemical folvents
In the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1787, Dr Blag- above mentioned feemed to produce any effeCt. Moft
den gives fome account of a method of reftoring de- ot them feemed rather to make the letters blacker,
cayed inks fo as to render them legible. His expe- probably by cleaning the furface ; and the acids, after
riments originated from a converfation with Mr Aftle having been rubbed ftrongly upon the letters, did not
already quoted, on the queflion whether the inks made ftrike any deeper tinge with the phlogifticated alkali,
eight or ten centuries ago, and which are found to Nothing could obliterate thefe but what took off part
have preferved their colour very well* were made of the of the vellum ; when fmall rolls of a dirty matter were
fame materials now employed or not? In order to to be perceived. “ It is therefore unqueftionable (fays,
decide the queftion, Mr Aftle furnilhed the Doftor the Doftor) that no iron was ufed in this ink ; and,
with feveral manuferipts on parchment and vellum from from its refiftance to the chemical folvents, as well as
the 9th to the 15th centuries inclufively. Some of a certain clotted appearance in the letters when exa-
thefe were ftill very black; others of different (hades, mined clofely, and in fome places a flight degree of
from a deep yellowifh brown to a very pale yellow, in glofs, I have little doubt that they were formed of a
fome parts fo faint that it could fcartely be feen. This footy or carbonaceous powder and oil, probably fome-
Was tried with fimple and phlogifticated alkalies, the thing like ourprefent printer’s ink ; and am not with-
mineral acids, and infufion of galls. From thefe ex- out fufpicion that they were a&ually printed.”
periments it appeared that the ink anciently employed On examining this MS. more fully, our author was
was of the fame nature as at prefent: the letters turn- convinced that it was really a part of a very ancient
cd of a reddiih or yellowiih brown with alkalies be- printed book. In confidering the methods of reftoring
came pale, and were at length obliterated by the di- the legibility of decayed writings, our author obferves,
lute mineral acids. The drop of acid liquor, which that perhaps one of the belt may be to join phlogifti-
had been put upon a letter, changed to a deep blue cated alkali with the calx of iron which remains ; be-
or green on the addition of phlogifticated alkali; with caufe the precipitate formed by thefe two fubftances
an infufion of galls, in fome cafes the letters acquired greatly exceeds that of the iron alone. On this fubjedt
a deep tinge, in others a flight one, “ Hence (fays the Dr Blagden difagrees with Mr Bergmann; but to bring
Do&or) it is evident, that one of the ingredients was the matter to a teft, the following experiments were
iron, which there is no reafon to doubt was joined with made.
the vitriolic acid ; and the colour of the more perfedl 1. The phlogifticated alkali was rubbed in different
MSS. which in fome was a deep black, and in others quantities upon the bare writing. This, in general,
a purplilh black, together with the reftitution of that produced little effed ; though, in a few inftances, it
colour in thofe which had loft it by the infufion of gave a bluiih tinge to the letters, and increafed their
galls, fufficiently proved that another of the ingredients intenfity; “ probably (fays the Doftor) where fome-
was aftringent matter, which from hiftory appears to thing of an acid nature had contributed to the diminu-.
have been that of galls. No trace of a black pigment tion of their colour.” 2. By adding, befides the al-
of any fort was difeovered; the drop of acid, which kali, a dilute mineral acid to the writing, our author
had completely extrafted a letter, appearing of an uni- found his expeftations fully anfwered ; the letters then
form pale and ferruginous colour, without an atom of changing quickly to a very deep and beautiful blue,
black powder, or other extraneous matter floating in It is but of little confequence whether the acid or phlo-
it.” gifticated alkali be firft added; though upon farther
As this account differs very materially from the for- confideration the Doftor inclined to begin with the
jner extrafted from Mr Aftle’s writings, fo the reafon alkali. The reafon is, that when the alkali is firft;
given for the continuance of the colour differs no lefs. put on, the colour feems to fpread lefs, and thus not
This, according to Dr Blagden, “ feems to depend very to hurt the legibility of the writing fo much as would
much on a better preparation of the material upon otherwife be done- His method is to fpread the al-
which the writing was made, namely the parchment kali thin over the writing with a feather, then to touch
or vellum ; the blackeft letters being generally thofe it as gently as poflible upon or nearly over the letters
which had funk into it the deepeft. Some degree of with the diluted acid by means of a feather or bit of
effervefcence was commonly to be perceived when acids ftick cut to a blunt point. The moment that the acid
were in contaft with the furface of thefe old vellums, liquor is applied, the letters turn to a fine blue, be-
I was led, however, to fufpeft, that the ancient inks yond comparifon ftronger than the original trace of
contained rather a lefs proportion of iron than the more the letter ; and by applying a bit of blotting-paper to
modern; for, in general, the tinge of colour produ- fuck up the fuperfluous liquid, we may in a great mea*
ced by the phlogifticated alkali in the acid laid upon fure avoid the ftaining of the parchment; for it is this
them, feemed lefs deep ; which, however, might de- fuperfluous liquor which, abforbing part of the colour-
pend in part upon the length of time they had been ing matter from the letters, becomes a dye to what-
kept: and perhaps more gum was ufed in them, or ever it touches. Care ought, however, to be taken
6 net.
INK [ 240 ] INK
lul:. not to allow the blotting paper to come in contaft.
"v—"*" with the letters, becaufe the colouring matter may ea-
fily be nibbed off while loft and wet. Any one of the
'three mineral acids will anfvver the purpofe effedtually :
Dr Elagden commonly ufes the marine. But which¬
ever of the three is ufed, it ought to be diluted fo far
as not to be in danger of corroding the parchment;
after which the degree of llrength feems not to be a
matter of great nicety.
Another method of reftoring the legibility of old
writings is by wetting them with an infufion of galls in
white wine : but this is fubjedl to the fame inconve¬
nience with the former, and is befides lefs efficacious.
The Doftor is of opinion that the acid of the galls by
itfelf would be better for the purpofe than the infufion
of the whole fubftance of them ; and he thinks alfo
that a preferable kind of phlogifticated alkali might be
prepared either by purifying the common kind from
iron as much as poffible, or by making ufe of the vo¬
latile alkali inllead of the fixed. Mr Aftle mentions a
method of reftoring the legibility of decayed writings ;
but fays that it ought not to be hazarded left a fufpi-
cion of deceit ftiould arife.
In the Monthly Review of this volume of the Tranf-
aftions, we find a method propofed of preventing ink
from decaying, which feems very likely to anfwer the
pnrpofe. It con fills in waffling over the paper to be
written upon with the colouring matter of Pruffian
blue, which will not deprave it in colour, or any other
refpe£l. By writing upon it with common ink after¬
wards, a ground of Pruffian blue is formed under every
ftroke ; and this remains ftrong after the black has
been decayed by the weather, or deftroyed by acids.
Thus the ink will bear a larger proportion of vitriol at
firft, and will have the advantage of looking blacker
when firft written.
Indian Ink, a valuable black for water-colours,
brought from China and other parts of the Eaft In¬
dies, fometimes in large rolls, but more commonly in
fmall quadrangular cakes, and generally marked with
Chinefe charafters. Dr Lewis, from experiments
made on this fubftance, hath Ihown that it is compofed
of fine lamp-black and animal-glue : and accordingly,
for the preparation of it, he defires us to mix the lamp¬
black with as much melted glue as is fufficient to give
it a tenacity proper for being made into cakes; and
thefe when dry, he tells us, anfwered as well as thofe
imported from the Eaft Indies, both with regard to
the colour and the freedom of working. Ivory-black,
and other charcoal blacks, levigated to a great degree
of finenefs, anfwered as well as the lamp black; but
in the ftate in which ivory-black is commonly fold, it
proved much too gritty, and feparated too haftily from
the water.
Printing Ink, is totally different from Indian ink,
or that made ufe of in writing. It is an oily compo-
fition, of the confiftence of an ointment: the me¬
thod of preparing it was long kept a fecret by thofe
whofe employment it was to make it, and who were in-
terefted in concealing it; and even yet is but imper¬
fectly known. The properties of good printing ink
No 186.
are, to work clean and eafily, without daubing the Into
types, or tearing the paper; to have a fine black Co- —v—
lour; to wafh eafily off the types; to dry foon ; and
to preferve its colour, without turning brown. This
laft, which is a moft neceffary property, is effectually
obtained by fetting fire to the oil with which the print¬
ing ink is made for a few moments, and then extin-
guiftiing it by covering the veffel (a); It is made to
wa(h eafily off the types, by ufing foap as an ingre¬
dient ; and its working clean depends on its having a
proper degree of ftrength, which is given by a certain
addition of rofin. A good deal, however, depends on
the proportion of the ingredients to each other ; for if
too much foap is added, the ink will work very foul,
and daub the types to a great degree. The fame thing
will happen from ufing too much black, at the fame
time that both the foap and black hinder the ink from
drying; while too much oil and rofin tear the paper,
and hinder it from waffling off.—The following receipt
has been found to make printing ink of a tolerable
good quality. “ Take a Scots pint of linfeed oil,
and fet it over a* pretty brilk fire in an iron or copper
veffel capable of holding three or four times as much.
When it boils ftrongly, and emits a thick fmoke, kindle
it with a piece of paper, and immediately take the vef¬
fel off the fire. Let the oil burn for about a minute ;
then extinguiffi it by covering the veffel; after it has
grown pretty cool, add two pounds of black rofin,
and one pound of hard foap cut into thin flices. If
the oil is very hot when the foap is added, almoft the
whole mixture will run over the veffel. The mixture
is then to be fet again over the fire ; and when the
ingredients are thoroughly melted, a pound of lamp¬
black, previoufly put through a lawn fieve, is to be
ftirred into it. The whole ought then to be ground
on a marble ftone, or in a mill like the levigating mill
defcribed under the article Chemistry, n° 599.”
Though the above receipt is greatly fuperior to
any that hath been hitherto publilhed, all of which
are capitally deficient in not mentioning the necef¬
fary ingredients of rofin and foap ; yet it muft be ac¬
knowledged, that ink made in this manner is inferior
in point of colour, and is likewife more apt to daub
the types and make an indiftinft impreffion, than fuch
as is prepared by fome of thofe who make the ma-
nufa&ure of this commodity their employment; fo
that either a variation in the proportion of the ingre¬
dients, a nicety in the mixture, or fome additional in¬
gredient, feems neceffary to bring it to the requifite
perfeftion.
Ink for the Rolling Prefs, is made of lintfeed oil
burnt in the fame manner as that for common printing-
ink, and then mixed with Fiancfort-black, and finely
ground. There are no certain proportions which can
be determined in this kind of ink ; every workman
adding oil or black to his ink as he thinks proper,
in order to make it fuit his own tafte.—Some, how¬
ever, mix a portion of common boiled oil, which has
never been burnt: but this muft neceffarily be a bad
pradlice, as fuch oil is apt to go through the paper ;
a fault very common in prints, efpecially if the paper
ia
( a) This is mentioned by Dr Lewis in his Philofophical Commerce of Arts; but he feems not to have been
acquainted with the method of giving it the other neceffary properties.
INK [ 241 ] INK
Ink. is not very thick. No foap is added} becaufe the
—v  ink is not cleared off from the copperplates with alka¬
line ley as in common printing, but with a brulh dip¬
ped in oil.
Ink is alfo an appellation given to any coloured
liquor ufed in writing, whether red, yellow, green,
&c. Many different kinds of thefe inks may be pre¬
pared by the direftions given under the article Co-
lour-Malting, which it would be fuperfluous here to
repeat.
Sympathetic Ink, a liquor with which a peffon may
write, and yet nothing appear on the paper after it is
dry, till fome other means are ufed, fuch as holding
the paper to the fire, rubbing it over with fome other
liquor, &c.
Thefe kinds of ink may be divided info feven clalfes,
and that with refpedt to the means ufed to make them
vifible ; viz. I. Such as become vifible by pafling ano¬
ther liquor over them, or by expofing them to the vapour
of th^t liquor. 2. Thofe that do not appear fo long
as they are kept clofe, but foon become vifible on be¬
ing expofed to the air. 3. Such as appear by firewing
or fifting fome very fine powder of any colour over
them. 4. Thofe which become vifible by being expo-
fed to the fire. 5. Such as become vifible by heat,
but difappear again by cold or the moifture of the air.
6. Thofe which become vifible by being wetted with
water. 7. Such as appear of various colours, red,
yellow, blue, &c.
I. The firft clafs contains four kinds of ink, viz.
folutiona of lead, bifmuth, gold, and green vitriol.
The firft two become vifible in the fame manner, viz.
* by the contaft of fulphureous liquids or fumes. For
the firft, a folution of common fugar-oflead in water
will anfwer as well as more troublefome preparations.
If you write with this folution with a clean pen, the
writing when dry wi:l be totally invilible : but if it be
wetted with a folution of hepar fulphuris, or of orpi-
ment, diflblved by means of quick lime ; or if it be
expofed to the ftrong vapours of thefe folutions, but
efpecially to the vapour of volatile tindture of fulphur;
the writing will appear of a brown colour, more or lefs
deep according to the ftrength of the fulphureous fume.
By the fame means, what is wrote with the folution
of bifmuth in fpirit of nitre will appear of a deep
black.
The fympathetic ink prepared from gold depends
on the property by which that metal precipitates from
its folvent on the addition of a folution of tin. If you
write with a folution of gold in aqua regia, and let
the paper dry gently in the ftiade, nothing will appear
for the firft feven or eight hours. Dip a pencil or a
fmall fine fponge in the folution of tin, and drawing it
lightly over the invifible charadters, they will imme¬
diately appear, of a purple colour.
Charadters wrote *ith a folution of green vitriol care¬
fully depurated, will like wife be invifible when the pa¬
per is dry ; but if wetted with an infufion of galls,
they will immediately appear as if wrote with common
ink. If, inftead of this infufion, a folution of the
phlogifticated alkali, impregnated with the colouring
matter Pruffian blue is made up of, the writing will ap¬
pear of a very deep blue.
II. To the fecond clafs belong the folutions of all
thofe metals which are apt to attradl phlogifton from
Vol. IX. Part I.
the air, fuch as lead, bifmuth, filver, &c. The fym- Ink.
pathetic ink of gold already mentioned belongs alfo  v—
to this clafs; for if the charadlers wrote with it are
long expofed to the air, they become by degrees of a
deep violet colour, nearly approaching to black. In
like manner, charadters wrote with a folution of filver
in aquafortis are invifible when newly dried, but being
expofed to the fun, appear of a grey colour like Hate.
To this clafs alfo belong folutions of lead in vinegar;
copper in aquafortis ; tin in aqua regia ; emery, and
fome kinds of pyrites, in fpirit of fait; mercury in
aquafortis; or iron, in vinegar. Each of thefe has a
particular colour when expofed to the air ; bat" they
have the difagreeable property of corroding the paper,
fo that after fome time the charadlers appear like holes
cut out of the paper.
III. The third clafs of fympathetic inks contains
fuch liquids as have fome kind of glutinous- vifcoiity,
and at the fame time are long a drying; by which
means, though the eye cannot difeern the charadlers
wrote with them upon paper, the powders ftrewed
upon them immediately adhere, and thus make the
writing become vifible. Of this kind are urine, milk,
the juices of fome vegetables, weak folutions of the dc-
liquefcent falts, &c.
IV. This clafs, comprehending all thofe that be¬
come vifible by being expofed to the fire, is very ex-
tenfive, as it contains all thofe colourlefs liquids in
which the matter diflblved is capable of being reduced,
or of reducing the paper, into a fort of charcoal by a
fmall heat. A very eafily procured ink of this kind is
oil of vitriol diluted with as much water as will pre¬
vent it from corroding the paper. Letters wrote with
this fluid are perfedlly invifible when dry, but inftantly
appear as black as if wrote with the fineft ink on be¬
ing held near the fire. Juice of lemons or onions, a
folution of fal-ammoniac, green vitriol, &c. will an¬
fwer the fame purpofe, though not fo eafily, or with
fo little heat.
V. The fifth clafs comprehends only folutions of
regulus of cobalt in fpirit of fait 5 fot the properties of
which, fee Chemistry, n° 822.
VI. This clafs comprehends fuch inks as become
vifible when charadlers wrote with them are wetted
with water. They are made of all fuch fubftances as
depofit a copious fediment when mixed with water,
diflblving only imperfeaiy in that fluid. Of this kind
are dried alum, fugar of lead, vitriol, &c. We have
therefore only to write with a ftrong folution of thefe
falts upon paper, and the chara&ers will be invifible
when dry but when we apply water, the fmall por¬
tion of dried fait cannot again be diflblved in the wa¬
ter. Hence the infoluble part becomes vifible on
the paper, and (hows the chara&ers wrote in white,
grey, brown, or any other colour which the precipi¬
tate affumes.
VII. Chara&ers may be made to appear of a fine
crimfon, purple, or yellow, by writing on paper with
folution of tin in aqua regia, and then palling over it a
pencil dipt in a deco&ion of cochineal. Brazil-wood,
logwood, yellow wood, &c.—For an account of the
nature of all thefe fympathetic ink?, however, and the
principles on which they are made, fee the articles
Chemistry and CoLOUR-ilfbi/«^, pajjim.
INK-Stones, a kind of finall round Hones of a white,
Hh red,
INN [ 242 1 INN
red, grey, yellow, or black, colour, containing a quan ¬
tity of native martial vitriol, whence they derive the
property of making ink, and from thence their name.
They are almoft entirely foluble in water, and befidea
their other ingredients, contain alfo a portion of cop¬
per and zinc.
IRIS-Stone. See MooN-Slone.
INLAND, a name for any part of a country at a
diftance from the fea.
Inland Navigation. See Canal and (Inland) Na¬
vigation.
Inland Trade, that kind of trade carried on be¬
tween the different parts of the fame kingdom, vyhe-
ther over land, or by means of inland navigation.
INLAYING. SeeVENEERiNG, Mosaic, and Mar¬
quetry.
INLEASED, in our old writers, fignifies en¬
tangled or enfnared. It is ufed in the champion’s
oath.
INLISTING, in a military fenfe. See Listing.
INMATES, fuch perfons as are admitted for their
money, to live in the fame houfe or cottage with ano¬
ther man, in different rooms, but going in at the fame
door ; being ufually fuppofed to be poor, and not able
to maintain a whole houfe themfelves. Thefe are in-
quirable in a court-leet.—No owner or occupier of a
cottage fhall fuffer any inmates therein, or more fami¬
lies than one to inhabit there, on pain of forfeiting 10s.
per month to the lord of the leet.
INN, a place appointed for the entertainment and
relief of travellers.
Inns are licenfed and regulated by juftices of the
peace, who oblige the landlord to enter into recogni¬
zances for keeping good order. If a perfon who keeps
a common inn, refufes twreceive a traveller into his
houfe as a gueft, or to find him victuals and lodging
on his tendering a reafonable price for them, he is li¬
able to an a6lion of damages, and may be indi&ed and
fined at the king’s fuit. The rates of all commodities
fold by inn-keepers, according to our ancient laws,
may be affeffed : and inn-keepers not felling their hay,
oats, beans, &c. and all manner of victuals at reafon¬
able prices, without taking any thing for litter, may
be fined and imprifoned, &c. by 21 Jac. I. c. 21.
Where an inn-keeper harbours thieves, perfons of in¬
famous chara&er, or fuffers any diforders in his houfe,
or fets up a new inn where there is no need of one, to
the hindrance of ancient and well governed inns, he
is indictable and fineable : and by ftatute, fuch inn
may be fupprelfed. Adtion upon the cafe lies againft
any inn-keeper, if a theft be committed on his gueft
by a fervant of the inn, or any other perfon not be¬
longing to the gueft ; though it is otherwife where the
gueft is not a traveller, but one of the fame town or
village,for there the inn-keeper is not chargeable; nor
is the mafter of a private tavern anfwerable for a rob¬
bery committed on his gueft : it is faid, that even tho’
the travelling gueft does not deliver his goods, &c.
into the inn-keeper’s pofleffion, yet if they are ftolcn,
he is chargeable. An inn-keeper is not anfwerable for
any thing out of his inn, but only for fuch as are
within it; yet, where he of his own accord puts the
gueft’s horfe to grafs, and the horfe is ftolen, he is
anfwerable, he not having the gueft’s orders for putting
fuch horfe to grafs. The inn keeper may juftify
the flopping of the horfe, or other thing of his gueft,
for his reckoning, and may retain the fame till it be
paid. Where a perfon brings his horfe to an inn, and
leaves him in the liable, the inn-keeper may detain
him till fuch time as the own^r pays for his keeping ;
and if the horfe eats out as much as he is worth, after
a reafonable appraifement made, he may fell the horfe
and pay himfelf: but when a gueft brings feveral hor-
fes to an inn, and afterwards takes them all away ex¬
cept one, this horfe fo left may not be fold for payment
of the debt for the others; for every horfe is to be
fold, only to make fatisfadlion for what is due for his
own meat.
Inns. Our colleges of municipal or common law
profrffors and ftudems, are called inns : the old Englilh
word for houfes of noblemen, bifhops, and others of
extraordinary note, being of- the fame fignification
with the French word hotel.
Inns of Court are fo called, as fome think, becaufe
the Undents there are to ferve and attend the courts of
judicature; or elfe, becaufe anciently thefe colleges
received none but the fons of noblemen, and better fort
of gentlemen, who were here to be qualified to ferve the
king in his court; as Fortefcue affirms. And, in his
time, he fays, there were about 2000 ftudents in the
inns of court and chancery, all of whom were flii nobi-
Uunti or gentlemen born. But this cuftom has gra¬
dually fallen into difufe ; fo that in the reign of queen
Elizabeth, Sir Edward Coke does not reckon above
1000 ftudents, and the number at prefent is very con-
fiderably lefs ; for which judge Blackftone affigns the
following reafons. 1. Becaufe the inns of chan¬
cery, being now almoft totally filled by the inferior
branches of the profeffion, are neither commodious n6r
proper for the refort of gentlemen of any rank or fi¬
gure ; fo that there are very rarely any young ftudents
entered at the inns of chancery. 2. Becaufe in the inns
of court all forts of regimen and academical fuperin-
tendence, either with regard to morals or ftudies, are
found impra&icable, and therefore entirely negle&ed.
Laftly, becaufe perfons of birth and fortune, after ha¬
ving finiffied their ufual courfes at the univerfities, have
feldom leifure or refolution fufficient to enter upon a
new fcheme of ftudy at a new place of inftruftion ;
wherefore few gentlemen now refoit to the inns of
court, but fuch for whom the knowledge of practice is
abfolutely neceffary in fuch as are intended for the pro¬
feffion.
Our inns of court, juftly famed-for the produ&ion
of men of learning in the law, are governed by ma¬
ilers, principals, benchers, ftewards, and other offi¬
cers ; and have public halls for exercifes, readings, &c.
which the ftudents are obliged to attend and perform
for a certain number of years, before they can be ad¬
mitted to plead at the bar. Thefe focieties have not,
however, any judicial authority over their members-;
but inftead of this they have certain orders among
themfelves, which have by confent the force of laws.
For lighter offences perfons are only excommoned, or
put out of commons; for greater, they lofe their
chambers, and are expelled the college ; and when
once expelled out of one fociety, they are never recei¬
ved by any of the others. The gentlemen in thefe fo-
cities may be divided into benchers, utter-barrifters,
inner-barrifters, and ftudents.
INN C «43 3 INN
Ir'ns The four principal inns of court* are the Inner
!< Temple and Middle Temple, heretofore the dwelling
Innisfallen. 0f t}le Knights Templars, purchafed by fome profeb
'”J v 1 ’ fors of the common law about 300 years ago ; I^in-
coin’s Inn, and Gray’s Inn, anciently belonging to the
earls of Lincoln and Gray. The other inns are the two
Serjeants Inns.
Inns of Chancery were probably fo called, becaufe
anciently inhabited by fuch clerks as chiefly ftudied
the forming of writs, which regularly belonged to the
curfitors, who are officers of chancery.
The firft: of thefe is Thavies Inn, begun in the reign
of Edward III. and fince purchafed by the fociety of
Lincoln’s Inn. Befide this, we have New Inn, Sy-
mond’s Inn, Clement’s Inn, Clifford’s Inn, anciently
the houfe of the Lord Clifford; Staple Inn, belonging
to the merchants of the ftaple ; Lion’s Inn, anciently a
common inn with the fign of the lion; Furnival’s Inn,
and Bernard’s Inn.
Thefe were heretofore preparatory colleges for
younger ftudents ; and many were entered here, be¬
fore they were admitted into the inns of court. Now
they are moftly taken up by attornics, folicitors, &c.
They all belong to fotne of the inns of court, who
formerly ufed to fend yearly fome of their barriftersto
read to them.
INNATE Ideas, thofe fuppofed to be ftamped on
the mind, from the firft moment of its exiftence, and
which it conftantly brings into the world with it: a
do&rine which Mr Locke has taken great pains to re¬
fute.
INNERKE1THING. See Inverkeithing.
INNERLOCHY. See Inverlochy and Fort-
William.
INNIS. See Inch.
INNISCLOCHRAN, or the Stoney Island, an
ifland in Lough Ree, in the river Shannon, between
the counties of Weftmeathand Rofcommon, at which
place a monaftery was founded by St Dermod, about
the beginning of the 6th century.
INNISFAIL (derived from Inis Bheal, that is,
“ the ifland of Bheal”), one of the ancient names of
Ireland, fo denominated from Beal, the principal ob¬
ject of adoration among the ancient inhabitants of the
Britifh ifles. Innisfail has been erreneoufly tranflated
the IJlandof Dvjliny, iA Bheal was fometimes taken for
Fate or Providence.
INNISFALLEN, an ifland in the lake of Killar-
ney, in the county of Kerry and province of Munfter ;
• in it are the ruins of a very ancient religious houfe,
founded by St Finian, the patron faint of thefe parts,
and to him the cathedral of Aghadoe is alfo dedicated.
The remains of this abbey are very extenfive, its fitua-
tion romantic and retired. Upon the diffolution of re¬
ligious houfes, the pofleffions of this abbey were grant¬
ed to Captain Robert Collam. The ifland contains
about 12 acres, is agreeably wooded, and has a num¬
ber of fruit trees. St Finian flourifhed about the mid¬
dle of the 6th century; he was firnamed in Irifh Lob-
har, his father’s name was Conail the fon of Efchod;
defeended from Kian the fon of JUild, king of Mun¬
fter. There was formerly a chronicle kept in this ab¬
bey, which is frequently cited by Sir J. Ware and
other antiquaries under the title of the Annals of In-
nisfalkn. They contain a Iketeh of univerfal hiftory,
from the creation of the world to the year 430 or Inniftun-
thereabouts, but from thence the annalift has amply t,on-
enough profecuted the affairs of Ireland down to his
own times. He lived to the year 1215. Sir J. Ware "
had a copy of them, whereof there is an imperfeft —v—J
tranfeript among the MSS. of the library of Trinity-
College, Dublin. They were continued by another
hand to the year 1320. Bifliop Nicholfon, in his Iriflt
hiftorical library, informs us, that the duke of Chandos
had a complete copy of them down to 1320 in his pof-
feffion. Thefe annals tell uS, that in the year 1180,
the abbey, which had at that time all the gold and
filver and richeft goods of the whole country depofited
in it, as the place of greateft fecurity, was plundered
by Mildwin fon of Daniel O’Donoghoe, as was alfo
the church of Ardfert, and many perfons were flain in
the very cemetery by the M‘Cartys; but God, as it
is faid in this chronicle, punilhed this impiety by the
untimely end of fome of the authors of it.
INNISHANNON, a town in the county of Cork
and province of Munfter, 134 miles from Dublin ; fi-
tuated on the river Bandon, fix miles from Kinfale.
Here is a charter fchool for above 30 boys. The li¬
nen manufa£ture has been much encouraged by the
late Mr Adderly. The river is navigable to Collier’s
quay, about half a mile below the place. On the weft
fide of the town is a ftone bridge. This place was for¬
merly walled, and of fome note, as appears by the
foundations of feveral caftles and large buildings difeo-
vered .in it. The town of Innifliannon, together with
its ferry, were granted to Philip de Barry by Hen. V.
by letters patent, anno 1412. It has trim fairs.
INNISHIRKAN, an ifland fituated between Cape
Clear Ifland and Baltimore Bay, in the county of Cork,
and province of Munfter. In this ifland flood the
caftle of Dunelong, pofleffed by the O’Drifcolls, which
was furrendered after the defeat of the Spaniards to
Captain Hervey on 23d Feb. 1602. There was af¬
terwards a regular fortification erefted on part of the
ifland, which was garrifoned in Queen Ann’s time,
but it has been for feveral years diimantled ; about a
mile to the fouth are the remains of an ancient abbey,
founded 1460, for Francifcans, by Florence O’Drif-
coll. This-ifland has very good land, and is vaftly
preferable to that of Cape Clear iflands. To the north-
weft oflnniftrirkan ifland lies Hare ifland, a large fruit¬
ful fpot; and near it are four fmall iflands called the
Schemes: alfo along the coaft, in the following order
from eaft to weft, are Horfe ifland, containing 100
acres; Caftle ifland, containing 119 acres; Long ifland,
containing 316 acres ; and weft of all thefe is a fmall
fpot called Goat ifland. All thefe iflands, together
with the adjacent coaft, produce large crops of fine
Englifh barley.
INNISKILLING, -a borough, market, fair, and
poll town of Ireland, in the county of Fermanach and
province of Ulfter, lying between three lakes. It is
about 24 miles eaft of Ballyfhannon, and 79 north-weft
of Dublin. It fends two members to parliament; pa¬
tron Lordlnnilkilling, this place giving title of vifeount
to the family qf Cole. . Its inhabitants diftinguilhed
themfelves in feveial confiderable engagements in the
wars of Ireland at the revolutfon, out of which a re¬
giment of dragoons, bearing the title of the Innifkille-
ners, was moftly formed. They form the 6th regi-
H h 2 ment
I N O [ 244 ] I N O
Irnircer t’s ment of dragoons in the Britilh army. It has a bar-
rack for three companies of foot.
Inocula- INNOCENT’S day, a feftival of the Chriftian
tion. church, obferved on December 28th, in memory of
v—; the maffacre of the innocent children by the command
of Herod king of Judaea. See Jesus Chrljl; and Jews,
n° 24. par. ult. The Greek church in their kalendar,
and the Abyflinians of Ethiopia in their offices, com¬
memorate 14,000 infants on this occafion.
INNUENDO (of Innuo “ I nod or beckon”), is a
word frequently ufed in writs, declarations, and plead¬
ings, to afcertain a perfon or thing which was named,
but left doubtful, before: as, he [innuendo the plaintiff)
did fo and fo ; mention being before made of another
perfon.—In common converfation or writing, an innu¬
endo denotes an oblique hint or diftant reference, in
contradiltin&ion to a direct and pofitive charge.
INO (fab. hift.), a daughter of Cadmus and Har-
monia, who nurfed Bacchus. She married Athamas
king of Thebes, after he had divorced Nephele, by
whom, he had two children Phryxus and Helle. Ino
became mother of Melicerta and Learchus ; and foon
conceived an implacable hatred againft the children of
Nephele, becaufe they were to afcend the throne in
preference to her own. Phryxus and Helle were in¬
formed of Ino’s machinations, and they efcaped to
Colchis on a golden ram. Juno, zealous of Ino’s prof-
perity, refolved to difturb her peace ; and more parti¬
cularly becaufe fhe was of the defcendants ofhergreateft
enemy, Venus. Tifiphone was fent by order of Juno
to the houfe of Athamas; and fhe filled the whole pa¬
lace with fuch fury, that Athamas taking Ino to be a
lionefs and her children whelps, purfued her and dalh-
ed her fon Learchus againft a wall. Ino efcaped from
the fury of her hufband ; and from a high rock fhe
threw herfelf into the fea with Melicerta in her arms.
The gods pitied her fate; and Neptune made her a
fea deity, which was afterwards called Leucothoe.
Melicerta became alfo a fea god, known by the name
of Palemon.
INOA, feftivals in memory of Ino, celebrated year¬
ly with fports and facrifices at Corinth. An anniver-
fary facrifice was alfo offered to Ino at Megara, where
fhe was firft worfhipped under the name of Leucothoe.
—Another in Laconia, in honour of the fame. It
was ufual at the celebration to throw cakes of flour in¬
to a pond, which if they funk were prefages of prof-
perity, but if they fwam on the furface of the waters
they were inaufpicious and very unlucky.
INOCARPUS, in botany : A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants.
The corolla is funnel-fhaped ; the calyx bifid ; the
flamina are placed in a double feries; the fruit is a
monofpermous plum.
INOCULATION, or budding, in gardening, is
commonly pra&ifed upon all forts of ftone fruit; as
nedtarines, peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, as alfo
upon oranges and jafmines: and indeed this is prefer¬
able to ?ny fort of grafting for moft forts of fruit.
The method of performing it is as follows : You muft
be provided with a fharp pen-knife with a flat haft,
which is to raife the bark of the ftock to admit the
bud; and fome found bafs-mat, which Ihould be foak-
ed in water, to increafe its ftrength, and render it more
pliable: then Jiaving taken off the cuttings from the
trees you would propagate, you muft choofe a fmooth Inocula-
part of the ftock, about five or fix inches above the t‘on*
furface of the ground, if defigned for dwarfs; but if v
for ftandards, they fhould be budded fix feet above¬
ground. Then with your knife make an horizontal
cut acrofs the rind of the ftock, and from the middle
of that cut make a flit downwards, two inches in
length, that it may be in the form of a T ; but you
muft be careful not to cut too deep, left you wound
the ftock : then having cut off the leaf from the bud,
leaving the foot-ftalk remaining, you Ihould make a
crofs cut, about half an inch below the eye, and with
your knife flit off the bud, with part of the wood to
it : this done, you muft with your knife pull off that
part of the wood which was taken with the bud, ob-
ferving whether the eye of the bud be left to it or
not ; for all thofe buds which lofe their eyes in drip¬
ping, are good for nothing: then having gently raifed
the bark of the ftock with the flat haft of your pen¬
knife clear to the wood, thruft the bud therein, obfer-
ving to place it fmooth between the rind and wood of
the ftock, cutting off any part of the rind belonging
to the bud that may be too long for the flit made in
the ftock ; and fo having exa&ly fitted the bud to the
ftock, tie them clofely round with bafs-mat, beginning
at the under part of the flit, and fo-proceeding to the
top, taking care not to bind round the eye of the bud,
which ftiould be left open.
When your buds have been inoculated three weeks
or a month, thofe which are freflt and plump you may
be fure are joined ; and at this time you (hould loofen
the bandage, which if it be not done in time, will in¬
jure if not deftroy the bud. The March following
cut off the ftock floping, about three inches above the
bud, and to what is left faften the (hoot which pro¬
ceeds from the bud : but this muft continue no longer
than one year; after which the ftock muft be cut off
clofe above the bud. The time for inoculating is
from the middle of June to the middle of Auguft :
but the moft general rule is, when you obferve the
buds formed at the extremity of the fame year’s (hoot,
which is a fign of their having finifhed their fpring-
growth. The firft fort commonly inoculated is the
apricot; and the laft the orange-tree, which Ihould
never be done till the latter end of Auguft. And in
doing this work, you ftiould always make choice of
cloudy weather ; for if it be done in the middle of the
day, when the weather is hot, the ftioots will perfpire
fo fall, as to leave the buds deftitute of raoifture.
Inoculation, in a phyfical fenfe, is ufed for the
tranfplantation of diftempers from one fubjebt .to an¬
other, particularly for the engraftment of the fmall-
pox ; which, though of ancient ufe in the Eaftern
countries, is but a modern practice among us, at leaft
under the dire&ion of art.
It is well obferved by the Baron Dimfdale, that ac¬
cident hath furnifhed the art of medicine with many
valuable hints, and fome of its greateft improvements
have been received from the hands of ignorance and
barbarifm. This truth is remarkably exemplified in
the pradtice of inoculation of the fmall-pox : but to
the honour of the Britilh phyficians, they meafured
not the value of this pra&ice by the meannefs of its
origin, but by its real importance and utility; they pa^
troniftd a barbarous difcovery with no lefs zeal and
affeftion
I N O [ 24c ] I N O
Inocula- affeflion than if it had been their own. Indeed the
tiun. •whole nation might be faid to have adopted the prac-
tice ; for the greateft encouraged it by becoming ex¬
ample?, and the wifeft were determined by the general
event of the method.
As to the origin of the art of inoculating the fmall-
pox, as well as the time and place in which it was per¬
formed, they are equally unknown to all by whom the
practice is adopted. Accident probably gave rife to
it. Pylarini fays, that among the Turks it was not
attended to except amongft the meaner fort. Dr Ruf-
fel informs us in thePhilofophicalTranfaftions, vol.lviii.
p. 142. that no mention is made of it by any of the an¬
cient Arabian medical writers that are known in Eu¬
rope ; and the phyficians who are natives in and about
Arabia, aifert, that nothing is to be found regarding
it in any of thofe of a more modern date. He far¬
ther fays, that he engaged fome of his learned Turkilh
friends to make enquiry ; but they did not difeover
any thing on this fubjeft of inoculation either in the
writings of phyficians, hiftorians, or poets. Until the
beginning of the 18th century, all the accounts we
have of inoculating the fmall-pox are merely tradition¬
al. The filence on this fubjedf, obferved amongft
writers in the countries where the pradtice obtained,
Dr Ruffel fuppofes, with great probability, to be ow¬
ing to the phyficians there never countenancing or en-
gsging in it. It is alfo remarkable, that before Py-
larini’s letter to the Royal Society in 1701, nor yet
for feveral years after, this practice is not noticed by
any of the moft inquifitive travellers. On this Dr Ruf¬
fel very juftly obferves, that cuftoms, the moft common
in diftant countiies, are often the leaft apt to attradl
the obfervation of travellers, who, engaged in other
purfuits, muft be indebted to accident for the know¬
ledge of fuch things as the natives feldom talk of, upon
the belief that they are known to all the world.
The firft accounts we have in the learned world con¬
cerning inoculation, are from two Italian phyficians,
vl%. Pylarini and Timoni, whofe letters on the fub-
jedt may be feen in the Philofoph. Tranf. abr. vol. v.
p. 37c, &c. The firft is dated A. D. 1701; the next
is dated A. D. 1713. Whether our inquiiies are ex¬
tended abroad or confined to our own country, inocu¬
lation hath been pradtifed under one mode or other
time immemorial; in Great Britain and its adjacent
iflts we have well authenticated accounts, extending
farther backward than any from the continent. Dr
Williams of Haverfordweft, who wrote upon inocula¬
tion in 1725, proves, that it had been pradtifed in
Wales, though in a form fomewhat different, time out
of mind. Mr Wright, a furgeon in the fame place,
fays, that buying the fmall pox is both a common
pradtice, and of long (landing in that neighbourhood.
He fays, that in Pembro;: efhire there are two large
villages near the harbour of Milford, more famous for
this cuftom than any other, viz. St Ifhmael’s and Mar-
loes. The old inhabitants of thefe villages fay, that
it hath been a common pradtice ; and that cne William
Allen of St Ilhmael’s, who in 1722 was 90 years of
age, declared to fome perfons of good fenfe and inte¬
grity, that this pradtice was ufed all his time ; that he
well remembered his mother telling him, that it was a
common pradtice all her time, and that fhe got the
fmall-pox that way ; fo that at leaft we go back 160 Inocula-
years or more. , tlon-
In the Highlands of Scotland and fome of the adja- ,
cent ifles, Dr Alexander Monro fenior informs us,
that the cuftom through ages paft hath been, to put
their children to bed with thofe who laboured under a
favourable fmall-pox, and to tie worded threads about
their childrens wrifts, after having drawn them through
variolous puftules.
According to the refult of Dr Ruffel’s inquiries,
the Arabians aflert, that the inoculation of the fmall-
pox has been the common cuftom of their anceftors,
and that they have no doubt of its being as ancient as
the difeafe itfelf. It is remarkable, that buying the
fmall-pox is the name univeifally applied in all coun¬
tries to the method of procuring the difeafe : it is
true that there are other terms but in Wales and
Arabia, as well as many other countries, this is the
ufual appellation. From the famenefs of the name,
and the little diverfity obfervable in the manner of
performing the operation, it is probable that the prac¬
tice of inoculation in thefe countries was originally de¬
rived from the fame fource. From its extenfive fpread,
it is probably of great antiquity too.
In the year 1717, Lady Mary Wortley Montague,
wife of the Englifh ambaffador at Conftantinople, had
her fon inoculated there at the age of fix years ; he
had but few puftules, and foon recovered. In April
1721, inoculation was fuccefsfully tried on feven con¬
demned criminals in London, by permiffion of his ma-;
jefty. In 1722, Lady Mary Wortley Montague had
a daughter of fix years old inoculated in this ifland ;
foon after which, the children of the royal family that
had not had the fmall-pox were inoculated with fuc-
cefs; then followed fome of the nobility, and the prac¬
tice foon prevailed. And here we date,the commence¬
ment of inoculation under the dire&ion of art.
From the example of the royal family in England,
the pradlice was adopted in Germany, particularly in
Hanover, and its adjacent countries.
After Mr Maitland had fucceeded with thofe he
had inoculated in and about London, he introduced
the practice into Scotland in the year 1726.
Sweden foon followed the example of the Britifh.
Ruffia lately engaged one of our principal promoters
and improvers of this att. And now there are not
many countries that do not more or lefs prarftife it.
Different Modes of Inoculation. The practice of
inoculation having obtained in every part of the world,
it may be grateful,, at leaft to curiofuy, to have a ge¬
neral account of the different modes that are and have
been adopted in that practice.
Inoculation with the blood of variolous patients hath
been tried without effedt: the variolous matter only
produces the variolous difeafe.
The application of the variolous matter takes place
in a fenfible part only; the adiivity of the virus is fuch,
that the fmalleft atom, though imperceptible to any of
our fenfes, conveys the difeafe as well as the largeft
quantity. Hence the moft obvious method is the prick
of a needle or the point of a lancet dipped in the mat*-
ter of a variolous puilule.
Cotton or thread is ufed, that is previoufly rubbed
with powdered variolous fcabs ; this thread is dfawn
« with*
I N O [ 246 ] I N O
Inocula-. with a needle through the cutis, but not left In, This
tl0"' , is the method in fome parts of the Eaft Indies. The
'* Indians pafs the thread on the outfide of the hand,
between any of the fingers*; or between the fore-finger
and thumb. The Tkeffalian women inoculate in the
forehead and chin.
Some abrade the fcarf-ikin, and rub in the powder¬
ed dry fcabs which fall from the puftules of patients
with the fmall-pox.
Many of the Greek women make an oblique punc¬
ture with a needle, on the middle of the top of the
forehead, on each cheek, the chin, each metacarpus,
and each metatarfus ; then drop in each a little of the
pus juft taken warm from a patient, and brought in a
fervant’s bofom. Others in Greece make feveral little
wounds with a needle in one, two, or more places, in
the fkin, till fdme drops of blood enfue ; then the
operator pours a drop of warm pus freftr from a pu-
llule, and mixes it with the blood as it iffues out;
then the wound is covered by fome with a bandage,
by others with half a walnut fhell placed with its
concave fide over each orifice.
The Chinefe convey a pellet of variolated cotton,
with the addition of a little mufk, into the noftrils of
the patient; they colledt dry puftules, and keep them
in a porcelain bottle well corked; and when they ino¬
culate, they mix a grain of muik with three or four
grains of the dry ficales, and roll them in cotton.
This method may be called incdoration.
About Bengal, in the Eaft Indies, the perfon who
intends to be inoculated, having found a houfe where
there is a good fort of the fmall-pox, goes to the bed of
the fick perfon, if he is old enough ; or if a child, to
one of his relations, and fpeaks to him as follows : “ I
am come to buy the fmall-pox.” The anfwer is, “ Buy
if you pleafe.” A fum of money is accordingly given,
and one, three, or five puftules, for the number muft
always be odd, and not exceeding five, extra&ed whole,
and full of matter. Thefe are immediately rubbed on
the fkin of the outfide of the hand between the fore¬
finger and the thumb ; and this fuffices to produce the
difeafe. The fame cuftom obtains in Algiers, Tunis,
Tripoli, and other countries.
Very fimilar to the cuftom amongft the people about
Bengal, &c. is that in Arabia, where on fome flefhy
part they make feveral pun&ures with a needle im¬
brued in variolous matter, taken from a puftule of a
favourable kind. Here they buy the fmall-pox too, as
follows : -the child to be inoculated carries a few raifins,
dates, fugar-plums, or fuch like ; and (bowing them
to the child from whom the matter is to be taken,
•afks how many pocks he will give in exchange ? The
bargain being made, they proceed to the operation ;
but this buying, though ftill continued, is not thought
neceffary to the fuccefs of the operation. The Arabs
fay that any fltfhy part is proper ; but generally they
infert the matter between the fore-finger and thumb
on the outfide of the hand.
The Georgians infert the matter on the fore-arm.
The Armenians introduce the matter on the tw'o
thighs. In Wales the practice may be termed infric¬
tion of the fmall-pox. There lome of the dry puftules
are procured by purchafe, and are rubbed hard upon
the naked arm or leg.
The praftice in fome places is to prick the fkin be¬
tween fome of the fingers by means of two fmall needles
joined to one another} and after having rubbed a
little of the matter on the fpot, a circle is made by
means of feveral pun&ures of the bigners of a common
puftule, and matter is again rubbed over it. The ope¬
ration is finifhed by dreffing the wound with lint.—An¬
other cuftom is to mix a little of the variolous matter
w:ith fugar, and give it to be drank in any agreeable
liquor.
Incifions have been made in the arms and legs, and
thread, cotton, or lint, previoufly dipped in the vari¬
olous matter, was lodged in them. The pra&ice of
fome is to bathe the feet in w?arm water, and then fe-
cure lint dipped in the variolous matter on the inftep,
or other part of the foot, where the fkin is thin. O-
thers apply a fmall bliftering plafter ; and when the
fcarf-fkin is elevated and flipped off, the variolous mat¬
ter is applied to the furface of the true fkin, and con¬
fined there by a little lint or plafter. Scratching the
fkin with a pin or needle, and then rubbing the part
with lint, previoufly dipped in variolous matter, is the
cuftom in fome places.
In the Highlands of Scotland they rub fome part
of the fkin with frefh matter, or dip worfted in vario¬
lous matter, and tie it about the childrens wrifts.
They obferve, that if frefh matter is applied a few days
fucceffively, the infedfion is more certain than by one
application.
Objections to Inoculation anfwered. I. “ It is not
lawful.”
In anfwer to this, the Scriptures afk, Is it lawful
to fave life, or to 'deftroy it ? Luke vi. 9. And as it
is a difficulty with many ferious people, whether to
admit of this pradlice or not, this obje&ion fhould be
confidered in a religious view. We fhould in this cafe
remember, that as the fall of man brought the danger
of difeafes into the world, fo to evade, oppofe, or de¬
ftroy it, is not only his right, but duty, if in his
powder. And if events imply the caufe, a long run of
uninterrupted fuccefs implies an efficacious remedy.
Though fome die under this management, it is fulfi-
cient to prove the lawfulnefs of a remedy, that it is
proper for and has by experience been found in moft
cafes effeftual to the end for which it was ufed. When
danger funounds us, no conduft is more proper than
to inquire into and purfue the means of efcape. To
negledt our fafety is to fink below the brutes, who by
initinft avoid the evils to which they are expofed. In¬
oculation is a means of faving life in many inftances,
and of moderating the feverity of afflifticn in more.
Wilfully then to negleft the means of faving life is to
be guilty of murder.
II. “ It is bringing adiftemper on ourfelves, and fo
ufurping the facred prerogative of God.”
1. As to the firft part of this objedtion, if by di-
ftempers are meant ficknefs and pain, that is praeftifed
daily in other inftances, in concurrence with the Scrip¬
ture diftate, vi%. of two evils choofe the leaft. But
the fuppofition of objedtors in this inftance is not alto-
• gether true. For by inoculation, a difeafe is not pro¬
perly faid to be communicated. It only excites and
frees us from one, which, though latent, is already in
us: or (which in effedt is the fame) inoculation, by an ad¬
vantageous mode of infedting, &c. frees the patient in
all inftances from the ufual difficulties of the difeafe ;
faves
Ir.nrut.vv
I N O [ 247 ] I N O
Inocuh- faves the life of mod who fubmit to it 5 and with the
tl0n- natural fmall-pox it deftroya that difpofition in the bo-
without which the difeafe cannot take place. It
is owned that fome hazard attends it: it is fometimes
mortal, and indeed it is fit it fhould be fo : it is gene¬
rally fufccefsful, that encourages us to proceed : it fome¬
times, though rarely fails ; hence we are cautious and
careful, and led to ad with a dependence on Him to
whom belong the iffues from death.
2. Refpeding the offence given to God ; a reliance
en Providence does not imply that we are not to pre¬
vent or oppofe the evils which we forefee, and which
* we have in our power to guard againll by prudent pre¬
cautions. Would thefe obje&ors, in other inftances,
refufe the means of leffening the malignancy and dan¬
ger of difeafe, than which the pradice of inoculation
is no more ? Let thefe fcrupulous perfons fay, whether,
when God permits the dii’covery of preferring ourfelves
from an impending evil, he forbids our availing our¬
felves of that difcoveiy ? If our Maker offers us a re¬
medy, it is offending him to rejedt it.
III. “ The decrees of God have fixed the commif-
fion of every difeafe, and our precautions cannot pre¬
vent what he hath determined.”
However true it is that our days are determined,
&c. yet it is God’s revealed will, and not his fecret pur-
pofes, which we are to regard a$ the rule of duty. God
has required of us to have a tender regard to our lives;
and thofe who difobey him herein are guilty of a de¬
gree of felf-murder, and will never be acquitted of that
guilt by the fecret determination of Heaven concern¬
ing them. Befides, God who has ordained the end,
has alfo determined the means leading to it. St Paul,
in his dangerous voyage, had a fpecial revelation to
affure him, that all who were with him ihould efcape ;
and yet when the feamen were getting out of the fhip,
he declares that if they did not ftay in it they could
not be faved, A&s xxvii. 31. God purpofed to preferve
them in the way whereby they were afterwards delivered.
IV. “ We ffiould not do evil that good may come.”
If inoculation is in its own nature a moral evil, it
certainly ihopld be reje&ed, however great its advan¬
tages may feem to be. The ptofpeft of relief from
any calamity in life (hould not tempt us to offend God.
But thofe who make this obje&ion proceed on a mif-
take. Their principle is true with regard to moral
evil, but is not fo when applied to phyfical. It is cer¬
tainly lawful to pull down a houfe to fave a great
number from being burnt; this is a phylical evil, which
can Hardly take place without iome degree of moral
evil; and many other inftances may be pointed out,
where, for a greater good, a leffer ill is fubmitted to.
And is the fmall ill induced by inoculation to be com¬
pared with all thofe evils which are tolerated and autho-
rifed by all laws ?
V. “ The patient may die ; and then his laft mor
prents are diftteffed, and the future reflexions of his
friends are grievous.”
This objeXion leads many to decline the praXice of
inoculation, even when-they allow the theory of it to
be reafonable. They hope to efcape the diftemper in
the natural way, and they have fears of dying in this;,
and thus they are prevented from going into it. But
they {hould confider what grounds they have for either
the one or the other, and what is to be advanced to
5^
balance the account, by examining the different de- Inoeula-
grees of probability that attend their hopes and fears tiotl ,
in the ufe or negleX of inoculation. Dying is a feri-
ous thing : but if inoculation be a probable and law¬
ful means of preferving life in a time of danger, it is
a duty to comply with it; and what more peaceful
refleXion than to die in the way of duty ?
VI. “ Fear is a dangerous paffion in the fmall-pox;
but inoculation increafts the caufes of fear, by leffen¬
ing our faith and truft in God.”
When the fmall-pox is left to nature, fuch are its
ravages, that not to fear would be to fink beneath
humanity : its confequences are too grievous to be
treated with negleX. But experience manifefts the
fafety that attends receiving the difeafe by inoculation ;
it is therefore fo far a remedy to that juft fear which
enhances the danger when the difeafe is left to itfelf.
As-to faith in God, none is defrrable but that which
is agreeable to the Scripture ; and a difregard to
calamities and dangers is never the effeX of that.
Inoculation is a means of fafety ; and it is as ra¬
tional to conclude, that our lives {hould be preferved
without eating and drinking, as that we {hall be deli¬
vered from danger without a prudent care for our own
fafety. We are to depend on the care of Providence
only in the way of duty. To boaft of courage and
truft in God, while we omit the means of efcaping
danger which furrounds us, is not faith, but pre-
fumption. Thus, when inoculation becomes a pro¬
bable means by which to fave life, it is a prefumption,
and not truft, to nsgleX it.
VII. “ Inoculation does not exempt from future in-
feXion.”
If by inoculation of the fmall-pox the fame difeafe
is produced, the fame effeXs may be expeXed from it
when artificially produced as in the natural way. It is-
inconceivable, that a contagious fubftance, the very
feminal matter of the fmall-pox, {hould propagate, in-
ftead of its own, another difeafe. De Haen is an a-
cute phyfician, and was a violent oppofer of inocu¬
lating the fmall-pox ; but he never fuppofed that the
matter of the fmall-pox will produce any difeafe but
itfelf. Obfervation alone determined the opinion, that
the natural fmall-pox does not attack a fecond tifne :
rhe fame (lands good in favour of the artificial difeafe.
And to this numberlefs trials have been made without
effeX, to reinfeX thofe in whom the fmall-pox had
taken place by inoculation.
VIII. “ Other difeafes are communicated with the
matter of the fmall-pox, by inoculating it.”
That careleffnefs or wilfulnefs in the operator may
in fome inftances give caufe for this objeXion is true ;
but that by the matter.of a variolous puftuie, any other
difeafe hath been conveyed, is yet to be proved. As
the confluent and malignant fmall-pox have not yet
been obferved to produce their own degree and mode
of this diftemper when infufed by inoculation, it is
fcarcely conceiveable that they fhould tranfmit another
difeafe effentially different. The venereal difeafe is
known to be as communicable as any ; yet feveral have
been inoculated from patients labouring under confi-
derable degrees of the venereal difeafe, and no ill con¬
fequences ever yet were known to follow, none to give
the leaft fufpicion of the kind. If the variolous mat¬
ter may convey another difeafe in the artificial, it may
do;
I N O [ 248 ] I N O
Inocula- do the fame in the natural way ; and even then, ad- The moft plaufible objeftor on this account is Dr fnocula-
tion. vantage is attendant on inoculation, for we can choofe Raft, of Lyons, in France. From his review of the tl0n
“ a healthy perfon to take the infection from ; but no bills of mortality in and about London, he obferves, 'r~“
inftance of the kind hath ever occurred. “ that more have died by the fmall-pox in London,
IX. “ Perhaps the difeafe may never attack in the
natural way.”
Such objectors fliould be informed, that this diftem-
per cannot be given to one who never would have it;
for they only who are fufceptible of it can take it by
inoculation, as is evident from numerous experiments
made to verify this fa&. Again, the fmall-pox may be
faid to be general ;■ fo few there are who are exempted
from it, that they can hardly be confidered as an ex¬
ception to the general law : it is therefore worth while
to inoculate, firft, to afcertain the fafety of the indi¬
vidual from the difeafe ; and, fecondly, on account of
the general advantages of this pra&ice, in cafe lie
fhould be fufceptible of the infefllon. On this fubjeft
Dr Jurin hath inferted an ingenious paper in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions ; in which he obferves, that it
is difficult to afcertain the exa£t number who die with¬
out having the fmall-pox ; but that, of all the children
that are born, there will fome time or other die of the
fmall pox one in fourteen; and that of perfons of all
ages taken ill of the fmall-pox, there will die thereby
two in eleven. From a table of burials it appears, that
in Edinburgh and St Cuthbert’s parifti, during ten
years, about one-tenth of the dead were killed by the
fmall pox. Farther, as it cannot be known that any
individual is exempted from the fmall-pox, his hazard
of dying of that diftemper, being made up of the ha¬
zard of having it, and the hazard of dying of it if he
has it, will be exaftly the fame, viz. that of one in
eight or nine (whether the proportion of mankind that
efcape having the fmall-pox be great or fmall). In
inquiry from houfe to houfe for the number of people
with the fmall pox, in feveral towns, during one year,
it appeared that near one in five died who had them;
and that of eighty-two perfons who were inoculated
in thefe places in the fame year, not one died.
X. “ It requires much thought to know what we
fhould do with regard to inoculation.”
Not to dwell on the abfurdity of this obje&ion, and
of complaining that confideration is a burden when it
is neceffary for the prefervation of life, it may fuffice
to point out, that a facred writer tells us, that “ a pru¬
dent man forefeeth the evil, and hideth himfelf j but
fools pafs on and are punifhed.”
XI. “ It endangers others.”
Since very few of mankind now efcape the fmall-
pox, it mutt fooner or later come to every place;
therefore, if it be true in fadt that a much greater num¬
ber lofe their lives by the natural than by the artificial
infedtion, it is of more ftrvice to introduce the fmall-
pox in a favourable way and feafon, than paflively to
allow it to deftroy multitudes. As to fpreading
the dileafe by introducing inoculation, it is but of little
confequence ; for inoculating where the difeafe does not
already exift, is differently circumftanced from this
pradtice, where it already prevails in the natural way;
the quantity of the circumambient contagion is lefs,
or tire fame extent of atmofphere is lefs impregnated
with the infediious principles from inoculated patients,
than when it naturally prevails, or the fame number
s>f people received it in the natural way.
167,
fince the introduction of inoculation, than in the fame
time preceding that period, in confequence of the
difeafe thereby being more univerfally extended and
propagated.” But to this, Dr Lettfom moft fatif-
fadtorily replies, “That the late increafe of burials
cannot depend upon the pradtice of inoculation, un¬
der which, though it is a rare thing to hear of a
fatal cafe, but rather upon the innovation introdu¬
ced in the treatment of the natural fmall-pox of ex-
pofing the patients to the open air, and a lefs re-
ferved intercourfe amongft the community. Add to
this the improvements in medicine in various in-
ftances, the police of the city, &c. which by prefer-
vingmany lives occafion more fubjedts for the fmall-pox,
and confequently a proportional increafe of deaths by
this difeafe, many of thofe who are preferred by the
above named improvements not being favoured with
the advantage of inoculation. Befides the care taken
in and about London to prevent inconvenience from
inoculation, &c. it fhould be remembered, that the in-
creafing acceffion of young perfons to the capital from
the country, eafily accounts for the increafe of 19
deaths in 1000 more than formerly happened.” See
a Defence of Inoculation, in Dr Lettfom’s Medical Me¬
moirs.
XII. “ The pradtice of inoculation comes from the
devil.”
The beft anfwers to this feem to be, firft, that ca¬
villers will never ceafe from objedting ; and oppofi-
tions will be made as long as there are men of wit to
devife, or of fophiftry to invent. Secondly, that Job
was afflidted by the devil with the fmall-pox, is not a
known fadt. Thirdly, that if by what is faid the
principal objedtions are removed, it is hoped that the
reafonable and the religious will be enabled to approve
themfelves to God in the pradtice of inoculation. See a
difcuffion of moft of the preceding objedtions in an ex¬
cellent pamphlet, entitled, “ Inoculation impartially
confidered, and proved to be confident with Reafon
and Revelation,” by the Rev. Mr David Some, pu-
blifhed by Dr. Doddridge in 1750.
Advantages of Inoculation. Though no difeafe,
after it is formed, baffles the powers of medicine more
than the fmall-pox, yet more may be done before-hand
to render this difeafe favourable than in any other we
know. The artificial method of producing the fmall-
pox hath almoft ftripped it of its terrors ; in general,
hath rendered its afpedtmild, itsprogrefs uniform, and
nearly without hazard to the patient.
Mr Mudge, in his Differtation on the inoculated
Small-pox, enumerates the following fources of danger
from this difeafe, viz. 1. The patient’s conllitution.
2. The propenfity of the patient to be infe&ed.
3. The manner or mode of the infe&ion being com¬
municated. 4. The conftitution of the air at the time
of infection. And it is the advantage of inoculation,
if prudently conducted, almoft totally to exempt its
fubje&s from the difadvantages attendant on thefe
fources.
1. “ Refpe&ing the habit of body, or ftate of the
patient’s conftitution at the time of infe&ion.”
Confti-
I N O [ 249 ] I N O
habitual difeafes, in general, do where the fmall-pox has been epidemic, have prefently
after been feized with this diforder. Events of this
kind are lb common, as to have given rife to the ill
grounded opinion, that any change of air is hazardous
to thofe who have not had the fmall pox. If at a time
hen the propenlity to be affe&ed is the greateft*.
Conftitutional
not interfere wuth the courfe of the fmall-pox, whether
in its natural or its artificial progrefs ; fuch as fcorbu-
tic eruptions on the Ikin, ftrumous complaints, itch,
fcabby eruptions, excoriated ears, &c. The variolous
poifon is therefore a thing fui generis, and noway
affe&ed by thefe taints of the juices, or what is ufually there Ihould be a concurrence of thofe ft***-'
called a bad habit of body ; or at lead fo inconfidera- conftitution above now aggravated will the
bly, as not to deprive fuch patients of any of the ad- ^tn^ P3116"1 ' .
vantages of inoculation. But the cafe i* —^ «vmed _ Refpea.ng the evaiion of thefe inconvemences by
with refpedl to fome aiieafes' E- gr- on inoculation, it is to be obferved, that as the propenfity.
fj,,. or the fmall-pox, the habit or its attending to the difeafe differs at different times in the fame fub-
circumftances tend to inflammation, or, on the con- jeft, it is reafonable to fuppofe that the diforder it
trary, to a putrid acrimony, the eruptive fever in thefe produced by downright violence, when there fubfifls in.
aggravated ftates will load the body with variolous the patient but little of that peculiarity of conftitution
matter, or- produce puftules of a very unfavourable fo effential to the produ&ion of the difeafe (and fa
kind ; in either of thefe cafes (not to enumerate more) general, when the fmall-pox is epidemical), or, in o-
the patient will moft probably be fevertly affe&ed. ther words, when the body is indifpofed to be poifon-
But inoculated fubje&s may be infedted when the ed. This confideration, peculiar to the difeafe when--
conftitution is in the beft condition to combat with artificially produced, appears to be the true caufe of
the difeafe ; if either of thofe indifpofitions are atten- the fmall quantity of pocky matter, and that general
dant, or any other which ufually endangers, they may fcarcity of puftules, when compared to the natural,
foon be teftrained or removed. fmall-pox, which has ever accompanied inoculation, and.
2. “ The different degrees of propenfity in the pa- is one of the grand advantages of the difcovery. Far-
tient, at different times, to be infe&ed.” ther, as it is very reafonable to fuppofe, that this pio-
That different quantities of matter are produced in penfity is the greateft when there is an epidemic con-
different perfons in the procefs of the difeafe, we find ftitution of the air which favours the produ&ion of the
true in fadl; and there is the ftrongeft reafon to be- difeafe; and if it be as probable that the feverity or-
lieve, that, previous to infe&ion, the quantity of the mildnefs of the difeafe depends in a good degree upon-
variolous matter, or rather that principle in the confti- the greater or leffer propefifity of the fubje& to be in-
tution which eventually producesit, ebbs and flows, is fedled ; it will certainly be;an eligible ftep not to bring,
more or lefs vigorous at different times in the fame on the diforder by inoculation during the continuance^
fubjedl, under various combinations of circumftances. of an evidently prevailing tendency to the difeafe.
The inllances are not uncommon, where the patient Prudence in this cafe diredts us to take advantage of
who hath withftood at one time all the ordinary means the abfence of fuch a prevailing tendency, when all-
of infedtion, nay, who hath induftrioufly, but ineffec- the benefits of inoculation may be fecmed ; and not to
tually, fought it; yet at another hath had a fmall-pox delay the operation, till fuch a conilitution of air pre-
fo malignant in appearace and effeft, that the whole vails, as at once makes the operation neceffary, and de¬
body hath been converted into an offenfive variolous prives it of fame of its advantages. To conclude, we
puttefcence. If the degree of propenfity to receive in- may add to this confideration, that by the pradtice of-
fedlion was always the fame, it wmuld be inconceivable expofure to cold, the violence' of the eruptive fever is
that any one could pafs unaffedled wken the fmall pox fo far moderated, as to prevent its forming, an addi-
became epidemic. From whatever caufes, however, tional quantity of variolous matter, which, in a violent
this propenfity may arife, it is moft reafonable to af- and unreftrained ftate, it would.do, by afiimilating the
fert, that the increafe or decreafe of this principle - jpices of the conftitution into the nature of the vario-
takes place according as the fmall-pox is epidemic or lous poifon.
not. During the continuance of any contagious 3. “The manner or mode of the infedtion being
epidemic difeafe, w’e, always find that thofe conftitu- communicated.”
tions which are moft congenial with that charadkr, are In the natural fmall-pox, the difeafe may be pro-
peculiarly obnoxious to the correfpondent diftemper. duced by accidental contagion, or an epidemic influ-
And w’e may reafonatly conclude, that w hen the con- ence. Dr Mead fays, that the air of this climate ne-
ftitution of a perfon not paft the fmall-pox is moft ver produces the plague, fmall-pox, or mealies; and
faturated with the variolous principle, he is then more Dr Arbuthnot fays, that the plague itfelf may be
particularly fubjeft to infe&ion. Again, it is not on- generated by fome quality in the air, without any con-
ly undoubted, that the variolous principle fubfifts ii
the conftitutions of perfons not paft the fmall-pox,
but it is more than probable that a part of this principle
is produced by the eruptive fever, and the reft of the
variolous procefs. Agreeably to what hath been faid.
tagion. Be thefe opinions as they may, it is evident
that contagion is fometimes fo languid, that it requires
the agency of other caufes to give it a&ivity, fo-as to
produce the tribe of difeafes to which it .belongs, and .
which without this agency would never be brought.
we find, that during the epidemic tendency, thofe who forth ;- and though the ftrongeft epidemic tendency
have not paffed the difeafe, are more open to conta¬
gion than in other conftitutions of air, when the fmall-
pox is not epidemic, and is confequently a rare difeafe.
Ms
may not in Europe create the fmall-pox, without tlfe
concurrence of contagious fomes, yet there is, by the
agency of the former, fuch an alteration made, and
any who have efcaped infe&ion from inoculation and propenfity brought on the animal juices, as is effen--
other means of contagion, on remoyal into a fituation tially neceffary to continue the exiftence of the difeafe.
"Vol. IX. Part I, . I i Variolous
Inocufa*
I N O [ 25° } I N O
Irocu’a- Variolous contagion produces its effe&s by the a&ual ed by a partial application of the variolous fames to Tnsiufe.'
, application of its poifon, either externally, through their furface, have no diftrefs to proclaim by a fecon- ‘i00,
* ' the medium of the ikin ; or internally, to the gullet, dary fever, which therefore is fcarcely ever feen in tno-
flomach, and guts, in the aft of deglutition; or lalUy, culated patients.
to the lungs, in the aft of refpiration. Though there 4. “ The conflitution of-the air at the time of in-
may be a poflible admiffion of the poilbnous miafmata feftion.,>
•"Uitution through the Hein, from the prin- A powerful fource Or difficulty and danger in the
orntion: vet ti..  r-,J— '-c  natural fmall-pox is, the malignant influence of the
air at fome feafons, and particularly if it happens at the
time or ■. j the infection. If this concurs with
ciple of abforption; yet very feldom, if e
exerts its influence upon the habit in tnis inai..i
poffibly by a local aftual application of the grofs mat- time or
ter lodged in the cloaths, or otherwife conveyed, the one or more
diftemper may fometimes be produced by a kind of vaftation !
of the ottiei
=. bnW-dreadful the de-
diftemper may fometimes be produced by a kind of vaftation 1 Whether this conftitution or 1
inoculation, and then the diforder will probably be fa- duces its deleterious effefts by heightening the natu-
vourable. But when the poifon, inamore dilute ft ate, ral malignity of the infefting poifon, or afts on the
only floats in or impregnates the air, it feldom enters conftitution itfelf fo as to render the effefts of conta-
the pores of thefkin and poifons by way of abforp- gion more peculiarly fatal, the cohfequence of this ftate
tion ; for the degrees of aftivity in which this power is of the air is the fame. The general charafters of a
exerted, are mo ft probably in proportion to the aids morbid ftate of the air are the inflammatory and pu-
* the conftituticn may ftand in need of from it. How- trid ; and it is uriiformly obferved, that whenever a
ever, it is more than probable that the.ordinary mode perfon is attacked with a fever under either of thefe
of infeftion is by the lungs, which from their ftrufture prevailing difpofitions, it never fails to'imprefs its
. they are well calculated to receive, to entangle, and to character upon the difeafe.
retain. When either the lungs or the stomach are But here alfo inoculation affordsthemoftbenignin-
- firft infefted by the infeftious effluvia, it is moft reafon- fluence. The judicious praftitioner does not expefe
able to believe, that thefe noble parts, together with the his patient to the pernicious effefts of an air that can
fauces, glottis, wind-pipe, and gullet, will frequently ftamp its baneful charafter on the fmall-pox, but
labour under a,greater load of puftules than the ex- choofes the feafon belt calculated for the fafety and
ternal furface of the body: for it is obferved, that welfare of his patient; and hence w>e rarely fee the in-
when the patient is infefted artificially, the parts fluence of this evil fqurce attendant on the artificial
to which the poifon is applied fuffer in a greater de- difeafe.
gree than the more diftant; and that the circumjacent Having feen, that from the influence of one or more
• Ikin, to fome extent, is filled with puftules. From this of thefe four fources of difficulty and danger, and that
particular application of the morbid matter to the from their union will refult a natural fmall-pox, com-
fauces, &c. it is probable, that the large difeharge of plicated with horrors not lefs to be dreaded than the
faliva,, &c. arifes, which charafterizes the confluent plague; how ineftimable muft appear that favour of
fmall-pox in adults ; and as children fwallow this fall- Providence, by which we are freed from the formi-
> va, it excites a. diarrhoea, which in them anfwers to the dable attendants of this difeafe, viz. inoculation, by
fpitting in thofe more aged. When the internal parts which the diforder is rendered mild, and in general lefs
are oppreffed with puftules, there is no interval be- hazardous than a common cold !
itween the eruptive and the fubfequent fymptomatic From attention to the above fources of ill in the
fever; and the fuffering which the patient labours un- natural fmall-pox, we perceive with fufficient fatisfac-
r-der from a generally inflamed fkin, heightened by the tion the many inftances of relief and fecurity which
difeafed condition of the nobler parts, perpetuates the generally we avail ourfelves of by inoculation ; a part of
firft fever. This informs us that all is not fo well which we have feen, arid a few others follow,
within as otherwife the external appearances might 1. As already obferved, it faves the lives of moft
.have induced us to believe ; but that the nobler parts who are its fubjefts. From a general calculation it
are rendered unfit for the purpofes of life, at leaft are appears, that in the hefpitals for fmall-pox and inocula-
labouring and lagging behind in the procefs, fo chat tion, 72 die out of 400 patients having the diftemper
they have not kept pace with the apparent ftate of the in the natural way, and only one out of this number
Aifeafe on the furface of the body: this fome have \sr\\tn inoculated. 2. It leffensthe afflift ion from both
fuppofed to be the true general caufe of the fecondary the degree and the number of ill fymptoms, even
fever, under which the patient, if he finks, dies peri- when it proves fatal, it leffens the number of puf-
pneumonic. Thefe confequences frequently attend the tules; and, by moderating the virulence of the difeafe,
infeftion received in the natural way; and if, fuperadded the marks on the face are not fo deep. 3. It r —
to thefe, the unhappy fituation of thofe deferibed un- tremely rare that the fecondary fever attends it; a
-der the firft and fecond fources of danger attends the
patient, the diforder will be proportionably aggravated,
and the chance of life leffened.
But here again inoculation relieves: for by this mode
the virus is applied to the external furface of the body,
fo that the whole .conftitution {excepting the part im¬
mediately furrounding the wound) being affefted uni
fymptom produftive of much fuffering, if the patient
is happy enough to efcape with life. 4. It produces
the difeafe under the feweft difadvantages, and favours
with forefight to prevent many ills not to be guarded
againft in the natural fmall-pox. 5. Inftead of com¬
municating other diforders with it, many diforders
fubfequent to the natural are very rarely obferved after
.1 . e • 1 r 11  /r - — - —
formly, the procefe of the difeafe is regularly carried the artificial fmall pox. 6. It efftftually removes all
^cn ; and the nobler parts not being particularly affeft- juft grounds of fear ; a paffion very injurious in this
difeafe.
r n q_ [a.
Riofcala- dlfeafe. 7, Soldiers, failors, and all who would appear
lion abroad, or in public offices, are freed from every anxi-
« 11 . ety and hazard attendant on the natural fmall-pox.
^ Sei-vants, women with children at their breails, preg¬
nant women, magiftrates, phyficians, See. are all freed
from the moft diftreffing embarraffment, by confor¬
mity to Inoculation. See Medicine.
INOSCULATION, in anatomy; the fame with
Anastomosis.
INPROMPTU, or Impromptu. Sec Impromptu.
INQUEST, in Scots law, the fame with Jury.
INQUISITION, in the church of Rome, a tri¬
bunal in feveral Roman Catholic countries, erefted
by the popes for the examination and puniihment of
heretics.
This court was founded in the 12th century by fa¬
ther Dominic and his*followers, who were fent by Tope
Innocent HI. with orders to excite the Catholic princes
and people to extirpate heretics, to fearch into their
irumber and quality, and to tranfmit a faithful account
thereof to Rome. Hence they were called inquijitors ;
and this gave birth to the formidable tribunal of the
inquifition, which was received in all Italy and the
dominions of Spain, except the kingdom of Naples and
the Low Countries.
This diabolical tribunal takes cognizance of herefy,
Judaifm, Mahometanifm, Sodomy, and polygamy;
and the people ftaud in fo much fear of it, that parents
deliver up their children, hulbands their wives, and
mailers their fervants. to its ^officers, without daring
in the leaft to murmur. The prifoners are kept for a
long time, till they themfelves turn their own accu-
fers, and declare the caufe of their imprifonment; for
they are neither told their crime nor confronted with
witnefles. As foon as they are imprifonqd; their
friends go into mourning, and fpeak of them as dead,
not daring to folioit their pardon, left they Ihould be
brought in as accomplices. When there is no lhadow
of proof againft the pretended criminal, he is difehar-
ged, after fullering the moft cruel tortures, a tedious
and dreadful imprifonment, and the lefs of the great-
eft part of his effedb. The fentence againft the pri¬
foners is pronounced publicly, and with extraordinary
folemnity. In Portugal, they erect a theatre capable of
holding 3000 perfons; in which they place a-rich al¬
tar, and raife feats on each fide in the form of an
amphitheatre. There the prifoners are placed; and
over-againft them is a high chair, whither they are
called, one by one, to hear their doom, from one of
the inqiiilitors.
Thefe unhappy people know what they are to fuf-
fer by the clothes they wear that day. Thofe who
appear in their own clothes are difeharged upon pay¬
ment of a fine.:.thofe who have a fanto benito, or
flrait yellow coat without fleeves, charged with St
Andtew’s crofs, have their lives, but forfeit all their
effetts: thofe who have the refemblance of flames,
made of red ferge, fewed upon their fanto benito, with¬
out any crofs, are pardoned, but threatened to be
burnt if ever they relapfe : but thofe who, befides
thefe flames, .have on their fanto benito their own pic¬
ture, furrounded with figures of devils, are condemned
to expire in the flames. The inquifitors, who are eo-
clefiaftics, do not pronounce the fentence of death;
but form and read.an ad,.in which they lay, that
ji 1 INS
the criminal being convi&ed of fuch a crime, by his bferibed
own confeffion, is with much relu&ance delivered to the II I
fecular power to be punifhed according to his demerits: , bfeds.
and this writing they give to the feven judges who at-
tend at the right fide of the altar, who immediately
pafs lenience. For the conclufion of this horrid feene,
fee Act of Faith.
INSCRIBED, in geometry. A figure is faid to
be inferibed in another, when all its angles touch the
fide or planes of the other figure.
INSCRIPTION, a title or writing affixed to any
thing, to give fome farther knowledge of it, or to tranf¬
mit fome important truth to pofterity.
Antiquaries are very curious in examining ancient
inferiptions found on Hones and other monuments of
antiquity. Sanchoniathon, contemporary, as it is faid,
with Gideon, drew moft of the memoirs whereof his
hiftory is compofed, from inferiptions which he found
in temples and on columns, both among the Heathens
and the Hebrews.
It appears, indeed, that the ancients engraved upon
pillars the principles of fciences, as well as the hiftory
of the woild. Thofe mentioned by Herodotus Ihow,
that this was the firft way of inftruding people, and of
tranfmitting hiftories and fciences to pofterity. This
is confirmed by Plato in his Elippias ; wherein he fays,
that Pififtratus engraved on ftone-pillars precepts ufe-
ful for hulbandmen. Pliny allures us, that the firft
public monuments were made of plates of lead;
and that the treaties of confederacy concluded be¬
tween the Romans and the Jews were written upon
phtes of brafs ; that (fays he) the Jews might have
fomething to put them in mind of the peace and con¬
federacy concluded with the Romans. The Greeks
and Romans were great dealers in inferiptions, and
were extremely fond of being mentioned in them : and
hence it is, that we find fo many in thofe countries of
ancient learning, that large volumes have been com-
pofed as the colle&ion of Gruter, &c. Since Gruter’s
colle&ion, Th. Reinefius has compiled another huge
volume of inferiptions. M. Fabretty publiftied ano¬
ther volume at Rome in 1699, wherein he has correft-
ed abundance of errors which had efcaped Gruter, Rei¬
nefius, and other antiquaries, See. and added a great
number of inferiptions omitted by them.—Since all
thefe, Grasvius has publilhed a complete collection of
inferiptions, in three volumes folio.
INSCRUTABLE, Unsearchable, in theology, .
is ufually underftood of the fecrets of Providence, and
the judgments of God, which cannot be found out, or
into which human reafon cannot penetrate.
Academy of Inscriptions. See Acadbmy.
INSECTS, insecta, in natural hiftory, a fmaller
fort of animals, commonly fuppofed to be exfanguiousj
and diftinguilhed by certain incifures, cuttings, or in¬
dentings in their bodies. The word is originally La¬
tin, formed of in. and feco “ I cutthe reafon of
which is, that in fome of this -tr ibe, as ants, the body
feems to be cut or divided into two; or becaufe the
bodies of many; as worms, caterpillars, &c. are com¬
pofed of different circles, or rings, which are a fort of
incifurae. See Zoology and Entomology.
Of the Kinds of Insects, and where the Colledor for
the Cabinet may find them. Infebts, in general, are
known to moft people, the fyftematic dilUndiona but .
li 3 to-
INS [ 252 1 INS
•’IKit 6b. to tew ; nor have we any Englifli names for the greateft
part of them. The general denominations of beetles,
butterflies, moths, flies, bees, wafps, and a few pther
common names, are all that our language fupplies. It
would, therefore, be in vain to enumerate the im-
mcnfe variety of genera and fpecies to any perfon un-
fkilled in the fcience of entomology : we may, how¬
ever, give dire&ions under general names where to find
each kind.
The clafs ofinfe&s is divided by Linnaeus into feven
orders. See Zoology and Entomology.
I. The Coleoptera kind. Many of thefe (as the
fcaraltsus or chaffer, dermejles or leather-eater, hijler or
mimick beetle, Jlaphylinus or rove-beetle, &c.) are
found in and under the dung of animals, efpecially
Xettfime's °f cows, horfes, and fheep. Some (as lucanus or ftag-
Naturaljl's ,bzz\\e, cerambyx or capricorn beetle, dermejles, &c.)
and Travel- are found in rotten and half-decayed wood, and under
sikn L°m^a the decayed bark of trees. Others (as hijler, fdpha
or carrion Jlaphylinus, &c.) on the carcafes of
animals that have been dead four or five days ; on moift
bones that have,been gnawed by dogs dr other ani¬
mals ; on flowers having a fetid fmell; and on feveral
kinds of fungous fubltances, particularly the rotten
and moft ftinking. Others (as byrrhus, curculio or wee¬
vil, bruchus or feed-beetle, &c.) may be found in a
morning about the bottoms of perpendicular rocks
and fand-banks, and alfo upon the flowers of trees
and herbaceous plants. Many kinds (as gyrlnus or
whirl-beetle, dytifeus or water-beetle, &c.) may be
caught in rivers, lakes, and {landing pools, by means
of a thread-net, with fmall meflies, on a round wire-
hoop, fixed at the end of a long pole. In the middle
of the day, when the fun fliines hot, fome (as the coc-
ehiella or lady-fly, buprejlis or burn cow, chryfomcla
or golden honey-beetle, cantharis or foft-winged-
beetle,' elater or fpring-beetle, necydalis or dipt-wing¬
ed beetle, &c.) are to be feen on plants and flowers,
blighted trees and {hrubs. Others (as lampyris or
;glow-worm, &c.) frequent moift meadows, and are beft
difeovered at night, by the Alining light which they
emit. A great variety fit clofe on the leaves of plants,"
particularly of theburdock, elecampane, colts foot, dock,
thiftle, and the like, (as the catfida or tortoife-beetle,
&c.); or feed on different kinds of tender herbs (as the
meloe or bliftei-beetle.) Numbers (as the tenebrio or
ilinking-beetle,) may be found in houfes, dark cellars,
damp pits, caves, and fubterraneous paffages; or on
umbelliferous flowers, (as the cerambyx, ptinus, kc.)',
or on the trunks as well as on the leaves of trees, in tim¬
ber-yards, and in the holes of decayed wood. Some
(as the leptura or wood-beetle, cicindela or gloffy-
beetle, &c.) inhabit wild commons, the margins of
pools, marfhes, and rivulets; and are likewife feen
creeping on flags, reeds, and all kinds of water-
plants. Multitudes (as the carabus or ground-beetle)
live under Hones, mofs, rubbifti, and wrecks near the
ftiores of lakes and rivers. Thefe are found alfo in
bogs, marlhes, moift places, pits, holes of the earth,
and on ftems of trees; and in an evening they crawl
plentifully along path-ways after a fhower of rain.
Some (as the forjicula or earwig) may be difeovered
in the hollow ftems of decayed umbelliferous plants
and on many forts of flowers and fruits.
II. Hemiptera. Some of thefe (as the blatta or cock¬
roach) are found about bake-houfes, &c. 5 others (as
the mantis or camel-ciicket, gryllus or locuft, ftlgora,
cicada, or flea-locuft, cimex or bug, &c.) on grafs, and
all kinds of field-herbage. Some (as natonebla or boat-
fly, nepa or water-fcorpion, &c.) frequent rivers, lakes,
and Handing pools.
III. Lepidoptera. In the day, when the fun is
w'arm, butterflies are feen on many forts of trees,
flrrubs, plants, and flowers. . Moths may be feen in the
day-time, fitting on pales, walls, trunks of trees, in
{hades, out-houfes, dry holes, and crevices; on fine
evenings, they fly about the places they inhabit in the
day-time : fome (as the fphinx or hawk-moth) are
feen flying in the day-time over the flowers of honey-
fuckles and other plants with tubular flowers. Infefts
of this fpecies feldom fit to feed, but continue vibrating
on the wing, while they thru ft the tongue or probofeis
into the flowers.
IV. Neuroptera. Of thefe, fome (as the myrmeleon,
hemerobius or pearl-fly, raphidia or camel fly, &c.) are
found in woods, hedges, meadows, fand-banks, walls,
pales, fruits, and umbelliferous flowers. Others (as
libellula or dragon-fly, ephemera or may-fly, phryganea
or fpring-fly, &c.) fly about lakes and rivers in the
day.
V. Hymenoptera. Thefe, including wafps, bees, &c.
frequent hedges, flrrubs, flowers, and fruits.
VI. Diptera. Flies of various kinds conftitute this
clafs ; of which fome (as cjlras or gad-fly, mujea or fly,
tabanus or whame) fly about the tops of trees, little
hills, horfes, cows, ftieep, ditches, dunghills, and every
offenfive objetft. Others (as tipula, conops, ajilus or
wafp-fly, &c. ) are found on all forts of flowers, parti¬
cularly thofe of a fetid fmell.
VII. Aptera, or thofe without wings, comprehend
fcorpions, fpiders, crabs, lobfters, &c.
Of Catching and Preferving Insects for ColleBions. In
the following directions, we {hall relate the methods
of killing them the moft readily, and with the leaft
pain, as the purfuit of this part of natural hiftory hath
been often branded with cruelty; and however reafonably
the naturalift may exculpate himfelf by pleading the
prppriety of fubmitting to an evil which leads to ufe-
ful difeoveries, yet for wanton cruelty there never can
be a juft pretext.
1. The firft clafs, confifting of beetles (coleoptera), are
hard-winged. Many kinds fly about in the day, others
in the evening, fome at night only. They may be
caught with a gauze-net, or a pair of forceps covered
with gauze. When they are taken, Hick a pin through
the middle of one of the hard wings, and pafs it through
the body. They may be killed inftantly, by immer-
fion in hot water, as well as in fpirit of wine ; then
flick them on a piece of cork, and afterwards careful¬
ly place their legs in a creeping pofition, and let
them continue expofed to the air until all the moifture
is evaporated from their bodies. Beetles may alfo be
preferved in fpirit of wine, brandy, or rum, clofely
corked up.
2. Infe&s of the fecond clafs (hemiptera) may be
killed in the fame manner as beetles, and likewife by
means of a drop of the etherial oil of turpentine appli¬
ed to the head ; or in the manner to be dtferibed under
the next clafs for killing moths.
3. The divifion of butterflies and moths, (kpidopte-
ra).
INS [ 253 3 INS
ra), as well as all flies with membranceoiis wings,
fliould be catched with a gauze net, or a pair of
gauze forceps: when taken in the forceps, run a pin
through the thorax or ihoulders, between the fore¬
wings. After this is done, take the pin by the head,
and remove the forceps, and with the other hand pinch
the break of the infedt, and it will immediately die :
the wings of butterflies fliould be expanded, and kept
fo by the preffute of fmall flips of paper for a day or
two. Moths expand their wings when at reft, and
they will naturally take that polition.
The larger kinds of thefe infe&s will not fo readily
expire by this method, as by flicking them upon the
bottom of a cork exaftly fitted to the mouth of a
bottle, into which a little fulphur had been put, and by
gradually heating the bottle, till an exhalation of the
fulphur take place, when the infeft inftantly dies, with¬
out injuring its colours or plumage.
The beft method of having the moft perfeft butter¬
flies is to find out, if poffible, the larva or caterpillar
of each, by examining the plants, fhrubs, or trees, they
ufually feed upon, or by beating the flrrubs and trees
with long poles, and thereby (baking the caterpillars
into a (beet fpread underneath to receive them ; to put
them into boxes covered with thin canvas, gauze, or
cat-gut, and to feed them with the frefti leaves of the
tree or herb on which they are found ; when they are
full grown, they will go into the pupa or chryfalis
ftate, and require then no other care till they come out
perfeft butterflies, at which time they may be killed,
as before directed. Sometimes thefe infe&s may be
found hanging to walls, pales, and branches of trees,
in the chryfalis date.
Moths might likewife be procured more perfect, by
collefting the caterpillars, and breeding them in the
fame manner as butterflies. As the larvae or caterpil¬
lars cannot be preferved dry, nor very well kept in
fpirit, it would be fatisfa&ory if exadt drawings could
be made of them while they are alive and perfedt.
It may be neceffary to obferve, that in breeding thefe
kinds of infedts, fome earth (hould be put into the
boxes, as likwife fome rotten wood in the corners;
becaufe, when the caterpillars change into the pupa
or chryfalis date, fomc go into the earth, and continue
under ground for many months before they come out
into the moth (late ; and fome cover themfelves with a
hard (hell, made up of fmall pieces of rotten wood.
4. The fourth clafs of infedts (neuroptera) may be
killed with fpirit of wine, oil of turpentine, or by the
fumes of fulphur.
5. Thofe of the next clafs (hymenoptera) may be
killed in the fame manner. A pin may be run through
one of their wing-(hells and body.
6. Infedfs of the fixth clafs (diptera) may likewife
be killed by fpirit, or by fumes of fulphur.
7. Thofe of the laft divifion {aptera) are in general
fubjedts which may be kept in fpirit.
When in fearch of infedts, we (hould have a box
fuitable to carry in the pocket, lined with cork at the
bottom and top to (tick them upon, until they are
brought home. If this box be ftrongly impregnated
with camphor, the infedts foon become ftupified, and
are thereby prevented from fluttering and injuring
their plumage. Befides a fmall forceps, the colledtor
Ihould have a large mufqueto gauze-net, and alfo a
pin-cufhion with three or four different fizes of pins Infedls.'
to fuit the different fizes of infedts. 1———
In hot climates infedts of every kind, but particu¬
larly the larger, are liable to be eaten by ants and
other fmall infedts; efpecially before they are perfedtly
dry : to avoid this, the piece of cork on which our in¬
fedts are (luck in order to be dried, (hould be fufpend-
ed from the cieling of a room, by means of a (lender
firing or thread ; befmear this thread with bird-lime,
or fome adhefive fubftance, to intercept the rapa¬
cious vermin of thofe climes in their paffage along the
thread.
After our infedls are properly dried, they may be
placed in the cabinet or boxes where they are to re¬
main : thefe boxes (hould be kept dry ; and alfo made
to (hut very clofe, to prevent fmall infedts from de-
ftroying them ; the bottoms of the boxes fliould be co¬
vered with pitch, or green wax, over which paper may
be laid; or, which is better, lined with cork, well im¬
pregnated with a folution of corrofive fublimate mer¬
cury in a faturated folution of crude fal-ammoniac in
water, an ounce of which will diifolve 20 fcruples of
the fublimate.
The fineft colledtions have been mined by fmall in¬
fedts, and it is impolfible to have our cabinets too fe-
cure. Such infefts as are thus attacked may be fupii-
gated with fulphur, in the manner defcribed for kill¬
ing moths ; if this prove ineffedtual, they may be im-
merfed in fpirit of wine, without much injuring their
line plumage or colours, and afterwards let them be
fprinkled about their bodies and infertions of the
wings with the folution above mentioned. But baking
the infedts in an oven, in the manner defcribed for
Birds (under that article), is the moft effedtual method
of extirpating thefe enemies; however, the utmoft:
caution is requifite in this procefs in regulating the
heat of the oven.
N. B. All kinds of infedts having no wings, may
be preferved in fpirits, brandy, or rum; except crabs,
loblters, and the like, which may conveniently be pre¬
ferved dry.
Insects giving Root to Plants. Of this we have an
account, by Mr Fourgeroux, in the Memoirs of the A-
cademy of Sciences for 1769. The plants, of which
Mr Fourgeroux gives an account, are perfedtly the re-
verfe of the worm-plant of China, defcribed by Mr
Reaumur in the year 1726. For, in that cafe, a worm
fixes its fnout into the extremity of the plant, and de¬
rives nourifttment from it. But the plants, of which
an account is here given, derive their nouriftiment from
the animals.
The greateft part of the animal-plants which he
has feen, grow, he tells us, on the chryfalis of a fpe-
cies of cicada". The plant growing on thefe infedts
has got the generic name of clavaria, becaufe its (talks
and branches, when it has any, are terminated by tu¬
bercles, which give the appearance of little clubs. The
root of this plant, in general, covers the body of the
infedt, and fometimes is even extended over its head,
When thefe produdtions have for fome time been pre¬
ferved in fpirits, the plant and animal may be fepara-
ted from each other without hurting either. Small
grooves, formed by the rings of the animal, may be
obferved running crofs the roots of the plant: but no
veftige can be found of the root’s having any where
3 pens-
INS [ 254 7 INS
Ififeftj. penetrated the body of the infeft. Thefe plants pro-
*“ '' v duce fibres differing in length and number. The fibres
are terminated by tubercles, which,, before the plant
arrives at maturity, are folid ; but, after that period,,
they are found pundiured, probably by worms which
have fuffered a metamorphofis upon efcaping from
them.
According to Mr Fourgeroux, plants grow, not only
on the chryfalis-of the cicada, but upon the cicada it-
felf. He faw one of this kind upon a cicada brought
from Cayenne. The plant, in this cafe, differed from
the clavaria already mentioned. It was a fpecies of
fucus, compofed of long, white, filky fibres, covering
the body of the infedt, and extending from feven to
tight lines above and below its belly.
The author has found tire clavaria growing upon
worms. He has found it chiefly upon worms, which,
fuffering a metamorphofis, become afterwards a fmall
fpecies of May-bug. This chryfalis, he obferves,.is
very different from that of the cicada ; and, even in
its worm-ftate, may eafily be dillinguifhed from it.
After deferibing thefe different fpecies of animal-
plants,, the author next proceeds to offer his opinion
upon this fubjedf. He firft- confiders what had been
•-See yege. faid by Dr Watfon, in the Philofophical Tranfadtions,
Ulk Flit, concerning the vegetating-fly of the Caribbee iflands*.
Dr Watfon’s account of thefe flies is, that they bury
themfelves about the month of May, and begin to be
metamorphofed in June; and that the little plant which
grows upon them refembles a branch of coral, is about
three inches in height, and carries fmall protuberan¬
ces, where worms are generated, which are again con¬
verted into flies. The author imagines, that, in this
account, Dr Watfon has been deceived by the worms,
which he has already obferved will eat into the clava¬
ria, and undergo a change in the holes which they
have there made. Mr Fourgeroux is rather inclined
to adopt the opinion of Dr Hill, founded upon obfer-
vations made at Martinicq, There the cicadas are very
frequent; and, during their chryfalis ftate, bury themi
felves among dead leaves, to wait their metamorpho¬
fis. Dr Hill imagines, that the feeds of the clavaria
are then attached to them, and are afterwards deve¬
loped, much in the fame manner as the fungus ex pede-
equino grows upon the hoofs of dead horfes..
It may appear aftonifhing, that the clavaria fhould
attach itfelf fo conftantly to the nyraphas.of the cica-
dae in America, as it is not obferved to do fo in other
coiintries. For this Mr Fourgeroux attempts to ac¬
count, from viewing the clavaria as a parafite peculiar
to this fpecies of infeft ; from the great number of the
nymphte of cicadse which abound in America; and
from the circumftances of the cKmate and foil, which
may render this phenomenon very common there, al-,
though it be'not obferved in Europe.
Insects blown from the Nofe. Of this we are fur-
nifhed with many accounts in the works of medical au-.
thors. The fad is confirmed by Dr Monro who
J\E</. M*/. has received at different times fome of thefe infe&s
Cew.ii. 31a. from different peifons. They were all of the fcolopen-
dra kind, chough not exa&ly anfwering to any deferip-
tion of Linnseus. One of thefe he received from Mr
Hill furgeon in Dumfries. It was an inch and a half
long ; and lived fome hours after it was difeharged,
creeping about flowly on a table. It was then put in¬
to ardent fpirits, foon after which it died.
2
Noxious Insects ; Means of defraying them, or pre¬
venting their Increcfe The following remedies we
find colle&ed in the Gentleman’s Magazine for Oc¬
tober 179o.-r-Of thofe fubffances which have been ge¬
nerally obferved to be efficacious :a driving away or in
deftroying iafe&s, mercury, and its various prepara¬
tions, may be reckoned one of the moft generally
ufeful. Sulphur is alfo uCeful. Oils of all kinds have
been often and defervedly. recommended. Tobacco is
not Ids remarkable forrits utility. Of the application
of thefe in order..
t. Mercury is known to kill or drive away lice from
the human body; and it may probably be of equal ef¬
ficacy in ridding other, animals of their infefts. For
inflance, fheep having a fmall quantity of mercurial :
ointment rubbed on their fleins, on. the.fides, between .
the fore-legs and the body, it may kill or drive away
the infe& peculiar to them. Sulphur is recommended to
be added to the mercurial ointment. Thus not only the
infetk peculiar to them, but alfo the fcab, may be cured : .
See the Tranfafitonsof .the Society for the Encourage¬
ment of Arts, London. Vol. VII. VIII. p. 90. In
the Tranfadtions of the fame Society, Vol. V. VI. p. 59,
Mr Ailway.diredted that, in the winter, the walisj
frames, &c. of his green and hot houfes Ihould be well .
waflied with the following mixture: Take of corrofive
fublimate mercury four ounces, and diffolve it in two
gallons of water. Thefe houfes had been greatly in-
felled with red-fpiders and ants. After having been .
wafhed with the above mixture, neither were to be feen .
aext furnmer. This wafli may be ufed on old garden
walls, and to the roots.of fruit-trees infelled with in-
fedfs, if made weaker. It may deftroy the tender
leaves of plants, though not the roots. This wafli s
will effedlually deftroy that difagreeable tnfedV the bug,
and all other infedfs of a tender cuticle; and it will
not in the leaft hurt the colour of bed furniture or
hangings.. Care muff be taken, that the wafli be ap¬
plied into every crevice or folding of the furniture with -
a painter’s brufli. It will fometimes be neceffary to
repeat the wafli, as fome . of the ova of bugs may re¬
main concealed,, notwithffanding the utmoft care.
Some of the Weft India iflands were much infefted
with large ants, which greatly hurt the fugar-canes.
The remedy was, to diffolve corrofive fublimate mer¬
cury in rum, in the proportion of tw-o drains to a pint
of fpirits. This folution was poured on dry powdered
fugar; and when the fugar was dried, it was laid in
the paths of the ants. They eat it, and were deffroy-
ed. Might not this praftice be imitated, by laying
fugar thus prepared on paper or pieces of thin boards
near the roots of fruit-trees infefted by infe&s, efpe*
cially when the fruit is ripening? The papers or boards
might be taken in during the night, or w hen it rained. .
The fugar Ihould be coloured with indigo, or other
fabftance, thereby to mark it as a fubftance to be a-
voided by curious idlers.
2. We are informed that a perfon in Philadelphia em¬
ployed brimftone in the following manner. Having
cleared, all round the roots of trees infefted with cater¬
pillars or other infe&s, he ftrewed fome flour of .brim¬
ftone round the roots, and covered it with a thin
fprinkling of fine mould, that it might not be blown
away by the wind, yet fo. that the.fun might operate
through, and caufe the hi imltone to fumigate. Thus
he deftroyed Uie caterpillars. One ^ound he found-
I N S [ 255 ] INS
Tnfe(ft», fdEc'ent for 200 trees. In that hot climate the fun
««—v—may perhaps have that effedt ; but it fcarcely will in
this. He alfo employed fulphur in the following man¬
ner .to drive infedts from tall trees. He fplit the end
of a pole, and put in the flit fome matches, fet them
on fire, and held them under the .parts of the trees
chiefly affe&ed A pole thus armed, he found, would
anfwer for three or four trees. Brimftone thus mixed
with damp draw, and fet on fire, for inftance, in hop-
ground infefted with the fly, might be of ufe to drive
away the fly.
The itch is fuppofed to proceed froth a very fmall
infedt which neftles under the Ikin, and proceeds no
, farther into: the habit; and is therefore attended with
no dangerous confequences. Brimftone made into an
ointmtuv — .tV hogs-lard is a fare remedy.
Sheep are liable to <»»,,prion on the Ikin, known
by the name of the fcab. The briinftonc, when added
to the mercurial ointment recommended for that difor-
der in the Tranfadtions of the Society for the Encou¬
ragement of Arts, Vol. VII. p. 90, might perhaps ren¬
der the application more efficacious and lefs danger¬
ous.
3. The natives of hot countries are taught by expe¬
rience, that an undluous covering on their bodies pre¬
vents the bites of mufquitoes and all gnats. The white
inhabitants in fuch countries are not lufficiently care¬
ful in preventing the leaft ftagnant water near their
dwellings, in which the mufqnitoes are bred ; even in
the wafte water thrown out they are produced. Dr
Franklin, by a careful attention to this circumftance,
guarded his family in Philadelphia from fuch infedts:
one day feeing a number of mufquitoes in his li¬
brary, he found on inquiry, that one of his fervants
had taken the cover off a tub placed near his window
for receiving rain-water. On fuch an occafion the re¬
medy is eafy, viz. (hutting the room up for tht day,
fo that the mufquitoes cannot come at any water, in
which time they die. Though this caution may feem
trifling to us who live in a mild climate, it is far other-
twife in hot countries.
Oils being known to be moft efficacious in deftroy-
ing infedts, may not the ufe of it be extended to the
dellrudtion ot worms in the bowels of horfes, where
they may occafion the violent pain they feem fome-
times to fuffer ? If the horfe was for fome time kept
failing, and a large quantity of oil, fuppofe a pint,
was given, if worms are the caufe, the oil may in that
cafe kill them
Flowers, leaves, and fruit, on plants, are known to
be devoured by caterpillars. Thefe are deftroyed by
oils, which clofe the lateral pores by which they
breathe. For this purpofe it is advifed, that, on the
approach of fpring. a cloth dipped in train oil be laid
on fuch parts of the tree in which there is the leaft
appearance of them.
We are informed, in the Memoirs of the Society
of Agriculture at Paris, that oil of turpentine, when
applied to animals which were covered with infedls,
deltroyed the infedfs without hurting the animal. The
author tried it on feveral trees, mixed with fine earth
fo as to incorporate them well, then adding water,
dill flirring them carefully till the whole was brought
to fome-degree of fluidity. In this mixture he dipped
branches of fruit-trees on which there weremfedts, and
hereby deftroyed not only the eggs but alfo the in lefts,
without hurting the leaves. This compofition maybe got
off by waffling, or the firft heavy ffiower. From thefe
experiments the author thinks, that oil of turpentine
may with equal r., n:u:„s
rious kinds of lice on domeftic anifnals.
We are informed, in the Tranfaftions of the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, Vol. V. p. 45, that
Mr Winter, among other experiments on turnip feed,
fteeped the feed 24 hours in a fufficient quantity of
train oil. He then drained the oil from the feed,
which he mixed with a quantity of fine fifted earth,
and immediately fowed it in drills. When the plants
began to appear on the furface, the ground was fown
with fpot. He found that feed fteeped in lintfeed oil
anfwered equally well. The turnips the leaft injured
by the fly were thofe that grew from feed ffeeped as
above, which grew fo luxuriantly as to produce rough
leaves feveral days prior to the moll flourifhing of any
of his other experiments, and were the better enabled
to withftand the fly’s attack The leaves of thefe tur¬
nips were of a darker green, and appeared twice as
thick in bulk and luxuriancy than the other-turnips,
and were a confiderable deal larger. The feed was
drilled an inch and a half deep, and at a foot diftance
in the rows. Train oil is apt to kill the leaves of
plants which have been injured by infefts, but lint-
feed oil has not that effeft, though equally deftruftivfc
to the infefts. The train oil feems to aft btfth , an
oil, and by its difagreeable fmell it prevents infefts ap¬
proaching it. In this refpeft it may be fuccefsfuHy
ufed to prevent field-mice or other vermin preying on
acorns, chefnuts, or other feeds fteeped in it before
they are fown.
When thus giving direftions for preventing the fly
on turnips, a late experiment fliould be mentioned, by
the difclofing of which a perfon gained a confiderablc
reward. His fecret was, running a roller over the
ground early in the morning, while the dew remained
on the ground, on the firft appearance of the fly. The
dew entangled the flies fo much, that they could not
make their efcape, and were therefore cruffied to death.
As the roller may leave the furface of the earth too
hard, fome very properly advife to fix fome houghs of
elder in a gate or hurdle, to be drawn over the field 5
and if the boughs had been before fumigated with the
fmoke of tobacco, or tinfture of afafoetida, the fuc-
cefs would be the furer. The moft certain me¬
thod of preventing the hurt done by the fly is to raife
the plants in a nurfery, and at a proper age to tranf-
plant them, being carried to the ground in a wheel¬
barrow filled with manure foftened with water fo
as to admit the plants. This- method will fecure
their more fpeedy growth. In the nurfery the at¬
tack of the fly may be prevented by fprinkling foot
or quicklime on the ground. The utility of tranfplant-
ing turnips is evident by the praftice of tranfplanting
the turnip-rooted cabbage. They who are difeouraged
from this praftice by the expence attending it, do not
refleft that the hoeing is prevented, and the plants grow
the better, being fet in frelli earth.
4. Befi re proceeding to direft the ufe of the laft means
mentioned, viz. tobacco, for deilroying infefts in tur-
'nips, it may be proper to mention an experiment made
By Mr Green, of her majefty’s flower-garden at Kew.
He contrivec a pair of bellows, limilar to that tmployi.
ed in recovering people feemingly drowned. It has a
cavity
INS [ 1 INS
Infe&s. cavity in the nozzle, in which fome tobacco is put,
—-V ' with a live coal over it. The bellows being then
worked, the tobacco is fet on fire, and the fmoke is
f^wt. it. lady was fond of
having the moik-rofe in her drefiing-room, but was
prevented having it on account of the green infers
which conftantly adhere to that plant. To remedy
this inconvenience, Mr Green had a box made large
enough to contain a pot in which a plant of the molk-
rofe grew, in one end of the box was a hole, to ad¬
mit the nozzle of the bellows ; the bellows was work¬
ed, and the fmoke was received into the box. When
the tobacco’was confumed, the nozzle was withdrawn,
and a cork being put into the hole, the box thus re¬
mained till morning, when the infe&s were all laid
dead on the earth. Being fwept off, the plant was in
a ftate fit for a drefiing room. Many plants thus in-
fefted with infe&s may be too large, or otherwife fo
placed as not to be put into a box. In this cafe it
occurred to the writer of thefe obfervations, that be¬
ing fprinkled with an infufion of tobacco in water
might in fome degree anfwer the fame purpofe. On
trial he found it anfwer, and he thus freed other plants
of their infe&s. He alfo ufed it on trees of eafy ac-
cefs with advantaged Train oil is fo inimical to tender
plants or leaves, that it deftroys them if infefts have
in the leaft hurt them ; whereas the infufion, inftead
of kill.'rg the leaves, promoted a frelh vegetation.
Fruit trees often become the prey of infedts. Thofe
againft a wall, or in efpaliers, being eafily come at,
much of the mifchief may be prevented by cutting off
the leaves fo foon as they are obferved to be curled ;
for then frefh eggs are laid on them, probably by but¬
terflies. If fprinkled with the infufion of tobacco, it
will prevent their coming to life. After the fruit is
formed, the infufion mull not be ufed, left the tafte
and fmell may remain. The fciffars are then the pro¬
per remedies, which ladies may employ as amufement,
and may thereby prefent fruit to their friends of their
own preferving. A lye of the afh of plants fprinkled
on the leaves may have a good effedt, as alfo on other
pot-herbs, which are often the prey of caterpillars.
As many infedts, befides thofe bred on the leaves or
in the walls, may deftroy the fruit, the fugar with
the corrofive fublimate, as already defcribed, may be
laid in the way of other infedts, to all which it will prove
a fpeedy death. Diligent infpedtion into their retreats
is the moil certain means of preventing the lofs fuf-
tained by fnails. Ants are prevented rifi-ng up the
trees, by laying round the roots pow'dered chalk, or
any other fubftance which by entangling their feet pre¬
vents their croffing it. Care fhould be taken to de-
ftrcy their nefts every where near the garden.
Hops are now become an article of fo great confe-
quence, that it deferves our particular attention. Early
in its growth, when the vines begin to afcend the poles,
a black fly preys on its leaves, frequently in fuch num¬
bers, as,, by deftroying the leaves,, to interrupt the
vegetation, much of the food of plants being abforbed
by the leaves. The infufion of tobacco deftroys them,
or at leaft drives them away fo effeaually, that a plant
aim oft totally ftripped of its leaves has put out frefh
leaves after the ufe of it. If care be not taken, they
will again fall on the frefh leaves. As the flies lodge
©a the lower fide of the leaves, they are protedted from
ftorms of rain, and therefore the infufion muft be Infers,
driven upwards by a forcing pump. As it H faid that—v—“*
the expence of tobacco is too great, perhaps lime-wa¬
ter, or even water by itfelf, driven ftrongly againft
the leaves, might drive them away. The labour at¬
tending fuch experiments in a large plantation difeou-
rages others, without reflediing that, if fuch means
are ufed early, the flies may more eafily be got rid of.
Free ventilation is undoubtedly beneficial to all plants;
and hence perhaps the particular advantages of drilling
corn in rows a little diftant. If alleys fomewhat larger
than common were made in the plantations of hops,
there might be fufficient fpaces left where the alleys
crofs one another to admit of fetting damp ftraw, or
other materials mixed with brimftone, foot, &c. on.
fire. Smoke itfelf is faid to prevent thp allQ
it will ftill adl more pn.»®*-fUl!y when mixed with fuch
materials. It has been obferved in Sweden, that the
hops grow naturally among heaps of ftones or frag¬
ments of rocks. They therefore advife to cover the
ground round their roots with ftones, which will pre¬
vent the infedis laying their eggs near the roots in the
ground, where they lay them to be protedled during-
the winter. The ftones will alfo preferve moifture at
the roots during the fummer. A rope cannot be
drawn acrofs a plantation of hops, as it can acrofs a
field of corn, in cafe of mildew. Here water to wafh
off the clammy juice that entices and feeds infedis
feems to be the only remedy. The plantation being
well ventilated, may at leaft prevent the frequency of
it. The forcing pump will moft effedually wafti off
this exudation.
Cruelty to Insects- It does not appear upon what
principle of reafon and juftice it is, that mankind have
founded their right over the lives of every creature that
is placed in a fubordinate rank of being to themfelves.
Whatever claim they may have in right of food and
felf-defence (to v/hich ought we to add the purpofes
of the naturalift, explained above ?) did they extend
their privilege no farther than thofe articles would rea-
fonably carry them, numberlefs beings might enjoy;
their lives in peace, who are now hurried out of them
by the moft wanton and unneceffary cruelties. It iy
furely difficult to difeover why it ftiould be thought-
lefs.inhuman to crufli to death a harmlefs infedt, whofe
Angle offence is that he eats that food which nature has
prepared for his fuftenance, than it would be were we
to kill any bulky creature fo^the fame reafon. There
are few tempers fo hardened to the impreffions of hu¬
manity, as not to fhudder at the thought of the latter ;
and yet the former is univerfally pradrifed without the
leaft check of compaffion. This feems to- arife from
the grofs error of fuppofing, that every creature is
really in itfelf contemptible, which happens to be
clothed with a body infinitely difproportionate to our
own, not confidering that great and little are merely
relative terms. But the inimitable Shakefpeare would
teach us, that
 the poor beetle that we tread upon,
In corp’ral fuff’rance, feels a pang as great
As when a giant dies. - — ■—
And indeed there is every reafon to believe that the
fenfations of many infedis are as exquifite as thofe of-
creatures of far more enlarged dimenfions, perhaps even
more fo. The millepede, for inftance, rolls itfel£
round
INS [ 257 ] INS
!«fe<5U round upon the flighteft touch, and theJhail gathers fon dying, and not leaving eftate fufficient to difcharge Infpeftion
, f in her horns upon the leaft approach of our hand. Are thefe, is faid to die infolvent. .11.
^ not thefe the ftrongeft indications of their fenfibility ? Trial by INSPECTION, or Examination, is fnfP1I'at‘on;
and is it any evidence of ours, that we are not there- when, for the greater expedition of a caufe, in fome
fore induced to treat them with a more fympathifing point or iflue, being either the principal queftion, or
tendernefs ? arifing collaterally out of it, but being evidently the
Montaigne remarks, that there is a certain claim of .objeft of fenfe, the judges of the court, upon the te-
kindnefs and benevolence which every fpecies of crea- flimony of their own fenfes, lhall decide the point in
tures has a right to from us. It is to be regretted that difpute. For, where the affirmative or negative of a
this general maxim is not more attended to in the affair queftion is matter of fuch obvious determination, it is
of education, and preffed home upon tender minds in not thought neceffary to fummon a jury to decide it;
its full extent and latitude. We are far, indeed, from who are properly called in to inform the confcience of
thinking, that the early delight which children difcover the court of dubious fafts: and therefore, when the
in tormenting flies, &c. is a mark of any innate cruel- faft, from its nature, muft be evident to the court ci¬
ty of temper, becaufe this turn may be accounted for ther from ocular demonftration or other irrefragable
on other principles; and it is entertaining unworthy proof, there the law departs from its ufual refort, the
notions of the Deity, to fuppofe he forms mankind verdift of 12 men, and relies on the judgment of the
with a propenfity to the moft deteftable of all difpofii court alone. As in cafe of a fuit to reverfe a fine for
tions: but moft certainly by being unreflrained in fports non-age of the cognizor, or to fet afide a ftatute or re-
of this kind, they may acquire by habit, what they cognizance entered into by an infant; here, and in
never would have learned from nature, and grow up in- other cafes of the like fort, a w-rit ftiall iflue to the
to a confirmed inattention to every kind of fuffering IherifF, commanding him that he conllrain the faid par-
but their own. Accordingly the fupreme court of ju- ty to appear, that it may be afeertained by the view
dicature at Athens thought an inftance of this fort not of his body by the king’s juftices, whether he be of
below its cognizance, and punilhed a boy for putting full age or not: Ut per afpeBum corporis fui conjlarepo-
out the eyes of a poor bird that had unhappily fallen terit jujliciariis nojlris, JTpradiBus an fit pknee atatis necne.
into his hands.
It might be of fervice, therefore, it fiiould feem,
order to awaken as early as poffible in children an ex-
If, howfever, the court has, upon infpe&ion, any doubt
of the age of the party (as may frequently be the
. cafe), it may proceed to take proofs of the part; and
tenfive fenfe of humanity, to give them a view of fe- particularly may examine the infant himfelf upon an
veral forts of infe&s as they may be magnified by the oath of voir dire, veritatem dicere ; that is, to make
affiftance of glafles, and to fhow them that the fame true anfwers to fuch queftions as the court ftiall demand
evident marks of wifdom and goodnefs prevail in the of him : or the court may examine his mother, his god-
formation of the minuted infeft, as in that of the moft father, or the like.
enormous leviathan : that they are equally furniftied
with whatever is neceflary, not. only to the preferva-
tion, but the happinefs of their beings in that clafs of
exiftence to which Providence has affigned them : in a
and
INSPECTOR, a perfon to whom the <
conduft of any work is committed.
Inspectors, in the Roman law, were fuch perfons
as examined the quality and value of lands and effe&s.
word, that the whole conftruftion of their refpeftive in order to the adjufting or proportioning taxes and
organs diftin&ly proclaims them the obje&s of the di- impofitions to every man’s eftate.
The Jews alfo have an officer, in their fynagogue,
whom they call infpeBor, tfn hha-zen. His bufinefs con-
anatomy, the clofe conjun&ion fifts principally in infpe&ing or overlooking the pray-
vine benevolence, and therefore that they juftly ought
to be fo of ours.
INSERTION,
of the vefltls, tendons, fibres, and membranes of the ers and leffons, in preparing and ftiowing them to the
body with fome orher parts.
INSINUATION denotes a cunning and covert
way of creeping into any perfon’s favour.
reader, and in Handing by him to fee he reads fight;
and, if he makes miftakes, he is to correft him.
INSPIRATION, among divines, &c. implies the
Insinvation of a Will, among Civilians, is the firft conveying of certain extraordinary and fupertiatural
produ&ion of it, or the leaving it with the regifter, in notices or motions into the foul, or it denotes any fuper-
order to its piohate. See Will* —i - —• t
natural Influence of God upon the mind of a rational
INSIPID, tasteless, that which has nothing in creature, whereby he is formed to any degree of intel-
it pungent enough to afftA the palate, tongue, &c. le&ual improvements, to which he Could not, or would
and to occafion that fenfation we call tajing. not, in fa£t have attained in his prefent circumftances
INSITIDN, Insitio, in botany, denotes the fame in a natural way. Thus the prophets are faid to have
with' engrafting; viz. the aft ofinferting and uniting fpoken by divine infpiration.
a cyon, bud, or the like, in the fubftance of the flock. Some authors reduce the infpiratioti of the facred
INSOLATION, in pharmacy, a method of pre- writers to a particular care of Providence, which pre¬
paring certain fruits, drugs, &c. by expofing them vented any thing they had faid from failing or coming
♦r. fnn’o 'W *   to nought; maintaining, that they never were really
infpired either with knowledge or expreffion.
According to M. Simon, infpiration is no more than
a diredlion of the Holy Spirit, which never permitted
the facred writers to be miftaken.
. „ , It is a common opinion, that the infpiration of the
have not wherewithal to pay their juft debts. A per- Holy Spirit regards only the matter, not the ftyle or
Vol. IX. Parti. Kk words,
to the heat of the fun’s rays ; either to dry, to matu-
rate, or to fharpen them ; as is done in vinegar, figs,
&c.— The word comes from the Latin verb infolare,
which is ufed by Pliny and Columella, and fignifies to
ixpoje to the fun.
INSOLVENT, a term applied to fuch perfons as
INS L 25S 1 INS
Iiifpiratlon. words ; and this feems to fall in with M. Simon’s
to—Y— (Joftrine of diredion.
Theological writers have enumerated feveral kinds
of infpiration: fuch as an infpiration of fuperiiiten-
dency, in which God does fo influence and direct the
mind of any perfon, as to keep him more fecure from
error in fome various and complex difcourfe, than he
would have been merely by the ufe of his natural fa¬
culties ; plenary fuperintendent infpiration, which ex¬
cludes any mixture of error at all from the performance
fo fuperintended ; infpiration of elevation, where the
faculties a& in a regular, and, as it feems, in a com¬
mon manner, yet are raifed to an extraordinary degree,
fo that the compofure {hall, upon the whole, have more
of the true fublime or pathetic, than natural genius
could have given ; and infpiration of fuggeftion, when
the ufe of the faculties is fuperfeded, and God does,
as it were, fpe^k dire&ly to the mind, making fuch
difcoveries to it as it could not otherwife have obtain¬
ed, and di&ating the very words in which fuch difco¬
veries are to be communicated, if they are defigned as
a meffage to others. It is generally allowed that the
New Teftament was written by a fuperintendent infpi¬
ration ; for without this the difcourfes and do&rines
of Chrift could not have been faithfully recorded by
the evangelifts and apoftles; nor could they have af-
fumed the authority of fpeaking the words of Chrift,
and evinced this authority by the adtual exercife of
miraculous powers : and behdes, the facred writings
bear many obvious internal marks of their divine ori¬
ginal, in the excellence of their do&rines, the fpiritu-
ality and elevation of their defign, the majefty and fim-
plicity of their ftyle, the agreement of their various
parts, and their efficacy on mankind ; to which may
be added, that there has been in the Chriftian church,
from its earlieft ages, a conftant tradition, that the fa¬
cred books were written by the extraordinary aflift-
ance of the fpirit, which muft at leaft amount to fu¬
perintendent infpiration. But it has been controvert¬
ed whether this infpiration extended to every minute
circumftance in their writings, fo as to be in the moft
abfolute fenfe plenary. Jerom, Grotius, Erafmus,
Epifcopius, and many others, maintain that it was
not; whilft others contend, that the emphatical
manner in which our Lord fpeaks of the agency
of the fpirit upon them, and in which they themfelves
fpeak of their own writings, will juftify our believing
that their infpiration was plenary, unlefs there be very
convincing evidence brought on the other fide to prove
that it was not: and if we allow, it is faid, that there
were fome errors in the New Teftament, as it came
from the hands of the apoftles, there may be great
danger of fubverting the main purpofe and defign of
it; fince there will be endlefs room to debate the im¬
portance both of fads and doftrines.
Among the Heathens, the priefts and prieftefles
were faid to be divinely infpired, when they gave o-
racles.—The poets alfo laid claim to it; and to this
end they always invoked Apollo and the Mufes at the
beginning of any great work.
Inspiration, in phyfic, is underftood of that ac¬
tion of the bread, by which the air is admitted
within the lungs; in which fenfe, infpiration is a
branch of refpiration, and ftands oppofed to Exspi-
*.ATIO».
This admiflion of the air depends immediately on Infpifiating
its fpring or elafticity, at the time when the cavity of ^
the breaft is enlarged by the elevation of the tho . 11 ep‘ .
rax and abdomen, and particularly by the motion of
the diaphragm downwards: fo that the air does not
enter the lungs, becaufe they are dilated ; but thofe
dilate, becaufe the air enters within them. Nor
is it the dilatation of the breaft which draws in the
air, as is commonly thought, though this is a con¬
dition abfolutely neceflary to infpiration; but an ac¬
tual intrufion of the air into the lungs. See Respi¬
ration,
INSPISSATING, in pharmacy, an operation
whereby a liquor is brought to a thicker confiftence,
by evaporating the thicker parts.
INSPRUCK, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Auftria, and capital of the county of Tyrol, received
its name from the river Inn, which runs by it. It has
a noble caftle or palace, formerly the refidence of the
archdukes of the houfe of Auftria, with a cathedral
where they are buried. The houfes, though built in
the German tafte, are rather handfomer; and the
ft reels, though narrow, are remarkably well paved.
For the defence of this city the inhabitants can place
but little confidence in their fortifications, which are
very trifling. They feem rather to depend on the na¬
tural faftoefles of their country ; which appear indeed
to form a barrier, fo perfe&ly inacceflible to any ene¬
my, that even the great Guftavus Adolphus, after ha¬
ving over-run with his victorious arms the other parts
of Germany, could never make any impreffion upon
this. It is feated in a pleafant valley, in E. Long.
11. 27. N. Lat. 47. 3.
INSTALLATION, the a£t of giving vifible pof-
feflion of an order, rank, or office, by placing in the
proper feat. See Instalment.
INSTALMENT, a fettling or inflating any per¬
fon in a dignity. The word is derived from the La¬
tin in, and Jiallum, a term ufed for a feat in church, in
the choir, or a feat or bench in a court of juftice, &c.
Though Voflius is of‘opinion the word is of German
origin.
Instalment is chiefly ufed for the induction of a
dean, prebendaiy, or other ecclefiaftical dignitary, in¬
to the pofitfiion of his flail, or proper feat, in the ca¬
thedral church to which he belongs. This is fome-
times alfo called injlallation.
Instalment is likewife ufed for the ceremony,
whereby the knights of the garter are placed in their
rank, in the thapel of St George at Windfor.
INSTANT, a part of duration in which we per¬
ceive no fucceflion ; or it is that which takes up the
time only of one idea in our minds.
1NSTAURATION, the re eftabliftiment, or re-
ftauration of a religion, a church, or the like, to its
former ftate. The word is by fome derived from the
old Latin injlaurum, which fignified the “ flock” of
things neceflary for the tilling and managing of
grounds ; as cattle, tools, harnefs, &c. But the
word injlaurum is only of the middle age : injlauratio is
of much greater antiquity, and by fome derived from
irjlar, “ like as importing a thing’s being brought
to its former likenefs or appearance. See Restau-
ration.
INSTEP, in the manege, is that part of a horfe’s
hind
I N S
fnftiniSh hind leg, which reaches from the ham to the paftern-
‘ j°int-
Definition INSTINCT, a certain power or difpofition of mind,
’ by which, independent of all inftru&ion or experience,
•without delibetation, and without having any end in
view, animals are unerringly diredfed to do fpontane-
[ 259 1
I N S
barons jargon of the fchools, and built upon a few felf- I nftir.# .
evident principles, implicitly embraced every opinion
advanced, or which they fuppofed to be advanced, by
the illuftrious author; efpecially if that opinion was
contrary to any part of the fcholaftic fyftem which
had fo long been employed to perplex the underftand-
oufly (a) whatever is necelfary for the prefervation of ing and to veil abfurdity. Hence arofe many philo-
the individual or the continuation of the kind. Such ^  k—- —J ~l J - —k-
in the human fpecies is the inftind of fucking exerted
immediately after birth ; and fuch in the inferior cre¬
ation is the inftinft by which infe&s invariably depolit
their eggs in fituations moft favourable for hatching
and affording nourifhment to their future progeny.
fophers of eminence both at home and abroad ; who
maintained, as they imagined, upon the principles of
Locke, that in the human mind there are no inftin&s,
but that every thing which had been ufually called by
that name is refolvable into affociation and habit. This
do&rine was attacked by Lord Shaftefbury, who in-
Thefe operations are neceffary for the prefervation of troduced into the theory of mind, as faculties derived
Different
opinions re
Ipeftinghu.
The caufe
of that dif¬
ference.
the individual and the continuation of the kind; but
neither the infant nor the infedl knows that they are
neceffary : they both aft without having any end in
view, and aft uniformly without inftruftion and with¬
out experience.
The aftions of the inferior animals are generally di-
refted by inftinft ; thofe of man by reafon. This at
leall is the cafe with refpeft to men in a date of civi¬
lization : in the favage Rate they are probably little
lefs the Haves of inftinft than the brutes themfelves.
Concerning human inftinfts, indeed, philofophers differ
widely in opinion ; fome maintaining that man is en¬
dowed with a greater number of inftinfts than any fpe¬
cies of brutes; whilft others deny that in human nature
there is any power or propenfity at all which can pro¬
perly be called inftinftive.
This diverfity of opinion may eafily be traced to its
fource. There are not many original thinkers in the
world. The greater part even of thofe who are call¬
ed philofophers, implicitly adopt the opinions of certain
mailers whofe authority they deem fufficient to fupply
the place of argument ; and having chofen their re¬
fpeft ive guides, each maintains with zeal what his
mafter taught, or is fuppofed to have taught. When
Locke fo luccefsfully attacked the doftrine of innate
ideas and innate principles of fpeculative truth, he was
thought by many to have overturned at the fame time
all innate principles whatever ; to have divefted the
human mind of every paffion, affeftion, and inftinft ;
and to have left in it nothing but the powers of fenfa-
tion, memory, and intelleft. Such, we are perfuaded,
was not his intention ; nor is there any thing in his
immortal work which, when interpreted with can¬
dour, appears to have fuch a tendency.
In our opinion, great part of the EJfay on Human
Underjlanding has been very generally mifunderftood.
Much of its merit, however, was foon difeovered ; and
mankind, finding philofophy difencumbered of the bar-
from nature, a fenfe of beauty, a fenfe of honour, and
a fenfe of ridicule ; and thefe he confidered as the
tells of fpeculative truth and moral reftitude. His
lordlhip’s principles were in part adopted by Mr Hut-
chifon of Glafgow, who publifhed a fyftem of moral
philofophy, founded upon a fenfe or inftinft, to which
he gave the name of the moralfenfe ; and the undoubt¬
ed merit of his work procured him many followers.
Men generally run from one extreme to another.
It being now discovered, or at leaft fuppofed, that the
human mind is endowed with inftinftive principles of
adtion, a feft of philofophers foon afterwards arofe,
who maintained with much vehemence that it is like-
wife endowed with inftinftive principles of belief; and
who built a fyftem of metaphyfics, if fuch it may be
called, upon a number of innate, diftinft, and inde¬
pendent fenfes. The rife of this feft is well known.
Berkeley and Hume had adopted Locke’s doftrine
refpefting the origin of our ideas ; and had thence de¬
duced confequences fuppofed to be dangerous in them¬
felves, but which, it was thought, could not be denied
without refufuag the principles from which they were
inferred. The foundation of the inftinftive fyftem be¬
ing thus laid, the fyftem itfclf was rapidly carried to a
height far beyond what feems to have been the inten¬
tion of its excellent author ; and reafon was well nigh
banifhed from the regions of philofophy. For fuch a
proceeding it is not difficult to affign the caufe. The
inftinftive fcheme requires much lefs labour of invefti-
gation than the fyftems of Locke and the ancients;
for upon the principles of it, when carried to its ut-
moft extent, every phenomenon in human nature is
thought to be fufficiently accounted for, by fuppofing
it the effeft of a particular inftinft implanted in the
mind for that very purpofe. Hence in fome popular
works of philofophy we have a detail of fo many di¬
ftinft internal fenfes, that it requires no fmall ftrength
of memory to retain their very names : befides the mo-
K k 2 ral
(a) As nothing is of greater importance in the philofophy of mind than accurate definitions, it may not be
improper to obferve, that through the whole of this article the word fpontancous is to be taken in the fenfe in
which it is ufed in the following extrafts from Hales's Origin of Mankind: “ Many analogical motions in ani¬
mals, though I cannot call them voluntary, yet I fee them fpontaneous: I have reafon to conclude, that thefe
are not Amply mechanical." “ The fagacities and inftinfts of brutes, the fpontaneoufnefs of many of their motions,
are not explicable, without fuppofing fome aftive determinate power connefted to and inherent in their fpirits,
of a higher extraftion than the bare natural modification of matter.” If this be attended to, our definition
of inftinft will be found perfeftly confonant to that which has been given by the author of Ancient Metaphy¬
fics. “ Inflinft (he fays) is a determination given by Almighty Wifdom to the mind of the brute, to aftj in
fuch or fuch a way, upon fuch or fuch an occafion, without intelligence, without knowledge of good or ill,
and without knowing for what end or purpofe he afts.”
INS [ 260 1
Inftin&. ral fenfe, we have the fenfe of beauty, the fenfe of defor-
{»—Y—^ mity, the fenfe of honour, the hoarding fenfe, and a
thoufand others which it is needlefs here to mention.
This new fyftem, which converts the philofophy of are sW rational a&ions.
1 N s
a duty incumbent on him ; and he fights for his coun¬
try in order to repel its enemies. Each of thefe ac-
tions is performed from a motive, and therefore they
""" “,1 —7 An infant is impelled to fuck
mind into mere hiftory, or rather into a collection of the bread, but he knows not that it is necelfary for
• faffs and anecdotes, though it has made a rapid pro-
grefs, is not yet univerfally received. It has been op'
pofed by many fpecqlative men, and by none with
greater Ikill than Dr Prieflley ; who maintains, with
the earlieft admirers of Locke, that we have from na¬
ture no innate fenfe of truth, nor any initinftive prin¬
ciple of aftian ; that even the aftion of fucking in
new-born infants is to be accounted for upon principles
of mechanifm; and that the defire of the fexes is mere-
4 ly affociation.
Jnftinca Whilft men, eminent for candour as well as for
confounded fcience, have thus been difputing the limits between
an^'with'011 inltinft and reafon in the human mind, and endeavour-
mechanifm. ing to afcertain the aftions which refult from each,
two writers of name, treating of that fubjeft, have late¬
ly advanced opinions, which, if admitted as jutt, mult
render the difpute henceforth ridiculous, and put —
his prefervation ; a couple of young favages go toge¬
ther, for the firlt time, without any view to offspring
or any determinate idea of enjoyment. Thefe actions
have no motive, and therefore are not rational: but as
they are performed by a fpontaneous exertion of the a-
gents, they are not to be attributed to mere mecha¬
nifm ; they are therefore injlinSive actions. A man
breathes without any motive, without any fpontane¬
ous exertion of his own, and that as well when he is
alleep as when he is awake. The adfion of breathing
therefore is neither rational nor indiu&ive, but merely
automatic or mechanical. All this feems to be very plain.
To talk of the motives of actions performed by initindt,
in an argument intended to prove that between reafon
and inltindt there is no difference, is either to beg the
queftion or to pervert language. If the author of the
Philofophy of Natural Hiltory choofes to call the im-
end for ever to all moral inquiries. Mr Smellie, in a pulfe which promps the infant to fuck by the name of
work which he calls 'The Philofophy of Natural Hijlory^
affirms, that between injhnflive and rational motives
motive, he only ufes an Enghfh word improperly ; if
it be his intention to affirm that fuch a motive is not
diftindfion exilts, but that the reafoning faculty itfelf totally and effentiallydifferent from that which prompts
is the neceffary refult of inltindl; and Dr Reid, in his
Effays on the Active Powers of Man, by attributing to
inJlinQ the adtion of breathing, feems to confound that
j principle with mere mechanifm.
Thefe three That reafon, inftindt, and mechanifm, are all effen-
principles tially different from one another, has hitherto been uni
accurately verfaliy allowed; and it appears not to be a tafk of
u ingrn - n to ooint out in what refoedt each of
a man to give charity or to tight for his country, he
affirms what all mankind know to be falfe(B).
Having thus afeertained what we mean by inftindf,
we fhall now proceed to inquire. Whether or not there
be any inftindtive principles in man ? But in order to
proceed upon fure grounds, it will be proper to con-
fider, in the firft place, fuch adtions of the inferior
much difficulty to point out in what refpedt each of animals as are generally allowed to be intiindtive: for
each other, them differs from the other two. Adlions performed
with a view to accomplifh a certain end are called ra¬
tional adlions, and ttle end in view is the motive to their
performance. InJUnEtive adlions have a caufe, viz. the
internal impulie by which they are fpontaneoufly per¬
formed ; but they cannot be faid to have a motive, be-
caufe they are not done with any view to confequences.
Adlions automatic have iikewife a caufe; but that caufe
is not internal impulfe, but mere mechanifm, by which
they are performed without any fpontaneity of the
agent. Thus, a man gives charity in order to relieve
a perfon from want; he performs a grateful adlion as
an attempt has lately been made to prove, that even
thefe adlions are the offspring of reafon influenced by
motives; and that injlintt, as we have defined it, is a
mere imaginary principle/which has no exiflence either
in man or brute.
It has been faid that caterpillars, when fhaken off a lr
tree in every diredlion, indantly turn round towards p* *
the trunk and climb up, though they had never for- in '*
merly been on the furface of the ground. This is a
flriking inflance of inftindl. On the tree, and not
upon the ground, the caterpillar finds its food. If
therefore it did not turn and climb up the trunk, it
would
(b) The author of Ancient Metaphyftcs, whofe learned work contains more good fenfe on this fubjedl than
any other book which we have feen, thus diltinguifhes between reafon and inflindl: “ With refpedt to the
mere animal, it is evident that he purfues nothing but what is conducive either to the prefervation of the
animal life or to the continuation of the kind. On the other hand, the object which the intelledlual mind
purfues, is the fair and the handfome ; and its happineis confifls in the contemplation of thefe. And though
it purfue alfo what is ufeful and profitable for the being and well-being of the animal life, yet it is for the fake,
not of the animal life itfelf, but of the or beautiful; which therefore is the ultimate objedl of its purfuit
in all things.
“ Another material difference in pradlice betwixt the animal and intellectual mind is, that every adlion of
intelledt proceeds from an opinion formed concernin,! what is good or ill, beautiful or the contrary, in the
adlion. When we do fo, we are faid to adl.from w'dl, which is always determined by fome opinion formed
of the kind I have mentioned : whereas, when we aCt from mere appetite or inclination, without deliberation
or opinion formed, we adt as the brute does always ; for he has no will, but is prompted to; adlion by natural
impulfe, or °pm», as the Greeks call it.
“ A third very mareiial difference is, that intelledl, in all its operations, propofes ends, and devifes means
to accomplifh thefe ends.; whereas the inftindi of the bmte proceeds without confideration either of ends
01 means.,,
INS [ 261 ] INS
rnftin*. would inevitably perifh : but furely the caterpillar
*'knows not that fuch an exertion is neceffary to its
prefervation ; and therefore it a£ts not from motives,
but from blind impulfe. The bee and the beaver are
endowed with an inftinft which has the appearance of
forefight. They build magazines, and fill them with
provifions; but the forefight is not theirs. Neither
bees nor beavers know any thing of futurity. The
folitary wafp digs holes ip the fand, in each of which
file depofits an egg. Though ihe certainly knows not
that an animal is to proceed from that egg, and ftill
lefs if poffible that this animal muft be nourirtied with
other animals, fhe colledts a few fmall green . worms,
which fhe rolls up in a circular form, and fixes in the
hole in fuch a manner that they cannot move. When
(the wafp-worm is hatched, it is amply ftored with the
food which nature has deftined for its fupport. The
green worms are devoured in fucceffion; and the nufn~
ber depofited is exactly proportioned to the time ne-
ceflary for the growth and transformation of the wafp-
worm into a fly ; when it iffues from the hole, and is
capable of procuring its own nourifhment. This in-
ftinft of the parent wafp is the more remarkable, that
fhe feeds not upon flefh herfelf. Birds of the fame
fpecies, unlefs when reflrained by peculiar circumflan
ces, uniformly build their nefts of the fame materials,
and in the fame form and fituation, though they in¬
habit very different climates ; and the form and fuua-
tion are always exaftTy fuited to their nature, and cal-
\ culated to afford them fhelter and proteftion. When
danger, or any other circumflance peculiar to certain
countries, renders a deviation from the common form
or fituation of nefts neceffary, that deviation is made
in an equal degree, and in the very fame manner, by
all the birds of one fpecies; and it is never found to
extend beyon ! the limits of the country where alone
it can ferve any good purpofe. When removed by
neeeffity from their eggs, birds return to them with
hade and anxiety, and fhift them fo as to heat them
equally ; and it is worthy of obfervation, that their
hatte to return is always in proportion to the cold of
the climate. But do birds reafon, and all of the fame
fpecies reafon equally well, upon the nature and ex¬
tent of danger, and upon the means by which it can
beft be avoided ? Have birds any notion of equality, or
do they know that heat is neceffary for incubation?
No: in all thefe operations men recognife the inten¬
tions of nature ; bi}t they are hid from the animals
themfelves, and therefore cannot operate upon them as
motives.
Of the jnftinft of animals we fliall give one inftance
more in the elegant and perfpicuous language of Dr
Reid. “ Every manufadluring art among men (lays
that able write ) was invented by feme man, improved
by others, and (nought to perfeftion by time and ex¬
perience. Men learn to work in it by long practice,
which produces a habit. The arts of men vary in every
age and in every nation, and are found only in thofe
men ho have been taught them. The manufactures
of animals differ from thofe of men in many Itriking
particulars. No animal of the fpecies can claim the
invention ; no animal ever introduced any new im¬
provement, or any variation from the former pradtice ; .
every one of the fpecies has equal Ikill from the be¬
ginning, without teaching, without experience, and
without habit; every one has its art by a kind of in- Iirftimft.
fpiration. [ do not mean that it is infpired with the '-—y—
principles or rules of the art, but with the ability of
working in it to perfe&ion, without any knowledge of
its principles, rules, or end. The work of every ani¬
mal is indeed like the works of nature, perfedl in its
kind, and can bear the moft critical examination of the
mechanic or the mathematician, of which a honey¬
comb isaftriking initance.
“ Bees, it is well known, conftrudt their combs with Remark.
fmall cells on both fides, fit both for holding their ftore able in-
of honey and for rearing their young. There are ftance in
only three poffible figures of thepells, which can makethc^ee»
them all equal and iimilar, without any ufelefs inter-
ftices. Thefe are the equilateral triangle, the fquare,
and the regular hexagon. Of the three, the hexagon
is the moft proper, both for convenience and ftrength.
Bees, as if they knew this, make their cells regular
hexagons. As the combs have cells on both fides, the
cells may either be exactly oppofite, having partition -
again!! partition, or the bottom of a cell may reft
upon the partitions between the cells on the other fide,
which will ferve as a butt re is to ftrengthen it. The
laft way is the beft for ftrength j accordingly the bot¬
tom of each cell refts again!! the point where three
partitions meet on the other fide, which gives it all
the ftrength poffible. The bottom of a cell may ei¬
ther be dne plane, perpendicular to the fide partitions;
or it may be compofed of fevrral planes, meeting in a
fohd angle in the mid ile point. It is only in one of
theft two ways that all the cells can be fimilar without
lofing room. And for the fame intention, the planes,
of which the bottom is compofed, if there be more
than one, muft be three in number, and neither more
nor fewer. It has been demonftrated, that by making
the bottoms of the' cells to confift of three planes
meeting in a point, there is a faving of material and
labour no way inconfiderable. The bees, as if ac¬
quainted with thefe principles of folid geometry, follow
them moft accurately; the bottom of each cell being
compoied of three planes, which make obtufe angles
with the fide partitions and with one another, and
meet in a point in the middle of the bottom; the three
angles of this bottom being fupported by three parti¬
tions on the other fide of the comb, and the point of
it by the common interfe&ion of thefe three partitions.
One inftance more of the mathematical ikill difplayed -
in the ftru&ure of a honey-comb deferves to be men¬
tioned It is a curious mathematical problem, at what
precife angle the three planes which compofe the bottoirv-
of a cell ought to meet, in order to make the greateft
poffibie faving of material and labour. This is one of
thofe problems belonging to the higher parts of ma¬
thematics, which are called problems of maxima and
minima. The celebrated M'Laurin refolved it by a
fluxionary calculation, which is to be found in the
Traufa&ions of the Royal Society of London, and
determined preciiely the angle required. Upon the
moft exadt nienfuration which the lubjedt could admit,
he afterwards found, that it is,the very angle in which
tin three planes in the bottom of the cell of a honey¬
comb do adtually meet.
“ Shall we aik, here, Who taught the bees the pro¬
perties of folids, and to refolve problems of maxima and
minima ? If a honey-comb were a work of human art,
every
Inftir.i5t.
8
Which can.
rot be con¬
founded
with the
operations
of reafon.
INS [ 262 ] INS
every man of common fenfe would conclude, without
hefitation, that he who invented the conftru&ion mu!l
have underftood the principles on which it was con-
flru&ed. We need not fay that bees know none of
thefe things. They work moll geometrically without
any knowledge of geometry ; fomewhat like a child,
who by turning the handle of an organ makes good
mufic without any knowledge of mufic. The art is
not in the child, but in him who made the organ. In
like manner, when a bee makes its combs fo geome¬
trically, the geometry is not in the bee, but in that
Great Geometrician who made the bee, and made all
things in number, weight, and meafure.”
We have given a full detail of the ftrufture of a
honey-comb, becaufe it is an effeft of inftinft which
cannot be confounded with the operations of reafon.
The author of The Natural Hijlory of Animals, juftly
offended with that theory which treats of inJlinBtve mo¬
tives, which reprefents the human mind as a bundle of
inftin&s, and of which the objeft feems to be to de¬
grade mankind to the level of brutes, has very lauda¬
bly exerted his endeavours to detc& its weaknefs, and
to expofe it to contempt. But in avoiding one ex¬
treme, he feems to have run into the other; and whilft
he maintains the rights of his own fpecies, he almoll
raifes the brutes to the rank of men. “ It is better
(he fays) to fhare our rights with others than to be
entirely deprived of them.” This is certainly true;
and no good man will hefitate to prefer his theory to
that of his antagonift: but we fee no neceffity for
adopting either; the phenomena may be accounted
for without degrading reafon to the level.of inltiridl,
or elevating inffinfit to the dignity of reafon.
We ihall readily allow to Locke (c), that fome of InfilnA.
the inferior animals feem to have perceptions of parti-' 
cular truths, and within very narrow limits the faculty onfome oc-
of reafon : but we fee no ground to fuppofe that their cafions the
natural operations are performed with a view to con inferiorani-
fequences ; and therefore cannot perfuade ourfelves, ?lals’j’eafon:
with this hiftorian of theirs, that thefe operations arep^form
the refult of a train of reafcning in the mind of the their natu-
animal. ral opera¬
tic acknowledges indeed, that their reafoning and i1?nibyin~
thinking powers are remarkably deficient when com- m ' . •
pared with thofe of men; that they cannot take fo full
a review of the paft, nor look forward with fo penetra¬
ting an eye to the future ; that they do not accumu¬
late obfervation upon obfervation, or add the expe¬
rience of one generation to that of another; that their
manners do not vary nor their cuftoms flu&uate like
ours ; and that their arts always remain the fame,
without degeneracy and without improvement. “ The
crow (he obferves) always builds its neft in the fame
way ; every hen treats her young with the fame mea¬
fure of affedlion ; even the dog, the horfe, and the fa-
gacious elephant, feem to aft rather mechanically
than with defign. From fuch hafty obfervations as
thefe, it has been inferred (he fays), that the brutes
are direfted in their aftions by fome myfterious in¬
fluence, which impels them to employ their powers
unintentionally in performing aftions beneficial to
themfelves, and fuitable to their nature and circum-
ftances.”
And are thefe obfervations indeed hafty? and is this
inference ill founded ? To us the matter appears quite
otherwife. If the arts of brutes and other animals
6 have
(c) “ For if they have any ideas at all, and are not mere machines, as fome would have them, we cannot
deny them to have fome reafon. It feems as evident to me, that fome of them do, in certain inftances,
reafon, as that they have fenfe ; but it is only in particular ideas, juft as they received them from the fenfes.
They are the bell of them tied up within thofe narrow bounds, and have not, as 1 think, the faculty to enlarge
■them by any kind of abftraftion.” Effdy on Human Under {landing. Book II. chap. 11.
This is in part a juft obfervation, and ferves to account for many phenomena which later writers have de¬
rived from inftinft. The author of The Philofophy of Natural Hiftory had “ a cat that frequented a clofet,
the door of which was faftened by a common iron latch. A window was fituated near the door. When the
door was (hut, the cat gave herfelf no uneafinefs. As foon as Ihe tired of her confinement, fire mounted on
the foie of the window, and with her paw dexteroufly lifted the latch and came out.” This praftice, which
we are told continued for years, mull have been the confequence of what Locke calls reafoning in particular
ideas. It could not be the effeft of inftinft; for inftinft is adapted only to a Hate of nature, in which cats
have neither latches to lift nor doors to open ; and as it is not faid that the animal attempted to lift the
latches of other doors, we are not authorifed to infer that this particular aftion was the confequence of rea¬
foning in ideas enlarged by abftraftion : the cat had repeatedly feen one door opened by an exertion which
fire was capable of imitating. Yet that animals have no power of enlarging their ideas, is a pofition, of
the truth of which, though it is advanced by Locke, we are by no means confident. It is well known that
crows feed upon feveral kinds of ftiell-fifti when within their reach ; and that they contrive to break the fhell
by raifing the f flr to a great height, and letting it drop upon a ftone or a rock. This may perhaps be confidered as
pure inftinft direfting the animal to the proper means of acquiring its food. But what is to be thought of
the following faft, which was communicated to us by a gentleman whofe veracity is unqueftioned, and who,
being totally unacquainted with the theories of philofophers, has of courfe no favourite hypothefis to fnpport ?
In the fpring of the year 1791, a pair of crows made their neft in a tree, of which there are feveral planted
round his garden ; and in his morning-walks he had often been amufed by wltneffing furious combats between
them and a cat. One morning the battle raged more fiercely than ufual, till at laft the cat gave way and took
fhelter under a hedge, as if to wait a more favourable opportunity of retreating to the houfe. The crows
continued for a ftrort time to make a threatening noife ; but perceiving that on the ground they could do
nothing more than threaten, one of them lifted a ftone from the middle of the garden and perched with it on
0 tree planted in the hedge, where (he fat watching the motions of the enemy of her young. As the cat crept
INS [ 263 ] INS
Inftin&. have always remained the fame without degene-
>■—V ' racy, and wfithout improvement; and if they be at
the fame time the refult of reafoning; they muft either
be fo perfect that they cannot be improved, or fo im-
perfeft that they cannot degenerate. That the ftruc-
ture of a honey-comb is imperfect, no man has ever
imagined. We have feen, that, as far as we are capable
of difcerning the end which it is intended to ferve, it
is the mcft perfeft ftru&ure poffible: and therefore, if
it be the refult of the reafoning of the bee, the author
muff retradt his affertion refpedfing the extent of the
reafoning and thinking powers of inferior animals; and
infteadof faying that they are remarkably deficient when
compared with thofe of men, affirm that they are in¬
finitely more perfedt. No .human'art has yei arrived
at fuch perfedtion as that it might not be improved ;
no architeft has ever built a town, or conflrudted a
magazine, which he could mathematically demon-
ftrate to be of the very beft poffible form for the end
intended, and fo abfolutely peifedt as to be incapable
10 of improvement.
The lad But the fame author proceeds to affirm, that “ the
mentioned law's of analogical reafoning do not juftify the idea
controvert t^iat ^ ^rutes a<^> on any occafion, abfolutely with-
ed, " out defign.” Nay, he fays, it feems more probable,
“ that the inferior animals, even in thofe inllances in
which we cannot dijlingui/h the motives which adluate
them, or the view’s with which they proceed, yet adi
with defign, and extend their views, if not a great
way, yet at leaft a certain length forward; than
that they can be upon any occafion, fuch as in rear¬
ing of their young, building nefts, &c. adfuated merely
by feeling, or over-ruled by fome myfterious influence,
under w'hich they are nothing but infenfible inllru-
ments.” This laft phrafe is ambiguous. If by in¬
fenfible inftruments it be meant that the brutes are
confidered by the advocates for inftindt as mere ma¬
chines without the faculties of fenfation and fponta-
ueity, the'author is combating a phantom of his own
creation ; for we believe an opinion fo abfurd is not
now maintained by any man, (fee Brute). But if
by infenfible inftruments be meant fuch inftruments as
adt fpontaneoufly without being confcious of the end
to which their adtions lead, he appears not only to
be egregioufly miftaken in his conjedhire refpedfing
the defign of brutes, but alfo to have advanced an hy-
pothefis contradidfory and inconfiftent.
If it be true, that the inferior animals adt with de-
Jigny even in thofe inftances in which we cannot di-
ftinguifh their motives, their views may indeed ex- intHndt.
tend but a little way when compared with infinity : ’ 
but certainly they extend farther than ours; for there Mainuiu-
is no ufeful work of man conftru&ed with fuch fkill, ed, and
but that, after it is finiflied, another man of equal
education will be able to diftinguifh the general de¬
fign of the artift. But if the inferior animals, on all
occafions, adt with defign, we fhould be glad to know
the defign of the bees in forming the cells of their combs
in the manner which we have fo largely defcribed. Do.
thefe little animals indeed know that a comb, confiding
on both fides of hexagonal cells, with the bottom of
each compofed of feveral planes meeting in a certain fo-
lid angle, and fo formed as that the bottom of a cell
on the one fide lhall reft upon the partitions between
the cells on the other fide, is in all refpedls the moft pro¬
per both for holding their ftores of honey and for rear¬
ing their young ? And do they likewife know, that its
excellence arifes from the precife figure and polition o£
the cells, by which there is a very confiderable faving
of labour and materials, whilft the comb at the fame
time has the greateft poffible ftrength, and the greateft.
poffible capacioufnefs ? If they know all this, and act
with a view to thefe ends, it muft indeed be confeffed.
that bees are rational creatures, and that their thinking
and reafoning powers far furpafs thofe of men ; for
they have from the earlieft ages made difcoverics in the
higher mathematics, which there is reafon to believe
were altogether unknown to the human race till the be¬
ginning of the prefent century, and which at this mo¬
ment are beyond the comprehenfion of nine-tenths of
mankind in the moft enlightened nation on earth. If
this be a conclufion too abfurd to be admitted, there
is no other alternative, but either to fuppofe that by this
artificial ftrudture of their cells the bees have fome other
end in view, which we cannot diftinguilh; or to ac¬
knowledge, that they are over-ruled by fome myfte¬
rious influence, under which they are nothing but
fpontaneous agents, unconfcious of the end to which
their operations tend. Which of thefe conclufions is
the moft rational, we will not offer fuch an infult to
the underftanding of our readers, as to fuppofe the
meaneft of them capable of entertaining a doubt. That
a honey-comb is conftrufted with defign, we moft rea¬
dily admit ; but the defign is not in the bees, but in
the Creator of the bees, who diredts their operations to
their own.good, by what the author with great pro¬
priety terms a myfterious influence (d).
But he thinks it an unanfwerable argument in fup- An *^eo
port tion to it
along under the hedge, the crow accompanied her by flying from branch to branch and from tree to tree;
and when at laft pufs ventured to quit her hiding-place, the crow, leaving the trees and hovering over her in
the air, let the ftone dnop from on high on her back. That the crow on this occafion reafoned, is felf-evident;
and it feems to be little lefs evident, that the ideas employed in her reafoning were enlarged beyond thofe
which Ihe had received from her fenfes. By her fenfes ffie may have perceived, that the fliell of a fiffi is
broken by a fall; but could her fenfes inform her, that a cat would be wounded or driven off the field by the
fell of a ftone ? No ; from the effedt of the one fell preferved in her memory, fhe muft have inferred the other
by her power of reafoning.
(d) Though this way of a&ing is undoubtedly myfterious,yet it fhould not appear extraordinary even
to a man who is not a philofophtfV, as we fee examples of it daily in our own fpecies : For a man under the di*
reftion of another of fuperior underftanding, will ufe means to accomplifh an end, without having any idea of
either; and indeed in my opinion, by far the greater part of mankind are deftined by God and nature to be.
governed in that way.” /Indent MetafhyficSf Vol. III. p. 352.
INS [ 264 3 INS
IflftinA. port of his theory, that in the performance of thofe
-v   aftions, in which animals are faid to be guided by un¬
erring inftindt, different individuals difplay different
modes of condudl; and in his opinion, to talk of in-
ftindHve principles which admit of improvement, and
accommodate themfelves to circumftances, is merely to
introduce new terms into the language of philofophy ;
for he affirms, that no fuch improvement or accommo¬
dation to circumftances can ever take place without a
comparifon of ideas, and a dedu&ion of inferences.
It is probable, that the author here alludes to thofe
animals which, in their moft important operations, are
known to a& differently in different countries. Thus
the oftrich in Senegal, where the heat is exceflive, ne-
glefts her eggs during the day, but fits upon them in
the night. At the Cape of Good Hope, however,
where the degree of heat is lefs, the oftrich, like other
birds, fits upon her eggs both day and night. In
countries infefted with monkeys, many birds, which in
other, climates build in bufhes and clefts of trees, fuf-
pend their nelts upon flender twigs, and thus elude the
13 rapacity of their enemies.
Obviated. may be thought, that a determination of the mind
of the brute to aft fo varioufly upon different occafions,
can hardly be conceived without judgment or intelli¬
gence. But before our author had fo confidently af¬
firmed that fuch accommodation to circumftances can
never take place without a comparifon of ideas and a
dedu&ion of inferences, he would have done well to
confider how nature afts in other organized bodies, fuch
as the vegetable. We fee that a vegetable, reared in
the corner of a dark cellar, will bend itfelf towards the
light which comes in at the window ; and if it be
made to grow in a flower pot, with its head down¬
wards, it will turn itfelf into the natural pofition of a
plant. Can it be fuppofed, that the plant, in either
cafe, does what it does from any judgment or opinion
that it is beft, and not from a neceffary determination
of its nature ? But, further, to take the cafe of bodies
unorganized, how fhall we account for the phenomena
which chemiftry exhibits to us ? When one body unites
withanother,and then, upon a third being prefentedto it,
quits the firft, and unites itfelf with it, ftiall we fuppofe
that this preference proceeds from any predile&ion or
opinion that it is better to cleave to the one than to the
other, from any comparifon ©f ideas or dedu6tion of
inferences ? Or (hall we not rather fay, that it proceeds
from an original law of nature impreffed upon it by that
Being who mediately or immediately direfts every mo¬
tion of every the minuteft atom in theuniverfe? And if
fo, why may not inftinA be an original determination
of the mind of the animal, of which it is part of the
nature or effence to accommodate itfelf to certain cir¬
cumftances, on which depends the prefervation of the
individual, or the continuation of the kind? Indeed it
cannot be otherwife, if we have defined inftindt proper¬
ly ; for no man ever fuppofed, that when animals work
inftin&ively, they a<ft for no purpofe. It is only af¬
firmed that the purpofe is not known to them. It is
known, however, to the Author of inftindt; who knows
likewife that the fame purpofe muft in different cli¬
mates be promoted by different means, and who ac¬
cordingly determines the operations of animals of
the fame fpecies to be different under different circum¬
ftances.
N° 167.
But though we cannot agree with this author when Inftima.
he affirms that no accommodation to circumftances can 1 ""v *
ever take place without a comparifon of ideas, we rea- v nl% ■
dily admit that no faculty which is capable of improve- capable of"
ment by obfervation and experience can in propriety improve-
of fpeech be termed inftindt Inftinft being a pofitive
determination given to the minds of animals by the
Author of nature for certain purpofes, muft neceflarily
be perfeA when viewed in conneftion with thofe pur¬
pofes : and therefore to talk, as Mr Smellie does, of the
improvement of inftinft, is to perplex the underftanding
by a perverfion of language. There is not, however, a
doubt, but that reafon may copy the works of inftimff,
and fo far alter or improve them as to render them fub-
fervient to other purpofes than thofe for which they were
originally and inftin&ively performed. It was thus in
all probability that man at firft learned many of the
molt ufeful arts of life.
“ Thy arts, of building from the bee receive 5
“ I.earn of the mole to plough, the Worm to weave;
“ Learn of the little nautilus to fail,
“ Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.
But the arts thus adopted by men are no longer the
works of inftindl, but the operations of reafon influ¬
enced by motives. This is fo obvioufly and undeniably
true, that it has compelled the author laft mentioned to
confefs, in that very fe&ion which treats of inftin&s
improveable by experience, that “ what men or brutes
learn by experience, though this experience be founded
on inftintf, cannot with propriety be called inftin&ive
knowledge, but knowledge derived from experience and
obfervation. Inftinft (he fays) Ihould be limited to
fuel) a&ions as every individual of a fpecies exerts with¬
out the aid either of experience or imitation.” This
is a very juft diftinftion between inftindt and experience;
but how to reconcile it with the fundamental principle
of the author’s theory we know not. It would cer¬
tainly be a very arduous talk ; but it is a talk from
which we are happily relieved, as his theory and ours
have little refemblance.
Having thus proved, we hope to the fatisfa&ion of
our readers, that there is fuch a principle as inftinft in
the inferior animals, and that it is effentially different _
from human reafon ; let us return to our own fpecies,
and inquire whether there be any occafions upon which ther there
man adis inftindtively, and what thofe occafions are.be any 00
This is aqueftion of fome difficulty, to which a com-can°"s.uP“
plete and fatisfaftory anfwer will perhaps never be gi-^a^a^g
ven, and to which we have not the vanity to think inftintaive-
that fuch an anfwer will be given by us. The prin- !y? exami^
ciple of ajfociation (to be explained afterwards underne<*'
the article Metaphysics) operates fo powerfully in
man, and at fo early a period of life, that in many
cafes it feems to be impofiible to diftinguilh the ef-
fefts of habit from the operations of nature. Ydt there
are a few cafes immediately connedfed with the prefer¬
vation of the individual and the propagation of the
kind, in which by a little attention thefe things may be
diftinguilhed. We have already given an inftance in
thd fucking of a child, which we believe to be an o-
peration performed by inftindt. Dr Prieftley, how¬
ever, thinks differently: “ The adlion of fucking
(fay_s he), I am confident, from my own obfervations,
is not natural, but acquired.” What obfervations they
were which led him to this conclufion he has not told
4 us,
INS f 265 1 INS
us, and we cannot imagine ; but every obfervation Were Dr Prieftley to weigh thefe fadts, of the truth
■> which we ourfelves have made, compels us to believe of which we are certain, we doubt not that his well* u
that an attempt to fuck is natural to children. It has known candor would make him retrad the aflertion,
been obferved by the author of the Philofophy of Na- that all the a&iors which Dr Reid and others refer to
tural Hiftory, that the inftind of fucking is not excited inftind, are either automatic or acquired. The greater
by any fmell peculiar to the mother, to milk, or to part of thofe a&ions, as well as of the apparently in-
any other fubftance; for that infants fuck indifcrimi- ftindive principles of belief, we have no doubt are
nately every thing brought into contad with their acquired: but we are perfuaded that a child fucks its
mouths. He therefore infers, that the defire of fuck^ nurfe as a bee builds it cell, by inftind ; for upon no
ing is innate, and coeval with the appetite for air. The other hypothefis can we account for the fpontaneous
obfervation is certainly juft : but a difciple of Dr efforts exerted in both thefe operations : and we think
Prieftley’s may objed to the inference; for “ in fucking it no difgrace to our fpecies, that in fome few cafes we
and fwallowing our food, and in many fuch inftances, fhould ad from the fame principle with the inferior
it is exceedingly probable (fays the Dodor), that the creation, as nothing feems more true than that,
adions of the mufcles are originally automatic,, having Reafon raife o’er infliiuft as we car;
been fo placed by our Maker, that at firft they are fti- In this ’tis God that works, in that ’tis n-an.
mulated and contrad mechanically whenever their ac- We have faid, that, in the favage Rate, the fexes^o
tion is requifite.’' This is certainly the cafe with re- together for the firft time^ by inftind, without any
fped to the motion of the mufcles in the adion of view to offspring, and perhaps with no r/e/erwiiW/e idea
breathing ; and if that adion be of the fame kind and of enjoyment. This opinion, we believe, has been
proceed from the very fame caufe with the adion of generally maintained ; but it is controverted by Dr
fucking, and if a child never fhow a defire to fuck but Hartley. “Here (fays he) we are to obferve, firft.
when fomething is brought into contad with its mouth,
Dr Prieftley’s account of this operation appears to us
much more fatisfadory than that of the authors who
attribute it to inftind.
that when a general pleafurable ftate is introduced,
either by dired impreffions or by affociated influences,
the organs of generation muft fympathize with this
general ftate, for the fame reafons as the other parts
Inftancfs of Biit: the adions of breathing and fucking feem to do. They muft therefore be affeded wuth vibrations
human ac- efyentially in feveral particulars. They are in- in their nerves, which rife above indifference, into the
doubtedly deed both performed by means of air ; but in the for-
iuftm&ive. mer, a child for many months exerts no fpontaneous
effort, whilft a fpontaneous effort feems to be abfolute-
ly neceffary for the performance of the latter. Of this
indeed we could not be certain, were it true that infants
never exhibit fymptoms of a ivijh to fuck but when
fomething is adually in contad with their mouths;
for the mere aS of fucking then might well be fup-
limits of pleafure, from youth, health, grateful ali¬
ment, the pleafures of imagination, ambition, and
fympathy, or any other caufe which diffufes grateful
vibrations over the whole fyftem.—Secondly, as thefe
organs are endued with a greater degree of fenfibility
than the other parts, from their make, and the peculiar
ftrudure and difpofition of their nerves, whatever thefe
be, we may e*p.ed that they fhould be more affeded by
pofed to be automatic and the effed of irritation: But thofe general jikafurable ftates of the nervous fyftem
this is not the cafe. A healthy and vigorous infant, than the other parts.—Thirdly, the diftenfion of the
within ten minutes of its birth, gives the plaineft and cells cf the veficulce feminales, and of the Jinufes of the
moft unequivocal evidence of a defire to fuck, before uterus, ,whic(i take place about the time of puberty,
any thing be brought into adual contad with its mul|. make thefe organs more particularly irritable
mouth. It ftretches out its neck, and turns its head llitn.” His fourth obfervation refpeds a ftate widely
from fide to fide apparently in queft of fomething ; and different from that of nature, and therefoie is nothing
that the objed of its purfuit is fomething which it may ,to the purpofe : but his fifth is, that “ the particular
fuck, every man may fatisfy himfelf by a very convincing fhame which regards the organs of generation, may,
experiment. When an infant is thus ftretching out when confidered as an affociated circumftance, like
its neck and moving its head, if any thing be made 1
touch any part of its face, the little creature will in-
ftantly turn to the objed, and endeavour by quick
alternate motions from fide to fide to feize with its
mouth, in the very fame manner in which it always
other pains, be fo far diminifhed as to fall within the
limits of pleafure, and add confiderably to the fum
total.”
To this excellent and able writer we may allow the
truth of thefe obfervations (though fome of them
feizes the breaft of its nurfe, till taught by experience might certainly be controverted) ; and yet deny his
to diftinguifh objeds by the fenfe of fight, when thefe conclufion, that “ they are fufficient to account for the
alternate motions, being no longer ufeful, are no longer general defires which areobfervable in young perfons,
employed. If this be not an inllance of pure inftind, and that thofe defires are of a faditions nature.’’ For
we know not what it is. It cannot be the refuk of fuppoting every thing which he mentions to take place
affociation or mechanifm ; for when the ftretching of by mere rnechanifm and affociation ; that the organs
the neck takes place, nothing is in contadt with the of generation are irritated, and certain cells and finufes
child’s mouth, and no affociation which includes the diftended ; the only inference which can be fairly drawm
ad of fucking can have bt ;n formed. Aflbciations of from fuch premifes is, that at the age of puberty young
ideas are the confeqnences of fimultaneous impreflions men and women muft from thefe caufes experience cer-
frequently repeated ; but when the child firft declares, tain feelings and wants which they knew not before ;
as plainly as it could do were it poffefied of language, but furely mechanifm and affociation cannot teach them
its wilh to fuck, it has not received a fingle impufiion the ufe of the organs of generation, or point out the
withwhich that wilh can poffibiy be afl'ociated. only means by which their new feelings can be grati-
Vol. IX. Part I. LI fieds
INS r 266 ^ INS
Inftindt. fied : and therefore, as we fee thefe means invariably
purfued by all animals rational and irrational, without
experience and without inftnnStion, we mull refer the
mutual defire of the fexes to a higher principle than
mere mechartifm and affociation ; and that principle
can be nothing but inftin£t.
Befides thefe, we think the adlion of eating may
be attributed.to inftinft. It is certainly performed bar,
a fpontaneous exertion of the proper organs ; abcTthat
exertion is firll made at a time of life when we have no
conception of the end which it ferves to accomplillr,
and therefore cannot be influenced by motives. It
mull indeed be confefled, that the firlt act of chewing
is performed by a child, not for the purpofe of mafti-
cating food, but to quicken the operation of nature
in the cutting of teeth : and perhaps it may be faid,
that the pleating fenfation of tq/ie, which is then firft
experienced, and afterwards remembered, prompts the
child to continue at intervals the exertion of chewing
after all its teeth are cut; fo that though the add of
eating is qot performed with a view to the maftication
of food or the nourithment of the body, it may yet
be performed, not from any inftindlive impulfe, but
merely from an early and deep-rooted affociation. But in
anfwer to this it is fufficient to afk, Who taught the in¬
fant that the adbof chewing would quicken the operation
of nature in‘the cutting of teeth ? Not reafon, furely,
nor experience ; for an infant knows nothing of teeth
or the manner in which they grow : and if it be grant¬
ed, that for this purpofe it was originally impelled by
fome internal and myfterious influence to perform the
adlion of chewing, we are not inclined to deny that
the operation may be continued for other purpofes by
means of affociation.
In human work'.thcmgh laboured on with pain,
A thoufand movements fcarce one purpofe gain ;
In God’s, me fingle can its end produce,
Yet. ferves to fecosid too fome other ufe.
This is found philofophy confirmed by obfervation and
daily experience : but though in the works of God, one
principle produces many confequences, and though
perhaps there is not a principle which falls under our
cognizance more fruitful than that of affociation,
yet if it be not fufficient to account for thea3 of
chewing, we cannot refer to it alone as to the fource Inllinft.
of that operation. Should it be faid, that the gums ' vJ
of an infant are at the period of cutting teeth fo irritable,
that the moment any thing is applied to them the jawa
perform a motion merely automatic, which we miltake
for the fpontaneous effedl of inftindl; ftill we would
alk, What prompts the child to apply every thing to its
mouth ? Does the irritation of the gums contradl the
mufcles of the arm ? By a bigot for mechanifm this
might be faid, were it true that the arm of an infant,
like a piece of clock-work, is always fo regularly moved
as to bring its hand dire&Iy into contact with its gums ;
blit this is far from being the cafe; an infant makes
many unfuccefsful efforts to reach its mouth, and does
not accomplilh its purpofe till after repeated trials.
Perhaps it may be alleged (for when men adopt a fa¬
vourite hypothefis they will allege any thing in its fup-
port), that infants are taught to cany things to their
mouths by the pleafing fenfation received from the ap¬
plication of their nurfes breafts, and continue the prac¬
tice from habit and affociation. But it is certain that
they do not begin this praflice till teeth are forming
in their gums; and then they ufe fuch things as they
themfelves carry to their mouths very differently from
the breafts of their nurfe : they conftantly chew and bite
their rattles, though they very feldom bite their nurfes.
As this pradlice cannot be begun from a principle of
affociation, fo it appears to us that it cannot be con¬
tinued upon fuch a principle. Were the fenfation ex¬
perienced by an infant when chewing a hard fubftance
a pleafing fenfation, the remembrance of the pleafure
might as a motive prompt it to repeat the operation :
but it is obvious, that by preffing a gum, through
which a tooth is making its way, againft any thing
hard, the infant muft experience a painful fenfation ;
and therefore the influence which impels it to continue
this operation, muft be fomething more powerful than
pleafure or pain (a).
Thefe three a<ftions, then, by which infants fuck, byThere may
which they chew their food, and by which mankind be other
are propagated, have undeniably their origin in in-a*i^8in*
Hindi. There may be many other human a^'ons ^hidiYt’is
which derive their origin from the fame fource (d) ; impolfibls
but to diftin-
guilh from
the effe&s
(a) A learned phyfician, to whom this article was (hown in manufcript, and to whofe animadverfions it is
indebted for great part of what merit it may poffefs, thinks that the pain arifing from the cutting of teeth is
alleviated by the chewing of hard fubdances, and that this is the caufe of that inclination which infants have
perpetually to chew. To give probability to an opinion which admits not of-diredl proof, he obferves, that
the violent pain in the glans penis occafioned by a Hone in the bladder, is certainly alleviated by rubbing theglans
and pulling the prepuce, which is therefore a very frequent employment of all who are afflidled with that dreadful
diforder. Notwithftanding the deference which we willingly pay to the judgment of our friend, we can per¬
ceive no analogy between thefe two cafes, which, to be of any ufe to his argument, ought to. be not only
analogous but fimilar. It is well known that rubbing the glans penis will almoft at any time give a pleafing
fenfation ; and it is eafy to conceive how two oppofite fenfations, excited at once in the fame place, may counter¬
balance each other, fo as to leave the patient equally free from pleafure and pain. But is it conceivable, that
to prefs againft a hard fubftance a gum in which a tooth is iforming, ftiould excite a pleafing fenfation ? If it
be, our friend’s opinion accounts better than ours for the continuance of the praflice of chewing ; but ftill it
muft be mflincl, which, on either fuppofition, JirJl direds the infant to that operation, for it cannot be begun
either from reafon or experience. , , .,
(d) The reftleffnefs which perpetually accompanies the paffage of a (tone trom the kidneys through the
ureters, has by many been confidered as the effed of inftind ; and their opinion is not without a plaufible
foundation. In a nephritic paroxyfm, a man rifes from his chair, throws himfelf down with violence, and rifes
5 aga-ia
INS [ 267 ] INS
Ihftinft. but in a (late of civil fociety it is very difficult, if not
v—"v impoffible, to diflinguifh them from the effedts of early
habit (e).
Such, however, is the prefent impatience of that la¬
bour without which effedts cannot be traced to their
caufes, that every phenomenon in human nature, which
to former philcfophers would have occafioned difficul¬
ty, is now thought to be fufficiently accounted for by
referring it’to fome inftindt as its particular caufe ; and
he who can provide himfelf with a fufficieitt number
of thefe inifindts, for the reality of which he offers no
proof, feats himfelf in the philofopher’s chair, and
dreams that he is didtating a fyftem of fcience, whilft
he is only retailing a colledtion-of anecdotes. A phi-
tS lofopher of this’ fchool has lately carried the dodtrine
A&ions er- 0f inftin&ive principles fo far, as to attribute the fu-
attributed Penority °f man over the other animals, chiefly to the
to inftindt. great number of inftindts with w'hich his mind is endow¬
ed ; and among thefe he reckons (not, we believe, as
charadteriftic ofour fpecies in contradiftindtion toother
animals,but as part of the inflindtive bundle in the large-
nefs of w'hich our fuperiority con flits) “ the voiding of
urine and excrement, [’neez.ing, retraclion of the mufcks up¬
on the application of any painful ftimulus, the moving of
the eye-lids and other parts of the body.” Thefe {he
fays) are effedts of original inllindls, and effential to the
exiftence of young animals. With this waiter inftindt
is fomeu’mes reprefented as looking into futurity, and
adting upon motives w'hich has hitherto been confider-
ed as the province of reafon and the charadteriftic of
man : here the fame inftindt is confounded wdth ir¬
ritation and mechanifm ; and if this mode of philofo-
phifing continue in fafhion, we fhall not be furprifed
to find men, beafts, birds, and vegetables, confidered
■by fome other writer asnothing more than different fpecies
of the fame genus of beings, that are all adtuated by the
great and univerfal principle of inftindt. If fneezing and
the retradtion of the mufcles upon the application of any
painful ftimulus be adtions of inftindt, there cannot be a
doubt, upon the received principlesof philofophy,but that Inftiiuft.
the contradtion of the leaves of the fenfitive plant upon —"V"-”
the application of any ftimulus proceeds likewife from
inftindt: nay, a piece of leather muft be endowed with
inftindt; for.it too retradts upon the application of
the painful ftimulus of fire. All thefe are evidently
fimilar effedts produced by the fame or timilar caufes;
for in the operations of fneezing and retradting the
mufcles upon any painful application, there is not the .
leaft fpontaneous exertion on our part, no co-operation
of mind more than in the contraction of the leather
and the plant. With refpe'dt to the voiding of urine
and excrement, it is obvious, that at firlt thefe opera¬
tions aie performed without any effort of fpontaneity;
and that a voluntary power over the mufcles which
are fubfervient to them is very gradually acquired.
Urine, and excrement irritate the bladder and guts,
which are fupplied with branches of the fame nerves
that fupply the abdominal mufcles.( But it is well
known that the irritation of one branch of a nerve
brings on a contradfion of the mufcles which are fup¬
plied by the other branches. Urine and excrement
therefore are evidently expelled by the mechanical
contiadlion of the organs of excretion : and to attri¬
bute thefe evacuations to injlind, is equally abfurd as to
fay, that water or any other foft fubftance pent up in a
veffel, and preffed equally on all fides, makes it efcape
by irjlinS through the eafieft paffage. It is difficult
to guefs wffiat the author means by the inftindfive
motion of the eye-lids and other parts of the body.
There is a motion of the eye lids which is vo¬
luntary, and another which is involuntary. The former
proceeds from fome motive, to exclude too great a
glare of light, or to guard the eye again ft a forefeen
mifehief, and is therefore the refult of reafon asdiftin-
guifhed from inftindf : the latter is obvioufly the effedl
of affociation, which took place in early infancy and
produced a habit. Infants for feveral days after birth
do not wink with their eyes upon the approach of one’s
L. 1 2 hand
again he knows not wftiy. Thefe motions are certainly performed by fpontaneous exertions; and as they
tend to-quicken the defeent of the ftone, they ferve the beft of purpofes. Yet though they are not perform¬
ed with this view, and though nine-tenths of mankind know nothing of their falutary tendency, we would
not he too pofitive that they proceed from inftinft. A man fuffering violent pain tries every experiment' to
procure relief; and if thefe inceffant changes of pofture be begun with any view of this kind, however indiftinift,
they commence from reafon, and may be continued by habit. If they be begun w'ith no view whatever, they
are undoubtedly inftin&ive.
(e) “ As intellect is latent for a confiderable time in the individuals among us, and muft have been latent
for a very long time, perhaps for ages, among favages, it is not to be fuppofed that Nature, in that natural and
primitive ftate, w'ould leave us unprovided with what ffie has fo bountifully beftow'ed upon other animals.
What particular inftina man then had, it is difficult to fay ; but this we may be affured of, that he had all that
■was neceffary for his being and well-being : but not fo much would be neceffary to him as to other animals,
■whole ceconomy is more artificial than that of man, his being very fimple, and much refembling that of cattle
•and horfes. After he had acquired intelledf, reafon would, in fome meafure, fupply the place of inftindl: and
there remains nothing now of iniliiift among us, except what appears in our infants before they have got the
ufe of reafon ; fuch as their applying to the bread of the mother for nouriffiment. By the ufe of intelleft,
and the arts and, fciences invented by us, we have formed a fyftem of life altogether different from the natural.”
Ancient Metaphyjics, vol. ii. page 300.
Whether intellect was for ages latent among favages, this is not the proper place to inquire. It is'a
queftion which may be confidered afterwards, when the author’s opinion refpefting the four minds in man
pafles under our review : but whatever may be thought of thefe peculiar fentiments, the reafon here affigned
for the difficulty of afeertaining the genuine inftin&s of man, will be admitted by all who have thought fuffici-
ently on the fubject.
INS [ 268 ] INS
r.A. hand or any other fubftance ; but after having experi-
enced pain from too much light or any other thing
which hurts the eye, and that pain having at firft
produced an automatic motion of the eye-lids, the
motion conies in time to be fo clofely aflbciated with
its caufe, that the very appearance of the latter pro¬
duces the former. In all this there is no inftinft, nor
any thing which refembles inftinft: in the one cafe,
the motion of the eye-lids is in the ftricleft fenfe vo¬
luntary and rational; and in the other, it is either auto¬
matic or the effeA of habit.
“ The love of light (-fays the fame writer) is exhi¬
bited by infants at a very early period. I have re¬
marked evident fymptoms of this attachment on the
third day after birth. When children are farther
advanced, marks of the various paffions generally
appear. The pafiion of fear is difcoverable at the
age of two months. It is called forth by approach¬
ing the hand to the child’s eye, and by any fudden
motion or unufual noife.” It has likevvife been faid,
that “ an infant may be put into a fright by an angry
countenance, and foothed again by fmiles and blan-
difhmentsand “ that all thefe are cafes of pure in-
llin£t.” In reply to which, we fcruple not to af-
fert with Dr Prieftley, that an infant (unlefs by an
infant be meant a child who has a good deal of expe¬
rience, and of courfe has made many obfervatibns on
the connexions of things) “ is abfolutely incapable of
terror. I am pofitive (fays he), that no child ever
fhowed the leall fymptom of fear or apprehenfion
till he had aXually received hurts and had felt pain;
and that children have no fear of any particular per¬
son or thing, but in confequence of f®me conneftion
between that perfon or thing and the pain they
have felt. If any inllinX of this kind were more
neceflary than another, it would be the dread offire.
But every body mufi. have obferved, that infants
Ihow no fign of any fuch thing; for they will as
readily put their finger to the flame of a candle as
to any thing elfe, till they have been burned. But
after fomc painful experience of this kind, their
dread of fire, though undeniably the effeX of alfo-
ciation, becomes as quick and as effeXual in its
operations as if it were an original inftinXive prin¬
ciple.” We moreover do not hefitate to fay,
with the fame great philofopher, that if if were pof-
fible always to beat and terrify a child with a
placid countenance, fo as never to afiume that ap¬
pearance but in thofe circumftances, and always to
foothe him with what we call an angry countenance,
this connexion of ideas would be reverfed, and we
fhould"fee the child frighted with a fmile and de¬
lighted with a frown. In faX, there is no more
reafon to believe that a child is naturally afraid of
a frown, than that he is afraid of being in the r&rri;
and of this children certainly difcover no fign, till
they have either found fomething difagreeable to
them in the dark, or have been told that there is
fomething dreadful in it.
The truth of thefe obfervations is fo obvious, that
we doubt not but they will carry conviXion to the
mind of every reader. For though it ihould be grant¬
ed, that fo early as on the third day after birth children
exhibit fymptoms of uneafinefs upon the fudden ex-
clufion of light, it would by no means follow that the
love of light is in them inftinftive( a). Light operates
upon the eye by contaX, and communicates to the
infant a fenfation of touch. If that fenfation be plea-
fant, the child muft neceffarily feel fome degree of
uneafinefs upon its removal, juft as a full grown man
muft feel uneafy upon being deprived of any pofitive
pleafure. But is fenfation, orpkafure, or the removal
of pleafure, pure inftinX ? No, furely.
Thus difficult is it to fay in many cafes what ac¬
tions have their origin in inftinX, and what are merely
the effeXs of eaily affociation. But we think it may
be fafely affirmed, that no aXion, whether of man or
brute, which is deliberately performed with a view to
confequences, can with any props iety be faid to proceed
from inftinX; for fuch aXions are the effeX of reafon
influenced by motives. Deliberation and inftinX are
obvioufly incompatible. To fay with the author of
the Philofophy of Natural Hiftory, “ that, when we are
ftimulated by a particular inftinX, inftead of inftantly
obeying the impulfe, another inftinX arifes in oppofi-
tion, creates hefitation, and often totally extinguiflies
the original motive to aXion,” is either to affirm what is
apparently not true, or it is a grofs perverfion of lan¬
guage. Motives oppofed to each other may create
hefitation, and a powerful motive may counterbalance
a feeble inftinX; but of two or more inltinXs operating
at the fame time, and oppofing each other, we have no
conception. InftinX, if we choofe to fpeak a language
that is intelligible, means a certain impulfe under the
direXion of Supreme Wifdom; and it is very little pro¬
bable that fuch wifdom fliould give oppofite impulfes-
at the fame inftant. In the natural works of animals,
which are confefledly under the influence of inftinX,
we perceive no fymptoms of deliberation; but eve¬
ry one, when not interrupted by external violence,
proceeds without hefitation in the direX road, to an
end of which the animal itfelf knows nothing. The
fame would be the cafe with man were he under the
uidance of inftinX: and it is vain to fay that the in-
inX of fear is daily counteraXed by ambition and re-
fentment, till it be proved that fear, ambition, and refent-
ment, are really inftinXs. Of this, however, the author
feems to have no doubt. Indeed his work is fo libe¬
rally ftored with thefe principles, fo ufeful to every
man who wifhes to acquire the name of a philofopher
without the labour of inveftigatiqn, that not only fear,
ambition, and refentment, but even fuperfition, devotion,
refpeef
(a) It may with equal propriety be faid, and upon apparently better evidence, that children have an inftinXive
love of darknefs. A child who has been for fome time in a dark room, will exhibit ftronger fymptoms of
uneafinefs upon the fudden introduXion of candles, than he would upon candles being fuddenly carried out of
a room which had been for fome time illuminated. This faX, and the reafon of it, are well known to every
man who has but barely dipt into the fcience of Optics: but no philofopher, till author arofe, ever thought
of accounting for it by the Ih ort and eafy method of inftinX.
INS [ 269 ] INS
liiftlndt. refpeft for eminent characters, avarice, hope, envy, bene-
valence, and fympathy, are all, in his opinion, injlin&s fim-
pie or modified. The origin of fear we have already
feen when examining the inftin&s faid to exhibit
themfelves in e arly infancy : let us try if we cannot
trace fome other individuals of this numerous family
to the fame fource of early afibciations..
l9f The cafe then feems to be as follows. We firft per-
tbiTer ° ceive or fuppofe fome real good, i. e. fome fitnefs to
ror. promote our happinefs, in thofe things which we love
or defire. Hence we annex to thofe things the idea
of pleafure ; with which they come, in time, to be fo
clofely aflbciated in our minds, that they cannot ever
after prefent themfelves without bringing that idea
along with them. T his affociafcion likewife often re¬
mains even after that which firft gave rife to it is quite
forgotten, or perhaps does not exift. An inftance or
two will make this very clear. No man can be born
a lover of money; for in a ftate of nature money exifts
not : no man therefore can be born with our author’s
inftinft of avarice, dire&ed in the manner which the
moft common acceptation of that word denotes. Yet
how many men are there in the' world, who have as
firong a defire for money as if that defire were innate
and inftindlive ; who account fo much money fo much
happinefs; and who make the mere pofltffion of gold
and filver, without any thought or defign of ufing
them, the ultimate end of all their adfions? This is not
becaufe the love of money is born with them, for that
is impoffible ; but becaufe they fiift perceive a great
many advantages from the pofTeffion of money, whence
they conceive a pleafure in having it. Hence they
defire it, endeavour to obtain it, and feel an adlual
pleafure in obtaining and poflefling it. Then, by
dropping the intermediate fteps between money and
happinefs, they join money and happinefs immediately
together, and content themfelves with the phantaftic
pleafure of having it; making that which was at firft
purfued only as means, be to them an ultimate end, in
which confifts their happinefs or mifery. The fame
might be obferved concerning the third: after know¬
ledge, fame, ambition, and moft of the various pur-
fuits of life. Thefe are at full entered upon with a
view to fome farther end, but at length become habi¬
tual exercifes ; with which the idea of pleafure is fo
clofely aflbciated, that we continue the purfuit after
the reafon from which it was at firft begun has entire¬
ly vanifhed from our minds. Hence alfo we may ac¬
count for another of our author’s modified injlinSs, the
almoft diabolical feeling of envy. Mr Locke obferves,
that there are fome men entirely unacquainted with this
paffion. His obfetvation we believe to be a juft one :
for moft men that are ufed to refle&ion, remember the
time when they were firft under its influence ; and
though they did not, it is a thing very little likely that'
the beneficent Author of nature fhould have implanted
in the human mind even the feeds of an inftindt, which,
in- the emphatic language of the Rambler, “ is mere
unmixed and genuine evil.” Envy is that pain which
arifes in the mind upon obferving the fuecefs or prof-
perity of others; not however of o/Zothers indefinitely^
but only of tbofe with whom, upon fome account or
other, the envious perfon has once had a rivalfhip.
Rut of fuch a feeling the origin is obvious; for when
two. or more perfons are competitors for the fame
thing, the fuccefs of the one neceflarily tends to the
detriment of the other : hence the fuccefs of the one I! .
rival is in the mind of the other clofely aflbciated with 11 ll:utlon;
pain or mifery ; and this aflbeiation remaining after
the rivalihip which occafioned it has ceafed, the perfon
in whofe mind envy is thus generated, always feels pain
at the fuccefs of his rival even in affairs which have no
relation to the original competition. Thus it is, that
we are apt to envy thofe perfons who refufe to be
guided by our judgments, or perfuaded by our argu¬
ments : For this is nothing elfe than a rivalfhip about
the fuperiority of judgment; and we take a fecret pride,
both to let the world fee, and in imagining ourfelves,
that in perfpicacity and ftrength of judgment we have
no fuperior.
Though the principle of aflbeiation will be more
fully explained in another place, there is one obfer-
vation which muft not be omitted here ; it is, that we
do not always, nor perhaps for the moft part, make
thefe aflbeiations ourfelves, but learn them from others
in very early life. We annex happinefs or mifery to
certain things or aftions, becaufe we fee it done by our
parents or companions ; and acquire principles of ac¬
tion by imitating thofe whom we eiteefn, or by being
told, by thofe in whom we have been taught to place
confidence, that fuch conduft will promotq our happi¬
nefs, and that the reverfe will involve us in mifery.
Hence the fon too often inherits both the vices and
the party of his father as well as his eftate; hence na¬
tional virtues and vices, difpofitions and opinions; and
hence too it is, .that habits formed before the period of
diftinft remembrance are fo generally miftaken for na¬
tural inftin&s. ^
From the whole then of this inveftigation, we think Men per-
ourfelves warranted to conclude, that there is an efleo-^orm.raV0""'
tial difference between mechanifm and inftinct; and
between both and reafon; that mankind-perform ae-automatic
tions by each of thefe principles, and that thofe ac- aitions.
tions ought to be carefully diftinguifhed ; and, though
the human mind is unqueftionably endowed with a few
inftin&s neceflary to the prefervation of the individual
and the propagation of the race, that by far the greater
part of thofe a&ions which are commonly faid to pro¬
ceed from inftinft are merely the effe&s of early ha¬
bits. We are likewife of opinion, that the prefent zr
fafhionable mode of referring almoft every phenomenon T!ie
in human nature to a particular inftimft as its ultimate of rtfer~
caufe, is hurtful to feience, as tending to check all pheiiomcJ
further inquiry ; and'dangerous in morals, as making n m in hu-
people implicitly follow, as the dilates of nature and min natlJre-
nature's God, the abfurd, fiuperjlitious, or impious cuftomsto ,a Bartt'
of their refpe&ive countries. ftituft as'i‘5
I NSTITUTES,- in literary hiftory, a book con-ultimate
taining the elements of the Roman law. caufe.
The inflitutes are divided into four books ; and con¬
tain an abridgment of the whole body of the civil law,
being defigned for the ufe of ftudents. See Law,
n° 6,— 11. and 43, 44.
Institute, in Scots law. When by difpofition
or deed of entail a number of perfons are called to
the fuccefiion of an eftate one after another, the per¬
fon fii ft named is called the injlitute, the others fubjli-
tutes.
INSTITUTION, in general, fignifies the efta-
bliihing or founding fomething.—-In the canon and i
com*-
INS' [ 270 ^ INS
Ii.ftrument common law, it iignifies the invefting a clerk with the
, f ^ fpiritualities of a retfory, &c. which is done by the
111 bifliop, who ufes the following formula : “ I inllitute
you vedor of (uch a church with the cure of fouls*
and receive your care and mine.”
Institutions, in literary matters, denote a fyftem
of the elements or rules of any art or fcience.
Thus phyfical, or medicinal inftitutions, are fuch
as teach the neceflary prsecognita'to the pra&ice of me¬
dicine, or the cure of difeafes.
INSTRUMENT, in general, whatever is fubfer-
vient to a caufe in producing any effect.
Mathematical, Philofophical, See. Instruments. See
Astronomy, Electricity, Geo m etry, Lf yelling,
Mechanics, Optics, Pneumatics, &c. See.
Instrument is alfo ufed in law, to fignify fome
public aft, or authentic deed, by means whereof any
truth is made apparent, or any right or title eilabliih-
ed, in a court of juftice.
Notorial Instrument, in Scots law, any faft certi¬
fied in writing, under the hand of a notary-public.
INSUBR1UM ager, (anc -geog.), a diftrift of
the Tranfpadana ; fituated between the Ticinus to the
well, the Addua to the eaft, the Padus to the fouth,
and Orobii to the north. The people called Infubres
by Livy, Infubri by Ptolemy, and Ifombres by btrabo.
Now' the Duchy of Milan.
INSULAR, any thing belonging to an illand.—
Infular fituations are produdtive of many happy confe-
quences to the inhabitants, both with refpeft to the
climate, fecurity, and convenience for commerce ; for
a particular account of which, fee Island and Coast.
INSULATED, in architefture, an appellation gi-
veng to fuch columns as ftand alone, or free from any
contigudus wall, like an ifland in the fea; whence the
name.
Insulated, in eleftrical experiments. When any
body is prevented from communicating with the earth
by the interpofition of an eleftric body, it is faid to be
infulated. See Electricity, p.418.
INSURANCE, in law and commerce, a contraft,
whereby one party engages to pay the Ioffes which the
other mayfuftain, for a flipulated premium or confide-
ration. The moft common forts are, Infurance againft
the dangers of the feas, infurance againft; fire, infurance
of debts, and infurance of lives.
I. Insurance againjl Lofs at Sea, is a moft benefi¬
cial inftitution, for promoting the fecurity of trade, and
preventing the ruin of individuals; and is now con¬
ducted by a regular fyftem of rules, eftablifhed by the
interpofition of the legiflature, the decifion of the courts
of juftice, and the praftice of merchants.
It is carried on to the beft advantage by public com¬
panies, or by a confiderable number of private perfons,
each of whom only engages for a fmall fum, on the fame
veffel. There are two public companies eftablifhed
by authority of parliament, viz. the London and Royal
Exchange Infurance-Companies. For procuring fub-
feription by private perfons, brokers are generally em¬
ployed, who extend the policy or contraft of infu¬
rance, procure fubferiptions, and affift at fettling
Ioffes. They are intit.led to an allowance for their
trouble, generally 5 per cent, on premiums, and 2 per
cent, on Ioffes.
The parties who engage to pay the damage are call¬
ed the infurers or under-writers : the parties for whofe Infuranee.
fecurity they engage are called the injured; and the v—*
premium is underftood to be paid when the infurance is
made.
On this fubjeft, we fhall confider, What is neceffary
to render an infurance valid : When the rifle com¬
mences, and when it terminates :—What conftitutes a
total or a partial lofs:—What proof of lofs is neceffary:
— and, How the lofs is adjufted.
Firjl, In order to render an infurance valid, the in-
fured rpuft have property really at (fake; the voyage • '
muft take place under the circumilances agreed on; the
dangers infured againft muft not be contrary to law ;
and a candid account muft, be given of circumftances ' "
which enhance the danger.
X. The condition ofpoffefling property was required
by 19 Geo. II. c. 37. to prevent fhips from being
fraudulently deliroyed when infured above their value;
and to difeourage a praftice which had become common,
of converting policies to the purpofe of mere wagers.
In tranfaftions of this kind, as the infured had no pro¬
perty, and could claim no indemnification for partial
damage; fo the infurers, having loft their wager by
the fhip’s being loft, could claim uo abatement, though
part was faved : accordingly, the policies contained
claufes of intereft or no intereil, free from average, and
without benefit of falvage. All fuch policies are de¬
clared invalid.
This reftriftion does not extend to privateers, nor
to fhips trading to the Spanifh or Portuguefe planta
tions.
Infurances are commonly made as intereft fhall ap¬
pear ; and it is incumbent on the infured to prove the
value of his property. The value of the goods may
be proved by the invoices; and the coqhet muft be
produced, if required, to inllruft that the goods were
aftually {hipped. It is admitted to value the fhip at
prime -colt and charges, dedufting the freights that
have been drawn fince purchafed, if the proprietors
choofe to ftand to that rule; but they are not reftric-
ted to it. Sometimes the value of the fhip or goods is
expreffed in the policy ; and this value muft be admit¬
ted, although it be higher than the true one: but it
is incumbent on the infured to prove that he had pro¬
perty at flake ; and, if the property be trifling in com¬
panion of the fum infured, the infurance will be fet
afide, as an evafion of the ftatute.
Expefted profits, and. bounty'on the whale-fifhery,
if fpecified in the policy, may be infured.
When the value is lefs than the fum infured, the
owners may claim a return of premium for the ex¬
cels.
If there be feveral policies on the fame fubjeft, of
different dates, the earlier one is valid, and.the others
muft be vacated. If they be of the fame date, they
muft be vacated in equal proportions.
When a policy is vacated, in whole or in part, the
under-writers have a right to retain ^per cent, for their
trouble.
In the cafe of a cargo intended for A, but after¬
wards fent to B, both expefted it, and infured, and B
claimed for the value on its being loft. The under¬
writers anfwered, that it was a double infurance, and
they ought only to pay their proportion. Judgment was
given, finding them liable for the whole, and referving
to
INS
Infurance. to them any demand competent againft the underwri-
ters who infured for A.
Fraudulently to call away or deftroy a (hip infured
above its value, is felony.
2. If the fliip does not proceed on the voyage, or if,
being warranted to depart with convoy, it departs
without convoy, the infurance muft be vacated.
If the extent of a trading voyage be uncertain, the
longeft one in contemplation is defcribed1 in the policy,
and it is agreed that part of the premium (hall be re¬
turned if the voyage be (hortened. In like manner, in
time of war, when infurance is made without condition-
of convoy, it is agreed that part of the premium be re¬
turned in cafe it fail with convoy.
When a (hip is warranted to depart with convoy, it is
underftood from the ufual place of convoy (e. g. the
Downs), and it is infured till it arrive there. .
The common proof of failing with convoy is the pro-
dudiion of failing orders ; but, if a (hip be prevented
by the weather from receiving the failing orders, other
proof may be admitted.
A (hip was infured from the Thames to Halifax,
warranted to fail from Portfmouth with convoy. The
convoy had failed before the (hip arrived there, and the
underwriters declined to infure it, without convoy, for
the reft of the voyage. They were found liable to re¬
turn part of the premium, retaining only in proportion
to the accuftomed rate from London to Portfmouth.
This decifion feems to eftablilh the following principle,
that, when the voyage performed is only part of that
defcribed in the policy, and when the rifle can be pro¬
portioned, the underwriters are bound to return part
of the premium, though there be no agreement for
that purpofe.
But, if a (hip, infured only againft the hazards of
the fea, be taken by the enemy, the infured have no
right to claim a return of premium, though the cap¬
ture happen foon, under pretence that little fea-hazard
was incurred.
If a (hip deviates from the voyage defcribed in the
policy without neceffity, it fets afide' the infurance.
An intention to deviate is not fufficient to fet it afide ;
there muft be an aftual deviation ; and, even in that
cafe, the infurers are liable for. damages fuftained be¬
fore deviation.
It is no deviation to go out of the way to the accu-
ftcmed place of convoy, nor to the neareft place where
neceffary repairs may be had. Deviation, for the pur¬
pofe of fmuggling, if without the knowledge of the
owners, does not fet afide the infurance, nor when the
mafter is forced by the crew to return.
In infurances to the Eaft-Indies, and home, the in¬
furers are underftood to take the rifle of detention in
the country, and of country voyages.
3- Infurance of prohibited goods, againft the rifle of
feizure by the government, is unlawful, and invalid.
The infurers, infured, brokers, and all acceflbries, are
liable to the fine of 500 1.
4. If the infured have any information of more
than common danger, they muft reveal every fuch cir-
cumftance to the infurers, otherwife the policy is fet
afide.
This rule is eftablirtred for the prefervation of good
faith ; and there are ievtral ftrong decifions in fup-
port of it. If a (hip be fpoke to leaky at fea, or if
there be a report of its being loft, thefe circumftances
I N S
muft be communicated to the infurers. Even the Infurance.
concealment of a falfe report of lofs vitiates the infu- v f
ranee ; and, if the (hip be afterwards loft, though in a
different manner, the infured will recover nothing. In
a voyage from Carolina to London, another (hip had
failed 1 o days after that which was infured, and ar¬
rived feven days before the infurance was made ; and
the concealment of this circumfiance, though the fadb
was not proved to the fatisfa&ion of the jury, was-
confidered as fuflkient to fet it afide. Alfo, during the
continuance of the American war, a (hip being in¬
fured from Portugal, by the month, without conde-.
feending or the voyage, failed for North America,'
and was taken by a provincial privateer. The infurera
refufed to pay, becaufe the hazardous deftination was
concealed ; and it was only upon proof of the infured
being equally ignorant of it that they were found
liable.
But the infured are not obliged to take notice of
general perils, which the* infurers are underftood to
have in contemplation ; dangerous navigation, Weft-
Indian hurricanes, enterprizes of the enemy, and the
like.
Infurance is not ftt afide by a miftake in the name
of the (hip or mafter, or the like.
Infurance may be made on an uncertain (hip; on
any (hip that the goods may be loaded on.; on any
(hip that A (hall fail in from Virginia. In this lalt
cafe, the policy is not transferred to a fliip which A,
goes on board during the voyage-
Secondly, If a (hip be infured at and from a port,
the infurance commences immediately if the (hip be
there, or at its arrival there. If it be dapiaged when
preparing for a voyage, the infurers are liable; but
not if the voyage be laid afide for feveral years, with,
confent of the owners. Infurance from a port com¬
mences when the (hip breaks ground ; and, if it fet
fail, and be driven back and loft in the port, the in¬
furers are liable.
Infurance on goods generally continues till they be
landed; but, if they be fold after the (hip’s arrival,
and freight contra<fted to another port, the infurance
is concluded. Goods fent on board another (hip or
lighter are not at the rifle of the infurer; but goods;
fent aftiore in the long-boat are.
Infurance on freight commences when the goods are-
put on board.
Goods from the Eaft-Indies,, infured to Gibraltar^
and to be reflu’pped from thence to Britain, were -put
on board a (lore-(hip at Gibraltar, to wait an oppor¬
tunity of re-(hipping, and were loft : The cuflom of
putting goods aboard a ftore-fliip being proved, the
infurers were found liable.
Lofs of fails afhore, wjien the (hip is repairing, is
comprehended within the infurance. What is necef-
farily underftood, is infured, as well as what is ex-
prefled ; the effential means,, and intermediate fteps, as
well as the end. Ships performing quarantine are at
the rifle of the infurer.
Thirdly, The infurers are liable for a total lofs when-
the fubjcA perifhes.through any of the perils infured
againft. Baratry, though it properly fignifies running
away with the (hip, extends to any kind of fraud in
the mafter or mariners. Infurance againft detention,
of princes does not extend to (hips that are feized forr
tranfgreffing the laws of foreign countries.
Tha
[ 271 1
INS [ 272 ] INS
Infurance. 'The infurers are alfo liable for a total lofs, when
‘ damage is fuftained, and the remaining property aban¬
doned or vefted in the infurers.
If a fhip be ftranded, or taken, and kept by the
enemy, or detained by any foreign power, or ieized
for the fervice of the government, the proprietors have
a right to abandon.
But, if a Ihip be taken by the enemy, and be re¬
taken, or makes its efcape, before aftion againft the
infurers; have the infured a right to abandon, or mull
they only claim for the damages fubftained as an ave¬
rage lofs? There are oppofrte decifions, according as
the circumftances of the cafe were ftrong. When the
fhip was long detained, the goods perilhable, the voy¬
age entirely loft, or fo difturbed, that the purfuit of it
was not worth the freight, or when the damage ex¬
ceeds half the value of the thing, they have been found
intitled to abandon; (Gofs againft: Withers, 2 Bur¬
row, 683.). But, if the voyage be completed with
little trouble or delay, they are not intitled; (Hamil¬
ton againft Mendez, 2 Burrow, 1198.).
The infured cannot claim, as for a total lofs, on
an offer to abandon, when the lofs is, in its nature,
only partial; for, if this were permitted, they might
devolve the lofs occafioned by bad markets on the
infurers.
And, in all cafes, the infured have their option to
abandon, or not. They may retain their property if
they pleafe, and claim for an average lofs; and they
muft make their option before they claim.
If the goods be fo much damaged, that their value
is lefs than the freight, the infurers are accountable as
for a total lofs.
The infurers are liable for general average, when
the_property is charged with contribution ; and for
particular average, when the property is damaged, or
part of it deftroyeed.
If the damage be fuftained through the fault of the
fhip, the owners ©f the goods may have recourfe, ei¬
ther againft the mafter or infurers ; and, if the in¬
furers be charged, they ftand in the place of the
owners, and have recourfe againft the mafter.
In order to prevent the infurers from being troubled
with frivolous demands for average, it is generally
ftipulated, that none (hall be charged under 5 per cent.
or fome other determined rate ; and corn, flax, fruit,
fifh, and like perifhable goods, are warranted free
from average, unlefs general, or the fhip be ftranded.
In order to encourage every effort to fave the fhip,
the infurers are liable for charges laid out with that
defign, although the fubjedl perifh. Thus, they may
be charged with more than the fum infured.
In cafe of goods being damaged, the proportion of
the fum infured, for which the underwriters are liable,
is regulated by the proportion of the prices which the
found and damaged goods fetch at the port of dcfti-
nation. The prime coft of the goods is not confidered,
nor the neceffity of immediate fale, in confequence of
damage. Although the damaged goods fell .above
prime coft, the infurers are liable.
Fourthly, If a fhip be loft, and the crew faved, the
lofs is proved by the evidence of the crew.
If damage be fuftained, the extent is proved by an
examination of the fubjeft damaged, at the fhip’s
arrival; and the caufe by the evidence of the crew.
N° 167.
If the fhip be ftranded, evidence muft be taken at Infurance.
the place where ftranded.  
Documents of lofs muft be laid before the under¬
writers, with all convenient fpeed; and, if rhefe be
fufficiently clear, the lofs fhould be immediately fettled.
The underwriters generally grant their notes at a month
or fix weeks date for their proportions.
If a fhip be not heard of for a certain time, it is pre¬
fumed loft ; and the underwriters are liable to pay the
fums infured, the property being abandoned to them
in the event of the fhip’s return. Six months are al¬
lowed for a voyage to any part of Europe, a year to
America, and two years to the Eaft Indies.
By the ordinance of Hamburgh, if a fhip be three
months beyond the ufual time of performing a voyage,
the underwriters may be defired to pay 92 per cent.
on an abandon. If they decline it, they are allowed
14 months more, and then they muft pay the full
value.
A fhip infured againft the hazards of the fea, but
not againft the enemy, if never heard of, is prefumed
loft at fea.
Fifthly, In order that the manner of fettling Ioffes
may be underftood, we muft explain what is meant by
covering property. We mentioned already, that infu-
rances for greater fums than the infured had really at
flake, wTere contrary to law : but fome latitude is al¬
lowed in that refpedt; for if the owner were to infure
no more than the exa£t value of his property, he would
lofe the premium of infurance, and the abatement, if
any was agreed on.
For example, if he has goods on board to the value
of tool, and infures the fame at 5 per cent, to abate
2 per cent, in cafe of lofs ; then, if a total lofs hap¬
pen, he recovers 98I. from the infurers, of which 5I.
being applied to re-place the premium, the nett fum
faved is only 93 1.: but, if the value on board be only
931. and the fum infurM tool, he would be fully in¬
demnified for the lofs; and his property, in that cafe,
is faid to be covered.
To find how much fhould be infured to cover any
fum, fubtradl the amount of the premium and abate¬
ment (if any), from tool. As the remainder is to
tool, fo is the value, to the fum which covers it.
In cafe of a total lofs, if the fum infured be not
greater than that which covers the property, the in¬
furers muft pay it all. If greater, they pay what
covers the property, and return the premium on the
overplus.
Partial Ioffes are regulated by this principle, that
whereas the owner is not fully indemnified, in cafe
of a total lofs, uulcfs he covers his property, there¬
fore he fhould only be indemnified for a partial lofs in
the fame proportion ; and, if it be not fully infured,
he is confidered as infurer himfelf, for the part not
covered, and muft bear a fuitable proportion of the
lofs. Therefore the value of the property is proved,
and the fum required to cover it computed. If that
fum be all infured, the underwriters pay the whole
damage ; if only part be infured, they pay their fhare,
which is computed by the following rule : As the fum
which covers the property is to the fum infured, fo is
the whole damage to the part for wdiich the infurers
are liable.—For example, if the value of the property
be 360 1. the fum infured 3001. the premium % per
INS [2
'Tnfurancc. cent, and abatement 2 per cent.; then the fum which
   ftiould be infured to cover the property is 400I# ; and,
if damage be fuftained to the extent of 2001- the
owners will recover 150!.
If a voyage is infared out and home, the premium
outward muff be confidered as part of the value on the
homeward property, and the fum neceffary to cover it
computed accordingly. For example, to infure 1001.
out and home, at 5 per cent, each voyage, abatement
2per cent, we compute thus :
9.3 • 100 : : L. iqo : L. 107 : 10 : 6, to be infured
'outward, premium on L. 107 : 10: 6 outwards, at 5
per cent. L. 5 : 7 : 6 : 93 : 100 : : L. IOJ : 7:6:
JL. 1.1 3 : 6 s. to be infured home; the premium on
which is L. 5 : 13 : 6 ; and, if the fhip^be loft on the
homeward voyage,
From the fum infured home L. 113 6 o
Subtract the difeount, 2 per cent. - 2 5 3
Sum for which the infurers are liable L.in — 9
Infurance out L.5 7 6
Infurance home * 5 I3 3
Covered property L.100 — —
II. Insurance againft Fire. There are feveral offices
in Britain for this purpofe, of which the fun fire-office is
the m jft confiderable. Infurances are divided into com¬
mon, hazardous, and doubly hazardous, according to
the nature of the fubjeft infured. When the fum in¬
fured is high, there is a higher premium per cent, de¬
manded ; and money, papers, jewels, pi&ures, and
gun-powder, are not comprehended. If a fubjedl be
wrong deferibed, in order that it may be infured at a
lower premium, the policy is-void. Ihe benefit of a
policy is transferred, by indorfement, to the repre-
fentatives of the perfon in whofe favour it was made ;
and it may be transferred to other houfes when the
infured changes his habitation. If infurance be made
on the fame fubjeft in different offices, it muft be fpe-
cified, by indorfement, on the policy ; and, in cafe
of lofs, the offices pay proportionally. The infurers
pay all expences in attempting to extinguiffi fire, or
lave goods, though not fuccesful. If the value of a
fubjedt be infuted in part, and damage be fuftained,
the infurers pay the whole, if it does not exceed the
fum infured.
III. Insurance of Debts. See Bottomry.
IV. In virtue of Insurance for Lives, when the per¬
fon dies, a fum of money becomes payable to the per¬
fon on whofe behalf the policy of infurance was granted.
One of the principal infurance-offices of this kind, is
that of the amicable fociety for a perpetual affurancc,
kept in Serjeant’s-inn, Fleet-ftreet, London.
This Society at Serjeant’s-inn requires an annual-
payment of 5 1. from every member during life, pay¬
able quarterly. The whole annual income hence ari-
fing is equally divided among the nominees, or heirs,
of fuch members as die every year; and this renders
the dividends among the nominees, in different years,
more or left, according to the number of members
who have happened to die in thofe years. But this
fociety engages that the dividends ffiall not be lefs than
150I. to each claimant, though they may be more.—
Mone are admitted whofe ages are greater than 45,
Vox.. IX. Part I. 3
73 1
I N S
or lefs than 12 ; not is there any difference of contri- Infufaftce
bution allowed on account of difference of age.—This —v—
fociet^bas fubfifted ever fince 1706, and its credit
and ulefulnefs are well eftabliffied. Its plan, however,
is liable to feveral objections. Firft, it is evident,
that regulating the dividends among the nominees, by
the number of members who die every year, is net
equitable; becaufe it makes the benefit which a
member is to receive to depend, riot on the value of
his contribution, but on a contingency ; that is, the
number of members that (hall happen to die the fame
year with him. Secondly, its requiring the fame pay¬
ments from all perfons under 45. is alfo not equitable;
for the payment of a perfon admitted at 12, ought
not to be more than half the payment of a perfon ad¬
mitted at 45. Thirdly, its plan is fo narrow, as to
confine its ufefulnefs too much. It can be of no fer-
vice to any perfon whofe age exceeds 45. It is, like-
wife, by no means properly adapted to the circum-
ftances of perfons who want to make affurances on
their lives for only one year, or a flrort term of years.
For example : the true value of the affurance of 150I.
for five years, on the life of a perfon whofe age is 39,
may be found, by the firft rule, to be nearly three
guineas per am fuppofing intereft at 3 per cent, and
the probability of the duration of human life, as
they are given in Dr Halley’s Table of Obfervationsv
But fuch an affurance could not be made in this fo¬
ciety without an annual payment of 5I. Neither is
the plan of this fcciety at all adapted to the circum*
fiances of perfons who want to make affurances on
particular furvivorffiips. For example : a perfon pof-
feffed of an eftate or falary, which muft be loft with
his life, has a perfon dependent upon him, for whom
he defires to fecure a fum of money payable at his
death. But he delires this only as a fecurity againtt:
the danger of his dying firft, and leaving a wife, or a
parent, without fupport. In thefe circumftances he
enters himfelf into this fociety; and, by an annual
payment of 51. intitles his nominee at his death to
150I. In a few years, perhaps, his nominee happens
to die ; and having then loft the advantages he had
in view, he determines to forfeit his former payments,
and to withdraw from the fociety. The right me¬
thod, in this cafei would have been to have taken from
fuch a perfon the true value of the fum affured, “ on
the fuppofition of non-payment, provided he (hould
furvive.” In this way he would have chofen to con-
traCI with the fociety : and had he done this, he would
have paid for the affurance (fuppofing intereft at ^per
cent, his age 30, the age of his nominee 30, and the va¬
lues of lives as given by M> De Moivre) 3k 8 s. in an¬
nual payments, to begin immediately, and to be con¬
tinued during the joint duration of his own life, and
the life of his nominee.
None of thefe cbjeftions are applicable to the plan
of the fociety which meets at Black-Friars bridge, and
which has juftly ftyled itfelf the Equitable Society for
AJfuranc.es on Lives and Survivorfhips. The bufinefj
tranfa&ed by this fociety is fo ^xtenfive, and it is go¬
verned fo entirely by calculations, founded on the bell
rules and obfervations, that it cannot but prove one of
the greateil public benefits.
It was ellabliffied in the year 1762, in confequence
of propofals which had been made, and leftures recom-
M m mending
INS [ 274 1 INS
Ii furance. mending'fuch a defign, which had been read by Mr This fociety has lately made a particular inquiry Infuranee.
Dodfon, the author of the Mathematical Repofitory. into its own date, as to profit and lofis, by all the bu-  
It affures any fums or reverlionary annuities, on any finefs it has tranfa&ed from its firft inftitution. Tin's
life or lives for any number of years, as well as for the inquiry was made in three different methods, propofed
•whole continuance of the lives j and" in any manner to the direftors by Dr Price, the author of the I’reatife
that may be belt adapted to the views of the perfons on Reverlionary Payments; and the refult has been,
affured : that i«, either by making the affured fums that it appears, that a much fmaller proportion of the
payable certainly at the failure of any given lives; or perfons affured have died than Jhoulcl have died, ae¬
on condition of furvivorfhip ; and alfo, either by ta- cording to the tables for London, from which the cal¬
king the price of the affurance in one prefent payment, culations have been made, or even according to Dr
or in annual payment, during any Angle or joint lives, Halley’s table for Breflaw; that, for this reafon, the
or any terms, lefs than the whole poffible duration of claims have been much lefs than they Jhoulcl have been;
the lives. Any perfons, for inllance, who depend on and that the fociety has for many years been enjoying >
incomes which mu'I be loft when they die, or who are an income fome thoufands per annum greater than it
only tenants for life in eftates, may, if they want to wants, and a furplus fiock of near L. 40,000, over and
, borrow money, be enabled to give fufficient feeprity, above what is neceffary to enable it to make good all
by affuring fuch fums as they want to borrow in this its engagements.
fociety, and aflv,rning the policy ; in confequence of In thefe circumfiances, the fociety finding itfelf
which, the lender will,, during the tenpr of the aflu- well fecured againft future hazards, and being un-
rance, be guarded againft ail danger of lofing his prin- willing to take from the public an extravagant profit,
eipal by the death of the borrower. In the fame way, have determined to reduce all the future payments for
clergymen, counfellors,irperfons .holding any places of affurances one - tenth; and alfo to return to the perfons
profit, traders, and others, who have families, whofe now affured one-tenth of all the payments which they
fub: ftence depends on the continuance of their lives, have made. And there is, it feems, reafon to expedft,
piay here be enabled to make fome provifion for their that this will be only a preparation for farther reduc-
familn s after their deceafe. All perfons who enjoy tions. Nor need the public, we are informed, be ap-
annuities for the lives of others, may here fecure them- prehenfive of their going too far in making redudlions;
felves againft the lofs they would fuftain, fhould they for in confequence of the inquiry they have lately
furvive the perfons on whofe lives the annuities de- made, and of the order into which this inquiry has
pend, by making affurances which fhould intitle them thrown their accounts, they will have it in their power
to any furrrs, payable on condition their furvivorlhip to determine exadtly from year to year what they are
fhould take place. Af.y perfon intitled to an eftate, an- able to do, and always to keep under their view a clear
nuity, legacy, or office, after another perfon, provided ftate of their own cireumftances.
he furvives, may here fecure fome equivalent for his From the preceding account of this fociety it is ma-
family at his deceafe, provided he does not furvive.— nifeft, that its bufinefs is fuch, that none but fkiiful
Hufbands may, in this fociety, fecure annuities for mathematicians are qualified to conduct it. The in-
their wives, provided they fhould leave them widows, tereft of the fociety therefore abfolutely requires, that
Parents, by alluring the lives of their children when it fhould make the places of thofe who manage its bu-
infants, till they attain a given age, may fecure for linefs fo advantageous, as to induce the ablell mathe-
them, fhould they live to that age, fuch fums as may maticians to accept them ; and this will render it the ,
be neceffary to put them out to apprenticefhips, or to more neceffary for the fociety to take care, on any
make capitals or fortunes for them, with which to fet future vacancies, to pay no regard in filling them up,
opt in bufinefs, or to marry. Any p.erfons, apprehen- to any other confiderations than the ability and inte-
five of being left without fupport in old age, when in- grity of the candidates. The confequence of granting-
capable of labour, may, in this fociety, purchafe an good pay will be a multitude of folicitations on every
annuity, to commence at any future year of his life, vacancy, from perfons who, however unqualified, will
and to continue during the remainder of his life ; and hope for fuccefs from their connexions, and the inte--
he may do this at a very fmall expence, if he is young, reft they are able to make ; and ftiould the fociety, in
and willing to wait for the commencement of his an- any future time, be led by fuch caufes to trull its boli-
nuity till he is 55 or 60 years of age. nefs in the hands of perfons not poffelfed of fufficient
In fhort, there are no kinds of aflurances on lives' ability, as calculators and mathematicians, fuch millakes-
and fufvivorffiips, which this fociety does not make, may be committed as may prove in the higheil degree
In doing this, it follows the rules which have been detrimental. We have reafon to know, that at pre¬
given by the bell mathematical writers on the dottrine fent the fociety is in no danger of this kind ; and one'
oi life-annuities and reverfions, particularly Mr Simpfon : of the great public advantages attending it is, that it
and, in order to gain fuch a profit as may render it a has eiiabliffied an ojjice, where not only the bnfinefs wei
firmament benefit to the public, and pnable it to bear have deferibed is tranfaded with faithfulnefs and /kill;
.the expences of management, it takes the advantage of but where alfo all who want folutions of any queftiona
making its calculations at fp low an intereft as 3 per relating to life annuities and reverfions may apply, and-
cent, and from tables of the probabilities and values of be fure of receiving juft anfwers.
lives in London, where (as in all great towns) the rate
of human mortality is much greater than it is in com¬
mon among mankind. Taels
I N T [
Infurance fpABLE Qf t^e Rate3 Qf Aflurance on Single Lives in
Tnte!le«a. the Society for equitable Affurances near Black-
Friars ridge.
Sum affured L. iqo.
[Forthewhole
Seven years lifej at an an
at an annual :nual ent
payment or. ;o£
275 1 I N X
INTEND ANT, one who has the conduft, infpec- Intendant
tion,'and management, of anything. See Superin- InteJ] t-a
tendant. ■ *.
This is a title frequent among the French : they
have intendants of the marine, who are officers in the fea-
ports, rwhofe bufinefs it is to take care the ordinances
and regulations relating to fea-affairs be obferved :
tendants of the finances, who have the dire&ion of the
revenues : intendants of provinces, .who are appointed by
the king to take care of the adminiftration of jultice,
policy, and finances in the provinces: alfo intendants of
huildings, of houfes, &c.
INTENDMENT, in law, is the intention, defign,
or true meaning, of a perfon or thing, which frequent*
ly fupplies what is not fully exprefled; but though the
intent of parties in deeds and contra&s is much regard¬
ed by the law, yet it cannot take place againft the
rules of law.
Intendment of Crimes; this, in cafe of treafon,
where the intention is proved by circumftances, is pu-
niihable in the fame manner as if it was put in execu*
tion. So, if a perfon enter a hopfe in the night-time,
with an intent to commit burglary, it is felony ; alfo,
an aflault, with an intent to commit a robbery on the
Thefe rates are 10 per cent lower than the true va- highway is made felony, and punifhed with tranfpor*
lues, according to the decrements of life in London, tation, 7 Geo. II. c. 21.
reckoning intereft at 3 percent.’, but at the fame time, INTENT, in the civil law, fignifies to begin, or
for all ages under 50, they are nehr 2. third \ng\izv commence, an adtion or procefs.
than all the true values, according to Dr Halley’s INTENTION, in medicine, that judgment or me-
Table of the decrements of life at Breflaw, and Dr thod of cure which a phyfreian forms t© himfelf from
Price’s Tables of the decrements of life at Northamp a due examination of fymptoms.
ton and Norwich.—As therefore this fociety has late- Intention, in phyfics, the increafe of the power
ly found, that the decrements of life among its mem- 0r energy of any quality ; as heat, cold, &c. by which
hers have hitherto been lower than even thofe given in it (lands oppofed to remijfion, which fignifies its de-
thefe lad Tables, it may be reafonably expe&ed, that
they will in time reduce their rates of affurance to the
true values by thefe tables.
Rc-Insurance is a fecond contrail, made by an in-
furer, to transfer the rilk he has engaged for to another.
It is in general forbidden Ty (9 Geo. II- c. 37. but
is permitted to the reprefentativts of an infurer in cafe
of his death, or to his affignees in cafe of his bank¬
ruptcy ; and it mud be mentioned in the policy that
it is a re-infurance.
creafe or diminution.
Intention, in metaphyfics, denotes an exettion of
the intelleilual faculties with more than ordinary vi¬
gour ; when the mind with earnednefs fixes its view
on any idea, confiders it on all fides, and will not be
called off by any folicitation.
INTERAMNA (anc. geog.), fo called from its
fituation between rivers, or in an ifland in the river
Nar; a town of the Ctfalpennine Umbria. Interam-
nates the people ; furnamed Nartes by Pliny, to didin-
INTAGLIOS, precious dones on which are en- guidi them from the people of other Interamnae. Now
graved the heads of great men,infcriptions, and the like;
fuch as we frequently fee fet in rings, feals, &c.
INTEGER, in arithmetic, a whole number, incon-
tradidin&ion to a fradtion.
INTEGRAL, or integrant, in philofophy, ap-
pel! tions given to parts of bodies which are of a fi-
milar nature with the whole : thus filings of iron have
the fame nature and properties as bars of iron.
Bodies may be reduced into their integrant parts by
triture or grinding, limation or filing, folution, amal-
gation, &c. See Grinding, &c.
INTEGUMENT •, in anatomy, denote the com¬
mon coverings which inved the body ; as the cuticula,
cutis, &c. See Anatomy.
Integument is aifo extended to the particular
Terni; a town in the Pope’s territory in Umbria,
E. Long. 13. 38. N Lat. 42.40.
Interamna, a town and colony of the Volfci in
Latium, on the confines of Samnium, at the conflu¬
ence of the rivers Liris and Melpis; and for didinc-
tion fake called Lirinas. The town is now in ruins.
Interamna, or InteramniaPratutianorum(JBto\emy) ;
a town in the territory of the Prsetutiani, a part of the
Picenum. 'Now Teranw, in the Abruzzo of Naples.
E. Long, 15. N. Lat. 42. 40.
INTERCALARY, an appellation given to the
odd day inferted in leap-year; which was fo called
from calo, calare, “ to proclaim,” it being proclaim¬
ed by the pridls with a loud voice.
INTERCATIA (anc. geog.), a town of the Vac-
membranes which inved certain parts of the body ; as ctei in the Hither Spain. Here Scipio .ZEmilianus
the mats or tunics of the eye. flew a champion of the barbarians in Angle combat ;
INTELLECT, a term ufed among philofophers, and was the fird who mounted the wall in taking the
to fignify that faculty of the foul ufually called the town. It was fituated to the fouth-ead of Adurica ;
underfitauding. See Logic and Metaphysics, now faid to be in ruins.
Mm2 IN-
I N T [ 276 ] f N T
Tnttrcef- INTERCESSION (mtircejfzo), was uCed in ancient
Con Rome, for the a<5t of a tribune of the people, or other
lacireft magillrate, by which he , inhibited the a£ts of other
1 magiftrates; or even, in cafe of the tribune®, the de¬
cree® of the fcnate. preto was the foiemn word ufed
by the tribunes when they inhibited any decree of the
fenate or law propofed to the people. The general
law of thefe interceflions was, that any naagiftrate
might inhibit the a£ts of his equal or inferior; but the
tribunes had the foie prerogative of controlling the
a&s of every other magidrate, yet could not be con¬
trolled themfeIves by any.
INTERCESSOR (from inter and redo “ I go be¬
tween”), a perfon who prays, expodulates, or inter¬
cedes, in be half-of another. In the Roman law, in-
terceffor was the name of an officer, whom the gover¬
nors of provinces appointed principally to raife taxes
and other duties.
Intercessor is alfo a term heretofore applied to
fuch bilhops. as, during the vacancy of a fee, admini-
ftered the buhoprick, till a fucceffor to the deceafed
bifliop had been elerded. The third council of Car¬
thage calls thefe intsrwntort.
INTERCOLUMNIATION, in architefture, de¬
notes the fpace between two columns, which is always
to be proportioned to the height and bulk of the co¬
lumns.
INTERCOSTAL, in anatomy, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch mufcles, nerves, arteries, and veins, as lie
between the ribs.
INTERDICT, an ecelefiaftical cenfure, by which
the church of Rome forbids the performance of divine
fervice in a kingdom, province, town, &c. This cen¬
fure has been frequently executed to France, Italy,
and Germany ; and in the year 1170, pope Alexan¬
der III. put all England under an interdifk, forbidding
the clergy to perform any part of divine fervice, except
baptilrng of infants, taking confeffions, and giving ab-
folution to dying penitents. But this cenfure being
liable to the ill confequen<es of promoting libertmifm
and a negleft of religion, the fucceeding popes have
very feldom made ufe of it.
There was alfo an interdiA of perfons, who were
deprived of the benefit of attending on divine fervice.
Particular perfons were alfo anciently interdifted of fire
and water, which fignified a baniffiment for feme par¬
ticular offence : by their cenfure no perfon was allow
ed to receive them, or allow them fire or water ; and
being thus wholly deprived of the two neceffary ele¬
ments of life, they were doubtlefs under a kind of ci¬
vil death.
INTEREST, is the premium or money paid for
the loan or ufe of other money. See Arithmetic,
B°20.
Many good and learned men have in former times
very much perplexed themfelves and other people by
raifing doubts about the legality of intereft in foro con-
feientie. It may not be amifs here to inquire upon
'what grounds this matter does really ftand.
The enemies to intereft in general make no diftinc-
tion between that and ufury, holding any increafe of
money to be indefenfibly ufurious. And this they
ground as well on the prohibition of it by the law of
Mofes among the Jews, as alfo upon what is laid down
by Ariftotle, That money is naturally barren; and to
make it Breed'money is prepofterous, and a perverfiort Intereffll
of the end of its inftitutiou, which was only to ferve ——
the purpofes of exchange, and not of inereafe. Hence
the fchool-divines have branded the practice of taking
intereft,. as being contrary to the divine kw both na¬
tural and revealed; and the canon law has preferibed.
the taking any the lead increafe for the loan' of money
as a mortal fin.
But, in anfwer tp this, it may be obferved, that the'
Mofr.ical precept was clearly a political, and not a mo¬
ral, precept. It only prohibited the Jews from ta¬
king ufury from their brethren the Jews ; but in ex-
prefs words permitted them to take it of a ftranger;
which proves that the taking of moderate ufury, or a
reward for the rtfe, for fo the word fignifies, isnotwm-
him in fe, fince it was allowed where any but an If-
raelite was concerned. And as to Ariftotle’s reafon,,
deduced from the natural harrennefs of money, the
fame may with equal force be alleged of houfe*, which •
never breed houfes; and twenty other things, which
nobody doubts it is lawftil to make profit of, by letting
them to hire. And though money was originally ufed ;
only for the purpofes of exchange, yet the laws of any
date may be well juftified in permitting it to be turn¬
ed to the purpofes of profit, if the convenience of fo-
eiety (the great end for which money was invented),
ffiall require it. Andthatthe allowance of moderate in¬
tereft tends' greatly to tire benefit of the public, espe¬
cially in a trading country, will appear from that ge¬
nerally acknowledged principle, that commerce cannot
fubfift without mutual and extenfive credit. Unlefs
money therefore can be borrowed, trade cannot be
carried on: and if no premium were allowed for the
hire of money, few perfons would care to lend it; or
at leaft the eafe of borrowing at a ftvort warning (which
is the life of commerce) would be entirely at an end.
Thus, in the dark ages of monkiih fu per Hit km and ci¬
vil tyranny, when intereft was laid under a total in-
terdift, commerce was alfo at its lowell ebb, and fell
entirely into the hands of the Jews and Lombards;
but when mens minds began to be more enlarged, when
true religion and real liberty revived, commerce grew
again into credit; and again introduced with itfelf its .
infeparable companion, the do&rine of loans upon in¬
tereft.
And, really, confidered abftra&edly from this its
ufe, fince all other conveniences of life may be either
bought or hired, but money can only be hired, there
feems no greater impropriety in taking a recompence
or price for the hire of this, than of any other conve¬
nience. If one borrow 1001. to employ in a benefi¬
cial trade, it is but equitable that the lender ftiould
have a proportion of the gains. To. demand an exor¬
bitant price is equally contrary to confcience, for the
loan of a horfe, or the loan of a fum of money : but a
reafonable equivalent for the temporary inconvenience
which the owner may feel by the want of it, and for
the hazard of his lofing it entirely, is not more immoral
in one cafe than it is in the other. And indeed theab-
folute prohibition of lending upon any, even moderate
intereft, introduces the very inconvenience which it
feems meant to remedy. The neeeffity of individuals
will make borrowing unavoidable. Without fome pro¬
fit by law, there will be but few lenders: and thofe
principally bad men, who will break through the law.
I N T [ 277 1 I N T
tfitereft. and tak« a profit; and then will endeavour to fndem- which all his property depends, at three per unt. the
—nify themftlves from the danger of the penalty, by hazard being none at all.
making that profit exorbitant. Thus, while all de- But fometimes the hazard may be greater than the
grees of profit were difcountenanced, we find more rate of interell allowed by law will compenfate. And
complaints of ufury, and more flagrant inftances of this gives rife to the practice, 1. Of bottomry, or re*
oppreffion, than in modem times when money maybe fpondentia. 2. Of policies of infurance. See Box*
tafily bad at a low intereil. A capital diitindtion mult roMtty, and Insurance.
therefore be made between a moderate and exorbitant Upon the two principles of inconvenience and ha-
profit ; to the former of which we ufually give the' zard, compared together, different nations have at dif-
name of iuterejt, to the latter the truly odious appella- ferent times eftablilhed different rates of intereft. The
tion of ufury: the former is necefifary in every civil Romans at one time allowed centijfima, one per cent.
flate; if it were but to exclude the latter, which ought monthly, or twelve per cent, per annum, to be taken for
never to be tolerated in any well-regulated fociety. common loans ; but Juftiuian reduced it to trientes, or
Tor, as tire whole of this matter is well fu mined up by one third of the as or centijfime, that is, four per cent. ;
Grotius, “ if the com pen fat ion allowed by law does but allowed higher intereil to be taken of merchants,
not exceed the proportion of the hazard run, or the became there the hazard was greater. So too Grotius
want felt, by the loan, its allowance is neither repug- informs m, that in Holland the rate of intereft was
nant to the revealed nor to the natural law : but if it then eight per cent, in common loans, but twelve to
exceeds thofe bounds, it is then eppreffive ufury ; and* merchants. Our law eftablilhes one ftandard for all
though the municipal laws may give it impunity, they alike, where the pledge or fecurity itfelf is not put in
never can make it juft.” jeopardy; left, under the general pretence of vague
We fee, that the exorbitance or moderation of in* and indeterminate hazards, a door fhould be opened to
tereft, for the money lent, depends upon two circum- fraud and ufury : leaving fpecific hazards to be provi-
ftances; the inconvenience of ‘parting with it for the ded again!! by fpscific infurances, or by loans upon
prefent, and the hazard of loiing it entirely. The in- refpondenila or bottomry. But as to the rate of legal
convenience to individual lenders can never be eftima- intereft, it has varied and decreafed for zoo years paft,.
ted by laws ; the rate therefore of general intereft mull according as the quantity of.fpecie in the kingdom has
depend upon the ufual or general inconvenience. This increafed by acceflions of trade, the introdmftion of
refults entirely from the quantity of fpecie or current paper-credit, and other circumftances. The ftatute
money in the kingdom : for, the more'fpecie there is 37 Hen. VIII. c. g.; confined intereft to Xtn per cent.
circulating in any nation, the greater fuperfluity there and fo did the ftatute 13 Eliz. c. 8. But as, through-
will be, beyond what is necefiary to carry on the bu- the encouragements given in her reign to commerce,
fi-nefs of exchange and the common concerns of life, the nation grew more wealthy ; fo, under her fucceffor,
In every nation, or public community, there is a certain the ftatute 21 Jac. t. c. 17. reduced it to eight per
quantity of money thus necellary ; which a perfon well cent. ; as did the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 13. to fix : and
(killed in political arithmetic might perhaps calculate laiily, by the ftatute 12 Ann. ft. 2. c. 16. it was
as exa&ly, as a private banker can the demand for run* brought down to five per cent, yearly, which is now
ning cafh in his own (hop : all above this needfary the extremity of legal inttreft that can be taken. But
quantity may be fpared, or lent, without much incon- yet, if a contradl which carries intereft be made in a
venience to the refpe&ive lenders; and the greater this foreign country, our courts will dired the payment of
national fuperfluity is, the more numerous will be the intereft according to the law of that country in which
lenders, and the lower ought the rate of the national the contraft was made. Thus Irifli, American, Turk-
intereft to be : but where there is not enough, or bare- iih, and Indian intereft, have been allowed in our courts
ly enough, circulating cafh, to anfwer the ordinary , to the amount of even \z per cent. For the modera*
ufes of the public, intereft will be proportionably high; tion or exorbitance of intereft: depends upon local cir-
for lenders will be but few, as few cax» fubmit to the cumftances ; and the refufal to enforce fuch contrafts
inconvenience of lending. would put a flop to all foreign trade. And, byftat..
So alfo the hazard ofan entire lofs has its weight in 14 Geo. III. c. 79. all mortages and other fecuri-
the regulation of iutereft: hence, the better the fccu- ties upon eftates or other property in Ireland or the
rity, the lower will the intereft be ; the rate of intereft plantations, bearing intereft not exceeding fix per cent.
being generally in a compound ratio, formed out of (hall be legal; though executed in the kingdom of
the inconvenience and the hazard. And as, if there Great Britain : uulefs the money lent (hall be known
were no inconvenience, there (hould be no intereft but at the time to exceed the value of the thing in pledge;
what is equivalent to the hazard ; fo, if there were no in which cafe alfo, to prevent ufurious contradls at
hazard, there ought to be no intereft, fave only what home under colour of fuch foreign fecarities, the bor-
arifes from the mere inconvenience of lending. Thus, rower fhail forfeit .treble the fum fo borrowed,
if tbe quantity of fpecie in a nation be fuch, that the INTERJECTION, in grammar, an indeclinable .,
general inconvenience of lending for a year is compu- part of fpecch, dignifying fome pallion or emotion of
ted to amount to three per cent, a man that has money the. mind. See Grammar.
by him will perhaps lend it upon good perfonal fecu- INTERIM, a name.given to a formulary, or kind. :
rity at five per cent, allowing two for the hazard run_; of confeffion of the articles of faith, obtruded upoiv.
be will lend it upon landed fecurity, or mortgage, at the Proteftants after Luthei’s death by the emperor -
four/er cent the hazard being proportionably lefs ; Charles V. when he had defeated their forces; fo called
but he will knd it to the ftate, on the maintenance of becaufe it was only to take place in the interim (mean .
time,) ,
Irttf reft1
Interim.
1 N T [ 278 1 I N T
Interloeu time') till a general council fiiould liave decided all manes or dead, and the third men. Thefe princi-'Interment.
tor points in difpute between the Proteftants and Roma- pies feem to be drawn from nature; and they appear ~—
'Interment ^ stained moft of the do&rines and ceremonies at leaft to be neceflary for the fupport of fociety, fince
. of the Romanids, excepting that of marriage, which at all times civilized nations have taken care to bury
s allowed to the clergy, and communion to the laity their dead, and to pay their laft refpedts to them. See
under both kinds. Moft of the Proteftants rejefted it.
There were two other interims; one of Leipfic, the o-
•ther of Franconia.
INTERLOCUTOR,,in Scots law'. The fentence
•or judgment of a court of law, is commonly called an
.interlocutor before decree is extracted.
INTERLOCUTORY decree, in Englifti law. In
a fuit in equity, if any matter of fadt be ftrongly con¬
troverted, the fa£l is ufually diredted to be tried at
the bar of the court of king's bench, or at the affizes,
Burial.
We find in hiftory feveral traces of the refpecft which
the Indians, the Egyptians, and the Syrians entertained
for the dead. The Syrians embalmed their bodies with
myrrh, aloes, honey, fait, wax, bitumen, and refinous
gums; they dried them alfo with the fmoke of the
fir and the pine tree. The Egyptians preferved theirs
with the refin of the cedar, with aromatic fpices, and
with fait. Thefe people often keep fuch mummies,
or at leaft their effigies, in their houfes, and at grand
•upon a feigned ifiue. If a queftion of mere law arifes entertainments they were introduced, that by reciting
•in the courfe of a caufe, it is the praflice of the court the great adlions of their anceftors they might be
of chancery to refer it to the opinion of the judges of better excited to virtue. See Funeral Rites.
the court of king’s bench, upon a cafe ftated for that
purpofe. In fuch cafes, interlocutory decrees or or¬
ders are made.
Interlocutory judgments are fuch as are given in
the middle of a caufe, upon fome plea, proceeding on
•default, which is only intermediate, and does not fi-
The Greeks, at firft, had probably not the fame vene¬
ration for the dead as the Egyptians. Empedocles,
therefore, in the eighty-fourth Olympiad, reftored to
life Ponthia, a woman of Agrigentum, who was about
to be interred *. But this people, in proportion as they • Diogenes
grew civilized, becoming more enlightened, perceived Laertius de
ttli5 fir pftnKl I (bl n or lawc fr,r rtf
Phih-
nally determine or complete the fuit. But the Inter- the neceffity of eftablilhing laws for the prote&ion of
locutory judgments moft ufually fpoken of, are thofe the dead. fophorum,
incomplete judgments, whereby the right of the plain- At Athens the law required that no perfon ftiouidlib. 8.
-tiff is ellablilhed, hot xht .quantum oi damages fuftain- be interred before the third day; and in the greater
ed by him is not afeertained, which is the province of part of the cities of Greece a funeral did not take
a jury. In fuch a cafe a writ of inquiry iffues to the place-till the fixth or feventh. Wheri a man appeared
fheriff, who fumfnons a jury, enquires of the damages, to have breathed his laft, his body was generally wafhed
and returns to the court the inquifition fp taken, where- by his neareft relations, with warm water mixed tifith
upon the plaintiff’s attorney taxes cofts, and figns final wine. They afterwards anointed it with oil; and co-
judgment. vered it with a drefs, commonly made of fine linen.
Interlocutory Order} that which decides not the according to the cuftom of the Egyptians. This drefs
caufe, but only fettles fome intervening matter relating was white at Meffina, Athens, and in the greater part
of the cities of Greece, where the dead body was
crowned with flowers At Sparta it was of a purple
colour, and the body was furrounded with olive leaves.
The body was afterwards laid upon a couch in the en¬
try of the houfe, where it remained till the time of
the funeral. At the magnificent obfequies with which
to the caufe. As, where an order is made in chancery,
for the plaintiff to have an injunflion, to quit poffef-
fion’till the hearing of the caufe ; this order, not be¬
ing final, is ca-llcr interlocutory.
INTERLOPERS, are properly thofe who, with¬
out due authority, hinder the trade of a company or
(Corporation lawfully eftabliffied, by dealing in the fame Alexander honoured Hepheftion, the body was not
burned until the tenth day.
The Romans, in the infancy of their empire, paid
as little attention to their dead as the Greeks had done.
Acilius Aviola having fallen into a lethargic fit, was
fuppofed to be dead ; he was therefore carried tif the
funeral pile the fire was lighted up ; and though he
cried, out he was ftill alive, he periftied for want of
fpeedy affiftance. The Praetor Lamia met with the
fame fate. Tubero, who had been Praetor, was fa-
ved from the funeral pile. Afclepiades a phyfician,
who lived in the time of Pompey the Great, about
one hundred and twenty ymays before the Chriftian
aera, returning from his country-houfe, obferved near
the walls of Rome a grand convoy and a crowd of
people, who were in mourning affifting at a funeral.
way.
INTERLUDE, an entertainment exhibited on the
■theatre between the a&s of a play, to amufe the fpec-
tators while the adlors take breath and fhift their drefs,
or to give time for changing the feenes and decora¬
tions.
In the ancient tragedy, the chorus fung the inter¬
ludes, to fhow the intervals between the a61s.
Interludes, among us, ufually confift of fongs, dances,
feats of activity, concerts of mufie, See.
Ariftotle and Horace give it for a rule, that the
interludes ffiould confift of fongs built on the principal
parts of the drama ; but fince the chorus has been
laid down, dancers, buffoons, &c. ordinarily furniffi
the interludes.
INTERMENT, the aft of interring, i. e. burying and {flowing every exterior fign of the deepeft grief,
or laying a deceafed perfon in the ground. Having afked what was the occafion of this intercourfe,
Ariftotle afferted, that it was mo‘t juft to affift the no one made any reply. He therefore approached the
dead than the living. Plato, in his Republic, does pretended' dead body ; and imagining that he perceived
not forget, amongft other parts of juftice, that .which figns of life in it, be ordered the byftanders to take
concerns the dead. Cicero eftablifhes ;hree kinds of away the flambeaux, to extinquifti the fire, and to pull
juftice ; the firft refpefts the gods, the fecond the down the funeral pile. A kind of murmur on this a-
rsfe
I N T ^ [2;
toterment rofe throughout the whole company. Some faid that
  they ought to believe the phyfician, while others turn¬
ed both him and his profeffion into ridicule. The rela¬
tions, however, yielded at length to the remonfl ranees
of Afclepiades ; they confented to defer the obfequies
for a little; and the confequence was, the reftoration of
the pretended dead perfon to life. It appears that
thefe examples, and feveral others of the like nature^
induced the Romans to delay funerals longer, and tb
enaft laws to prevent precipitate interments.
At Rome, after allowing a fufficient lime for mourn¬
ing, the neareft relation generally clofed the eyes of
the deceafed ; and the body was bathed with warm
water, either to render it litter for being anointed with
oil, or to reanimate the principle of life, which might
remain fufpended without manifefting itfelf. Proofs
were afterwards made, to difeover whether the perlon
was really dead, which wrere often repeated during the
time that the body remained expofed ; for there were
perfons appointed to vifit the dead, and to prove their
fituation. On the fecond day, after the body had been
waifhed a fecond time, it was anointed with oil and
balm. Luxury encreafed to fuch a pitch in the choice
of foreign perfumes for this purpofe, that under the
confullhip of Licinius Graffus and Julius Csefar, the
fenate forbade any perfumes to be ufed except fu'ch
as were the produftion of Italy. On the third day
the body was clothed according to Its dignity and con¬
dition. The robe called the prsetexta was put upon
magiftrates, and a purple robe upon confuls ; for con¬
querors, who had merited triumphal honours, this
robe was of gold tiffue. For other Romans it was
white, and black for the lower claffes of the people.
Thefe dreffes were often prepared at a diftance, by
the mothers and wives of perfons ftill in life. On
the fourth day the body was placed on a couch, and
exjmfed in the veftibule of the houfe, with the vifage
turned towards the entrance, and the feet near,the
door ; in this fituation it remained till the end of the
week. Near the couch were lighted wax tapers, a
fmall box in which perfumes were burnt, and a veffel
full of water for purification, with which thofe-who
approached the body'befprinkled themfelves. An old
man, belonging to thofe who furnifhed every thing
n-eceflary for funerals, fat near the deceafed, with fome
domellics clothed in black. On the eighth day the
funeral rites were performed ; but to.prevent the body
from corrupting before that time, fait, wax, the refi-
nous gum of the .cedar, myrrh, honey, balm, gyp-
fum, lime, afphaltes, or bitumen of Judea, and feve¬
ral other fubftances, were employed. The body
was carried to the pile with the face uncovered, unlefs
wounds or the nature of the difeafe had rendered it
loathfome and difgufting. In fuch a cafe a made was
ufed, made of a kind of platter ; which has given rife
to the expreffion of funera larvata, ufed in fome of
the ancient authors. This was the latt method of
concealment which Nero made ufe of, after having
caufed Germanicus to be poifoned : for the effedt of
the poifon had become very fenfible by livid fpots and
the blacknefs of the body ; but a thower of rain hap¬
pening to fall, it wathed the platter entirely away, and
thus the hoi rid crime of fratricide was difeovered.
The Turks have, at all times, been accuftomed to
3*,
9 ] I N T ,
wath the bodies of their dead before interment; ancl Interment*
as their ablutions are complete, and no part of the ' i'"***^'
body efcapes the attention of thofe who affitt at fuch
melancholy ceremonies, they can eafily perceive-whe¬
ther one be really dead or alive, by examining, among
other methods of proof, whether thefpli'mEler ani has loll
its power of contradliqn. If this mufcle remains Hill
contradted, they warm the body, and endeavour to
recal it to life ; otherwife, after having walhed it with
water and foap, they wipe it with linen cloths, wralhf'
it again with rofe-water and aromatic fubltahces, co¬
ver it with a rich drefs, put upon its'head a cap orna¬
mented with flowers, and extend it upon a carpet
placed in the veftibule or hall at the entrance of the
houfe.
In the primitive church the dead were wafhed and
then anointed.; the body was wrapped up in linen;
or clothed in a drefs of more or lefs value according
to circumflances, and it was not interred until after
being expofed and kept fome days in the houfe. The
cuii om of clothing the dead is preferved in France only
for princes and ecclefialtics.
In other countries, more or lefs care is taken to
prevent hidden interments. At Geneva, thete are
people appointed to infpeift all dead bodies. Their
duty confilts in examining whether the perfon be
really dead, and whether one died naturally or by-
violence. In the north, as well as at Genoa, it is ufual
not to bury- the dead till three days have expired. In
Holland, people carry their precautions much farther,
and delay the funerals longer. And in England bodies
generally remain unburied three or four days.
Premature Interment. Notwithftanding the cuftoms
above recited ; Hill, in many places, and on many oc-d
cafions in all places, too much precipitation attends-
this lall office; or if not precipitation, a negledl of
due precautions in regard to the body. In general,
indeed, the mod improper treatment that can be ima¬
gined is adopted, and many a perfon made to defeend
into the grave before he has flghed his laft breath. The
biftories related by Hildanus, by Camerarius, by HorftL
us, by Macrobius in his Somnium Scipionis/by Plato-
in his Republic, by Valerius Maximus, and by a great
many modern authors, leave us no doubt refpeding the
dangers or mifcondu<ft of fuch precipitation. It muft
appear aftonifhing that the attention of mankind has ■
been after all fo little roufed by an idea the moil terri¬
ble that can be conceived on this fide of eternity. If-
nature recoils from the idea of death, with what hor¬
ror mu ft fhe ftart at the thought of death anticipated,'
precipitated by inatte ntion—a return of life in dafknefs,.
diftra&ion, and defpair—then death repeated under
agonies unfpeakable ! To revive nailed up in a coffin ! ’
The brain can fcarce fuftain the refledlion in our cooleft
fafeft moments.
According to prefent ufage, as foon as the fern-
blance of death appears,- the chamber of the fiek is >
deferted by friends, relatives, and phyiieians ; and the
apparently dead, though frequently living, body, is
committed to the management of an ignorant and un¬
feeling nurfe, whofe care extends no farther than lay¬
ing the limbs ftraight, and fecuring her accuftomed-I
perquifites. The bed-cloaths are immediately removed, ,
and the body is expofed to the air. This, when cold, ,
muiil
I N T [ 280 1 I N T
j.Jntermert.mud extingulfh any fpark of life that may remain, and again fall into a fyncope, and he would have been thus interment*
which, by a different treatment, might have Nbeen buried alive. ——a
kindled into flame j,or it may only continue to reprefs We muff not be aftoniihed that the fervants of an
it, and the unhappy perfon afterwards revive amidft hofpital fhould take a fyncope for a real death, fince
the horrors of the tomb. even the moft enlightened people have fallen into errors
The difference between the end of a weak life and of the fame kind. Dr John Schmid relates, that a
the commencement of death, is fo fmall, and the un- young girl, feven years of age, after being affh'&ed for
certainty of the fignsof the latter is fo well eftabliflred feme weeks with a violent cough, was all of a hidden
-both by ancient and modern authors who have turned freed from this troublefome malady, and appeared to be
their attention to that important objedl, that we cam in perfeft health. Tut feme days after, while playing
fcarcely fuppofe undertakers capable of diilinguiih-
ing an apparent from a real death. Animals which
fleep during winter (how no figns of life ; in this
cafe, circulation is only fufpended: but were it an-
with her companions, this child fell down in an in-
ftant as if ftruck by lightning. A death-like pale-
nefs was diffufed over her face and arms ; (he had no
apparent pulfe, her temples were funk, and (he flrowed
nihilated, the vital fpirit does not fo eafily lofe its no figns of fenfation when flraken or pinched. A phy»
action as the other fluids of the body ; and the prin- fician, who was called, and who believed her to be
• ciple of .life, which long furvives the appearance of dead, in compliance with the repeated and preffing re¬
death, may re animate a body in which the aftion of quell .of her parents, attempted, though without any
-all the organs feems to be at an end. But how diffi- hopes, to recal her to life ; and at length, after feveral
cult is it to determine whether this principle may not vain efforts, he made the foals of her feet be fmartly
be revived ? It has been found impofTible to recal.to rubbed with a brufh dipped in ftrong pickle. At the
life fome animals fuffocated by mephitic vapours, tho’ end of three quarters of an hour fhe was obferved to
they appeared lefs affedled than others who have re- figh ; (he was then made to fwallow fome fpirituous li-
vived. Coldnefs, heavinefs of the body, a leaden livid quor ; and fhe was foon after reflored to life, much to
. colour, with a yellownefs in the vifage, are all very un- the joy of her difconfolate parents,—A certain man
certain figns: Mr Zimmerman obferved them all upon having undertaken a journey, in order to fee his bro-
the body of a criminal, who fainted through the dread ther, on his arrival at his houfe found him dead. This
.of that punifhment which he had merited. He was news affedled him fo much, that it brought on a moft
fhaken, dragged about, and turned in the fame man- dreadful fyncope, and he himfelf was fuppofed to be in
ner as dead bodies are, without the lead: figns of refill- the like fttuation. After the ufual means had been
ance; and yet at the end of.24 hours he was recalled to employed, to recal him to life, it was agreed that his
'life by means of volatile alkali. body fhould be differed, to difeover the caufe of fo
A ^Director of the-coach-office at Dijon, named fudden a death ; but the fuppofed dead perfon over-
iColinet, was fuppofed to be dead, and the news of this hearing this propofal, opened his eyes, flarted up, and
event was fpread throughout the whole city. One of immediately betook himfelf to his heels.—Cardinal E-
his friends, who was deiirous of feeing him at the mo- fpinola, prime minifler to Philip II. was not fo fer¬
ment when he was about to be buried, having looked tunate ; for we read in the Memoirs of Amelot de la
at him for a confiderable time, thought he perceived HoujTai, that he put his hand to the knife with which
fome remains of fenfibility in the mufcles of the face, he was opened in order to be embalmed. In fhort,
He therefore made an attempt to bring him to life by almoft every one knows that Vefalius, the father of
fpirituous liquors, in which he fucceeded } and this di- anatomy, having been feat for to open a woman fub»
redlor enjoyed afterwards for along time that life which jedl to hyflerics, who was fuppofed to be dead, he
lie owed to his friend. This remarkable circumftance perceived, on making the firll incifion, by her mo-
■was much like thofe 5f Empedocles and Afclepiades. tion and cries, that (he was (till alive ; that this cir-
Thefe inllances would perhaps be more frequent, were cumftance rendered him fo odious, that he was obliged
men of fkill and abilities called in cafes of fudden death, to fly; and that he was fo much affedled by it, that he
in which people of ordinary knowledge are often decei- died foon after.—On this occafion, we cannot forbear
ved by falle appearances. to add an event more recent, but no lefs melancholy.
A man may fall into a fyncope, and may remain in The Abbe Prevoft, fo well known by his writings and
that condition three or even eight days. People in this the Angularities of his life, was feized with a fit of the
-fituation have been known to come to life when depo- apoplexy, in the fordl of Chantilly, on the 23d of
filed among the dead. A boy belonging to the hofpi- O&ober 1763. His body was carried to the neareft
tal at Calfel appeared to have breathed his laft : he village, and the officers of juftice were proceeding to
was carried into the hall where the dead were expofed, open it, when a cry which he fenf forth affrightened
and was wrapped up in a piece of canvas. Some time aU the affiftants, and convinced the furgeon that the
.after, recovering from his lethargy, he recolle&ed the Abbe was not dead ; but it was too late to fave him,
.place in which he had been depofited, and crawling as he had already received the mortal wound,
towards the door knocked again ft it with his foot. Even in old age, when life feems to have been gra-
This noife was luckily heard by the centinel, who foon dually drawing to a clofe, the appearances of death are
perceiving the motion of the canvas called for affiftance. often fallacious. A lady in Cornwall, more than 80^'"'"*’
The youth was immediately conveyed to a warm bed, years of age, who had been a confiderable time decli- volHV*
and foon perfedlly recovered. Had his body been con- ning, took to her bed, and in a few days feemingly ex- p. 456.
fined by clofe bandages or ligatures, he would not pired in the morning. As fhe had often defired not to
Lave been able, in all probability, to make himfelf be be buried till Ihe had been two days dead, her requeft
(heard : his unavailing efforts would have made him was to have been regularly complied with by her rela-
N0 167. tions.
I N T [28
Interment ttotil. All that favst her looked upon her as dead, and
v. . -y'— report was current throu gh the whole place ; nay,
a gentleman of the town actually wrote to his friend in
the ifland of Scilly that flie was deceafed. But one
of thofe who were paying the laft kind office of huma¬
nity to her remains, perceived fome warmth about the
middle of the back; and acquainting hei friends with it,
they applied a mirror to her mouth; but, after re¬
peated trials, Could not obfefve it in the leaft Gain¬
ed ; her under javv was likewife fallen, as the common
phrafe is; and, in ffiort, (he had every appearance of
a dead perfon. All this time the had not been ftripped
or dreffed; but the windows were opened, as is ufual in
the chambers of the deceafed. In the evening the heat
feemed to increafe, and at length flie was perceived to
breathe.
In ffiort, not only the ordinary figns are very un¬
certain, but we may fay the fame of the ftiffnefs of the
limbs, which may beeonvuliive ; of the dilation of the
pupil of the eye, which may proceed from the fame
eaufe; of pntrefa&ion, which may equally attack fome
parts of a living body; and Of feveral others. Haller,
convinced of the uncertainty of all thefe figns, pro-
pofes a new one, which he confiders as infallible. “ If
the perfon (fays he) be ftill in life, the mouth will im¬
mediately mut of itfelf, becaufe the contraction of the
mufcles of the jaw will awaken their irritability.” The
jaw, however, may be deprived of its irritability
though a man may not be dead. Life is preftrved a
long time in the paffage of the intdlines. The figh
pointed out by Dr Fothergill appears to deferve more
attention-. “ If the air blown into the mouth (fays this
phyfician) paffes freely through all the alimentary
channel, it affords a ftrong prefumption that the irri¬
tability of the internal fphin&ers is deftroyed, and
confequently that life is at an end.” Thefe figns, which
deferve to be confirmed by new experiments, are doubt-
lefs not known to undertakers.
The difficulty of diftinguiffiing.a perfon apparently
dead from one who re really fo, has, in all countries
■where bodies have been ^interred too precipitately,
tendered it neceffary for the law to affift humanity.
Of feveral regulations made on this fubjedl, we fhall
quote only a few of the moft recent; fuch as thofe
of Arras in 1772 ; of Mantua in 1774; of the Grand
Duke of Tufcany in 1775 ; of the Senechauffee of
Sivrai, in Poitou, in 1777 ; and of the Parliament
of Metz in the fame year. To give an ‘idea of
the reft, it will be fufficient to relate only that of
Tufcany. By this edidl, the Grand Duke forbids
the precipitate interment of perfons who die fudden-
ly. He orders the Magiftrates of Health to be in¬
formed, that phyficians and furgeons may examine
the body ; that they may ufe every endeavour to reed
it to life, if poffible, or to difeover the caufe of its
death ; and that they ffiall make a report of their
procedure to a certain tribunal. On this occafion, the
Magiftrate of Health orders the dead not to be cover¬
ed until the moment they are about to be buried, ex¬
cept fo far as decency requires ; obferving always that
the body be not clofely confined, and that nothing
may comprefs the jugular veins and the catotid ar¬
teries. He forbids people to be interred according
to. the ancient method; and requites that the arms and
the hands fhould be left extended, and that they
Vol. IX. Part. I.
]
I N T
ffiould not be folded of placed crofs-wife upon the Intermenf,
breaft. He forbids, above all, to prefs the jaws one
againft the other ; or to fill the mouth and noftrils. . •
with cotton, of other fluffing. Laftly, he recom¬
mends not to cover the vifage with airy kind of cloth
until the body is depofited in its coffin.
We lhatl conclude this article by fubjointng, from
Dr Hawes’s Addrefs to the Public on his fubjetl, a few
of the cafes in which this fallacious appearance of
death is moft likely to happen, together with the re-
fpedtive modes of treatment which he recommends.
In apopleftic and fainting fits, and in thofe arifing
from any violent agitation of mind, and alfo wheft
opium or fpirituous liquors have been taken in too
great a quantity, there is reafon to believe that the
appearance of death has been frequently miftaken for
the reality. In thefe cafes, the means recommended
by the Humane Society for the Recovery of Drowned Per¬
fons fhould be perftvered in for feveral hours, and
bleeding, which in fimilar circumftances has fometimes
proved pernicious, (hould be ufed with great caution.
(See the article Drowning.) In the two latter in¬
fiances it will be highly expedient, with a view of coun-
terafting the foporific effefts of opium and fpirits, to
convey into the ftomach, by a proper tube, a folution
of tartar emetic, and by various other means to excite
vomiting.
From the number of children carried off by con-
vulfions, and the certainty arifing from undoubted
fafts, that fome who have in appearance died from that
caufe have been recovered ; there is the greateft rea¬
fon for concluding, that many, in confequence of this
difeafe, have been prematurely numbered among the
■ dead; and that the fond parent, by negleding the
means of recalling life, has often been the guiltlefs exe¬
cutioner of her own offspring. To prevent the com-
miffioa of fuch dreaful miftakes, no child, whofe life
has been apparently extinguiffied by convulfions, fhould
be configned to the grave till the means of recovery '
above recommended in apoplexies, &c. have been tried;
and, if poffible, under the dire&iori of fome fkilful prac¬
titioner of medicine, who may vary them as Circum¬
ftances fhall require.
When fevers arife in weak habits, or when the cure
of them has been principally attempted by means of
depletion, ihe confequent debility is often very great,
and the patient fometimes finks into a ftate which
bears fo clofe an affinity to that of death, that there is
reafon to fufpeft it has too often deceived the by-
ftanders, and induced them to fend for the undertaker
when they fhould have had recourfe to the fuccours of
medicine. In fuch cafes, volatiles, eau de luce for ex¬
ample, ffiould be applied to the nofe, rubbed on the
temples, and fprinkled often about the bed ; hot
flannels, moiftened with a ftrong folution of campho¬
rated fpirit, may likewife be applied over the breaft,
and renewed every quarter of an hour ; and as foon as
the patient is able to fwallow, a tea-fpoonful of the
ftrongeft cordial fhpuld be given every five minutes.
The fame methods may alfo be ufed with propriety
in the fmall-pox when the puftules fink, and death ap¬
parently enfues; and likewiie in any other acute dif-
eafes', when the vital fuiidtions are fofpended from a fi¬
milar caufe.
INTERMITTENT, or Intermitting, Fevers
N n fuch
I N T [28
Interpola- fach fevers as go off and foon return again, in oppofi-
tioo to thofe which are continual See. (the Index fub-
^joined to) Medicine.
INTERPOLATION, among critics, denotes a
J fpurious paffage inferted into the writings of fome an¬
cient author.
INTERPOSITION, the fituation of a body be¬
tween two others, fo as to hide them, or prevent
their a&ion.
The eclipfe of the fun is occafioned by an interpo-
fition of the moon between the fun and us; and that
of the moon by the interpofition of the earth between
the fun and moon. See Eclipse.
INTERPRETER, a perfon who explains the
thoughts, words, or writings, of fome other, which
before were unintelligible.—The word interpret, ac¬
cording to Ifidore, is compofed of the prepofuion in¬
ter, and partes, as fignify ing a perfon in the middle
betwixt two parties, to make them mutually under-
ftand each others thoughts: others derive it from in¬
ter, and pras, i. e. fidejujfor; q. d. a perfon who fervea
as fecurity between two others who do not underftand
one another.
There hpve been great debates about interpreting
Scripture. The Romanifts contend, that it belongs ab-
folutely to the church : adding, that where Ihe is fir
lent, reafon may be confulted ; but where Ihe fpeaks,
reafon is to be difregarded. The Proteftants generally
allow reafon the fovereign judge, or enterpreter ; tho’
fome among them have a ttrong regard to fynods, and
others to the authority of the primitive fathers. Laft-
ly, others have recourfe to the Spirit within every
perfon to interpret for them ; which is what Bochart
calls
INTERREGNUM, the time during which the
throne is vacant in ele&ive kingdoms ; for in fuch as
are hereditary, like ours, there is no fuch thing as an
interregnum.
INTERREX, the magiftrate who governs during
an interregnum-
This magiftrate was eftablilhed in old Rome, and
was almoft as ancient as the city itfelf: after the death
of Romulus there was an interregnum, of a year, du¬
ring which the fenators were each interrex in their
turn, five days a piece.
After the eftablilhment of confuls and a common¬
wealth, though theie were no kings, yet the name and
fun&ion of interrex was ftill preferved: for, when the
magiftrates were abfent, or there was any irregularity
jrt their eleftion, or they had abdicated, fo that the
comitia could not be held ; provided they were un¬
willing to create a di&ator, they made an interrex,
whofe office and authority was to laft five days; af¬
ter which they made another. To the interrex was
delegated all the regal and confular authority, and he
performed all their fundlions. He affembled the fe-
nate, held comitia or courts, and took care that the
ele&ion of magiftrates was according to rules. Indeed
at firft it was not the cuftom of the interrex to hold
comitia, at leaft we have no inftance of it in the Ro¬
man hiftory. The patricians alone had the right of
eleaing an interrex ; but this office fell with the repub¬
lic, when the emperors made themfelves mailers of
every thing.
INTERROGATION, Erotesis, a figure of rhe-
6
2 ] I N T
toric, in which the paffion of the fpeaker introduces a Interfog*.
thing by way of queftion, to make its truth more con- torie8
fpicuous. Interval
The interrogation is a kind of apoftrophe which the . ^ 'f
fpeaker makes to himfelf; and it mull be owned, that J
this figure is fuited to exprefs moft paffions and emo¬
tions of the mind ; it ferves alfo to prefs and bear
down an adverfary, and generally adds an uncom¬
mon brifknefs, action, force, and variety, to difcourfe.
Interrogation, in grammar, is a point which
ferves to diftinguilh fuch parts of a difcourfe, where the
author fpeaks as if he were afking queftions. Its form
is this (?).
INTERROGATORIES, in law, are particular
queftions demanded of witneffes brought in to be exa¬
mined in a caufe, efpecially in the court of chancery.
And thefe interrogatories mull be exhibited by the par¬
ties in fuit on each fide ; which are either direct for the
party that produces them, or counter, on behalf of the
adverfe party ; and generally both plaintiff and defen¬
dant may exhibit, diredt, and counter, or crofs interro¬
gatories. They are to be pertinent, and only to the
points necefiary ; and either drawn or perufed by coun-
fel, and to be figned by them.
INTERSECTION, in mathematics, the cutting
of one line, or plane, by another; or the point or
line wherein two lines, or two planes, cut each other.
The mutual interfedlion of two planes is a right line.
The centre of a circle is in the interfedlion of two dia¬
meters. The central point of a regular or irregular fi¬
gure of four fides, is the point of interfedlion of the
two diagonals.
The equinoxes happen when the fun is in the inter-
fedtions of the equator and ecliptic.
INTERSPINALES. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles.
INTERVAL, the diftance or fpace between two
extremes, either in time or place. The word comes
from the Latin intervallum, which, according to Ifi-,
dore, fignifies the fpace inter fojfam 1$ murum, “ be¬
tween the ditch and the wallothers note, that the
flakes or piles, driven into the ground in the ancient
Roman bulwarks, were called valla ; and the interftices
or vacancy between them, intervalla.
Interval, in mufic. The ditlance between any
given found and another, ftridlly fpeaking, is neither
meafured by any common ftandard of extenfion nor
duration ; but either by immediate fenfation, or by
computing the difference between the numbers of vi¬
brations produced by two or more foaorous bodies,
in the adt of founding, during the fame given time.
As the vibrations are flower and fewer during the fame
inftant, for example, the found is proportionally lower
or graver ; pn the contrary, as during the fame period
the vibrations increafe in number and velocity, the
founds are proportionably higher or more acute. An
interval in mufic, therefore, is properly the difference
between the number of vibrations produced by one fo-
norous body of a certain magnitude and texture, and of
thofe produced by another of a different magnitude and
texture in the fame time.
Intervals are divided into confonant and diflbnant,
A confonant interval is that whofe extremes, or whofe
higheft and loweft founds, when fimultaneoufly heard,
coalefce in the ear, and produce an agreeable fenfatioa
called
Interval.
I N T [ 283 ] I N T
called by Lord Karnes a tertium quid. A diflbnant in¬
terval, on the contrary, is that whofe extremes, fimul-
taneoufly heard, far from coalefcing in the ear, and
producing one agreeable fenfation, are each of them
plainly diftihguilhed from the other, produce a gra¬
ting effeft upon the fenfe, and repel each other with an
irreconcileable hoftility. In proportion as the vibra¬
tions of different fonorous bodies, or of the fame fono-
rous body in different modes, more or lefs frequently
coincide during the fame given time, the chords are
more or lefs perfeft, and confequently the intervals
more or lefs confonant. When thefe vibrations never
coincide at all in the fame given time, the difcord is
confummate, and confequently the interval abfolutely
diffonant.
Intervals are not only divided according to their na¬
tures, but alfo with refpedt to their degrees. In this
view, they are either enharmonic, chromatic, or diato¬
nic. Of thefe therefore in their order, from the leaf! to
the greateft.
An enharmonic interval is what they call the eighth
part of a tone* or the difference between a major and
minor femitone generally diflinguifhed by the name of
a comma. Commas, however, are of three different
kinds, as their quantities are more or lefs; but fince
thefe differences cannot be afcertained without long and
intricate computations, it is not neceffary for us to at¬
tempt an inveftigation, whofe purfuit is fo unpleafant,
and vvhofe refult attended with fo little utility. It has
by muficians been generally called the eighth part of a
tone; but they ought to have confidered, that a comma
is by no means the objeft of auricular perception, and
that its eflimate can only be formed by calculation.
For a more minute difquifition of this matter, our
readers may confult the article Comma in the Mu-
fical Dt&ionary, or the article Music in this Work,
Notes, n and s. A chromatic interval confifts proper¬
ly of a minor femitone, but may alfo admit the major.
A diatonic interval confifts of a femitone-major at lead,
but may confifl of any number of tones within the oc¬
tave. When an odtave higher or lower is affumed, it
is obvious that we enter into another fcale which is
either higher or lower, but flill a repetition of the
former degrees of found.
Intervals again are either fimple or compound. All
the intervals within any one oftave are fimple; fuch as
the fecond major or minor, the third, the fourth, the
fifth, the fixth, the feventh, &c. of thefe afterwards.
All intervals whofe extremes are contained in different
oftaves, fuch as the ninth, the tenth, the eleventh, the
twelfth, the thirteenth, the fouiteenth, the fifteenth,
&c. may be termed compound intervals.
The femitone either exadtly or nearly divides the
tone into two equal parts. In the theory of harmo-
nical computation three kinds of femitones are rccog-
nifed, viz. the greatell, the intermediate, and the fmall-
eft. femitone. But in praftice, to which thefe expli¬
cations are chiefly adapted, the femitone is only di-
ffinguifhed into major and minor. The femitone ma¬
jor is the difference between the third major and the
fourth, as EF. Its ratio is as 15 to 16, and it forms
the lead of all diatonic intervals.
The femitone minor confids of the difference be¬
tween the third major and minor: it may be marked
in the fame degree by a fharp or a flat, and it only
forms achromatic interval; its ratio is 33,24 to 25.
Though fome didinftion is made between thefe fe¬
mitones by the manner of marking them, yet on the
organ and harpfichord no didindlion can be made } nor
is there any thing more common for us than to fay, that
D fharp in rifing is E fiat in defcending, and fo through
the whole diapafon above or below; befides, the femi¬
tone is fometimes major and fometimes minor, fome-
times diatonic and fometimes chromatic, according to
the different modes in which we compofe or praftife;
yet in pra&ice thefe are called femitones minor, which
are marked by (harps or flats, without changing the
’degiee ; and femitones major are thofe which form the
interval of a fecond.
With refpeft to the three femitones recognifed ia
theory, the greated femitone is the differerce between
a tone major and a femitone minor; and its ratio is as
25 to 27. The intermediate femitone is the difference
between a femitone major and a tone major; and its
raito is as 128 to 135. In a word, the fmall femitone
confids of the difference between the greated and the in¬
termediate femitone ; and its ratio is as 125 to 128.
Of all thefe intervals, there is only the femitone
major, which is fometimes admitted as a fecond in har¬
mony.
The interval of a tone which charafterifes the dia¬
tonic fpecies of compofition, is either major or minor
The former confills of the difference between thefourtk
and fifth ; and its ratio is as 8 to 9 : and the latter,
whofe ratio is as 910 io, refults from the difference
between the third minor and the fourth.
Seconds are didinguifhed into four kinds: two of
which are not in praftife fufficiently momentous to be
mentioned. The fecond major is fynonymous with'the
intervals of a tone; but as that tone may be either
major or minor, its ratio may be either as 8 to 9, or as
9 to 10.
The fecond minor confifts of the didance from B to
C, or from EF ; and its ratio is as 15 to 16.
The third is fo called, becaufe it confids of two
gradations, or three diatonic founds, as from G to B
afcending, or from A to C, inclufive of the extremes;
of which the fird is a third major, compofed of two
full tones, and its ratio as 4 to 5 ; the fecond, a third
minor confiding of a tone and a femitone major, and its
ratio as 5 to 6.
The fourth has by fome been reckoned an imperfedb,
but more juflly by others a perfeft, chord. It con-
fids of three diatonic degrees, but take its name from
the four different founds of which it is formed ; or, in
other words, the number by which it is denominated
includes the extremes. It is compofed of a tone ma¬
jor, a tone minor, and a femitone major, as from C to
F afcending; its ratio as 3 to 4.
The fift'i next to the odtave, is, perhaps, the mod
perfeft interval, as lead fufceptible of alteration. The
number from whence it affumes its name likewife in-
cluds its extremes. It confids of two tones major, one
minor, and a femitone major, as from A to E afcend¬
ing ; its ratio is as 2 to 3.
The fixth is not found among the natural order of
confonances, but only admitted by combination. It
is not here neceffary to mention its various diftin&ions
N n 2 and
Interval.
• See Con*
finance.
I N T L 284 ] I N T
and ufe», as we only give an account of intervals in ge¬
neral.
The fixth major confifts of four tones and a femi-
tone major, as from G to E afcending; its ratio is as
3 to 5. The fixth minor contains three tones and two
iemitones major, as from E to C afcgnding; its ratio
is as 5 to 8.
The feventh, as a reduplication of the fecond, is a
diffonance. When major, is confitts diatonically of
five tones, three major, and two minor; and a major
femitone, as from C to B afcending ; its ratio is as
8 to 15. -
When minor, it eonfifts of four tones, three major
and one minor, and two major fonitones, as from E to
1) afcending; its ratio is as 5 to 9.
The odfave is the moft perfect of all chords, and in
many cafes hardly to be dittinguifhed by the ear from
an unifon ; that is to fay, from that coincidence of
found produced by two mufical firings, whofe mat¬
ter, lengths, diameters, and tenfions, are the fame.
As the vibrations of two firings in unifon during any
given time, are precifely coincident ; fo whilft the
loweft exteme of the o&ave vibrates once, the high-
eft vibrates twice ; and confequently its ratio is as 1
to 2, as from c to C afcending. It confifts of fix full
tones and two femitones major. Its name is derived
from the Latin ctto, “ eightbecaufe that number
likewife includes its extremes. It may likewife be di¬
vided into twelve femitones. It contains the whole
diatonic fcale; and every feries above or below con¬
fifts only of the fame returning founds. From whence
the natures, diftances, and powers, of every interval
greater than the oiftave, as the ninth, the tenth, the
eleventh, the twelfth, the thirteenth, the fourteenth,
the fifteenth, the triple o&ave, &c. may eafily be com¬
puted.
During our paft obfervations upon the term interval,
we have either wholly neglefted our faithful aflbciate
M. Roufleau, or only maintained a diftant and mo¬
mentary intercourfe with him. We now propofe to
pay him a more permanent and familiar vitit; but as
he is engaged in the difpute between the Pythago¬
reans and Ariftoxenians, we think it more advanta¬
geous to decline the controverfy, and to follow him,
after having efcaped the fray, like a gentleman and a
fcholar. Having put the partizans of Ariftoxenus to
filence, let us, with him, forfake the lifts of combat,
nor ftain his triumph by infulting the falling cham-
pions.
“ We divide (fays he) as did the ancients, in¬
tervals into confonant and diffonant. The confonan-
ces are perfedt or imperfedi * ; diffonances are either
fuch by nature, or become fuch by accident. There
are only two intervals naturally diflbnant, viz, the fe¬
cond and feventh, including their odfaves or replica¬
tions ; nay, ftill thefe two may be reduced to one a-
lone, as the feventh is properly no more than a repli¬
cation of the fecond; for B, the feventh above the
loweft C, where we have generally begun the fcale, is
really an odtave above B, the note immediately below
that C; and confequently the interval between thefe
lower founds is no more than that of a fecond major,
to which all diffonances may therefore be ultimately
reduced, whether confidered as major or minor ; but
even all the confonances may become diffonant by ac¬
cident. See Discord.
“ Befides, every interval is either Ample or redu¬
plicated. Simple intervals are fuch as the limits of a
Angle odlave comprehend. Every interval which fur-
paffes this extent is reduplicated ; that is to fay, com¬
pounded of one or more o&aves, and of the Ample in¬
terval whofe replication it is.
“ Simple intervals are Hkewife divided into dire&
and inverted. Take any Ample interval whatever for
a diredt one ; the quantity which, added to itfelf, is re¬
quired to complete the odlave, will be found an invert¬
ed interval; and the fame obfervation holds recipro¬
cally true of fuch as are inverted.
“ There are only fix kinds of fimple intervals; of
which three contain fuch quantities, as, added to the
other three, are required to complete the odtave;
and of confequence likewife the one muft be inver-
fions of the other. If you take at firft the fmalleft in¬
tervals, you will have, in the order of diredl intervals,
the fecond, the third, and fourth; for inverted, the
feventh, the fixth, and fifth. Suppofe thefe to be di-
ie£t, the others will be inverted ; every thing here is
reciprocal.
“ To find the name of any interval whatever, it is
only neceffary to add the denomination of unity to the
degree which it contains. Thus the interval of one
degree fhall give a fecond ; of .two, a third ; of three,
a fourth; of feven, au o&ave; of nine, a tenth, &c.
But this is not fufficient to determine an interval with
accuracy ; for under the fame name it may be either
major or minor; true or falfe, diminilhed or redun-
dan t
“ The confonances which are imperfect, and the
two natural diffonances, may be major or minor;
which, without changing their degree, occafions in
the interval the difference of a ferriitone ; fo that if,
from a minor interval, wre Hill deduce a femitone, it
becomes an interval diminilhed ; if, by a femitone, we
increafe a major interval, it becomes au interval re¬
dundant.
“ The perfect confonances are by their nature in¬
variable. When their intervals are fuch as they ought
to be, we call them jujl, true: and if we dilate or
contraft this interval by a femitone, the confonance is
termed falfe, and becomes a diffonance; redundant,
if the femitone be added ; diminijhed, if it be ablt railed.
We improperly give the name of a falfe fifth to the
fifth diminiihed; this is taking the genus for the fpeciesi
the fifth redundant is every jot as falfe as the diminhh-
ed, it is even more fo in every refpecl.”
In the Mufical Di&ionary, plate C, fig. 2. may be
feen a table of all the fimple intervals prafttcable in
mufic, with their names, their degrees, their values
and theit ratios-
Having afeertained the diftindlion between major
and minor intervals, it is only neceffary to add, that
thefe may be natural or artificial. Of the natural we
have already given fome account, by afeertaining the
diftances and ratios of fuch as have been mentioned.
Of the artificial, we may obferve, that they are fuch
as change their pofition from what it naturally is in
the diatonic fcale, to what the conveniency of com-
pofition or tranfpofition requires it to be. A note
4 thus
I N T [ 285 ] I N V
Instate thus artificially heightened by a femitone, together
. with the charadler which exprefles that elevation, is
. mngue. cajje^ a Jl)arp . on the contrary, a note artificially de*
preffed by a femitone, together with the chara&er by
which that depreflion isfignified, is called aJIat. The
charafter which reftores a note thus deprefftd or raifed
to its primary (late, is called a natural. Major or mi¬
nor intervals, as they prevail, charadterife the major or
minor mode. See Mode.
INTESTATE, in law, a perfon that dies without
making a will.
1NTESTINA, in the Limutan S^Jlem, an order of
worms. See Zoologv.
INTESTINES, Intestina, in anatomy, the guts
or bowels; thofe hollow, membranous, cylindrical
parts, extended from the right orifice of the ftomach
to the anus ; by which the chyle is conveyed to the
ladleals, and the excrements are voided. See Ana¬
tomy, n0 93.
INTONATION, in mufic, the adlion of founding
the notes in the fcale with the voice, or any other gi¬
ven order of mufical tones. Intonation may be either
true or falfe, either too high or too low, either too
fharp or too flat; and then this word intonation, at¬
tended with an epithet, mult be undertlood concern¬
ing the manner of performing the notes.
In executing an air, to form the founds, and pre-
ferve the intervals as they are marked with jultnefs
and accuracy, is no inconfiderable difficulty, and
fcarcely prafticable, but by the affiltance of one com¬
mon idea, to which, as to their ultimate teft, thefe
founds and intervals mull be referred : thefe common
ideas are thofe of the key, and the mode in which the
performer is engaged; and from the word tone, which
is fometimes ufed in a fenfe almoft identical with that
of the key, the word intonation may perhaps be deri¬
ved. It may alfo be deduced from the word diatonic,
as in that fcale it is moll frequently converfant; a fcale
which appears moll convenient and moll natural to the
voice. We feel more difficulty in our intonation of
fuch intervals as are greater or leffer than thofe of the
diatonic orde.r ; becaufe, in the firll cafe, the glottis
and vocal organs are modified by gradations too large;
or too complex, in the fecond.
INTRENCHMENT, in the military art, any
work that fortifies a poll againll an enemy who at¬
tacks. It is generally takenfor a ditch or trench with
a parapet. Intrenchments are fometimes made of
fafcincs with earth thrown over them, of gabions,
hoglheads, or bags filled with earth, to cover the men
from the enemy’s fire.
INTRIGUE, an alfemblage of events or circum-
ftances, occuring in an affair, and perplexing the per-
fons concerned in it. In this fenfe, it is ufed to iig-
nify the nodus or plot of a play or romance ; or that
point wherein the principal charafters are moll em-
barraffed through the artifice and oppofition of cer¬
tain perfons, or the unfortunate falling out of certain
accidents and circumllances.
In tragedy, comedy, or an epic poem, there are
always two defigns. The firlt and principal is that of
the hero of the piece: the fecond contains the de¬
figns of all thofe who oppofe him. Thefe oppofite
caufes produce oppofite elfeCls, to wit, the efforts of
the hero for the execution of his defign, and the ef- Intrigue
forts of thofe who thwart it. As thofe caufes and de-
figns are the beginning of the action, fo thefe efforts nva ,
are the middle, and there form a knot or difficulty
which we call the intrigue, that makes the greateft
part of the poem. It lads as long as the mind of the
reader or hearer is fufpended about the event of thofe
oppofite efforts: the folution orcatallrophe commences
When the knot begins to unravel and the difficulties
and doubts begin to clear up.
The intrigue of the Iliad is twofold. The firll com¬
prehends three days fighting in Achilles’s abfence,
and confills on the one fide in the refillance of Aga¬
memnon and the Greeks, and on the other in the in¬
exorable temper of Achilles. The death of Patroclus
unravels this intrigue, and makes the begioning of a
fecond. Achilles refolves to be revenged, but Htdlor
oppofes his defign; and this forms the fecond intrigue,
which is the lalt day’s battle.
In the iEneid there are alfo two intrigues. The firll
is taken up in the voyage and landing of iEneas in
Italy; the fecond is his eilablilhment there: the op¬
pofition he met with from Juno in both thefe under¬
takings, forms the intrigue.
As to the choice of the intrigue, and the manner
of unravelling it, it is certain they ought both to
fpring naturally from the ground and fubjed of the
poem. Bolfu gives us three manners of forming the
intiigue of a poem: the firlt is that already mentioned;
the fecond is taken from the fable and defign of the
poet; in the third the intrigue is fo laid, as that the
folution follows from it of courfe.
INTRINSIC, a term applied to the real and ge¬
nuine values and properties, &c. of any thing, in op¬
pofition to their extrinfic or apparent values.
INTRODUCTION,in general, fignifies anything
which tends to make another in fome meafure known
before we have leifure to examine it thoroughly ; and !
hence it is ufed on a great variety of occaiions. Thus
we fpeak of the introdudion of one perfon to another;
the introdudion to a book, &c.—It is alfo ufed to
fignify the adual motion of any body out of one place
into another, wheir that motion has been occafioned
by fome other body.
Introduction, in oratory. See Oratory, n° 26.
INTUITION, among logicians, the ad whereby
the mind perceives the agreement or difagreement of
two ideas, immediately by themfelves, without the
intervention of any other ; in which cafe the mind
perceives the truth as the eye does the light, only by
being direded towards it. See Logic, n° 25. 27.
INTUITIVE evidence, is that which refultsfrom
Intuition. Dr Campbell diltinguilhes different forts
of intuitive evidence: one refulting purely from intel-
ledion, or that faculty which others have called intui¬
tion ; another kind arifing from confcioufnefs ; and a
third fort from that new-named faculty Common Sense,
which this ingenious writer as well as feveral others
contend to be a diftind original fource of knowledge,
whilft others refer its fuppofed office to the intuitive
power of the underftanding.
INVALID, a perfon wounded, maimed, or difabled
for adion by age.
At Chelfea and Greenwich are magnificent Hospi¬
tals
! N V r 286 1 I N V
Irve&ed tals. or rather colleges, built for the reception and
II accommodation of invalids, or foldiers and feamen worn
■1f V£"torr-, out in the fervice.
^ ' v' " \ye have alfo twenty independent companies of in¬
valids, difperfed in the feveral forts and garrifons.
At Paris is a college of the fame kind, called les
Jnvalides, which is accounted one of the fineft build¬
ings in that city.
INVECTED, in heraldry, denotes a thing fluted
or furrowed. See Heraldry.
INVECTIVE, in rhetoric, differs from reproof, as
the latter proceeds from a friend, arid is intended for
the good of the perfon reproved; whereas the in-
vedlive is the work of an enemy, and entirely defigned
to vex and give'uneafinefs to the perfon againft whom
it is directed.
INVEGES (Auguftin), a learned Sicilian Jefuit,
wrote in Italian an Hiftory of the city of Palermo,
and other works, which are efteemed. He died in
1677, aged 82.
INVENTION, denotes the aft of finding any thing
new, or even the thing thus found.- Thus we fay, the
invention of gunpowder, of printing, &c. The alcove is
a modern invention owing to the Moors.
The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, are of
Greek invention; the Tufcan and Compofite of Latin
invention. Janfon ab Almeloveen has written an O-
nomallicon of inventions; wherein are Ihown, in an al¬
phabetical order, the names of the inventors, and the
time, place, &c. where they are made. Pancirollus
has a treatife of old inventions that are loft, and new
ones that have been made ; Polydore Virgil has alfo
publifhed eight books of the inventors of things. De
Inventorilus Rerum.
Invention .is alfo ufed for the finding of a thing
hidden. The Romiftr church celebrates a feaft on the
4th of May, under the title of, Invention of the Holy
Crofs.
Invention is alfo ufed for fubtilty of mind, orfome-
what peculiar to a man’s genius, which leads him to a
difcovery of things new; in which fenfe we fay, a man
of invention.
Invention, in painting, is the choice which the
painter makes of the objeds that are to enter the com-
pofition of his piece. See Painting.
Invention, in poetry, is applied to whatever the
poet adds to the hiftory of the fubjeft he has chofen ;
as well as to the new turn he gives it. See Poetry.
Invention, in rhetoric, fignifies the finding out
and choofing of certain arguments which the orator is
to ufe for the proving or illuftrating his point, moving
their pafiions, or conciliating the minds of his hearers.
Invention, according to Cicero, is the principal part
of oratory : he wrote four books De Inventions, where¬
of we have but two remaining. See Oratory.
INVENTORY, in law, a catalogue or fchedule or¬
derly made, of all a deceafed perfon’s goods and chat¬
tels, at the time of his death, with their value ap-
praifed by indifferent perfons, which every executor or
adminiftrator is obliged to exhibit to the ordinary at
fuch time as he fliall appoint.
By 21 Hen. VIII. c. v. executors and adminiftrators
are to deliver in upon oath to the ordinary, indented
inventories, one part of which is to remain with the
etdiuary, and the other part with the executor or ad¬
miniftrator; this is required for the benefit of the ere- hiverary
ditors and legatees, that the executor or adminiftrator II
may not conceal any part of the perfonal eftate from lnv5^eit“#
them. The ftatute ordains, that the inventory {hall be i- f
exhibited within three months after the perfon’s de-
ceafe ; yet it may be done afterwards, for the ordinary
may difpenfe with the time, and even with its being
ever exhibited, as in cafes where the creditors are paid,
and the will is executed.
INVERARY, a parliament-town of Scotland, in
Argyleftiire, pleafantly fituated on a fmall bay formed
by the junftion of the river Ary with Loch-fin, where
the latter is a mile in width and 60 fathoms in depth.
Here is a caftle, the principal feat of the dukes of Ar-
gyle, chief of the Campbells. It is a modern building
of a quadrangular form, with a round tower at each
corner; and in the middle rifes afquare one glazed on
every fide to give light to the ftaircafe and galleries,
which has from without rathet a heavy appearance.
This caftle is built of a coarfe lapis ollaris brought from
the other fide of Loch-fin; and is of the fame kind
with that found in Norway, of which the king of
Denmark’s palace is built. The founder of the caftle,
the late Duke Archibald, alfo formed the defign of an
entire new town, upon a commodious elegant plan, be¬
coming the dignity of the capital of Argyleftiire, a
country.moft admirably fituated for fiftieries and navi¬
gation. The town hath been rebuilt agreeable to the
original defign ; and the inhabitants are well lodged in
houfes of ftonc, lime, and flate. They are fully em¬
ployed in arts and manufaclures, and plentifully fup-
plied in the produce of fea and land.—The planting
around Inverary is extenfive beyond conception, and
admirably variegated ; every crevice, glen, and moun¬
tain, difplaying tafte and good fenfe.
The value of the immenfe wood at this place, for
the various purpofes of bark, charcoal, forges, paling,
furniture, houfe and fhip building, .is thus eftimated
by Mr Knox : “ Some of the beech are from 9 to 12
feet in circumference, and the pines from 6 to 9; but
thefe being comparatively few, we ftiall ftate the me¬
dium girth of 2,000,000 trees planted within thefe laft
hundred years, at 3 feet, and the medium value at 4s.
which produces L. 400,000 ; and this, for the moft
part, upon grounds lyifit for the plough, being chiefly
compofed of hills and rock.” One of thefe hills rifes
immediately from the houfe a great height, in the form
of a pyramid, and is cloathed to the fummif with a
thick wood of vigorous ornamental trees. On this
fummit or point Archibald duke of Argyle built a
Gothic tour or obfervatory, where he fometimes
amufed himfelf. The afeent by the road feems to
be half a mile, and the perpendicular height about 800
feet.
INVERBERVIE, or Bervib, a town of Kincar-
dinefltire or the Mearns, 13 miles N. E. from Montrofe.
It lies between two fmall hills, which terminate in high
cliffs towards the fca; and though a royal borough,
and the only one in the country, it is but a fmall
place, the inhabitants of which are chiefly employed in
making thread.
1NVERKE1THING, a parliament-town of Scot¬
land, in the county of Fife, fituated on the northern
Ihore of the Frith of Forth, in W. Long. 3. 15. N.
Lat. 56. 5. It was much favoured by William, who
granted
I N V [ 287 1 I N V
Tnverlochy, granted its firft charter. He extended its liberties
Inverneff. confiderably, and in the time of David I. it became a
» royal refidence. The Moubrays had large poffeffions
here, which were forfeited in the reign of Robert II.
The Francifcans had a convent in this town; and, ac¬
cording to Sir Robert Sibbald, the Dominicans had
another. This town has a confiderable trade in coal
and other articles.
INVERLOCHY, an ancient caftle in the neigh¬
bourhood of Fort-lViLLiAM in Invernefsfhire. It is a-
dorned with large round towers ; and, by the mode of
building, feems to have been the work of the Englifh
in the time of Edward L who laid large fines on the
Scotch barons for the purpofe of ere&ing new caftles.
The largeft of thefe towers is called Cumin's. But
long prior to thefe ruins Inverlochy, according to
Boece, had been a place of great note, a mod opulent
city, remarkable for the vaft refort of French and Spa¬
niards, probably on account of trade. It was alfo a
feat of the kings of Scotland, for here Achaius in the
year 790 figned (as is reported) the league offenfive
and defenfive between himfelf and Charlemagne. In
after-times it was utterly deflroyed by the Danes, and
never again reilored.
In the neighbourhood of this place were fought two
fierce battles, one between Donald Balloch brother to
Alexander lord of the ifles, who with a great power
invaded Lochaber in the year 1427 : he was met by
the earls of Mar and Caithnefs; the lall was llain, and
their forces totally defeated. Balloch returned to the
ifles with vaft booty, the objedt of thofe plundering
chieftains. Here alfo the Campbells under the mar¬
quis of Argyle, in February 1645, received from Mon-
trofc an overthrow fatal to numbers of that gallant
name. Fifteen hundred fell in the adtion and in the
purfuit, with the lofs only of three to the royalifts.
Sir Thomas Ogilvie, the friend of Montrofe, died of
his wounds. His death fuppreffcd all joy for the
vidtory-
INVERNESS, capital of a county of the fame
name in Scotland, is a parliament town, finely feated
on the river Nefs, over which there is a ftone-bridge of
feven arches, in W. Long. 40. N. Lat. 57. 36. It is
large, well built, and very populous, being the laft
town of any note in Britain. As there are always re¬
gular troops in its neighbourhood, there is a great air
of politencfs, a plentiful market, and more money and
bufinefs ftlrring than could have been expedted in fuch
a remote part of the ifland. The country in the neigh¬
bourhood is remarkably well cultivated ; and its pro¬
duce clearly flrows that the foil and climate are not
defpicable. The falmon-fiihery in the Nefs is very
confiderable, and is let to London fiihmongers. Some
branches both of the woollen, linen, and hemp manu-
fadture, are alfo carried on here ; and, in confequence
of the excellent military roads, there is'a great propor¬
tion of inland trade. But befides all this, Invernefs is
a port with 20 creeks dependent upon it, part on the
Murray Frith to the eaft, and part on the north of the
town, reaching even the fouth border of the county of
Caithnefs. Invernefs has feveral good fchools; and it
is now intended to eredt an academy there on an ex-
tenfive fcale. The inhabitants fpeak the Erfe and
Engliih language promifcuoufly. On an eminence near
the town are the remains of a caftle, where, according
to feme hiftorians, the famous Macbeth murdered Invernefs.
Duncan his royal gueft.  —nj
InrERNESs-Shire, a county of Scotland, bounded on
the north by Rofsihire; on the eaft by the ihires of
Nairne, Murray, and Aberdeen ; on the fouth, by
thofe of Perth and Argyle ; and on the weft, by the
Atlantic Ocean. Its extent from north to fouth is*
above 50 miles; from eaft to weft about 80 The
northern part of this county is very mountainous and
barren. In the diftridt of Glenelg are feen the ruins
of feveral ancient circular buildings, fimilar to thofe in
the Weftern Ifles, Sutherland, and Rofs (hires; con¬
cerning the ufes of which antiquaries are not agreed.
In their outward appearance, they are round and ta¬
pering like glafs-houfes. In the heart of the wall,
which is perpendicular within, there are horizontal
galleries going quite round and conne&ed by ftairs.
Thefe afcend toward the top, which is open. They
are all built of done, without lime or mortar of any
kind. They have no opening outward, except the
doors and the top; but there are feveral in the infide,
as windows to the galleries. From Bernera barracks,
in this diftridf, proceeds the military road to Inver¬
nefs.
This county is nearly divided by water; and it ap¬
pears from a late furvey, that by means of a canal
uniting Loch Nefs, Loch Oich, Loch Lochy, and
Lochiel or Loch Eil, a communication might be rea¬
dily opened here between the two feas. In this tra<ft.
Fort George, Fort Auguftus, and Fort William, form
what is called the Chain of Forts acrofs the ifland.
By means of Fort George on the eatt, all entrance up,
the Frith towards Invernefs is prevented; Fort Au.-
guftus curbs the inhabitants midway ; and Fort Wil¬
liam is a check to any attempts in the weft. Detach¬
ments are made from all thefe garrifons to Invernefs,
Bernera barracks oppofite to the ifle of Skie, and
caftle Duart in the ifle of Mull. Other fmall parties
are alfo fcattered in huts throughout the country, to
prevent the dealing of cattle.
The river Nefs, upon which the capital of the (hire is
fituated, is the outlet of the great lake called Loch Nefs.
This beautiful lake is 22 miles in length, and for the
moft part one in breadth. It is (kreened. on the north-
weft by the lofty mountains of Urquhart and Meal-
fourvony, and bordered with coppices of birch and
oak. The adjacent hills are adorned with many ex-
tenfive forefts of pine ; which afford (helter to the
cattle, and are the retreat of (lags and deer. There is
much cultivation and improvement on the banks of
Loch Nefs; and the pafture grounds in the neighbour¬
ing valleys are excellent.—From the fouth, the river
Fyers defcends towards this lake. Over this river
there is built a ftupendous bridge, on two oppofite
rocks; the top of the arch is above too feet from the
level @f the water. A little below the bridge is the
celebrated Fall of Fyers, where a great body of water
darts through a narrow gap between two rocks, then
falls over a vaft precipice into the bottom of the chafm,
where the foam rifes and fills the air like a great cloud,
of fmoke.
Loch Oich is a narrow lake, ftretching about four
miles from eaft to weft. It is adorned with fome fmall
wooded iflands, and is furrounded with ancient trees.
Near this is the family-feat of Glengary, furrounded
by
1 N V [2
Invernefs. by natural woods of full grown fir, which extend nine
01 ten miles along the banks of the river Gary. The
waters of Loch Oich flow through Loch Nefs into
the eaftern fea.—Loch Lochy tranfmits its waters in
an oppofite direftion, this being the higheft part of
the vaft flat traft that here ftretches from fea to fea.
'This extenfive lake is above ten miles in length, and
from one to two in breadth. From the well, the wa¬
ters of Loch Arkek defcend into this lake. Out of
it runs the river Lochy, which about a mile below its
iffue from the lake, receives the Spean, a coniiderable
river, over which there is a magnificent bridge, built
by General Wade, about two miles above the place
where it falls into the Lochy. Thefe united ftreams
traverfing the plains of Lochaber, after a courfe of five
or fix miles fall into Loch Eil.
A few miles to the fouth eaft of Loch Lochy is
Glenroy or King’s Vale. The north-call end of this
valley opens on Loch Spey. A fmall river paflts
along the bottom of the vale, accompanied by a mo¬
dern road. On the declivity of the mountains, about
a mile from the river,.on either hand are feen feveral
parallel roads of great antiquity. On the north-weft
fide, five of thefe roads run parallel and clofe by each
other. On the oppofite fide are three other roads
exadlly fimilar. Thefe roads are 30 feet broad, all
perfectly horizontal, and extend eight or nine miles in
length. Their deftination or fife has baffled the con-
jeAures of antiquaries.—Not far from Fort Au-
guttus foars the pointed fummit of Bennevifh, which
is.efteemed the higheft mountain in Britain, rifing
more than 4300 feet above the level of the fta.—In
the diftridls of Moydart, Arafaick, Morer, and Knoy-
dart, there are numerous bays and creeks, along the
coaft, many of which might be excellent fifliing fta-
tions.
The fouthern part of this county is very mountain¬
ous, and is fuppofed to be the moll elevated grouiuf in
Scotland. From its numerous lakes many ftreams de¬
fcend toward both feas. In the extenfive diftridt call¬
ed Badenoch lies Loch Spey, the fource of the great
river Spey, which proceeding eaftward with an in-
creafing ftream,* enters the (hire of Murray at Rothie-
murchus, after having expanded into, a fine lake. Not
far from this is feen the lofty top of Cairngorm ; a
mountain celebrated for its beautiful rock-cryftals of
various tints. Thefe are much efteemed by lapidaries;
and fomeof them, having the luftreof fine gems, bring
a very high price. Limeftone, iron-ore, and fome tra¬
ces of different minerals, are found in the county ; but
no mines have yet. been worked with much fuccefs.
Its rivers and lakes afford abundance of falmon and
trout. The extenfive plains which furround the lakes
are in general fertile; and the high grounds feed many
Iheep and black cattle, the rearing and felling of which
is the chief trade of the inhabitants;—^By the prefent '
fpirited exertions of the gentlemen in this populous
county, the commerce and the indullry of the inhabi¬
tants have of late been greatly increafed ; and to faci¬
litate the communication with other parts, application
has been made to parliament for leave to levy a tax
on the proprietors of land for improving the roads and
ere&ing bridges in this extenfive ftnre. The common¬
alty in the high parts of the county and on the weft-
ern flrore fpeak Gaelic ; but the people of fafhion in
N° 168.
S8 1 T N V
Invernefs and its vicinity ufe the Englifti language,
and pronounce it with remakabfe propriety.
INVERSE, is applied to a manner of working the
rule of three. See ARtTHMtric, n° 13.
INVERSION, the a<ft whereby any thing is invert¬
ed or turned backwards. Problems in geometry and
arithmetic are often proved by inverfion ; that is, by
a contrary rule or operation.
Inversion, in grammar, is where the words of a
phrafe are ranged in a manner not fo natural as they
might be. For an inftance : “ Of all vices, the molt
abominable, and that which leaft becomes a man, is
impurity.” Here is an inverfion ; the natural order
being this; Impurity is the moft abominable of all
vices, and that which leaft becomes a man.—An inver¬
fion is not always difagreeable, but fometimes has a
good effect.
INVERTED, in mufic, is derived from the Latin
prepofition /'«, and vertere, “ to turn any thing a con¬
trary way.” The analogy of this term, and its ufe in
mufic, will appear more obvious from the fequel.
It fignifies a change in the order of the notes which
form a chord, or in the parts which compofe harmony:
which happens by fubftituting inthebafs, thofe founds
which ought to have been in the upper part: an ope-
racion not only rendered praiilicable, but greatly faci¬
litated, by the refemblance which one note has to ano¬
ther in different oftaves; whence we derive the power
of exchanging one oftave for another with fo much
propriety and fuccefs, or by fubflituting in the ex¬
tremes thofe which ought to have occupied the middle
llation ; and vice verfa.
It is certain, that in every chord there muft be a
fundamental and natural order, which is the fame with
that of its generation : but the circumftances of fuc*
cefiion, tafte, exprtfiion, the beauty of melody, and
variety, the approximation of harmony, frequently
oblige the compofer to change that order by invert¬
ing the chords, and of confequence the difpofition of
the parts.
As three thing may be arranged in fix different
orders, and four things in twenty-four; it would feerit
at firft, that a perfect chord fhould be fufceptible of
fix inverfions, and a diflbnant chord of twenty-four;
fince one is compofed of four and the other of three
founds, and fince inverfion confifts only in a tranfpofi-
tion of odlaves. But it muft be obfervecf, that in har¬
mony all the different difpofitions of acuter founds are
not reckoned as inverfions, whilft the fame founds re¬
main in the lower parts. Thus, thefe two orders of
the perfect chord ut mi fol, or C EG, and utfotmi, or
C G £, are only taken for the fame inverfion, and only
bear the fame name ; this reduces the whole of inver¬
fions of which a perfett chord is fufceptible to three ;
that is to fay, to as many inverfions as the chord
contains different founds: for the replications of the
fame found are here reckoned as nothing.
Every time, therefore, when the fundamental bafs is
heard in the loweft parts, or if the fundamental bafs
be retrenched, every time when the natural order is
preferved in the chords, the harmony is direfit. As
foon as that order is changed, or as foon as the funda¬
mental founds, without being in the lower parts, are
heard in fome of the others, the harmony is inserted.
It is an inverfion of the chord, wheli the fundamental
found
I N V [ 289 1 I N V
fimrted found is tranfpofed ; it is likewife an inverfion of the
II harmony, when the treble or any other part moves as
. nve ing~, the bafs ought to have done.
Every where, where a direft chord can be well pla¬
ced, its inverfions will likewife be fo with refpeA to the
harmony; for it is Hill the fame fundamental fuccef-
fion. Thus, at every note of the fundamental bafs, it
is in the power of the compofer to arrange the chord
at his pleafure, and of confequence every moment to
produce different inverfions ; provided that he does not
change the regular and fundamental fucceffion ; pro¬
vided alfo, that the diffonances may always be prepared
and refolved in the fame parts where they are firft
heard, that the fenfible note may always afcend, and
that fuch falfe relations may be avoided as would be
too harfh upon the ear in the fame part. This is the
key of thefe myfterious ditlin&ions which compofers
have made between thofe chords where the treble is
fyncopated, and thofe in which the bafs ought to be
fyncopated ; as, for inftance, between the ninth and the
fecond : it is thus that in the firft the chord is diredl,
and the difTonance in the treble ; in the others, the
chord is reverfed, and the dilfonance in the bafs.
With refpett to chords by fuppofition, greater pre¬
caution is neceflary in inverting them. As the found
which they add to the bafs is abfoluiely foreign to the
harmony ; it is often only tolerably there, on account
of its vaft diftance from the other founds, which ren-
dets the diffonance lefs harlh. But if thefe added
founds Ihould happen to be tranfpofed in the higher
parts, as it fometimes does ; if this tranfpofition be not
performed with much art, it may produce a very bad
effedt ; and never can this be happily pradtifed without
taking away fome other found from the chord. See,
at the article Accord in the Mufical Didtionary, the
cafes when inverjton may be pradtifed, and the choice
of fuch as are proper.
The perfedt knowledge of inverfion depends on art
and ftudy alone : the choice is a different matter ; to
this an ear and a tafte are neceffary ; experience of the
different effedts are likewife indifpenfable; and though
the choice of inverfions be indifferent with refpedt to
the foundation of the harmony, it is by no means fuch
in regard of the effedt and expreffion. It is certain,
that the fundamental bafs is formed to fupport the
harmony, and to prevail beneath. Every time there¬
fore when the order is changed and the harmony in¬
verted, there ought to be good reafons for it: with¬
out which, the compofer will fall into the vice of our
more recent mufic, where the melody of the treble is
often like what the bafs fhould be, and the bafs always
like that of the treble, where every thing is confound
ed, reverfed, difordered, without any other reafon than
to fubvert the eftablifhed order, and to fpoil the har¬
mony.
INVESTIGATION, properly denotes the fearch-
ing or finding out any thing by. the tradfs or prints
of the feet; whence mathematicians, fchoolmen, and
grammarians, come to ufe the term in their refpedfive
refearches.
INVESTING a Place, is when a general, ha¬
ving an intention to befiege it, detaches a body of
horfe to poffefs all the avenues ; blocking up the gar-
rifon, and preventing relief from getting into the place,
till the army ar.d artillery are got up to form the fiege.
Vol. IX. Part I.
INVESTITURE, in law, a giving livery of fjfiu Inveftiture
or pofiefiion. There was anciently a great variety of II
ceremonies ufed upon inveftitures; as at firft they were lnvocatlon|*
made by a certain form of words, and afterwards by
fuch things as had the greateft rcftmblance to the thing
to be transferred : thus, where lands were intended to
pafs, a turf, &c. was delivered by the granter to the
grantee. In the church, it was cuftomary for princes
to make inveititure of ecclefiaftical benefices, by deli¬
vering to the perfon they had chofen a paftoral ftaff
and a ring.
INULA, elecampane : A genus of the polyga-
mia fuperflua order, belonging to the fyrigenefia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compfitte. The receptacle is naked; the
pappus fimple; the antherse, at the bafe, ending in two
briftles. There are 22 fpecies, of which the helenium,
or common elecampane, is the mod remarkable. It is
a native of Britain ; but is cultivated in gardens for the
fake of the root, which is ufed in medicine. The root
is perennial, thick, branching, and of a ftrong odour.
The lower leaves are eight or nine inches long, and
four broad in the middle, rough on their upper fide,
but downy on the under fide. The ftalks rife about
four feet high, and divide toward the top into feveral
fmaller branches, garnilhed with oblong oval leaves
indented on their edges, ending in acute points. Each
branch is crowned with one large yellow radiated flow¬
er*, fucceeded by narrow four-cornered feeds, covered
with down. It may be propagated in autumn by feeds
or offsets.
Medicinal Ufes, &c. The root of elecampane, e-
efpecially when dry, has an agreeable aromatic fmell;
its tafte, on chewing, is glutinous, and as it were
fomewhat rancid ; in a little time it difeovers an aro¬
matic bitternefs, which by degrees becomes confider-
ably acrid and pungent. It poffeffes the general virtues
of alexipharmacs ; and is principally recommended for
promotingexpe&oration in humeral afthmas and coughs.
Liberally taken, it is faid to excite urine, and to loo-
fen the belly. In fome parts of Germany, large quan¬
tities of this root are candied, and ufed as a ftomachic
for ilrengthening the tone of the vifeera in general^
and for attenuating tenacious juices. Spirituous li¬
quors extrad its virtues in greater perfedtion than wa¬
tery ones. The former fcarce elevate any thing in di-
ftillation : with the latter an effeutial oifarifes, which
concretes into white flakes ; this poffeffes at firft the
flavour of the elecampane, but is very apt to loofe it in
keeping. Outwardly applied, a decodlion of it is laid
to cure ihe itch The root brujfed. and macerated in
ui me with balls of alhes and whortle-berries, dyes a blue
colour.
INUNDATiE, the name of the 15th order in
Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method ; confift-
ing of plants which grow in the water. See Botany,
p. 460.
INI NDATIQN, a fudden overflowing of the dry
land by the waters of the ocean, rivers, lakes, fprings,
or rains.
INVOCATION, in theology, the adt of adoring
God, and efpecially of addrefiing him in prayer for his
affidance and protedlion. See the articles Adoration
and Prayer.
The difference between the invocation of God and
O o of
I N V [ 290 ] J O A
Invocation of the faints, as praftifed by the Papifls, is thus tx-
jlj plained in the catechifmof the council of Trent. “ We
. beg of God, (fays the catechifm,) to give us good
things, and to deliver us from evil; but we pray to the
faints, to intercede with God and obtain thofe things
which we Hand in need of. Hence we ufe different
forms in praying to Qod and to the faints: to the
former we fay, hear us, have mercy on us ; to the latter
we only fay, pray for ax.” The council of Trent ex-
prefsly teaches, that the faints who reign with Jefus
Chriil offer up their prayers to God for men ; and
condemn thofe who maintain the contrary doftrine.
The Proteftants rejeft and cenfure this pradlice as
contrary to fcripture, deny the truth of the faft,
and think it highly unreafonable to fuppofe that a
limited finite being fhould be in a manner omni-
prefent, and at one and the fame time hear and attend
to the prayers that are offered to him in England,
China, and Peru ; and from thence infer, that if the
faints cannot hear their requefts, it is inconfiftent
with common fenfe to addrefs any kind of prayer to
them.
Invocation, in poetry, an addrefs at the begin¬
ning of a poem, wherein the poet calls for the affiflance
of fome divinity, particularly of his mufe, or the deity
of poetry.
INVOICE, an account in writing of the particulars
of merchandife, with their value, cuflom, charges, &c.
tranfmitted by one merchant to another in a diflant
country.
INVOLUCRUM, among botanifts, expreffes that
fort of cup which furrounds a number of flowers toge¬
ther, every one of which has befide this general cup its
own particular perianthium. The involucrum confifts of
a multitude of little leaves difpofed in a radiated man¬
ner. See Calyx.
INVOLUTION, in algebra, the raifing any quan¬
tity from its root to any height or power afiigned.
See Algebra.
10, (fab. hift.) daughter of Inachus, or according
to others of Jafus or Pirene, was prieftefs of Juno at
Argos. Jupiter became enamoured of her ; but Juno,
jealous of his intrigues, difcovered the objeft of his af-
fe&ion, and furpnfed him in'the company of lo. Jupi¬
ter changed his mittrefs into a beautiful heifer; and the
goddefs, who well knew the fraud, obtained from her
huiband the animal whofe beauty Ihe had condefcend-
ed to commend. Juno commanded the hundred eyed
Argus to watch the heifer; but Jupiter, anxious for
the fituation of lo, fent Mercury to deflroy Argus, and
to reftore her to liberty. lo, freed from the vigilance of
Argus, was now perfecuted by Juno, who fent one of
the Furies to torment her. She wandered over the
greateft part of the earth and crofied over the fea, till
at laft Ihe flopped on the banks of the Nile, ft ill expofed
to the unceafing torments of the Fury. Here flie en¬
treated Jupiter to reftore her to her natural form; and
when the god had changed her from a heifer into a
woman, fhe brought forth Epaphus. Afterwards fhe
married Telegonus king of Egypt, or Ofiris accord¬
ing to others ; and (he treated her fubjeds with fuch
mildnefs and humanity, that after death (he received
divine honours, and was worftiipped under the name of
Ifis. According to Herodotus, lo was carried away
5
by Phoenician merchants, who wifhed to make repri- Joali
fals for Europa who had been ftolen from them by the „ U
Greeks. , lJ°^n
JO AB, general of the army of king David, defeated
the Syrians and the other enemies of David, and took
the fort of Zion from the Jebufites, who, thinking it
impregnable, committed it to the care of the lame
and blind, whom they placed on the walls. He fig-
nalized himfelf in all David's wars, but was guilty of
bafely murdering Abner and Amafa. He procured
a reconciliation between Abfalom and David ; and af¬
terwards flew Abfalom, contrary to the exprefs orders
of the king. He at length joined Adonijah’s party ;
and was put to death by the order of Solomon, 1014
B. C.
JOACHIMITES, in church hiftory, the uifciples
of Joachim a Ciftertian monk, who was an abbot of
Flora in Calabria, and a great pretender to infpira-
tion.
The Joachimites were particularly fond of certain
ternaries : The Father, they faid, operated from the
beginning till the coming of the Son ; the Son, from
that time to theirs, which was the year 1260; and
from that time the Holy Spirit was to operate in his
turn. They alfo divided every thing relating to men,
to do&rine, and the manner of living, into three claf-
fes, according to the three perfons in the Trinity r
The firft ternary was that of men ; of whom the firft
clafs was that of married men, which had lafted du¬
ring the whole period of the Father ; the fecond was
that of clerks, which had lafted during the time of the
Son; and the laft was that of the monks, in which'
there was to be an uncommon effufion of grace by the
Holy Spirit: The fecond ternary was that of dodrine,
viz. the Old Teftament, the New, and the everlalting
Gofpel; the firft they afcribed to the Father, the fe¬
cond to the Son, and the third to the Holy Spirit: A
third ternaryconfifted in the manner of living, viz. un¬
der the Father, men lived according to the flelh ; un¬
der the Son, they lived according to the fldh and the
fpirit; and under the Holy Ghoft, th?y were to live
according to the fpirit only.
JOAN (Pope), called by Platina John VIIL is
faid to have held the holy fee between Leo IV. who
died in 855, and Benedift III. who died in 858.
Marianus Scotus fays, Ihe fat two years five months
and four days. Numberlefs have been the controver-
fies, fables, and conjedlures, relating to this pope. It
is faid that a German girl, pretending to be a man,
went to Athens, where ftie made great progrefs in the
fciences ; and afterward came to Rome in the fame
habit. As Are had a quick genius, and fpoke with a
good grace in the public difputations and leftures, her
great learning was admired, and every one loved her
extremely.; fo that after the death of Leo, ftie was
chofen pope, and performed all offices as fuch. Whilft
fire was in pofleflion of this high dignity, fhe was got
with child ; and as fhe was going in a folemo procef-
fion to the Lateran church, fhe was'delivered of that
child, between the Colifeum and St Clement’s church,
in a moft public ftreet, before a crowd of people, and
died on the fpot, in 857. By way of embellifhing
this ftory, may be added the precaution reported to
have been afterward taken to avoid fuch another acci¬
dent.
J O A r>} 291 ] J O A
Joan, dent. After the-fleftion of a pope, he was placed on
. J(‘‘‘una- , a chair with an open feat, called the groping chair,
v when a. deacon came moft devoutly behind and fatif-
fied himfelf of the pontiff’s fex by feeling. This pre¬
caution, however, has been long deemed unneceffary,
becaufe the cardinals now always get baftards enough
to eftablifh their virility before they arrive at the pon¬
tificate.
Joan d'Arc, or the Maid of Orleans, whofe heroic
behaviour in reanimating the expiring valour of the
French nation, though by the mofl fuperflitious means,
(pretending to be infpTred), deferved a better fate.
She was burnt by the Englifh as a forcerefs in 1421,
aged 24. See France,^ ioi.
JOANNA (St), one of the Comora iflands in the
Indian ocean, E, Long. 44. 15. S Lat. 12- 30. The
north fide fhoots out into two points, 26 miles afunder,
between which there is a great bay. This illand is a
proper place of refrefhment for the Eafl India fhips,
whole crews, when ill of the fcurvy, foon recover by
the ufe of limes, lemons, and oranges, and from the
air bf the land. The town where the king refides is
at the eaft fide of the ifland ; and though it is three
quarters of a mile in length, it does not contain above
200 houfes. Their principal houfes are built with
{tone, with a,quadrangle in the middle, and are only
one ftory high. All the other houfes, or rather huts,
are flightlycompofed of plaftered reeds; and yet the
mofques are tolerable ftru&ures, very neat and clean
in the infide. The- horned cattle are a kind of buffa¬
loes, having a large hump on their fhoulders, which is
very delicious eating; but there is not one horfe,
mule, nor afs, in all the ifland.—The original natives,
in number about 7000, occupy the hills, and are ge¬
nerally at war with the Arabian interlopers, who efta-
blifhed themfelves on the fea-coaft by conqueft, and are
.. „ about 3000 in number. Thefe latter are defcribed by
Vide ZetUr D „ v * T 1 I L
from a Gen-an anonymous letter-writer * as poor miferable be-
tleman on ings, who not being able to carry on any extenfive de-
toard an gree of cultivation, on account of their being expofed
Jndiaman, to tj)e depredations of the mountaineer natives, fubfift
fccount of c^ie^5r by fupplying the India fhips who touch there
the ifland for refrefhment with a few cattle and tropical fruits.
Joanna, According to the fame writer, the defcriptions of this
iivo, 1780. ;fland and its inhabitants by the Abbe llaynal and
Major Rooke, are not only exaggerated but erroneous ;
neither the country being fo pi&urefque in beautiful
landfcapes as the former defcribes it, nor the inhabi¬
tants meriting the refpedtable charadter given of them
by the latter. As we are not, however, competent to
decide in this matter, we fhall fubjoin the entertaining
account given by the Major.
Travels to “ though Joanna is not the largeft, yet it may
tl>e Coajl of be reckoned the principal of the Comora Iflands;
Arabia Fe- it claims fovereignty over, and exadts tribute from,
iix, let. 4. all the others: thefe pretenfions'it is however fome-
times obliged to aflert by the fword, and at pre-
fent meditates an expedition againft Mayotta, which
is in a ftate of rebellion. The natives on being afked
the caufe of their war with that people, reply, “ Ma¬
yotta like America.” They get their fupplies of arms
and ammunition from fhips that touch here; and the
arrival of fo large a fleet as the prefent will prove very
feafonable to them, as it is cuftomary for alLto make
p relents of arms and powder to the prince when he
pays a vifit on board, which he does to every one. A
falute is the compliment due on that occafion ; but as
our guns are fhotted, an apology is made for the omif-
fion of that ceremony, and the prince readily admits
of it, provided he receives a number of cartridges equal
to the guns that would have been fired.
“ The king lives at a town about 12 miles off on the
eaft fide of the ifland : two princes of the blood refide
here ; who on going their round of vifits fail not to'aflc
for every thing they fee which ftrikes their fancy ; and
of courfe the honour of making a prefent to a prince,
induces one at firft readily to grant what they requeft :
but no fooner is that done than they make frefh appli¬
cations, till we are reduced to the rude neceffuy of
putting the negative on moft of them. Thefe great
perfonages are very richly dreffed and attended by a
numerous fuite of flaves, who, like their princely ma¬
ilers, are much ftruck with the objedls they fee, but
ufe lefs ceremony in their manner of obtaining them.
Thefe black princes (for that is the complexion of them
and all the inhabitants) have by fume means or other
obtained the titles of Prince of Wales and Prince
Will: the former has probably been called fo by fome
jocofe Englifhmen as being the heir apparent, and the
natives have adopted the term, not the only one they
borrow from us. They have an officer ftyled Purfer
Jack, who feems to be at the head of the finance-
department. Of dukes they have a prodigious number,
who entertain us at their hotels for a dollar per day,
and give us for dinner very good rice and curry. Thefe
noblemen, together with a numerous tribe of others of
all ranks, make the earlieft application to every one to
folicit the honour of his company and cuftom ; even
before the fhip has let go its anchor, they come along
fide in their canoes, and produce written certificates
of their honefty and abilities from thofe who have
been here before : the purport of which is to inform
you that the bearer has given them good cheer, waffl¬
ed their linen well, and fupplied their fhip pun&ually
with all forts of refrefhments.
“ The effedl is ftriking and Angular on entering the
road to fee a vaft number of canoes, which are made of
trunks of trees hollowed out, with three or four black
fellows in each, their faces turned towards the front of
the canoe, with paddles formed like a fpade, digging
away in the water, and moving with no fmall velocity.
To keep thefe cockle-fhells fteady, and prevent them
from overfetting, they have what is termed an out¬
rigger : it is compofed of two poles laid acrofs the up¬
per part of the canoe, and extending feveral feet be¬
yond the edges thereof on each fide, joined at the ex¬
tremities by two flat pieces of wood, fo that it appears
like a fquare frame laid acrofs the canoe : they arc
very long, but fo narrow that one perfon can only fit
breadthways.
“ The price of every article here is regulated ; and
each fliip has its contraftor who engages to fupply it
with neceffaries at the eftablifhed rate.
“ We find no other animals for our fea provifions
but bullocks, goats, and fowls: the feafon for oranges
is paft, but we get moft other tropical fruits; and what¬
ever we want, have only to give in a lift to a duke, and
he provides us therewith. This, it will be thought, is a
new chara&er for a duke to appear in, and fuch it feems
to be ; but it is in fail only owing to the mode : they
J O A L *92 ] J O A
]oamna, are their own ftewards, and difpofe of the produce of
* their eftates themfelves, which noblemen of other
countries do by the intermediate aid of an agent: they
at lead a£t confidently with their charadters by an urba¬
nity of manners, which one is furprifed to meet with
in a people inhabiting a fmall fpot fecluded from the
red of the civilized world. They have a regular form
of government, and exercife the Mahometan religion :
both were introduced by Arabians who palled over
from the continent and fubdued the country. The
originaljoanna natives are by no means thoroughly re¬
conciled to this ufurpation, and dill look upon their
conquerors with an evil eye. Like their fentiments, fo
are the colours of thefe two races of men very diffe¬
rent: the Arabs have not fo deep a tinge as the others,
being of a copper complexion with better features and
a more animated countenance. 1 hey confider a black
ftreak under the eyes as ornamental ; and this they
make every day at their toilettes with a painting brulh
dipt in a kind of ointment. The cudom of chewing
the betel nut prevails greatly here, as in mod of the
Eadern countries ; and anfwers to the fadiion of
fmoking tobacco or taking fnuff with us, except that
with them it is more general. No one is without a
purfe or bag of betel; and it is looked on as a piece of
civility to offer it to your friend when you meet him
or take leave. See the articles Areca and Betel.
“ Their religion licenfes a plurality of wives and
likewife concubines. They are extremely jealous of
them, and never allow any man to fee the women : but
female drangers are admitted into the haram; and
fome Englifh ladies, whofe curiofity has led them
there, make favourable reports of their beauty, and
richnefs of apparel difplayed in a profufion of orna¬
ments of gold, filver, and beads, in form of neckla¬
ces, bracelets, and ear-rings j they wear half a dozen
or more in each through holes bored all along the outer
rim of the ear.
“ The men feem not to look with an eye of indif¬
ference on our fair countrywomen notwithdanding
they are of fo different a complexion. One of the
fi.drank among them being much fmitten with an
Englidi young lady, wilhed to make a purchafe of
her at the price of 5000 dollars; but on being in¬
formed that the lady would fetch at lead 20 times
that fum in India, he lamented that her value was fo
* far fuperior to what he could afford to give.
“ Thefe people are very temperate and abdemious,
wine being forbidden them by the law of Mahom-
med. They are frequent in prayer, attending their
mofques three or four times a-day. We are allowed to
enter them on condition of taking off our (hoes. Thefe
buildings are regular, but quite plain. In prayer the
people prodrate themfelves on the ground, frequently
kifiing it and expreffing very fervent devotion.
“ Joanna town is clofe to the fea, fituated at the foot
of a very high hill, and about a mile and a half in circuit.
The houfes are inclofed either with high done walls or
palings made with a kind of reed ; and the dreets
are little narrow alleys, extremely intricate and form¬
ing a perfect labyrinth. The better kind of houfes
aie built of done within a court-yard, have a portico to
fhield them from the fun, and one long lofty room where
they receive gueds, the other apartments being facred
to the women. The licks of their rooms are covered
with a number of fmall mirrors, bits of china ware, Joanns,
and other little ornaments that they procure from Ihips J0*’;
which come here to refrelh : the mod fuperb of them
ate furnilhed with cane fophas covered with chintz and
fattin mattreffes. Mod of the people fpeak a little
Englilh : they profefs a particular regard for our na¬
tion, and are very fond of repeating to you, that
“ Joanna man and Englilh-tnan all brothers and ne¬
ver fail to alk “ how King George do?” In gene¬
ral they appear to be a courteous and well difpofed
people, and very fair and honed in their dealings,
though there are amongd them, as in all other nations,
fome vicioufly inclined; and theft is much pra&ifed by
the lowerclafs, notwithdanding the punilhment of it is
very exemplary, being amputati on of both hands of the
delinquent.
“ The inhabitants of this ifland, like thofe of mod
hot and tropical countries, are indolent, and do not
improve by their labour the .richnefs of that foil with
which nature has bleffed them. Climate here favours ve¬
getation to fuch a degree as requires little toil in the
hulbandman; but that little is denied: fo that beyond
oranges, bananas, pine-apples, cocoa.nuts, yams, and
purllain (all growing fpontaneoufly), few vegetables
ate met with. Nor are the natural beauties of the
ifland inferior to its other advantages of plenty and
fertility ; the face of the country is very pidfurefque
and pleafing, its fcenes being drawn by the bold drokes
of Nature’s maderly pencil: lofty mountains clothed to
their very fummits, deep and rugged valleys adorned
by frequent catarafts, cafcades, woods, rocks, and rivu¬
lets, intermixed in “ gay theatric pride,” form the
landfcape. Groves are feen extending over the plains to
the very edge of the fea, formed principally by the
cocoa-nut trees, whofe long and naked Items leave a
clear uninterrupted paffage beneath ; while their tufted
and overfpreading tops form a thick dude above, and
keep off the fcorching rays of the fun. In thefe we
pitch our tents and enjoy a diort relief from the ennui
of a tedious voyage.
“ In the interior part of the ifland, furrounded by
mountains of a prodigious height, and about 15 miles
from this town, is fituated a facred lake half a mile in
circumference. - The adjacent hills covered with lofty
trees, and the unfrequented folitude of the place, feem
more calculated to infpire religious awe in thofe who
vifit this fequedered fpot, than any fanftity that is to
be difeovered in a parcel of wild ducks inhabiting it,
which are deified and wordlipped by the original na¬
tives, who confult them as their oracles on all impor¬
tant affairs, and facrifice to them. Being extremely
averfe to conduft ftrangers there, they llipulate that all
guns (hall be left at a place five miles from the lake.
The wurfhip paid to thefe birds enfures their fafety
and tranquillity; and rendering them of courfe perfectly
tame, they fearlefsly approach any one who goes
there. The Arabian part of the iflanders hold this
barbarous fuperilition in the utmoft deteltation; but
dare not forbid the practice of it, fo bigotted to it
are the others.”
JOB, or of jFoBy a canonical book of the Old
Tdtament, containing a narrative of a feries of mif-
fortunes which happened to a man whofe name was
Job, as a trial of his virtue and patience; together
with the conferences he had with his cruel friends on
the
O C r 293 ] TOG
Jobber the fubjeft of his misfortunes, and the manner in which
II he was reftored to eafe and happinefs- This book is
J0^** filled with thofe noble, bold, and figurative expreffions,
‘’"~v which corillitute the very foul of poetry.
Many of the Jewifh rabbins pretend that this rela¬
tion is altogether a fifrtion : others think it a Ample
narrative of a matter of fadt juft as it happened: while
a third fort of critics ackn wkdge, that the ground¬
work of the ftory is true, but that it is wrote in a
poetical ft rain, and decorated with peculiar circum-
ftances, to render the narration more profitable and en¬
tertaining.
The time is not fet down in which Job lived. Some
have thought that he was much ancienter than Mofes,
becaufe the law is never cited by Job or his friends,
and becaufe it is related that Job himfelf offered facri-
fices. Some imagine that this book was wrote by
himfelf; others fay, that Job wrote it originally in
Syriac or Arabic, and that Mofes tranflated it into
Hebrew: but the rabbins generally pronounce Mofes
to be the author of it; and many Chriftian writers are
of the fame opinion.
JOBBER, a perfon who undertakes jobs, or fmall
pieces of work.
In fome ftatutes, jobber is ufed for a perfon who
buys and fells for others. See Brokcr.
JOBBING, the bufinefs of a jobber.
Stock-Jobbing, denotes the practice of trafficking in
the public funds, or of buying and felling flock with a
view' to its rife or fall. The term is commonly ap¬
plied to the illegal pradlice of buying and felling flock
for time, or of accounting for the differences in the
rife or fall of any particular flock fora ftipulated time,
whether the buyer or feller be pofTefled of any fuch
real flock or not. See Stock Broker.
JOBERT (Lewis), a pious and learned Jefuit,
born at Paris in 1647. He diflinguifhed h.mfelf as
a preacher; and befides feveral other tradls wrote a
treatife entitled La Science des Medailles, which is in
good efteem. He died in 1719; and the beft edi
tion of this work is that of Paris in 1739, 2 vols
12mo.
JOCASTA, (fab. hift.) a daughter of Menceceus,
who married Laius king of Thebes, by whom fhe had
CEdipus. She afterwards married her fon CEdipus,
without knowing who he was, and had by him E-
teocles, Polynices, &c. When fhe difcovered that fhe
had married her own fon and been guilty of inceft, fhe
hanged herfelf in defpair. She is cAltdEpicajla by fome
mythologifts.
JOCKEY, in the management of horfes; the per¬
fon who trims up, and rides about horfes for fale.
JODE (Peter de), an engraver of fome note, was
a native of Antwerp. He received his firft inftruc-
tions in the art of engraving from Henry Goltzius ;
and afterwards went to Italy, in order to complete his
fludies from the works of the great mafters. He en¬
graved feveral plates in that country from different pain¬
ters ; and returned to-Antwerp about the year 1601,
where he refided till the time of his death, which hap¬
pened A. D. 1634. His works are very numerous,
and poffefs a confiderable fhare of merit.
Jmde (Peter de, the younger), was fon to the for¬
mer, and born,in 1606. From his father he learned
the art of engraving, and furpaffed him in tafle and J<-del!e
the facility of handling the graver ; though he can II.
fcarcely be faid to have equalled him in corrednefs of J0 ’'’"''
drawing, efpecially when confined to the naked parts /”"""
of the human figure. It does not appear that he went
to Italy ; but he accompanied his father to Paris,
where they engraved conjointly a confiderable number
of plates for. M. Bonefant, and Le Sieur LTmago.
His moft capital performances are from Rubens and
Vandyck. Bafan fays of him, that in feveral of his
engravings he has “ equalled the beft engravers, and
in others he has funk below himfelf.” The time of
his death is not known. He left a fon, Arnold, who
was alfo an engraver, but of very inferior merit.
JOpELLE (Stephen), lord of Limodin, was born
at Pqris in .1532 ; and diftinguiftted himfelf fo greatly
by his poetical talents, that he was reckoned one of
the Pleiades celebrated by Ronfard. He is faid to be
the firll Frenchman who wrote plays in his own lan¬
guage according to the ancient form. He was remark¬
ably ready at compofition, writing without ftudy or
labour; and was well Ikilled in polite arts and genteel
exercifes. In his younger years he embraced the re¬
formed religion, and wrote a fatire on the mafs in 100
Lat in verfes ; yet all of a fudden returned to that mafs
again. He died in 1579, very poor.
JOEL, or tie Prophecy of Joel, a canonical book
of the Old Teftament. Joel was the fon of Pethu-
el, and the fecund of the twelve lefler prophets. The
ftyle of this prophet is figurative, ftrong, and ex-
preffive. He upbraids the Ifraelites for their idolatry,
and foretels the calamities they ftiould fuffer as the pu-
niftiment of that fin : but he endeavours to fupport
them with the comfort that their miferies ftiould have
an end upon their reformation and repentance. Some
writers, inferring the order of time in which the mi¬
nor prophets lived from the order in which they are
placed in the Hebrew copies, conclude that Joel pro-
pheiied before Amos, who was contemporary with Uz-
ziah, king of Judah. Atchbilhop Ufher makes this
inference tiom Joel’s foretelling that drought, chap. i.
which Amos mentions as having happened, chap. iv. 7,
8, 9. If we coufidei the main defign of Joel’s pro¬
phecy, we ffiall be apt to conclude, that it was utter¬
ed after the captivity of the ten tribes ; for he diredls
his difeourfe only to Judah, and fpeaks diilindly of
the factifices and oblations that were daily made in the
temple.
JOGHIS, a fea of heathen religious in the Eaft In¬
dies, who never marry, nor hold any thing in private
property ; but live on alms, and pra dife ilrange feve-
rities on themfelves.
They are fubjed to a genetal, who fends them from
one country to another to preach. They are, properly,
a kind of penitent pilgrims ; and are fuppofed to be a .
branch of the ancient Gy mnofophifts.
They frequent, principally, fuch places as are con-
fecrated by the devotion of the people, and pretend
to live feveral days together without eating or drink¬
ing. After having gone through a courfe of difeipline
for a certain time, they look on themfelves as impec¬
cable, and privileged to do any thing ; upon which
they give a loofe to their paffions, and run into all
manner of debauchery.
JO-
I O G [ ^94 1 I O H
Jognes. JOGUES, or Yoogs, certain ages, aeras, Or periods,
l" ' *  of extraordinary length, in the chronology of the
Hindoos. They are four in number ; of which the
following is an account, extrafted from Halhed’s Pre¬
face to the Code of Gentoo Laws, p. xxxvi.
i>. The Suttee Jogue (or age of purity) is faid to
have lafted three million two hundred thoufand years ;
and they hold that the life of man was extended in that
age to one hundred thoufand years, and that his fta-
ture was twenty-one cubits.
2. The Tirtah Jogue (in which one third of man¬
kind was corrupted) they fuppofe to have confided of
two million four hundred thoufand years, and that
men lived to the age of ten thoufand years.
3. The Dwapaar Jogue (in which half of the hu¬
man race became depraved) endured one million fix
hundred thpufand years, and the life of man was then
reduced to a thoufand years.
4. The Collee Jogue (in which all mankind are cor¬
rupted, or rather leflened, for that is the true mean¬
ing of Collee) is the prefent sera, which they fuppofe
ordained to fubfift four hundred thoufand years, of
which near five thbufand are already paft ; and the life
of man in that period is limited to one hundred years.
Concerning the Indian chronology, we have al¬
ready had occafion to be pretty copious; fee Hindoos,
n° 19, 22. We fhall here, however, fubjoin Dr Ro-
bertfon’s obfervations on the above periods, from the
Notes to his Hijlorical Dijquiftion concerning India.
f P.360. “ If (fays hef) we fuppofe the computation of
time in the Indian chronology to be made by folar
or even by lunar years, nothing can be more extrava¬
gant in itfelf, or more repugnant to our mode of cal¬
culating the duration of the world, founded on facred
and infallible authority. From one circumftance,
however, which merits attention, we may conclude,
that the information which we have hitherto received
concerning the chronology of the Hindoos is very in-
corredf. We have, as far as I know, only five original
accounts of the different Jogues or seras of the Hin¬
doos. The firft is given by M. Roger, who received
it from the Brahmins on the Coromandel coaft. Ac¬
cording to it, the Suttee Jogue is a period of one
million feven hundred and twenty-eight thoufand
years; the Tirtah Jogue is one million two hundred
and ninety-fix thoufand years; the Dwapaar Jogue is
eight hundred and fixty four thoufand. The duration
of the Collee Jogue he does not fpecify; (Porte
Ou’uerte. p. 1 79.) The next is that of M. Bernier, who
received it from the BVahmins of Benares. Accord¬
ing to him, the duration of the Suttee Jogue was two
million five hundred thoufand years ; that of the
Tirtah Jogue one million two hundred thoufand years;
that of the Dwapaar Jogue is eight hundred and fix-
ty-four thoufand years. Concerning the period of
the Collee Jogue, he likewife is filent; (Voyages, tom.
ii. p. 16c.) The third is that of Colonel Dow; ac¬
cording to w’hich the Suttee Jogue is a period of four¬
teen million of years, the Tirtah Jogue one million
eighty thoufand, the Dwapaar Jogue feventy-two
thoufand, and the Collee Jogue thirty-fix thoufand
years ; (Hijl. of Hindojl. vol. i. p. 2.) The fourth ac¬
count is that of M. Le Gentil, who received it from
the Brahmins of the Coromandel coaft ; and as his in¬
formation was acquired in the fame part of India, and
derived from-the fame fource with that of M. Roger, Jogue*,
it agrees with his in every particular. (Mem. de I'Aca- J^hn.’
clem, des Sciences pour 1772, tom. ii. part i. p. 176.) v—
The fifth is the account of Mr Hallhed, which has
been already given. From this difcrepancy, not only
of the total humbers, but of many of the articles in
the different accounts, it is manifeft that our informa¬
tion concerning Indian chronology is hitherto as un¬
certain as the whole fyftem of it is wild and fabulous.
To me it appears highly probable, that when we un-
derftand more thoroughly the principles upon which
the fadlitious aeras or jogues of the Hindoos have
been formed, that we may be more able to reconcile
their chronology to the true mode of computing time,
7 founded on the authority of the Old Teftament ; and
may likewife find reafon to conclude, that the account
given by their altronomers of the fituation of the
heavenly bodies at the beginning of the Collee Jogue,
is not eftablifhed by atlual obfervation, but the reiult
of a retrofpeftive calculation.”
JOHN (St), the Baptist, the fore-runner ofjefua
Chrift, was the fon of Zacharias and Elizabeth. He
retired into a defart, where he lived on locufts and
wild honey; and about the year 29 began to preach
repentance, and to declare the coming of the Melfiah.
He baptized his difciples, and the following year
Chrift himfelf was baptized by him in the river Jor¬
dan. Some time after, having reproved Herod An-
tipas, who had a criminal correfpondence with Hero-
dias his brother Philip’s wife, he was call into prifon,
where he was beheaded. His head was brought to
Herodias ; who, according to St Jerome, pierced his
tongue with the bodkin file ufed to faften up her hair,
to revenge herfelf after his death for the freedom of his
reproofs.
John (St), the apoftle, or the evangelift, was the
brother of St James the Great, and the fon of Zebe-
dee. He quitted the bufinefs of fiftiing to follow
Jefus, and was his beloved difciple. He was witnefs
to the actions and mitacles of his Mafter; was prefent
at his transfiguration on mount Tabor; and was with
him in the garden of Olives He was the only apoftle
who followed him to the crofs ; and to him Jefus left
the care of his mother. He was alfo the firft apoftle
who knew him again after his refurre&ion. He
preached the faith in Afia; and principally redded
at Ephefus, where he maintained the mother of our
Lord. He is faid to have founded the churches of
-Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia,
and Laodicea. He is alfo faid to have preached the
gofpel amongft the Parthians, and to have addreffed
his firft epiftle to that people. It is related, that,
when at Rome, the emperor Domitian caufed him to
be thrown into a caldron of boiling oil, when he
came out unhurt; on which he was banifiied to the
ifle of Patmos, where he wrote his .Apocalypfe. After
the death of Dpmitian, he returned to Ephefus, where
he compofed his Gofpel, about the year 96; and died
there, in the reign of Trajan, about the year 100,
aged 94.
Gofpel of St Joan, a canonical book of the New
Teftament, containing a recital of the life, a&ions,
do&rine, and death, of our Saviour Jefus Chrift,
written by St John the apoftle and evangelift.
St John wrote his Gofpel at Ephefus, after his re¬
turn
J O H [ 295 1 J O H
John, turn from the hie of Patmos, at the dcfire of the
"■ Chriftians of Afia. St Jerome fays, he would not
undertake it, but on condition that they fhould ap¬
point a public faft to implore the affiftance of God ;
and that, the fait being ended, St John, tilled with
the Holy Ghoft, broke out into thefe words, “ In
the beginning was the Word,” &c. The ancients
eflign two reafons for this undertaking : the firft is,
becaufe, in the other three Gofpels, there was want¬
ing the hiilory of the beginning of Jefus Chrilt’s
preaching, till the imprifonment of John the Baptift,
which therefore he applied himfelf particularly to
relate. The fecond reafon was, in order to remove
the errors of the Corinthians, Ebionites, and other
fedts. But Mr Lampe and Dr Lardner have urged
feveral reafons to (how that St John did not write a-
gainft Cerinthus or any other heretics in his Gofpel.
Revelation of St John. See Apocalypse.
John of Sal'fbury, bifhop of Chartres in France,
was. born at Salilbury in Wiltihire, in the beginning
of the 12th century. Where he imbibed the rudi¬
ments of his education, is unknown ; but we learn,
that in the year 1136, being then a youth, he was
fent to Paris, where he ftudied under feveral eminent
profefibrs, and acquired confiderable fame for his ap¬
plication and proficiency in rhetoric, poetry, divinity,
and particularly in the learned languages. Thence
he travelled to Italy : and, during his refider.ee at
Rome, was in high favour with pope Eugenio III.
and his fucceffor Adrian IV. After his return to
England, he became the intimate friend and compa¬
nion of the famous Thomas Becket, archbifiiop of
Canterbury, whom he attended in his exile, and is
faid to have been prefent when that haughty prelate
was murdered in his cathedral. What preferment he
had in the church during this time, does not appear ;
but in 1176 he was promoted by king Henry If. to
the biihopric of Chartres in France, where he died in
1182. This John of Saliftmry was really a phaenome-
non. He was one of the firft reftorers of the Greek and
Eatin languages in Europe; a claffical fcholar, a philo-
fopher, a learned divine, and an elegant Latin poet. He
wrote feveral books; the principal of which are, his Life
of St Thomas of Canterbury, a colle&ion of letters, and
Polycraticon.
Rope John XXII. a native of Cahors, before called
James d'Eufe, was well fkilled in the civil and canon
law; and was elected pope after the death of Clement V.
on the 7th of Auguft 1316. He publiftied the con-
ftitutions called Clementines, which were made, by his
predeceffor; and drew up the other conftitutions called
Extravagantes. Lewis of Bavaria being elected em¬
peror, John XXII. oppofed him in favour of his com¬
petitor ; which made much noife, and was attended
with fatal confequences. That prince, in 1329, caufed
the antipope Peter de Corbiero, a cordelier, to be
eledled, who took the name of Nicholas V. and was
fupported by Michael de Cefenne, general of his or¬
der; but that antipope was the following year taken
and carried to Avignon, where he begged pardon of
the pope with a rope about his neck, and died in pri-
fon two or three years after. Under this pope arofe
the famous queftion among the cotdeliers, called the
tread of the cordeliers i which was, Whether thofe
monks had the property of the things given them, at John»
the time they were making ufe of them? for example, R ^ on\
Whether the bread belonged to them when they were
eating it, or to the pope, or to the Roman church ?
This frivolous queftion gave great employment to the
pope; as well as thofe which turned upon the colour,
form, and ftuff, of their habits, whether they ought to
be white, grey, or black ; whether the coul ought to
be pointed or round, large or fmall; whether their
robes ought to be full, fliort. or long ; of cloth, or ef
ferge, &c. The difputes on all thefe minute trifles
were j carried fo far between the minor brothers, that
fome of them were burned upon the occafion. He
died at Avignon in 1334, aged 90.
John, king of England. See England, n° 135,147.
John of Fordoun. See Fordoun.
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter, a renowned
general, father of Henry IV. king of England, died
in 1438.
John of Leyden, otherwife called Buccold. See
Anabaptists.
John Soliejki of Poland, one of the greateft war-
rioisin the 17th century, was, in 1665, made grand-
marftial of the crown; and, in 1667, grand-general of
the kingdom. His vidtories obtained over the Tartars
and the Turks procured him the crown, to which he
was eledfed in 1674. He was an encourager of arts
and fciences, and the proteftor of learned men. He
died in 1696, aged 72.
St John's Day, the name of two Chriftian feftivals;
one obferved on June 24th, kept in commemoration
of the wonderful circumftances attending the birth of
John the Baptift ; and the other on December 27th,
in honour of St John the evangelift.
St John’s Wort. See Hypericum.
John’s (St), an ifland of the Eaft-Indies, and one
of the Philippines, eaft of Mindanayo, from which it
is feparated by a narrow ftrait. E. Long. 125. 25.
N. Lat. 7. o.
John’s (St), an ifland of North-America, in the
bay of St Lawrence, having New-Scotland on the
fouth and weft, and Cape Breton on the eaft. The
Britifh got pofleffion of it when Louifbcurg was fur-
rendered to them, on July 26, 1758.
JOHNSON (Ben), one of the moft confiderable
dramatic poets of the laft age, whether we confider
the number or the merit of his produ&ions. He was
born at Weftminfter in 1574, and was educated at the
public fchool there under the great Camden. He
wasdefeended from a Scottifh family ; and his father,
who loft his eftate wnder Queen Mary, dying before
our poet was born, and his mother marrying a brick¬
layer for her fecond hufband, Ben was taken from
fehool to work at his father-in law’s trade. Not be¬
ing captivated with this employment, he went into
the Low Countries, and diftingmfhed himfelf in a mili¬
tary capacity. On his return to England, he entered
himfelf at St John’s college, Cambridge ; and having
killed a perfon in a duel, was condemned, and narrow¬
ly efcaped execution. After this he turned after; and
Shakefpeare is faid to have firft introduced him to-the
world, by recommending a play of his to the ftage*
after it had been rtjefted. His Alchymift gained him
fuch reputation, that in 1619 he was, at the death of
Me
J O H [ 296 1 J O H
Johnfnn. Mr Daniel, made poet laureat to King James Land ma-
fter of arts at Oxford. As we do not find Johnfon’s
(economical virtues any where recorded it is the lefs
to be wondered at, that after this we find him petiti¬
oning king Charles, on his acceffion, to enlarge his
father’s allowance of too merks into pounds; and
quickly after we learn, that he was very poor and fick,
lodging in an obfcure alley: on which occafion it was,
that Charles, being prevailed on in his favour, fent him
ten guineas; which Ben receiving, faid, “ His majefty
has fent me ten guineas, becauie I am poor and live
in an alley ; go and tell him, that his foul lives in an
alley.'” He died in Augult 1637, aged 63 years, and
was buried in Weftminifter-Abbey.—The moft com¬
plete edition of his works was printed in 1756, in
7 vols 8vo.,
Johnson (Samuel), an Englilh divine, remarkable
for his learning, and fteadinefs in fuffering for the prin¬
ciples of the revolution in 1688. He was born in
1649 ; and, entering into orders, obtained in 1670 the
rectory of Corringham in the hundreds of Effex, worth
no more than L. 80 a year; which was the only
church-preferment he ever had. The air of this place
not agreeing with him, he was obliged to place a cu¬
rate on the fpot, at the expence of half his income,
while he fettled at London; a fituation much more
to his liking, as he had a ftrong propenfity to poli¬
tics. The times were turbulent: the duke of York
declaring himfelf a Papift, his fucceflion to the crown
began to be warmly opposed; and Mr Johnfon, who
was naturally of no fubmiffive temper, being made
chaplain to lord William Ruffel, engaged the eccle-
fiaftical champion for paffive obedience Dr Hicks, in
a treatife intitled Julian the apojiate, &c- publi fil¬
ed in 1682. He was anfwered by Dr Hicks in a
piece intitled Jovian, &c. To which he drew up,
and printed, a reply, under the title of Julian's arts
to undermine and extirpate Chrijlianity, &c. ; but by
the advice of his friends fupprefled the publication.
For this unpublifiied work he was committed to pri-
fon ; but not being able to procure a copy, the court
profecuted him for writing the firft tradf, condemned
him to a fine of 500 merks, and to lie in prifon until it
was paid. By the afiiitance of Mr Hambden, who was
his fellow-prifontr, he was enabled to run into farther
troubles; for on the encampment of the army on
Hounflow-hca-h, in 1686, he printed and d;fperfed,
yin humble and hearty addrefs to all the Protejlants in
theprefent army; for this he was fentenced to a fecond
fine of 500 merks, to be degraded from the prieft-
hood, to Hand twice in the pillory, and to be whip¬
ped from Newgate to Tyburn. It happened luckily,
that, in the degradation, they omitted to ftrip him of
his caffock ; which circumliance, flight as it may ap¬
pear, rendered his degradation imperfedt, and after¬
wards preferved his living to him. Interceffion was
made to get the whipping omitted; but James re¬
plied, “ That fince Mr Johnfon had the fpirit of mar¬
tyrdom, it was fit he ftiould fufftr and he bore it
with firmnefs, hnd even with alacrity. On the Revolu
tion, the pailiament refolved the proceedings again!!
him to be null and illegal; and recommended him to
the king, who offered him the rich deanery of Dur¬
ham : but this he refufed, as inadequate to his fervices
N° 168.
and fufferingS, which he thought to merit a bilhopric. Johnfon.
The truth was, he was paffionate, felf-opiniated, and '"V——
turbulent; and though, through Dr Tillotfon’s means,
he obtained a penfion of 3001. a-year, with other
gratifications, he remained difeontented ; pouring forth
all his uneafinefs againft a {landing army, and the
great favours fhown to the Dutch. He died in 1703,
and his works were afterwards collected in one vo¬
lume folio.
Johnson (Dr Samuel),who has been ftyledthebright-
eft ornament of the 18th century, was born in the city
of Litchfield in Staffordfirire on the 18th of September
N. S. 1709. His father Michael was a bookfelier ;
and mull have had fome reputation in the city, as he
more than once bore the office of chief magiftrate. By
what cafuillical reafoning he reconciled his confcience
to the oaths required to be taken by all who occupy
fuch llations, cannot now be known ; but it is certain
that he was zealoufly attached to the exiled family,
and inllilled the fame principles into the youthful mind
of his fon. So much was he in earneft. in this work,
and at fo early a period did he commence it, that
when Dr Sachaverel, in his memorable tour through
England, came to Litchfield, Mr Johnfon carried hia
fon, not then quite three years old, to the cathedral,
and placed him on his Ihoulders, that he might fee as
well as hear the far-famed preacher.
But political prejudices were not the only bad things
which young Sam inherited from his father: he de¬
rived from the fame fource a morbid melancholy, which,
though it neither depreffed his imagination, nor cloud¬
ed his perfpicacity, filled him with dreadful apprehen-
fions of infanity, and rendered him wretched through
life. From his nurfe he contraHed the Jcrophula or
king’s evil, which made its appearance at a very early
period, disfigured a face naturally well-formed, and de¬
prived him of the fight of one of his eyes.
When arrived at a proper age for grammatical in-
ftrudlion, he was placed in the free fchool of Litchfield,
of which one Mr Hunter was then mailer; a man
whom his illuftrious pupil thought “ very fevere, and
■wrong-headedly fevere,’’ becaufe he would beat a boy
for not anfwering queftions which he could not expert
to be alked. He was, however, a Ikilful teacher ; and
Johnfon, when he Hood in the very front of learning,
was fenfible how much he owed to him ; for upon be¬
ing allied how he had acquired fo accurate a knowledge
of the Latin tongue, he replied, “ My mailer beat
me very well; without that, Sir, I Ihould have done
nothing.”
At the age of 15 Johnfon was removed from Lich¬
field to the fchool of Stourbridge in Worcellerlhire,
at which he remained little more than a year, and then
returned home, where he llaid two years without any
fettled plan of life or any regular courfe of lludy. He
read, however, a great deal in a defultory manner, as
chance threw books in his way, and as inclination di¬
rected him through them; fo that when in his 19th
year he was entered a commoner of Pembroke college
Oxford, his mind was llored with a variety of fuch
knowhdge as is not often acquired in uuiverfities, where
boys feldom read any books but what are put into their
hands by their tutors. He had given very early proofs
of his poetical genius both in his fchool exercifes and
"Johnfon.
T o H T 297 1 J o H
in other occafional compofitions: but what is perhaps
more remarkable, as it (hows that he mtift have
thought much on a fubjedt on which other boys of
that age feldom think at all, he had before he was 14
entertained doubts of the truth of revelation. From
the melancholy of his temper thefe would naturally
prey upon his fpirits, and give him great uneafinefs:
but they were happily removed by a proper courfe of
reading (a); for “ his ftudies being honed, ended in
conviction. He found that religion is true; and what
he had learned, he ever afterward endeavoured to
teach*”
Concerning his refidence in the univerfity, and the
means by which he was there fupported, his two prin¬
cipal biographers contradiCt each other; fo that thefe
are points of which we cannot write with certainty.
According to Sir John Hawkins, the time of his con¬
tinuance at Oxford is divifible into two periods: Mr
Bofwell reprefents it as only one period, with the ufual
interval of a long vacation. Sir John fays, that he
was fupported at college by Mr Andrew Corbet in
quality of aflidant in the dudies of his fon : Mr Bof¬
well affures us, that though he was promifed pecuniary
aid by Mr Corbet, that promife was not in any de¬
gree fulfilled. We (hould be inclined to adopt the
knight’s account of this tranfaCtion, were it not pal¬
pably inconfident with itfelf. He fays, that the two
young men were entered in Pembroke on the fame
day; that Corbet continued in the college two years ;
and yet that Johnfon was driven home in little more
than one year, becaufe by the removal of Corbet he
was deprived of his penfion A dory, of which one
part contradifts the other, cannot wholly be true. Sir
John adds, that “ meeting with another fource, the
bounty, as it is fuppofed, of fome one or more of the
members of the cathedral of Lichfield, he returned to
college, and made up the whole of his refidence in the
univerfity about three years.” Mr Bofwell has told us
nothing but that Johnfon, though his father was un¬
able to fupport him, continued three years in college,
and was then driven from it by extreme poverty.
Thefe gentlemen differ likewife in their accounts of
Johnfon’s tutors. Sir John Hawkins fays that he had
two, Mr Jordan and Dr Adams. Mr Bofwell affirms
that Dr Adams could not be his tutor, foraw/e Jordan did
not quit the college till 1731; the year in the au-
Vol. IX. Part I.
tumn of which Johnfon himfelf was compelled to leave
Oxford. Yet the fame author reprefents Dr Adams'
as faying, “ I was Johnfon’s nominal tutor, but he was
above my marka fpeech of which it is not eafy to
difeover the meaning, if it was not Johnfon’s duty to
attend Adatns’s le&ures. In moft colleges we believe
there are two tutors in different departments of edu¬
cation ; and therefore it is not improbable that Jordan
and Adams may have been tutors to Johnfon a' the
fame time, the one in languages, the other in fcience.
Jordan was a man of fuch mean abilities, that though
his pupil loved him for the goodnefs of his heart, he
would often rifle the payment of a fmall fine rather
than attend his leftures; nor was he ftudious to con¬
ceal the reafon of his abfence. Upon occafion of one
fuch impofition, he faid, “ Sir, you have fconced me
two-pence for non-attendance at a le&ute not worth
a penny.” For fome tranfgreflion or abfence his tu¬
tor impofed upon him as a Chriftmas exercife the talk
of tranflating into Latin verfe Pope’s Mefiah; which
being ftiown to the author of the original, was read
and returned with this encomium, “ The writer of
this poem will leave it a queftion for pofterity, whether
his or mine be the original ” The particular courfe of
his reading while in college and during the vacatioh
which he pafied at home, cannot be traced. That at
this period he read much, we have his own evidence
in what he afterwards told the king; but his mode of
ftudy was never regular, and at all times he thought
more than he read. He informed Mr Bofwell, that
what he read folidly at Oxford was Greek, and that the
ftudy of which he was moft fond was metaphyfics.
It was in the year 1731 that Johnfon left the univer¬
fity without a degree; and as his father, who died in
the month of December of that year, had fuffered
great misfortunes in trade, he was driven out a com¬
moner of nature, and excluded from the regular modes
of profit and profperity. Having therefore not only
a profeffion but the means of fubfiftance to feek, he
accepted, in the month of March 1732, an invitation
to the office of under-mafter of a free fchool at Mar¬
ket Bofworth in Leicefterftiire: but not knowing, as
he faid, whether it was more difagrt^able for him to
teach or for the boys to learn the grammar-rules, and
being likewife difgufted at the treatment which he re¬
ceived from the patron of the fchool, he relinquiflied
(a) Mrs Piozzi fays, that at the age of 10 Johnfon’s mind was difturbed by fcruples of infidelity, which
preyed upon his fpirits and made him very uneafy, and that they were afterwards removed by the fludy of
Crotius de merit ate, &c. This account of the early ftate of Johnfon’s mind with refpeft to religion, Mr Bof¬
well affefts to turn into ridicule, as if it were a thing abfolutely impoflible that a boy of 10 years (hould
have any religious fcruples. He fays, that Johnfon became inattentive to religion at nine; talked, but did not
think much, againft it at 14; and was firft made to think about it in earned by a cafual perufal of Laav’s ferious
ra//to fAe which he had taken up with a view to laugh at it. That it is not common for boys
of to to have fcruples of infidelity, rouft be granted ; but that fome have had thtm fo early, the writer of this
article knows by the moft complete evidence ; and if that be admitted of Johnfon which has been true of
others, Mrs Piozzi’s narrative is natural, and honourable to him of whom it is written. But that a melan¬
choly perfon (hould talk without thinking againft religion, or that he (hould think againft it with a difpofition to
laughter, and not be at the time a confirmed alhiejl, is in itfelf fo extremely incredible, that we cannot help
fufptfling Mr Bofwell to have on this occafion miftaken the words of bis great friend. “ Law’s fericus call”
is a very good book ; but furely it is not fo well adapted to carry convidlion to a reafoning mind as Grotivs d?
veritate ; and there is in Mr Bofweli’s two volumes fufficient evidence that Johnfon was of our opinion.
Johnfon.
J O H [ 298 1 J o H
Johnfon. In a few monfiis a fituation which he ever afterwards
' v ' recollefted with horror. Being thus again without any-
fixed employment, and with very little money in his
pocket, he tranflated Lobo’s voyage to Abyflinia, for
the trifling fum, it is faid, of five guineas, which he re¬
ceived from a bookfeller in Birmingham. This was
the firft attempt which it is certain he made to pro¬
cure pecuniary affiftance by means of his pen ; and it
mufl. have held forth very little encouragement to his
commencing author by proftfiion.
In 1735, being then in his 26th year, he married
Mrs Porter, the widow of a mercer in Birmingham ;
whofe age was almoft double his ; whofe external form,
according to Garrick and others, had never been cap¬
tivating ; and whofe fortune amounted to hardly 800I.
That (he had a fuperiority of underftanding and talents
is extremely probable, both becaufe Ihe certainly infpired
him with a more than ordinary paffion, and becaufe
fhe was herfelf fo delighted, with the charms of his con-
verfation as to overlook his external difadvantages,
which were many and great. He now fet up a private
academy; for which purpofe he hired a large houfe
well Gtuated near his native city : but his name having
then nothing of that celebrity which afterwards com¬
manded the attention and refpeft of mankind, this un¬
dertaking did not fucceed. The only pupils who are
known to have been placed under his care, were the
celebrated David Garrick, his brother George Garrick,
and a young gentleman of fortune whofe name was
Offely. He kept his academy only a year and a half;
and it was during that time that he conftrufted the
plan and wrote a great part of his tragedy of Irene.
The refpe&able charadter of his parents and his
own merit had fecured him a kind reception in the beft
families at Lichfield; and he was particularly diftin-
guilhed by Mr Walmfley regifter of the ecclefiaftical
court, a man of great worth and of very extenfive and
various erudition. That gentleman, upon hearing part
of Irene read, thought fo highly of Johnfon’s abilities
as a dramatic writer, that he advifed him by all means
to finilh the tragedy and produce it on the llage. To
men of genius the ftage holds forth temptations almoft
refiftlefs. The profits arifing from a tragedy, including
the reprefentation and printing of it, and the connec¬
tions which it fometimes enables the author to form,
were in johnfon’s imagination ineftimable. Flattered,
it may be fuppofed, with thefe hopes, he fet out fome
time in the year 1737 with his pupil David Garrick
for London, leaving Mrs Johnfon to take care of the
houfe and the wreck of her fortune. The two adven¬
turers carried with them from Mr Wafmfley an earneft
recommendation to the reverend Mr Colfon, then ma¬
iler of an academy', and afterwards Lucafian profeflbr
of mathematics in the univerfity of Cambridge ; but
from that gentleman it does not appear that Johnfon
found either protedfion or encouragement.
How he fpent his time upon his firft going to Lon¬
don is not particularly known. His tragedy was refufed
by the managers of that day ; and for fome years the
Gentleman’s Magazine feems to have been his principal
refource for employment and fupport. To enumerate
his various communications to that far-famed mifcellany,
Would extend this article beyond the limits which we
can afford. Suffice it to fay, that his connexion with
Cave the proprietor became very clofe; that he wrote
prefaces, effays, reviews of books, and poems; arid Johnfost.
that he was occafionally employed in corredling the—y—
papers written by other correfpondents. When the
complaints of the nation againft the adnnniftration of
Sir Robert Walpole became loud, and a motion was
made, February 13th 1740-1, to remove him from
his majefty’s counfels for-ever,'Johnfon was pitched
upon by Cave to write what was in the Magazine en¬
titled Debates in the Senate of Lilliput, but was under-
ftood to be the fpeeches of the moft eminent members
in both houfes of parliament. Thefe orations, which
induced Voltaire to compare Britifli with ancient elo¬
quence, were haftily fketched by Johnfon while he was
not yet 32 years old, while- he was little acquainted
with life, while he was ftruggling not for diftindlion
but for exiftence. Perhaps in none of his writings has
he given a more confpicuons proof of a mind prompt
and vigorous almoft beyond conception : for they were
compofed from fcanty notes taken by illiterate perfoqs
employed to attend in both houfes; and fometimes he
had nothing communicated to him but the names of
the feveral fpeakers, and the part which they took in
the debate.
His feparate publications which at this time attraft-
ed the greateft notice were, “ London, a Poem in imi¬
tation of Juvenal’s third Satire “ Marmor Norfolci-
enfe, or an Effay on an ancient prophetical Infcription
in Monkifh Rhyme, lately difeovered near Lynne in
Norfolk and “ A complete Vindication of the Li-
cenfers of the Stage from the malicious and fcandalous
afperfions of Mr Brook author of Guftavus Vafa.”
The poem, which was publilhed 1738 by Dofley,
is univerfally known and admired as the moft fpirited
inftance in the Englifh language of ancient fentiments
adapted to modern topics. Pope, who then filled the
poetical throne without a rival, being informed that
the author’s name was Johnfon, and that he was an
obfeure perfon, replied, “ he will foon be deterred'
The other two pamphlets, which were publiftied in
1739, are filled with keen fatire on the government:
and though Sir John Hawkins has thought fit to de¬
clare that they difplay neither learning nor wit, Pope
was of a different opinion ; for in a note of his pre-
ferved by Mr Bofwell, he fays, that “ the whole of the
Norfolk prophecy is very humorous.”
Mrs Johnfon, who went to London foon after her
hulband, now lived fometimes in one place and fome¬
times in another, fometimes in the city and fometimes
at Greenwich : but Johnfon himfelf was oftener to be.
found at St John’s Gate, where the Gentleman’s Ma¬
gazine was publifhed, than in his own lodgings. It was
there that he became acquainted with Savage, with
whom he was induced, probably by the fimilarity of
their circumftances, to contradf a. very clofe friend-
fhip ; and fuch was their extreme necelfities, that they
have often wandered whole nights in the ftreet for
want of money to procure them a lodging. In one
of thefe no&urnal rambles, when their diftrefs was al¬
moft incredible, fo far were they from being depreffed .
by their fituation, that in high fpirits and brimful of
patriotifm, they traverfed St James’s Square for fe¬
veral hours, inveighed againft the minifter; and, as
Johnfon faid in ridicule of himfelf, his companion, and
all fuch patriots, “ refolved that they would ftand by
their country!” In 1744, he publiihed the life of his
un-
J O
^ohrifort. unfortunate companion;
written any thing elfe, would have placed him very
high'in the rank of authors (b). His narrative is te-
markably fmooth and well difpofed, his obfervations
are juft, and his reflexions difclofe the inmoft. recefles
of the human heart.
In 1749, when Drury-lane theatre was opened un¬
der the management of Garrick, Johnfon wrote a pro¬
logue for the occafion ; which for juft dramatic criti¬
cism on the whole range of the Englifti ftage, as well
as for poetical excellence, is confefledly unrivalled.
But this year is, in his life, diftinguifhed as the eppch
when his arduous and important work, the DiXion-
ary of the Englifti Language, was announced to the
world by the publication of its plan or profpeXu^,
addrefled to the earl of Chefterfield. From that noble¬
man Johnfon was certainly led to expeX patronage
and encouragement; and it feems to be equally cer-
H t 499 1 J O H
work which, had he never upon it feven ; for we know {hat it was begun 101747, J°hnfor.
and the laft fheet was fent to the prefs in the end of ^
the year 1754. When we confider the nature of the
undertaking, it is indeed aftoniftiing that it was finifh-
ed fo foon, fince it was written, as he fays, “ with
little affiftance of the learned, and without any pa¬
tronage of the great; not in the foft obfcUrities of re¬
tirement, or under the Ihelter of academic bowers, but
amidft inconvenience and diftraXion, in ficknefs and
in forrow.” The forrow, to which he here alludes, is
probably that which he felt for the lofs of his wife,
who died on the 17th of March O. S. 1752, and whom
he continued to lament as long as he lived-
The DiXionary did not occupy his whole time 5
for while he was pulhing it forward, he fitted his Tra¬
gedy for the ftage ; wrote the lives of feveral eminent
men for the Gentleman’s Magatine ; publilhed an Imi¬
tation of the 10th Satire of Juvenal, intitled “ The
tain that his lordfhip expeXed, when the book ftiould Vanity of human Wilhes;” and began and finiflred
be publiflred, to be honoured with the dedication.
The expeftations of both were difappointed. Lord
Chefterfield, after feeing the lexicographer once or
twice, fuflfered him to be repulfed from his door; but
afterwards thinking to conciliate him when the work
was upon the eve of publication, he wrote two papers
in “The World,” warmly recommending it to the pub¬
lic. This artifice was feen through; and Johnfon, in
very polite language, rejeXed his Lordlhip’s advances,
letting him know, that he was unwilling the public
ftiould confider him as owing to 3 patron that which
Providence had enabled him to do for himfelf. This
great and laborious work its author expeXed to cofn
plete in three years: but he was certainly employed
The Rambler.” This laft work is fo well known,
that it is hardly ntceffary to fay that it was a periodi¬
cal paper, publilhed twice a-week, from the 20th of
March 1750 to the 14th of March 1752 inclufive:
but to give our readers fome notion of the vigour and
promptitude of the author’s mind, it may not be im¬
proper to obferve, that notwithftanding the feverity
of ’his other labours, all the affiftance wh'- h he re¬
ceived does not amount to five papers ; and that many
of the moft mafterly of thofe unequalled eflays were
written on the fpur of the occafion, and never feen en¬
tire by the author till they returned to him from the
prefs (c).
Soon after the Rambler was concluded. Dr Hawkef*
P p 2 worth
(b) From the merit of this work Mr Bofwell has endeavoured to detraX, by infinuating, that the perfon
Called Richard Savage was an impoftor, and not the fon of the earl of Rivers and the countefs of Macclesfield.
See our account of Savage.
(c) The ftyle of the Rambler has been much praifed and much cenfured, fometimes perhaps by men who
paid little attention to the author’s views. It has been compared with the ftyle of Addifon ; to which it is
thought fuperior by fome, and inferior by others. Its defeXs have been petulantly caricatured, and its merits
unduly exalted. To attempt a defence of all the words in it which are derived from the Latin, would be in
Vain ; for though many of them are elegant and expreffive, others are harfti, and do not eafily affimilate with
the Englilh idiom. But it would be as eafy to defend the ufe of Johnfon’s words as the ftruXure of all Ad-
difon’s fentences J for though many of thefe are exquifitely beautiful, it muft be confeffed that others are
feeble, and offend at once the ear and the mind. An ingenious effayift fays, that in the Rambler “the conftant
recurrence of fentences in the form of what have been called triplets, is difgufting to all readers.” The recurrence
is indeed very frequent'; but it certainly is not conftant, nor we hope always difgufting: and as what he calls
the triplet is unqueftionably the moft energetic form of which an Englifti fentence is fufceptible, we cannot
help thinking, that it Jhould frequently recur in detached effays, of which the objeX is to inculcate moral
truths. He who reads half a volume of the Rambler at a fitting, will feel his ear fatigued by the clofe of fimilar
periods fo frequently recurring ; but he who reads only one paper in the day, will experience nothing of this
wearinefs. For purpofes merely didaXic, when fomething is to be told that was not known before, Addifon’s
ftyle is certainly preferable to Johnfon’s, and Swift’s is preferable to both s but the queftion is, Which of them
makes the beft provifion againft that inattention by which known truths are fuffered to lie negleXed ? There are
very few moral truths in the SpeXator or in the Rambler of which the reader can be totally ignorant; but
there are many which may have little influence on his conduX, becaufe they are feldom the objeXs of his
thought. If this be fo, that ftyle ftiould be confidered as beft which moft roufes the attention, and impreffes
deepeft in the mind the fentiments of the author: and therefore, to decide between the ftyle of Addifon and
that of Johnfon, the reader ffiould compare the. effeXs of each upon his own memory and imagination, and
give the preference to that which leaves the moft lading impreffion. But it is faid that Johnfon himfelf muft
have recognized the fault of perpetual triplets in his ftyle, fince they are by no means frequent in his laft pro-
duXions. Is this a fair ftate of the cafe ? His laft produXiqn was “ the Lives of the Britifh Poets,” of which
s great part confifts of the narration of faXs; and fuch a narration in the ftyle of the Rambler would be ridi¬
culous,
J O H
Jolinfon. wcrth proje&ed “ The Adventurer” upon
lar plan ; and by the afiiftanee of friends he was en¬
abled to carry it on with almoft equal merit. For a
fhort time, indeed, it was the molt popular work of
the. two ; and the papers with the fignature T, which
are confelfedly the moft fplendid in the whole collec¬
tion, are now known to have been communicated by
Johnfon, who received for each the fum of two
guineas. This was double the price for which he fold
fermons to fuch clergymen as either would not or could
not compofe their own difcourfcs; and of fermon-
writing he feems to have made a kind of trade.
Though he had exhaufted, during the time that he
was employed on the Dictionary, more than the fum
for which the bookfellers had bargained for the copy ;
yet by means of the Rambler, Adventurer, fermons, ami
[ 3=0 3 JOB
fimi- ordinary letter; and one in particular compofed at Johnfon.
Oxford was begun only half an hour before the de- —
paiture of the pod which carried it to London.
About this time he had the offer of a living, of which
he might have rendered himfelf capable by entering
into orders. It was.a reftory in a pleafant country, of
fuch yearly value as would have been an objeCt to one
in much better circumdances ; but fenfible, as it is
fuppofed, of the afperity of his temper, he declined it,
faying, “ I have not the requifnes for the.office, and I
cannot in my conference drear the flock which I am
unable to feed.”
In the month of January 1759 his mother died at
the great age of 90; an event whicii deeply affeaedhim,
and gave birth to the 41 d Idler, in which he laments,,
that “the life which made his own life pleafant was at an
other produaions of his pen, he now found himfelf end, and that the gate of death was dmt upon his pro-
in greater affluence than he had ever been before; and o r. , , ~
as the powers of his mind, didended by long and fevere
exererfe,required relaxation to redore them to their pro¬
per tone, he appears to have done little or nothing from
the dofing of the Adventurer till the year 1756, when
he fubmitted to the office of reviewer in the Literary
Magazine. Of his reviews by far the mod valuable is
thatof Soame Jennyns’s “Free Inquiry into the Nature
and Origin of Evil.” Never were wit and metaphyfi-
eal acuteqefs more dofely united than in that criticifm,
which expofes the w %knefs and holds up to contempt
the reafonings of thofe vain mortals, who prefumptu-
oufly attempt to grafp the fcale of exidence, and to
form plans of conduft for the Creator of the nniverfe.
Rut the furnifhing. of magazines, reviews,and even news¬
papers with literary intelligence, and authors of books
with dedications and prefaces, was confidered as an
employment unworthy of Johnfoa. It was therefore
propofed by the bookfellers that he fhould give a new
edition of the dramas of Shakefpeare ; a work which
he had proje&ed many, years before, and of which he
had publifhed a fpeciilien which was commended by
Warburton, When one of his friends exprtffed a hope
that this employment would furnifh him with amufe-
ment and add to his fame, he replied, “ I look upon it
as I ^lid upon the Di&ionary; it is all work ; and my
inducement to it is not love or defire of fame, but the
want of money, which is the only motive to writing
fpects ” Soon afterwards he wrote his “ Raffelas
Prince of Abyffioia that with the profits he might
defray the expence of his mother’s funeral, and pay,
feme debts which fire had left. He told a friend, that
he received for the copy tool, and 251. more when it
came to a fecond edition; that he wrote it in the
evenings of one week, fent it to the prefs in por¬
tions as it was written, and had never frnce read it :
over.
Hitherto, notwithftanding his various publications, .
he was poor, and obliged to provide by his labour for
the wants of the day that was palling over him ; but
having been early in 1762 rtprefented to the king as
a very learned and good man without any certain pro-
vifron, his majefty was pleafed to grant him a penfion,
which Lord Bute, then firit minrfter, affured him “ was
not given for any thing which he was ta do, but for
what .he load already done.” A fixed annuity of three :
hundred pounds a-year, if it diminilhed his diftrefs, ,
increafed his indolence ; for as he conftantly avowed
that he had no other motive for writing than to gain
money, as he had now what was abundantly fufficient
for all his purpofes, as he delighted in convecfaiion,
and was vifited and admired by the witty, the elegant,
and the learned, very little of bis time was paft in
folitary ftudy. Solitude was indeed his averfion ; and
that he might avoid it as much as poffible, Sir Jofhua
Reynolds and he, in 1764, inftituted a club, which ex-
tbat I know of.” He iffued propofals, however, of ifted long without a name, but was afterwards known
confiderable length; in which he fiiowed that he knew
perfectly what a variety of refearch fuch an undertaking
required : but his indolence prevented him from pur-
fuing it with diligence, and it was not publilhed till
many years afterwards.
On the 15th of April 1758 he began a new periodi¬
cal paper intitled “ The Idler,” which came out every
Saturday in a weekly newfpaper, called “ theUniver-
fal Chronicle, or Weekly Gazette,” publiffled by Newr
berry. Of thefe effays, which were continued till the
5 th of April 1760, many were written as haftily as an
by the title of the Literary Club. It confided of fome
of the mott enlightened men. of the age, who met at
the Turk’s Head in Gerard-ftreet Soho one evening
in every week at feven, and till a late hour enjoyed
*l the feaft of reafon and the flow of foul.”
In 1765, when Johnfon was more than ufually op-,
preffed with conftitutional melancholy, he was fortu¬
nately introduced into the family of Mr Thrale, one
of the moft eminent brewers in England, and member
of parliament for the borough of Southwark : and it
is but juftice to acknowledge, that to the affiftance
which
■culous. Cicero’s orations are univerfally admired; but if CaSfar’s commentaries had been written in that ftyle,
who would have read them ? When Johnfon in his biography has any important truth to enforce, he generally
employs the rounded and vigorous periods of the Rambler ; but in the bare narration he ufes a firopler ftyle, and
that as well in the life of Savage, which was written at an early period, as in the lives of thofe which were.,
written lateft. It is not, however, very prudent in an ordinary writer to attempt a clofe imitation of the ftyle
of the Rambler } for Johnfon’s vigorous periods are fitted only to the weight of Johnfon’s thoughts.
T O H r 3PI ] JO H
Xo^rifon. which Mr and Mrs Thrale gave him, to the fhelter
which their houfe afforded him for 16 or 17 years,
and to the pains which they took to foothe or reprefs
his uneafy fancies, the public is probably indebted for
fome of the moft mafterly as well as moll popular
works which he ever produced. At length, in the
October of this year, he gave to the world his edition
of Shakefpeare, which is chiefly valuable for the pre¬
face, w'here the excellencies and defeats of that im¬
mortal bard are difplayed with fuch judgment, as mull
pleafe every man whofe taile is not regulated by the
ilandard of falhion or national prejudice. In 1767
he was honoured by a private converfation with the
king in the library at the queen’s houfe t and two
years afierwards, upon the ellablifhment of the royal
academy of painting, fculpture, &c. he was nominated
profeffor of ancient literature; an office merely ho¬
norary, and conferred on him, as is fuppofed, at the-
recommtndation of iris friend the prefident.
In the variety of fubje&s on which he had hitherto
exercifed his pen, he had forborne, fince the admini-
ftration of Sir Robert Walpole, to meddle with the
difputes of contending fa&ions ; but having feen with
indignation the methods which, in the bufinefs of Mr
Wilkes, were taken to work upon the populace, he
publiihed in 1770 a pamphlet, intitled “ The Falfe
Alarm j” in which he afferts, and labours to prove by a
variety of arguments founded on precedents, that the
expulfion of a member of the houfe of commons is
equivalent to exclufion, and that no fuch calamity as
the fubverfion of the conflitution was to be feared from
an a6t warranted by ufage, which is the law of par¬
liament. Whatever may be thought of the principles
maintained in this publication, it unqueftionably con¬
tains much wit and much argument, expreffed in the
author’s bed ftyle of compofition ; and yet it is known
to have been written between eight o’clock on Wed-
nefday night and twelve o’clock on the Thurfday
night, when it was read to Mr Thrale upon his co¬
ming from the houfe of commons. In 1771 he pub-
lifhed another political pamphlet, intitled, “ Thoughts
on the late tranfadlions refpe&ing Falkland’s Ifknds;”
in which he attacked Junius : and he ever afterwards
delighted himfelf with*the thought of having deftroyed
that able writer, whom he certainly furpaffed in ner¬
vous language and pointed ridicule.
In 1773 he vifited with Mr Bofwell fome of the
moft confiderable of the Hebrides or Weftern Iflands
of Scotland, and publilhed an account of his journey
in a volnme which abounds in extenlive philofophical
views of fociety, ingenious fentiments, and lively de-
fcription, but which offended many perfons by the
violent attack which it made on the authenticity of
the poems attributed to Olfian. For the degree of
offence that was taken, the book can hardly be thought
to contain a fufficient reafbn : if the antiquity of thefe
poems be yet doubted, it is owing more to the con-
du£l of their editor than to the violence of Johnfon.
In 1774, the parliament being diffolved, he addreffed
to the eleftors of Great Britain a pamphlet, intitled
** The Patriot;” of which the defign was to guard
them from impofition, and teach them to diftinguilh
true from falfe patriotifm. In 1775 he publilhed
“ Taxation no tyranny ; in anfwer to the reiolutions
and addrete of the American Congrefs.” In this
3
performance his admirer Mr Bofwell cannot, he fays, Johnfon.
perceive that ability of argument or that felicity of ex-v—*
preffion for which on other occafions Johnfon was fo
eminent. This is a fingular criticifm. To the affumed
principle upon which the reafoning of the pamphlet
refts many have objedled, and perhaps their objec¬
tions are well founded ; but if it be admitted that
“ the Supreme Power of every community has the
right of requiring from all its fubje&s fuch contribu¬
tions as are neceffary to the public fafety or public
profperity,” it will be found a very difficult talk to
break the chain of arguments by which it is proved
that the Britifh parliament had a right to, tax the Ame¬
ricans. As to the expreffion of the pamphlet, the
reader, who adopts the maxim recorded in the “ Jour¬
nal of a tour to the Hebrides,” that a controvertift
“ ought not to ftrike foft in battle,” mull acknow¬
ledge that it is uncommonly happy, and that the whole
performance is one of the moll brilliant as well as mod
corredt pieces of compofition that ever fell from the
pen of its author. Thefe effays drew upon him nu¬
merous attacks, all of which he heartily defpifed; for
though it has been fuppofed that “ A letter addreffed
to Hr Samuel Johnlon occafioned by his political pub¬
lications,” gave him great uneafinefs, the contrary is
manifeft, from his having,.after the appearance of that
letter, colle&ed them into a volume with the title of
“ Political Tradls by the author of the Rambler.”
ImydyTrinity College Dublin had created him LL.D.
by diploma, and he now received the fame honour ’
from the Univerfity of Oxford; an honour with
which, though he did not boall of it, he was highly
gratitied. In 1777 he was induced, by a cafe of a
very extraordinary nature, to exercife that humanity
which in him was obedient to every call. Dr William
Dodd, a clergyman, under fentence of death for the
crime of forgery, found means to interdl Johnfon in
his behalf, and procured from him two of the moll
energetic compofrtions of the kind ever feen; the one
a petition from himfelf to the king, the other a.like
addrefs from his wife to the queen. Thefe petitions
failed of fuccefs.
The principal bookfellers in London having deter¬
mined to publilh a body of Englilh poetry, Johnfon
was prevailed upon to write the lives of the poets, and
give a chara&er of the works of each. This talk he
undertook with alacrity, and executed it in fuch a
manner as mull convince every competent reader, that
as a biographer and a critic, no nation can produce
his equal. The work was publiffied in ten fmall vo¬
lumes, of which the firll four came abroad 1778, and
the others in 1781. While the world in general was
filled with admiration of the llupendous powers of that
man, who at the age of feventy-two, and labouring
under a complication of difeafes, could produce a
work which difplays fo much genius and fo much
learning.; there were narrow circles in which prejudice
and refentment were follered, and whence attacks of
different forts iffued againll him. Thefe gave him not
the fmallell dilturbance. When told of the feeble,^
though Ihrill, outcry that had been raifed, he faid—
“ Sir, I confidered myfelf as entrufted with a certain
portion of truth. I have given my opinion fincertly ;
let them Ihow where they think me wrong.”
He had hardly begun to reap the laurels gained by
this
J o H t 301 1 J O H
, loknfon.
this performance, when death deprived him of Mr
Thrale, in whofe houfe he had enjoyed the moil com¬
fortable hours of his life ; but it abated not in John-
fon that care for the interefts of thofe whom his friend
had left behind him, which he thought himfelf bound
. to cherilh, both in duty as one of the executors of his
will, and from the nobler principle of gratitude. On
ihis account, his vifits to Streatham, Mr Thrale’s vil¬
la, were for fome time after his death regularly made
on Monday and protrafted till Saturday, as they had
been during his life ; but they foon became lefs and
lefs frequent, and he lludioufly avoided the mention of
the place~or the family. Mrs Thrale, now Piozzi, fays
indeed, that “ it gie'w extremely perplexing and diffi¬
cult to live in the houfe with him when the mafter
of it was no more ; becaufe his diflikes grew capricious,
and he could fcarce bear to have any body come to the
houfe whom it was abfolutely neceflary for her to fee.”
The perfon whom fhe thought it moil neceffary for her
to fee may perhaps be gueffed at without any fuperior
fhare of fagacity ; and if thefe were the viilts which
Johnfon could not bear, we arefo fat from thinking his
diflikes capricious, though they may have been per¬
plexing, that if he had a&ed otherwife, we fhould
"have blamed him for want of gratitude to the friend
whofe “ face for fifteen years had never been turned
upon him but with fefpeft or benignity.”
About the middle of June 1783 his conflitutioo
fuftained a feverer ihock than it had ever before felt,
"by a ftroke of the palfy; fo hidden and fo violent, that
it awakened him out of a found fleep, and rendered
him for a fliort time fpeechlefs. As ufual, his recourfe
under this affiidlion was to piety, which in him was
conftant, fincere, and fervent. He tried to repeat the
Lord’s prayer firft in Englifh, then in Latin, and af¬
terwards in Greek ; but fucceeded only in the laft at¬
tempt; immediately after which he was again deprived
of the power of articulation. From this alarming at¬
tack he recovered with wonderful quicknefs, but it
left behind it fome prefages of an hydropic affe&ion ;
end he was foon afterwards feized with a fpafmodic
afthma of fuch violence that he was confined to the
houfe in great pain, while his dropfy increafed not-
withftanding all the efforts of the moft eminent phyfi-
cians in London and Edinburgh. He had, however,
fuch an interval of eafe as enabled him in the fummer
1784 to vifit his friends at Oxford, Lichfield, and
Alhbourne in Derbyflure. The Romifh religion be¬
ing introduced one day as the topic of converfatioil’
when he was in the houfe of Dr Adams, Johnfon
faid, “ If you join the papifts externally, they will not
■interrogate you ftridlly as to your belief in their tenets.
No reafoning papift believes every article of their faith.
There is one fide on which a good man might be per-
fuaded to embrace it. A good man of a timorous
difpofition, in great doubt of his acceptance with
God, and pretty credulous, might be glad of a church
where there are fo many helps to go to heaven. I
would be a papift if I could. I have fear enough;
but an obftinate rationality prevents me. I ftrall ne¬
ver be a papift. unlefs on the near approach of death,
of which I have very great terror.”
His conftant dread of death was indeed fo great, that
it aftoniftied all who had accefs to know the piety of his
snind and the virtues of his life. Atteoipts have bee
made to account for it in various ways ; but doubtlefs Johnfon.
that is the true account which is given in the Olla Po-
drida, by an elegant and pious writer, who now adorns
a high Ration in the church of England. “ That he
ftiould not be confcious of the abilities with which
Providence had blefied him, was impoffible. He felt
his own powers; he felt what he was capable of ha¬
ving performed 5 and he faw jiow little, comparatively
fpeaking, he had performed. Hence his apprehenfioti
on the near profped of the account to be made, viewed
through the medium of conftitutional and morbid me¬
lancholy, which often excluded from his fight the
bright beams of divine mercy.” This, however, was
the cafe only while death was approaching from fome
diftance. From the time that he was certain it was near,
all his fears were calmed ; and he died on the 13th of
December 1784, full of refignation, ftrengthened by
faith, and joyful in hope.
For a juft character of this great man our limits af¬
ford not room: we muft therefore content ourfelves with
laying before our readers a very fhort Iketch. His ftaturc
was tall, his limbs were large, his ftrength was more
than common, and his aftivity in early life had beeri
greater than fuch a form gave reafon to expe& : but
he was fubjeft to an infirmity of the convulfive kind*
refembling the diftemper called St Vitus’s dance; and
he had the feeds of fo many difeafes fown in his con-
ftitution, that a ftiort time before his death he declared-
that he hardly remembered to have pafted one day
wholly free from pain. He poflefled very extraordi¬
nary powers of underftanding ; which were much cul¬
tivated by reading, and ftill more by‘ meditation and
refle&ion. His memory was re.nirkably retentive,
his imagination uncommonly vigorous, and his judg¬
ment keen and penetrating. He read with great ra¬
pidity, retained with wonderful exaclnefs what he fo
eafily colle&ed, and poffeffed the power of reducing
to order and fyftem the fcattered hints on any fui jeft
which he had gathered from different books. It would
not perhaps be fafe to claim for him the higheft place,
among his contemporaries, in any fingle department of
literature ; but, to ufe one of his own exprelfions,
he brought more mind to every fubjedt, and had a
greater variety of knowledge ready for all occafions,
than any other man that could be eafily named.
Though prone to fuperftition, he was in all other re-
fpedls fo remarkably incredulous, that Hogarth faid,
while Johnfon firmly believed the bible, he feemed de¬
termined to believe nothing but the bible. Of the
importance of religion he had a ftrong ftnfe, and big
zeal for its interefts were always awake, fo that pro-
fanenefs of every kind was abafhed in his prefence.
The fame energy which was difplayed in his literary
produ&ions, was exhibited alfo in his converfation,
which was various, ftriking, and inflrudlive : like the
fage in Raffelas, he fpoke, and attention watched his
lips ; he reafoned, and convidlion clofed his periods s
when he pleafed, he could be the greateft fophift that
ever contended in the lifts of declamation ; and per¬
haps no man ever equalled him in nervous and pointed
repartees. His veracity from the moft trivial to the
moft folemn occafions, was flriit even to feverity : he
fcorned to embellilh a ftory with fi&itious circum-
ftances ; for what is not a reprefentation of reality, he
ufed to fay, is not worthy of our attention. As his
purfe
J O H [ 303 ] J o H
John (Inn. purfe and his houfe were ever open to the indigent, fo
was his heart tender to thofe who wanted relief, and
his foul was fufceptible of gratitude and every kind
impreffion. He had a roughnefs in his manner which
fubdued the faucy and terrified the meek: but it was only
in his manner ; for no man was more loved than Jobn-
fon was by thofe who knew him ; and his works will
be read with veneration for their author as long as the
language in which they are written (hall be under-
ftood.
JOHNSTON, or Johnson (John), a learned divine,
born in 1662 He was zealous for the Revolution, and
preached a noted fermon at Feverfham on the occafion,
from the words, “ Remember Lot’s wife wherein he
fet forth the great danger of looking back, and vindi¬
cated the liturgy againft Mr Baxter and others. He
publilhed The Clergyman's Vade Mecum, and A Col-
ledion of Ecctejiajlical Laws as a continuation of it;
but catching the infection fpread by Dr Sachaverel,
he, on the acceffion of Geo. I. to the amazement of
all his old friends, entertained unfavourable thoughts
of the Proteftant fuccefiion, and refufed to read the
ufual prayers for the king. Being profecuted, howe¬
ver, he thought proper to fubmit; and died vicar of
Cranbrook in Kent, in 1725.
Johnston (Dr Arthur), was born at Calkieben,
near Aberdeen, the feat of his anceftors, and pro¬
bably was educated at Aberdeen, as he was afterwards
advanced to the higheft dignity in that univerfity.
The ftudy he chiefly applied himfelf to was that of
phyfic ; and to improve himfelf in that fcience, he tra¬
velled into foreign parts. He was twice at Rome ;
but the chief place of his refidence was Padua, in
which univerfity the degree of M. D. was conferred
on him in 1610, as appears by a MS. copy of verfes
in the advocate’s library in Edinburgh. After lea¬
ving Padua, he travelled through the reft of Italy, and
over Germany, Denmark, England, Holland, and o-
ther countries ; and at length fettled in France ; where
he met with great applaufe as a Latin poet. He lived
there 20 years, and by two wives had 13 children.
After 24 years abfence, he returned into Scotland in
1632. It appears by the Council Books at Edinburgh,
that the Doctor had a fuit at law before that court
about that time. In the year following, it is very well
known that Charles I. went into Scotland, and made
bilhop Laud, then with him, a member of that coun¬
cil : and by this accident, it is probable, that acquain¬
tance began between the doftor and that prelate, which
produced his Pfalmorum Davidis Paraphrafum Poe-
ticafor we find that, in the fame year, the doftor
printed a fpecimen of his Pfahns at London, and de-^
dicated them to his lordlhip.
He proceeded to perfect the whole, which took him
up four years ; and the firft edition complete was
publifhed at Aberdeen in 1637, and at London the
the fame year. In 1641, Dr. Johnfton being at Ox¬
ford, on a vifit to one of his daughters who was mar¬
ried to a divine of the church of England in that place,
was feized with a violent diarrhoea, of which he died
in a few days, in the 54th year of his age, not with¬
out having feen the beginning of thofe troubles that
proved fo fatal to his patron. He was buried in the
place where he died j which gave occafion to the fol-
3
lowing lines of his learned friend Wedderburn in his
Sufplria on the Do&or’s death :
Scotia tncefta, dole, tanti viduata fepulchro
Vatis; is Angligenis contigit altus honos.
Joigny
Joinville.
In what year Dr. Johnfton was made phyfician to
the kind does not appear; it is moft likely that the
archbifhop procured him that honour at his coming in¬
to England in 1633, at which time he tranflated So¬
lomon’s Song into Latin elegiac verfe, and dedicated
it to his majefty. His Pfalms were reprinted at
Middleburgh, 1642 ; London, 1657 ; Cambridge,.
Amfterdam, 1706; Edinburgh, by William Lau¬
der, 1739 ; and laft on the plan of the Delphin claffics,
at London, 1741, 8vo, at the expence of auditor Ben-
fon, who dedicated them to his late majefty, ancf pre¬
fixed to this edition memoirs of Dr Johnfton, with
the teftimonies of various learned perfbns. A labour¬
ed comparifon between the two tranflations of Bucha¬
nan and Johnfton was printed the fame year in Englifli,
in 8vo, intituled, “ A Prefatory Difcourfe to Dr
“ Johnfton’s Pfalms, &c.” and “ A Conclufion to it.”'
His tranflations of the Te Deum, Creed, Decalogue,
&c. were fubjoined to the Pfalms. His other poetical
works are his Epigrams; his Pamya; and his
Anglica, or commendatory Verfes upon perfons of rank
in church and ftate at that time.
JOIGNY, a town of France, in Champagne, and
in the diocefe of Sens, with a very handfome caftle.
It confifts of three parilhes, and is pkafantly fitua-
ted on the river Yonne, in E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat.
47- 56- . .
JOINERY, the art of working in wood, or of fit¬
ting various pieces of timber together. It is called
by the French menuiferie, “ fmall work,” to diftinguifh
it from carpentery, which is employed about large and
lefs curious works.
JOINT, in general, denotes the jun&ure of two
or more things. The joints of the human body are
called by anatomifts articulations. See Anatomy,
n° 2.
The fupplenefs to which the joints may be brought-
by long pra&ice from the time of infancy, is very fur-
prifing. Every common pofture-mafter ftiows us a
great deal of this ; but one of the moft wonderful in~
ftances we ever had of it, was in a perfon of the name
of Clark, and famous for it in London, where he was
commonly known by the name of Clerk thepojlure^
tnajler. This man had found the way, by long prac¬
tice, to diftort many of the bones, of which nobody
before had ever thought it poffible to alter the pofi-,
tion. He had fuck an abfolute command of his
mufcles and joints, that he could almoft disjoint his
whole body; fo that he once impofed on the famous
Mullens by his diftortions, in fuch a manner, that he
refufed to undertake his cure: but, to the amaze?
ment of the phyfician, no fooner had he given over
his patient, than he faw him reftore himfelf to the fi¬
gure and condition'of a proper man, with no diftor-
tion about him.
JOINTURE, in law, generally fignifies a fettle-
ment of lands and tenements, made on a woman in
confideration of marriage.
JOINVILLE (John Sire de), an eminent French
ftatefman of the 13th century, who was fenefchel or .
high.'.
J o L [ 304 1 I O H
■? Joinvllle high-Reward of Champagne, and one of the principal
.11 lords in the court of Lavis IX. He attended that
. . monarch in all his expeditions; and had fo much con¬
fidence placed in him, that all matters of juftice in the
pal-ice were referred to his decifion, and the king un¬
dertook nothing of confequence without confulting
him. He wrote the hiftory of St Lewis in French,
which is a very curioyus and interefting piece ; and
died about the year 1318. The bell edition of this
work is that of Du Cange, in folio, with learned re¬
marks.
Joinville, an ancient and confiderable town of
France, in Champagne, with the title of a principali¬
ty, and a lage magnificent callle. It is fituated on
the river Marne, in E. Long. 5. 10. N. Lat. 48. 20.
JOISTS, or Joysts, in architedlure, thofe pieces
cf timber framed into the girders and fummers, on
which the boards of the floor are laid.
JOKES. See Jesting.
Iolaia, a fellival at Thebes, the fame as that called
Heracleia. It was inftituted in honour of Hercules
and his friend lolas, who aflifted'him in conquering
the hydra. It continued during feveral days, on the
firll of which were offered folemn facrifices. The
next day horfe-races and athletic exercifes were exhi¬
bited. The following day was fet apart for wreftling,
the viclors were crowned with garlands of myrtle ge¬
nerally ufed at funeral folemnities. They were fome-
times rewarded with tripods of brafs. The place
where the exercifes were exhibited was called lolaion ;
where there were to be feen the monument of Amphi¬
tryon and the cenotaph of lolas, who was buried in
Sardinia. Thefe monuments were ftrewed with gar¬
lands and flowers on the day of the feftival.
Iolas or Iolaus, (fab. hill.) afonjof Iphiclus king
, of Thefialy, who affilled Hercules in conquering the
Hydra, and burntwith a hot iron the place where the
heads had been cut off, to prevent the growth of others.
He was reftored to his youth and vigour by Hebe, at
the requell of his friend Hercules, Some time after¬
wards lolas affilled the Heraclida; againll Euryf-
theus, and killed the tyrant with his own hand. Ac¬
cording to Plutarch, lolas had a monument in Bceotia
and Phocis, where lovers ufed to go and bind them-
felves by the mod folemn oaths of fidelity, confidering
the place as facred to love and friendlhip. According
to Diodorus and Paufanias, lolas died and was buried
in Sardinia, where he had gone to make a fettlement
at the head of the fons of Hercules by the 50 daugh¬
ters of Thefpius.
JOLI, or Joly, (Claudius), a worthy parilh-priell,
and an excellent fcholar, defcended from a family emi¬
nent for learning and piety ; was born at Paris in
1607. He applied himfelf firft to the law, and plead¬
ed for fome time at the barr but inclining afterwards
to the church, he entered into orders, and in 1631
obtained a canonry in the cathedral church of Notre
Dame at Paris; the duties of which office he difchar-
ged with an exaflnefs beyond all example as long as he
lived. Difcovering at the fame time occafionally a ca¬
pacity for ftate-affairs, the duke de Longueville, the
French plenipotentiary for negcciating a general peace,
took Joly with him to Munfter, where he proved a
good affiftant. On his return, he refumed his former
^employments with his ufual zeal. la 1.671 he was
N° ! 68.
made precentor in his church; and feveral times of- Jofi
ficial of Paris, without his feeking 5 always beha- 8 I
ving, as an ecclefiaftical magiftrate, with perfedl in- v Iona ,
tegrity, and teftifying a fincere iove for juflice. He v ~ '
died in 1700, and left many works; in which, as in as
many mirrors, his true charafter fully appears.
Jom (Guy), king’s counfellor to the Chatelet, and
fyndic^of the revenues of the Hotel de Ville at Paris,
attached himfelf for a long time to cardinal de Retz in
the capacity of fecretary. Befide other trails, he wrote
•Memoirs from 1648 to 1665, including thofe of Cardi¬
nal de Retz ; a tranflation of which into Englilh was
publiffied in 1755.
JOLLOXOCHITL, or Flower of the Heart,
in botany ; a large beautiful flower growing in Mexi¬
co ; where it is not lefs efteemed for its beauty than
for its odour, which is fo powerful, that a Angle
flower is lufficient to fill a whole houfe with the moft
pleafing fragrance. It has many petals, which are
glutinous, externally white, internally reddifli or yel-
lowifli, and difpofed in fuch a manner, that when the
flower is open and its petals are expanded, it has the ap¬
pearance of a ftar, but when (hut it refembles in fome
meafure a heart, from whence its name arofe. The tree
which bears it is tolerably large, and its leaves are long
and rough.
ION, (fab. hill.), a fon of Xuthus and Creufa
daughter of Erechtheus, who married Helice, the
daughter of Selinus king of ^Egiale. He fucceeded to
the throne of his father-in-law ; and built a city, which
he called Helice on account of his wife. His fubjedls from
him received the name of lonians, and the country that
of Ionia. Sec Ionia.
Ion, a tragic poet of Chios, who flouriffied about
the Sad Olympiad, His tragedies were reprefented at
Athens, where they met with univerfal applaufe. He
is mentioned and greatly recommended by Arifto-
phanes and Athenseus, &c.
IONA. Jona, orlcoLMKiLL, one ofthe Hebrides^
a fmall, but celebrated ifland, “ once the luminary of the
Caledonian regions (as Dr Johnfon exprefles it), whence
favage clans and roving barbarians derived the benefits
of knowledge and the bleffings of religion.” The
name Iona is derived from a Hebrew word fignifying
a dove, in allufion to its patron Columba, who landed
here in 565. See Columba.—It is faid to have been a
feat of the druids before his arrival, when its name in
Irifli was Inis Drumjh, or the “ Druid Ifland.” The
druids being expelled or converted, he founded here a
cell of canons regular, who till 716 differed from the
church of Rome in the obfervance of Ealler and in
the tonfure. After his death, the ifland retained his
name, and was called Tcohimb cill or “ Columb’s cell,”
now Icolmkill. The Danes diflodged the monks in the
9th century, and Cluniacs were the next order that
fettled here.
This ifland, which belongs to the pariih of Rofs in
Mull, is three miles long, and one broad ; the eafl fide
is moftly flat; the middle rifes into final! hills; and
the weft fide is very rude and rocky: the whole form¬
ing a Angular mixture of rock and fertility. There is
in the ifland only one town, or rather village, con-
fifting of about 60 mean houfes. Near the town is
the bay of Martyrs flain by the Danes. An oblong in-
clofure, bounded by a ftone dyke and called Clachnan
Druinach,
ION C 305 ] ION
Tons. Druinach, in which bones have been found, is fuppofed
to have been a burial-place of the Druids, or rather
the common cemetery of the towns-people. Beyond
v the town are the ruins of the nunnery of Auftin cano-
neffes, dedicated to St Oran, and faid to be founded
by Columba : the church was 58 feet by 20, and the
eaft roof is entire. On the floor, covered deep with
cow-dung, is the tomb of the laft priorefs with her
figure praying to the Virgin Mary, and this inferip-
tion on the ledge: Hicjacet domino. Anna Donald! Ter-
let! jilia, quondam priorijfa de Jona, qua obiit an'o m° d°
ximo ejus animam Altijfimo commendamus : and another
inferibed, Hicjacet Mariota jilia Johan : Lauchlain do-
mini de  A broad paved way leads hence to the
cathedral; and on this way is a large handfome crofs
called Macleane's, the only one that remains of 360,
which were demolilhed here at the Reformation.
Reilig Ouran, or the burying-place of Oran, is the
large inclofure where the kings of Scotland, Ireland,
and of the ifles, and their defeendants, were buried in
three feveral chapels. The dean of the ifles, who
travelled over them 1549, and whofe account has
been copied by Buchanan, and publifhed at Edinburgh
1784, fays, that in his time on one of thefe chapels
(or “tombes of ftain formit like little chapels with ane
braid gray marble or quhin llain on the gavil of ilk
ane of the tombes,” containing, as the chronicle fays,
the remains of 48 Scotch monarches, from Fergus II.
to Macbeth, 16 of whom were pretended to be of the
race of Alpin), was inferibed, Tumulus regum Scotia.
The next was inferibed, Tumulus regum Hibernia, and
contained four Irifh monarchs : and the 3d inferibed,
Tumulus regum Norwegia, contained eight Norwegian
princes or viceroys of the Hebrides, while they were
fubjeft to the crown of Norway. Boetius fays, that
Fergus founded this abbey for the burial-place of
his fucceflbrs, and caufed an office to be compofed for
the funeral ceremony. All that Mr Pennant could
difeover here were only certain flight remains^ built
in a ridged form and arched within, but the inferip-
tions loft. Thefe were called Jornaire nan righ or
“ the ridge of the kings.” Among thefe ftones are
to be feen only thefe two inferiptions in the Gaelic or
Frfe language and ancient Iriftr chara&ers: Cros
Domhailfat’afich, i. e. “ the crofs of Donald Long-
Ihanks” and that of Urchvine 0 Guin ; and another in¬
feribed Hie jacent quatuor priores de Hy, Johannes, Hu-
genius, Patricius, in. decretis olim bacularius, qui obiit
on. Dorn- millesmo quingentefmo. Above 300 inferip¬
tions were colle&ed here by Mr Sacheverel in 1688,
and given to the earl of Argyle, but afterwards loft
in the troubles of the family. The place is in a man¬
ner filled with grave-ftones, but fo over-grown with
weeds, that few or none are at prefent to be feen, far
lefs any inferiptions read. Here alfo ftands the chapel
of St Oran, the firft bulding begun by Columba, which
the evil fpirits would not fuffer to ftand till fome hu¬
man vuftiniwJas buried alive; for which fervice Oran
ofl'ered himfelf, and his red grave-ftone is near the
door. In this chapel are tombs of feveral chiefs, &c.
A little north-weft of the door is the pedeftal of a
crofs: on it are certain ftones that feem to have been
the fuports of a tomb. Numbers who vifit this ifland
think it incumbent on them to turn each of thefe
ihrice round, according to the courfe of the fun.
Vol. IX. Part I.
They are called Clacha-brath ; for it is thought that the lonaf.
brath, or end of the world, will not arrive till the pe- »"
deftal on which they ftand is worn through. Origi¬
nally (fays Mr Sacheverel) here were three noble globes
of white marble, placed on three ftone bafons, and thefc
were turned round ; but the fynod ordered them and
60 crofles to be thrown into the fea. The prefent
ftones are probably fubftituted in place of thefe globes.
The precimft of thefe tombs was held facred, and en¬
joyed the privileges of a girth or fan&uary. Thefe
places of retreat were by the ancient Scotch law, not
to flicker indiferiminately every offender, as was the
cafe in more bigotted times in Catholic countries ; for
here all atrocious criminals were excluded; and only
the unfortunate delinquent, or the penitent finner,
was ftiielded from the inftant ftroke of rigorous ju-
ftice. A little to the north of this inclofure ftands
the cathedral, built in form of a crofs, 115 feet
long by 23, the tranfept 70 feet : the pillars of
the choir have their capitals charged with feripture
and other hiftories; and near the altar are the .tombs
of two abbots and a knight. A fragment remains of
the altar-ftone of white marble veined with grey.
This church is aferibed to Maldwin in the 7th century;
but the prefent ftrudfture is far too magnificent for that
age. Moft of the walls are built of red granite from
the-Nun’s ifland in the Sound. Two parallel walls of
a covered way about 12 feet high and 10 wide, reach
from the fouth-caft corner to the fea. In.the church¬
yard is a fine crofs of a Angle piece of red granite, 14 feet
high, 22 broad, and 10 inches thick. Near the fouth-
eaft end is Msry’s chapel. The monaftery is behind
the chapel; of which only a piece of the cloifters re¬
mains, and fome facred black ftones in a corner, on
which contrafts and alliances were made, and oaths
fworn. . Eaft of it was the abbot’s gardens and of¬
fices. North of this was the palace of the bifhop of the
ifles after the feparation of Man from them. This fee
was endowed with 13 iflands; feveral of which were
frequently taken away by the chieftains. The title
of Seder, which fome explained Soter, 2«7»-/> “ the name
of Chrift, or Soder, an imaginary town,” is really de¬
rived from the diftin&ion of the diocefe into the north¬
ern iflands or Nordereys (h e. all to the north of Ad-
namurchan point), and the Southern or Sudereys;
which laft being the moft important, the ifle of Man
retained both titles.
Other ruins of monaftic buildings and offices may be
traced, as well a'S fome druidical fepulchral remains.
Several abbeys were derived from this, which with the
ifland was governed by an abbot-prelbyter, who had
rule even over bilhops. The place where Columba landed
is a pebbly beach, where a heap of earth reprefents
the form of his flrip. Near it is a hill with a circle of
ftones called Cnoc nar-aimgeal, or “ the hill of angels,”
with whom the faint held conference; and on Michael¬
mas day the inhabitants courfed their horfes round it,
a remain of the cuftom of bringing them there to be
bleffed. In former times, this ifland was the place
where the archives of Scotland and many valuable old
manuferipts were kept. Of thefe moft are fuppofed
to have been deftroyed at the Reformation ; but many,
it is faid, were carried to the Scotch college at Douay
in France, and it is hoped fome of them may Hill be
recovered. This once illuftrious feat of..learning and
Q^q piety
J .nah
JON r 306 ] TON
piety has now no fchool for education, no Jtemple for
worfhip, no inilruftor in religion, unlefs vifited by the
pariih mlnifter from another ifland.
JONAH, or Prophecy of Jonah, a canonical book
of the Old Teftament ; in which it is related, that Jo¬
nah (about 771 li. C.) was ordered to go and pro¬
phecy the deftructlon of the Ninevites, on account of
their wickednefs. But the prophet, inftead of obey¬
ing the divine command, embarked for Tarfliifh; when,
a tempeft arifing, the mariners threw him into the Tea:
he was fwallowed by a great fifti; and after being three
days and nights in his belly, was call upon the land.
Hereupon being fenfible of his paft danger and fur-
prifing deliverance, he betook himfelf to the journey
and embafly to which he was appointed ; and arriving
at Nineveh the metropolis of Affyria, he, according
to his commifiion, boldly laid open their fins and mif-
carriages, and proclaimed their fudden overthrow: up¬
on which the whole city, by prayer and fading, and a
fpeedy repentance, happily averted the divine ven¬
geance, and efcaped the threatened ruin. Jonah upon
this, fearing to pafs for a falfe prophet, retired to a hill
at fome diltance from the city ; where God, by a mi¬
racle, condefcended to (how him the unreafonablenefs
of his difcontent.
JONAS (Julius), a Proteftant divine, born at North
Haufen, in Thuringia, in 1493. -^e was !°ne -L'1*
ther’s moll zealous difciples. He contraded a 11 rid
friendfhip with Melan&hon ; became principal of the
college of Wittemburg, and afterwards dean of the
univerfity of that city. He wrote a treatife in favour
of the marriage of priefts, arid other works ; and died
in 1555.
Jonas (Arnagrimus), a learned Icelander, acquired
great reputation by his (kill in the fciences, and parti¬
cularly in aftronomy. He was coadjutor to Gundebran
de Thorlac, bilhop of Hola, in Iceland. He refuled
that bilhopric, after the death of Gundebran; and died
in 1649. -He wrote feveral works; the principal of
•which are, Idea vera Magiflratds, and his hillory and
defcription of Iceland.
JONATHAN, the fon of Saul, celebrated in fa-
ored hiftory for his valour, and his friendlhip for Da¬
vid againlt the interell of his own houfe. Slain in
battle 1055 B. C.
Jonathan Maccabaus, brother of Judas, a renown¬
ed general of the Jews. He forced Bacchides the Sy¬
rian general, who made war with the Jews, to accept
a peace ; conquered Demetrius Soter, and afterwards
Apollonius, that prince’s general; but, being enfnared
by Tryphon, was put to death 144 B. C.
JONES (Inigo), a celebrated Englilh architeff,
•was the fon of a cloth-worker of London, and was
born in 1572. He was at firft put apprentice to a
joiner ; but early diftinguilhed himfelf by his inclina¬
tion to drawing or defigning, and was particularly ta¬
ken notice of for his Ikill in landfcape-painting. This
afterwards recommended him to the favour of Wil¬
liam earl of Pembroke, who fent him abroad with a
handfome allowance in order to perfed. himfelf in that
branch. He was no fooner at Rome, than he found
himfelf in his proper fphere : he felt that nature had
not formed him to decorate cabinets, but to delign pa-
ktces^ He dropt the pencil and conceived Whitehall,
la the Rate of Venice he faw the works of Palladio,
and learned how beautiful talle may be exerted on a Jones,
lefs theatre than the capital of an empire. How his v—
abilities diftinguilhed themfelves in a fpot where they
certainly had no opportunity to ad, we are not told,
though it would not be the leaft cuiious part of
his htftory; certain it is, that, on the ftrength of his
reputation at Venice, Chriftian IV. invited him to
Denmark, and appointed him his archited; but on
what buildings he was' employed in that country, we
are yet to learn. James I. found him at Copenhagen,
and queen Ann took him in the quality of her ar¬
chited to Scotland. He ferved prince Henry in the
fame capacity, and the place of furveyor-general of the
works was granted to him in reverlion. On the death
of that prince, with whom at leaft all his lamented
qualities did not die, Jones travelled once more into
Italy, and,^ affifted by ripenefs of judgment, perfeded
his tafte. . To the interval between thefe voyages Mr
Walpole is inclined to aflign thofe buildings of Inigo,
which are lefs pure, and border too much npon the ba-
Ikrd ftyle, which one may call king James’s gothic. I-
nigo’s defigns of that period are not gothic, but have
a littlenefs of parts, and a weight of ornaments, with
which the revival of the Grecian 4afte was encumber¬
ed, and which he (hook off in his grander deligns The
furyeyor’s place fell, and he returned to England; and,
as if architedure was not all he had learned at Rome,
with an air of Roman difmterertednefs he gave up the
profits of his office, which he found extremely in
debt; and prevailed upon the comptroller and pay-
mafter to imitate his example, till the whole arrears
were cleared.
In 1620, he was employed in a mannes very unwor¬
thy of his genius : king James fet him upon clifcover-
ing, that is, gueffing, who were the founders of Stone¬
henge. His ideas were all Romanized ; confequently,
his partiality to his favourite people, which ought ra¬
ther to have prevented him from charging them with
that mafs of barbarous clumlinefs, made him conclude
it a Roman temple.
In the fame year Jones was appointed one of the
commiffioners for the repair of St Paul’s; but which
was not commenced till the year 1633. when Laud,
then bilhop of London, laid the firft ftone, and Inigo
the fourth. In the reftoration of that cathedral, he
made two capital faults. He firft renewed the lides
with very bad Gothic ; and then added a Roman por¬
tico, magnificent and beautiful indeed, but which had
no affinity with the ancient parts that remained, and
made his own Gothic appear ten times heavier. He
committed the fame error at Winchefter, thrulling a
fereen in the Roman or Grecian tafte into the middle
of that cathedral. Jones indeed was by no means fue-
cefsful when he attempted Gothic. The chapel of Lin¬
coln’s-Inn has none of the charaifleriftics of that archi-
tedlure. The cloyfter beneath feems oppreffed by the
weight of the building above.
The authors of the life of Jones place the ere£ling of
the Banqueting-houfe in the reign of king Charles; but
it appears, from the accounts of Nicholas Stone, that
it was begun in 1619, and finifhed in two years—a
fmall part ©f the pile defigned for the place of our
kings ; but fo complete in itfelf, that it ttands a mo¬
del of the moll pure and beautiful tafte. Several plates
of the intended palace at Whitehall have been given;
JON [ 3°7 1 JON
but Mr Walpole thinks, from no finifhed defign. The Arundel, and others, to plant and reduce to uniforml-
four great fheets are evidently made up from gene- ty, Lincoln’s-Inn Fields, as it (hall be drawn by way
ral hints ; nor could fuchu a fource of invention and of map, or ground-plot, by Inigo Jones, furveyor-
taile as the mind of Inigo ever produce fo much fame- general of the works. That fquare is laid out with a
nefs. The whole fabric, however, was fo glorious an regard to fo trifling a Angularity, as to be of the exa6t
idea, that one forgets for a moment (fays Mr Wal- dimenfions of one of the pyramids: this would have
pole), in the regret for its not being executed, the con- been admired in thofe ages when the Keep at Ken-
firmation of our liberties, obtained by a melancholy nelworth Caftle was eredted in the form of an horfe-
feene that pafled before the windows of that very Ban- fetter, and the Efcurial in the fliape of St Laurence's
queting-houfe. gridiron.
In 1623 he was employed at Somerfet-houfe, where Colefliill in Berkfliire, the feat of Sir Matthew
a chapel was to be fitted up for the Infanta, the in¬
tended bride of the prince. The chapel is ftill in be¬
ing. The front to the river, part only of what was
Pleydell, built in (650, and Cobham-hall in Kent,
were Jones’s. He was employed to rebuild Caftle Afh-
by, and finifhed one front: but the civil war interrup-
defigaed, and the water-gate, were eredfed afterwards ted his progrefs there and at Stoke-park in Northamp-
on the defigns of Inigo, as was the gate at York- tonfhire. Shaftfbury-houfe, now the London Lying-
flairs. in hofpital, on the eaft fide of Alderfgate-ftreet, is a
On the acceflion of Charles, Jones was continued beautiful front. The Grange, the feat of the lord
in his polls under both king and queen. His fee as chancellor Henley in Hampfhire, is entirely of this
furveyor was 8 s. 4 d. a day, with an allowance of mailer. It is not a large houfe, but by far one of the
46 1. a-year for houfe-rent, befides a clerk, and inci- .bell proofs of his tatle. The hall, which opens to a
dental expences. What greater rewards he had, are fmall veltibule with a cupola, and the ftair-cafe ad-
not upon record. joining, are beautiful models of the pureft and moll
During the profperous flate of the king’s affairs, the claffic antiquity. The gate of Beaufort-garden at
pleafures of the court were carried on with much talle Chelfea, defigned by Jones, was purchafed by lord
and magnificence. Poetry, painting, mufic, and archi- Burlington, and tranfported to Chifwick. He drew
te&ure, were all called in to make them rational amufe- a plan for a palace at Newmarket; but not that
ments. Mr Walpole is of opinion, that the celebrated wretched hovel that Hands there at prefent. One of
feltivals of Louis XIV. were copied from the ftiows the moll beautiful of his works is the Queen’s houfe
exhibited at Whitehall, in his time the moll polite court at Greenwich. The hrft idea of the hofpital is faid
in Europe. Ben Johnfon was the laureat; Inigo Jones to have been taken by his fcholar Webb, from his
the inventor of the decorations ; Laniere and Fera- papers.
bofeo compofed the fymphonies; the king, the queen, Inigo tailed early the misfortunes of his mailer. He
and the young nobility, danced in the interludes. We was not only a favourite, but a Roman Catholic : in
have accounts of many of thofe entertainments, called 1646, he paid 545 1. for his delinquency and feque-
mafques; they had been introduced by Anne of Denmark, ftration. Whether it was before or after this fine, it is
Lord Burlington had a folio of the defigns for thefe uncertain, that he and Stone the mafon buried their
folcmnities, by Inigo’s own hand, confifting of habits, joint Hock in Scotland-yard; but an order being pub-
malks, feenes, &c. The harmony of thefe malks was lifhed to encourage the informers of fuch concealments,
a little interrupted by a war that broke out between and four perfons being privy to the fpot where the
the. compofers, Inigo and Ben ; in which, whoever money was hid, it was taken up, and reburied in Lam-
was the aggreffor, the turbulent temper of Johnfon took beth-marlh. Grief, misfortunes, and age, put an end
care to be moll in the wrong. to his life at Somerfet-houfe, July 21. 1651. Several
The works of Inigo Jones are not fcarce ; Sur- of his defigns have been publilhed by Mr Kent, Mr
geon’s-hall is one of his bdl works. One of the rnoft Colin Campbell, and Mr Ifaac Ware. He left in MS.
admired is the Arcade of Covent-garden, and the fome curious notes on Palladio’s architefture, which
Church: “ Two ftrudlures (fays Mr Walpole), of are inferted in an edition of Palladio publilhed in 1714-
which I want tafte to fee the beauties. In the arcade IONIA, a country of Afia minor, bounded on the
there is nothing remarkable; the pilafters are as ar- north by iEolia, on the weft by the jEgean and Ica-
rant and homely ftripes as any plallerer would make, rian feas, on the fouth by Caria, and on the call by
The barn-roof over the portico of the church flrikes Lydia and part of Caria. It was founded by colonies
my eyes with as little idea of dignity and beauty, as from* Greece and particularly Attica, by the lonians
it could do if it covered nothing but a barn. It mull or fubjefts of Ion. Ionia was divided into 12 fmall
be owned, that the defeft is not in the architect, but Hates which formed a celebrated confederacy often men-
in the order.—Who ever faw a beautiful Tufcan build- tioned by the ancients. Thefe 12 Hates were Priene,
ing ? Would the Romans have chofen that order for Miletus, Colophon, Clazomense, Ephefus, Lebedos,
a temple ?” The expence of bailding that church was Teos, Phocasa, Erythrse, Smyrna, and the capitals of
4500!. Samos and Chios. The inhabitants of Ionia built a
Ambrefbury in Wiltlhire was defigned by Jones, but temple which they called Pan Ionium from the con-
executed by his fcholar Webb Jones was one of cdUrfe of people that flocked there from every part of
the firll that obferved the fame diminution of pilallers Ionia. After they had enjoyed for fome time their
as in pillars.. Lindfay-houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields, freedom and independence, they were made tributary
which he built, owes its chief grace to this lingula- to the power of Lydia by Grcefus. The Athenians
rity. In 1618 a fpecial commiflion was iffued to the aflilied them to fhake off the flavery of the Afiatic
lord chancellory the earls of Worcelter, Pembroke, monarch*; but they-foon forgot their duty and rela-
Qjl 2 tion
J o R [ 308 ] JOS
Ionic tion to their mother-country, and joined Xerxes when
II he invaded Greece. They were delivered from the
jordano. perfian y0ke by Alexander, and reftored to their ori-
* ginal independence. They were reduced by the Ro¬
mans under the di&ator Sylla. Ionia has been al¬
ways celebrated for the falubrity of the climate, the
fruitfulnefs of the foil, and the genius of its inhabi¬
tants.
' IONIC order. See Architecture, 0045.
Ionic DialeS, in grammar, a manner of fpeaking
peculiar to the people of Ionia.
Ionic SeS was the firlt of the ancient fefts of phi-
lofophers; the others were the Italic and Eleatic.
The founder of this fed was Thales, who, being a
native of Miletus in Ionia, occafioned his followers to
affume the appellation of Ionic : Thales was fucceeded
by Anaximander, and he by Anaximenes, both of Mi¬
letus ; Anaxagoras Clazomenius fucceeded them, and
removed his fchool from Afia to Athens, where Socra¬
tes was his fcholar. It was the ditlinguilhing tenet
of this fed, that water was the principle of all natural
things.
IONIUM mare, a part of the Mediterranean Sea,
at the bottom of the Adriatic. It lies between Sicily
and Greece. That part of the .fligean fea which lies
on the coafts of Ionia in Afia, is called the Sea of Io¬
nia, and not the Ionian Sea. According to fome au¬
thors, the Ionian fea receives its name from lo, who
fwam acrofs there after ftie had been metamorphofed
into a heifer.
JONK, or JoNQtJE, in naval affairs, is a kind of
fmall fliip, very common in the Eaft Indies. Thefe
veffels are about the bignefs of our fly-boats; and
differ in the form of their building, according to the
different methods of naval architecture ufed by the na¬
tions to which they belong. Their fails are frequently
made of mats, and their anchors are made of wood.
JONSTON (John), a learned Polifli naturalift and
phyfician, born in 160J. He travelled all over Eu¬
rope, and procured efteem every where by his know¬
ledge; afterward he bought the eftate of Ziebendorf
in the duchy of Lignitz in Silefia, where he fpent the
remainder of his days. He wrote a natural hiftory of
birds, fifli, quadrupeds, infedts, ferpents, and dragons,
in folio ; a piece upon the Hebrew and Greek fefti-
vals, a thaumatography, and fome poems. He died
in *675.
JOPPA, a fea-port town in Paleftine, lying fouth
of Caefarea ; and anciently the only port to Jerufalem,
whence all the materials fent from Tyre towards the
building of Solomon’s temple were brought hither
and landed, (2 Chr. ii. 16.) It is faid to have been
built by Japhet, and from him to have taken its name
jfapho, afterwards moulded into Joppa; and the very
heathen geographers fpeak of it as built before the
flood. It is now called Jqfla, fomewhat nearer to its
firft; appellation, and is but in a poorand mean condition.
JOR, the Hebrew for a river, which, joined with
Dan, concurs to form the term Jordan. See Dan.
JORDANO (Luca), an eminent Italian painter,
was born at Naples in 1632. He became very early
a difciple of Jofeph Ribera ; but going afterwards to
Rome, he attached himfelf to the manner of Pietro da
Cortona, whom he aflifled in his great works. Some
ȣ his pictures being feeq by Charles II. king of
Spain, he engaged him in painting the Efcuriaf; in JorJans
which talk he acquitted himfelf as a great painter. II
The king (bowed him a pi&ore of Baffani, exprefling Joft;Ptlus-f
his concern that he had not a companion : Luca
painted one fo exa&ly in Baffani’s manner, that it was
taken for a performance of that mafter; and for this
fervice he was knighted, and gratiiied with feveral ho¬
nourable and valuable employments. The great works
he executed in Spain, gave him ftill greater reputa¬
tion when he returned to Naples; fo that though he
was a very quick workman, he could not fupply the
eager demands of the citizens. No one, not even
Tintoret, ever painted fo much as Jordano ; and his
generofity carried him fo far as to prefent altar-pieces
to churches that were not able to purchafe them. His
labours were rewarded with great riches; which he
left to his family, when he died, in 1705.
JORDANS (James), one of the moft eminent
painters of the Flemifli fchool, was born at Antwerp
in 1593- He learned the principles of his art from
Adam Van Ort, whofe daughter he married ; which
connexion hindered him from gratifying his inclination
of vifiting Italy. He improved mod under Rubens;
for whom he worked, and from whom he drew his bed
principles: his tafte dire&ed him to large pieces ; and
his manner was ftrong, true, and fweet. A great
number of altar-pieces painted by him are preferved
in the churches in the Netherlands, which maintain
the reputation of this artift. He died in 1678.
JOllTIN (John), a very learned and ingenious
Englifh clergyman, was born in Huntingdonlhire, a-
bout the year 1701. Having fome private fortune of
his own, and being of a peculiar difpoficion that could
not folicit promotion, he remained long without pre¬
ferment. In 1738, lord Winchefter gave him the li¬
ving of Eaftwell in Kent; but the place not agreeing
with his health, he foon reflgned it. Archbifhop
Herring, who had a great value for him, about the
year 1751 prefented him to the living of St Dunftan’s
in the Eaft.; and bifhop Ofbaldifton in 1762 gave him
that of Kenfington, with a prebend in St Paul’s ca¬
thedral, and made him archdeacon of London. His
temper, as well as his afpedl, was rather morofe and.
faturnine ; but in company that he liked, he was at all
times facetious, yet ftill with a mixture of fal cenfura
fuperiorum. His fermons were fenfible and argumen¬
tative ; and would have made more impreflion on his
hearers, had he been more attentive to the advantages
flowing from a good delivery : but he appeared to
greater advantage as a writer. His remarks on eccle-
haftical hiftory, his fix differtations, his life of Eraf-
raus, and his fermons, were extremely well received by
the public, and have undergone feveral editions. He
died in the year 1770.
JOSEPH, the fon of Jacob ; memorable for his
chattity, and the honours conferred on him at the
court of Egypt, &c. He died in 1635 B. C. aged
110.
JOSEPHUS, the celebrated hiftorian of the Jews,
was of noble birth, by his father Mattathias defcended-
from the high-priefts, and by his mother of the blood-
royal of the Maccabees ; he was born A. D. 37, under
Caligula, and lived under Domitian. At 16 years of
age he betook himfelf to the fe£l of the Effenes, and
then to the Pharifee'sand having been, fuccefsful in a.
Journey
J O u [ 309 ] J O u
Jofhua journey to Rome, upon his return to Judaea he was
j} made captain-general of the Galilseans. Being taken
‘|ou ef * prifoner by Vefpafian, he foretold his coming to the
empire, and his own deliverance by his means. He
accompanied Titus at the fiege of Jerufalem, an^ wrote
his “ Wars of the Jews,” which Titus ordered to be
put in the public library. He afterwards lived at
Rome, where he enjoyed the privileges of a Roman
citizen, and where the emperors loaded him with fa¬
vours, and granted him large penfidns. Befides the
above work, he wrote, 1. Twenty books of Jewifh an¬
tiquities, which he finilhed under Domitian. 2. Two
books againll Appian. 3. An elegant difcourfe on
the martyrdom of the Maccabees. 4. His own life.
Thefe works are excellently written in Greek.
JOSHUA, the renowned general of the Jews, who
conduced them through the wildernefs, &c. died in
1424 B. C. aged 110.
Joshua, a canonical book of the Old Teftaraent,
containing a hiftory of the wars and tranfaftions of
the perfon whofe name it bears. This book may be
divided into three parts : the firft of which is a hifto¬
ry of the conqueft of the land of Canaan ; the fecond,
which begins at the 12th chapter, is a defcription of
that country, and the divifion of it among the tribes ;
and the third, comprifed in the two laft chapters, con¬
tains the renewal of the covenant he caufed the Ifrae-
lites to make, and the death of their vi&orious leader
and governor. The whole comprehends a term of 17,
or, according to others, of 27 years.
JOSIAH, king of Judah; the deftroyer of idola¬
try, and the reftorer of the true worlhip, an excellent
magiftrate, and a valiant general, was flain in battle,
609 E.C.
JOTAPATA (anc. geog.), a town of the Lower
Galilee, diftant 40 ftadia from Gabara; a very ftrong
place, fituated on a rock, walled round, and encom-
paffed on all hands with mountains, fo as not to be
feen but by thofe who came very near. It was with
great difficulty taken by Vefpafian, being defended
by Jofephus, who commanded in it; when taken, it
was ordered to be razed.
JOUBERT (Lawrence), counfellor and phyfician
to the king of France, chancciior and judge of the
univerfity of Montpelier, was bor ■ at Valance in Dau-
phiny in 1530. He became the difciple of Rondelet
at Montpelier ; and at his death fucceeded to the re-
gius profefforfhip of that univerfity, where he had
given abundant proofs of his merit, and ftrengthened
his reputation by the lectures he read in that capacity,
as well as by the works he publifhcd. Henry III.
who paffionately wiflisd to have children, fent for him
to Paris, in hopes by his affiftance to render his mar¬
riage fruitful; but he was difappointed, without any
lofs of repute to Joubert. Much offence was indeed
taken at a piece he publiffied under the title of Vulgar
errors, in which he treated of virginity and generation
more plainly than had ever before been done in the
French language. But, though he had promifed
fomething more on the fame fubjeft, he was fo piqued
at the clamour raifed againft it, that the public faw no
more, of fix parts promifed, than the fii ft, and part of
the fecond, though they were greatly called for. He
died in 1582 ; and his fon Ifaac tranflated fame of his
Latin paradoxes into French.
JOVIAN, the Roman emperor, defied by the Jovian
army, after the death of Julian the apoftate, in 363. II
He at firft refufed, faying he would not command Journa •
idolatrous foldiers ; but, upon an affurance that they
would embrace Chriftianity, he accepted the throne,
and immediately (hut all the Pagan temples, and for¬
bid their facrifices* But he did not long enjoy the
dignity to which his merit had raifed him ; being fuf-
focated in his bed by the fumes of a fire that had
been made to dry the chamber, in 3^4, the 33d of
his age, and the eighth month of his reign. See Con¬
stantinople, n° 67.
JOVIUS (Paul), in Italian Giovio, a celebrated
hiftorian, was born at Como in Italy, in the year 1483.
As his father died in his infancy, he was educated by
his eldeft brother Benedict Jovius, under whom he be¬
came well Ikilled in claffical learning ; and then went
to Rome, for the fake of enjoying th? benefit of the
Vatican library. He there wrote his firft piece, De
pifeibus Romanis, which he dedicated to cardinal Lewis
of Bourbon. He received a penfion of 5*00 crowns
for many years from Francis I. king of France, whofe
favour he fecured by his flatteries. But, in the fol¬
lowing reign, having difgufted the conftable Montmo¬
rency, his name was ftruck out of the lift of penfioners*.
Jovius did not fuffer his fpirits to fink under his mif-
fortune : he had obtained a high reputation in the
learned world by his writings ; and having always
ffiowed great refpedl to the houfe of Medicis, on whofe
praifes he had expatiated in his works, he applied to
Clement ViI. and obtained the bifhoprick of Nocera.
His principal piece is his hiftory, which is that of his
own time throughout the world, beginning with 1494,
and extending to the year 1544. This was the chief
bufinefs of his life. For he formed the plan of it in
the year 1515 ; and continued upon it till his death,
which happened at Florence in 1552. It is printed irv
three volumes folio. He is allowed to have been a man
of wit as well as learning: he was mafter-of a bright
and polifhed flyle, and has many curious obfervations :
but being a venal writer, his hiftories are not much
credited.
JOURNAL, a day-book, regifter, or account of
what paffes daily. See Diary.
Journal, in Merchants Accounts, is a book into
which every particular article is polled out of the
wafte-book, and made debtor. This is to be very
clearly worded, and fairly engroffed. See Boon-
Keeping.
Journal, In navigation, a fort of diary, or daily
regifter of the Ihip’# courfe, winds, and weather ;
together with a general account of whatever is ma¬
terial to be remarked in the period of a fea-voyage.
In all fea-journals, the day, or what is called the
24 hours, terminates at noon, becaufe the errors of
the dead-reckoning are at that period generally cor*
redled by a folar obfervation. The daily, compadl
ufually contains the ftate of the weather; the varia¬
tion, increafe, or diminution of the wind; and the:
fuitable Ihifting, reducing, or enlarging the quantity-
of fail extended ; as alfo the moft material incidents of:
the voyage, and the condition of the Ihip and her crew;,
together with the difeovery of other fliips or fleets,,
land, fhoals, breakers, foundings, Ac.
Journal, is alfo a name common for weekly effays,.
news?
1 P E
'Journal newipapers, &c. as the Gray’s-Inn journal, the Weft-
11 minfter journal, &c.
Ipecacu- Journal, is alfo ufed for the titles of feveral books
. anha' , which come out at ftated times, and give abftracls,
- ' accounts, &c. of the new books that are publifhed, and
the new improvements daily made in arts and fciences;
as the Journal de Sgavans, Journal de Phyftquc, &c.
JOURNEY, a trad of ground pafled over in tra¬
velling by land ; properly as much as may be paffed
over in one day.
Management of a Horfe on a Journey* See Horse.
JOURNEYMAN, properly one who works by the
day only ; but the word is now ufed for any one who
■works under a matter, either by the day, the year, or
the piece.
JOUVENET (John), a celebrated French paint¬
er, was born at Rouen in 1644; where his father,
who was a painter, bred him up to the fame profeffion:
but his greateft improvement was confefledly derived
from the inftru&ions of Nicholas Pouffin, and ftudy-
ing the works of that mafter. He acquired fo good a
knowledge of defign, as qualified him for employment
in feveral grand works in the palaces at Paris and Tria¬
non ; in many of the churches and convents; and in
the hofpital of invalids, where he painted the twelve
apoftles, each figure being 14 feet high. He was e-
fteemed to have a ready invention, to be correft in his
defigns, and to have a tafte for grandeur in his com-
pofitions: it is obferved of this artift, that being de¬
prived of the ufe of his right hand by a paralytic dif-
order, he neverthelefs continued to paint with his left.
He died in the year 1717.
JOY, in ethics, is that paflion which is produced
by love, regarding its obje<ft as prefent, either imme¬
diately or in profpeft, in reality or imagination.
This paffion has been found to increafe the perspira¬
tion and urine of human bodies.
JOYNERY. See Joinery.
IPECACUANHA, in the materia medica, a Weft-
Indian root, of which there are principally two kinds,
diftinguifhed by their colour, and brought from differ¬
ent places ; but both poffeffing the fame virtues, tho’
in a different degree. The one is afh-coloured or
grey, and brought from Peru ; the other is brown, and
is brought from the Brafils : and thefe are indifferent¬
ly fent into Europe under the general name of ipe¬
cacuanha.
Thefe two forts have been by fome fuppofed to b^
the roots of two different plants: but, according to o-
thers, this is a miftake; the only difference being that
one grows in a different place, and in a richer and moi-
fler foil, and is better fupplied with juices than the o-
ther. The plant they belong to is a fpecies of Psy-
chotria.
The afh-coloured ipecacuan is a fmall wrinkled root,
bent and contorted into a great variety of figures,
brought over in fhort pieces full of wrinkles, and deep
circular fiffures, quite down to a fmall white woody
fibre that runs in the middle of each piece : the corti¬
cal part is compaft, brittle, looks fmooth and refinous
upon breaking : it has very little fmell; the tafte is
bitterifh and fubacrid, covering the tongue as it were
with a kind of mucilage. The brown fort is fmall,
and fomewhat more wrinkled than the foregoing; of a
brown or blackifh colour without, and white with-
I P E
in. The firft fort, the afh-coloured or grey ipe- Ipecaecir
cacuan, is that ufually preferred for medicinal ufe. anha'
The brown has been fometimes obferved, even in a 'r~mm4
fmall dofe, to produce violent effe&s. A third fort,
called the white from its colour, has alfo been diftin¬
guifhed. It is woody, has no wrinkles, and no per¬
ceptible bitternefs in tafte. This, though taken in a
large dofe, has fcarce any effeft at all. It is fuppofed
to belong to a fpecies of Viola. Mr Geoffrey calls
this fort bqftard ipecacuan, and complains that it is an
impofition upon the public. Geoffrey, Neumann, Dale,
and Sir Hans Sloane, inform us, that the roots of a
kind of apocynum (dogs-bane) are too frequently
brought over inftead of it; and inftances are given of
ill confequences following from the ufe of it. But if
the marks above laid down, particularly the afh colour,
brittlenefs, deep wrinkles, and bitterifh tafte, be care¬
fully attended to, all miftakes of this kind may be
prevented.
Ipecacuan was firft brought into Europe about the
middle of laft century, and an account of it publifhed
about the fame time by Pifo ; but it did not come into
general ufe till about the year 1686, when Helvetius,
under the patronage of Louis XIV. introduced it
into praftice. This root is one of the mildeft and
fafeft emetics with which we are acquainted; and has
this peculiar advantage, that if it fhould not operate
by vomit, it paffes off by the other emundWies.
It was firft introduced among us with the charac¬
ter of an almoft infallible remedy in dyfenteries, and
other inveterate fluxes, as menorrhagia and leucor-
rhcea, and alfo in diforders proceeding from obftruc-
tions of long Handing: nor has it loft much of its
reputation by time. In dyfenteries, it almoft always
produces happy effe&s, and often performs a cure in a
very fhort fpace of time. In other fluxes of the belly,
in beginning dyfenteries, and fuch as are of a malig¬
nant kind, or where the patient breathes a tainted air,
it has not been found equally fuccefsful: in thefe cafes
it is neceffary to continue the ufe of this medicine for
feveral days, and to join with it opiates, diaphoretics,
and the like. This root, given in fubftance, is as effec¬
tual, if not more fo, than any of the preparations of
it: the pure refin afts as a ftrong irritating emetic,
but is of little fervice in dyfenteries ; while an extraft
prepared with water is almoft of equal fervice in thefe
cafes with the root itfelf, though it has little effeft as
an emetic. Geoffroy concludes from hence,' that the
chief virtue of ipecacuan in dyfenteries depends upon
its gummy fubftance, which lining the inteftines with a
foft mucilage, when their own mucus has been abraded,
occafions their exulcerations to heal, and defends them
from the acrimony of the juices: and that the refinous
part, in which the emetic quality refides, is required,
where the morbific matter is lodged in the glands of
the itomach and inteftines. But if the virtues of this-
root were entirely owing to its mucilaginous or gummy
part, pure gums, or mucilages, might be employed to
equal advantage. Water, affifted by a boiling heat,
takes up from all vegetables a confiderable portion of
refinous along with the gummy matter : if the ipeca¬
cuan remaining after the aftion of water be digefted
with pure fpirit, it will not yield half fo much refin as
at firft: fo that the aqueeus extract differs from the
crude root only in degree, being proportionably lefa-
refinoug
[ 3-1° ]
I P E [ 311 ] IPO
refinous, and having lefsefFeft, both as an emetic., and in
the cure of dyfenteries. The virtues of ipecacuan, in
this diforder, depend upon its promoting perfpiration,
the freedom of which is here of the utmoft importance,
and an increafe of which, even in healthful perfons, is
generally obferved to fupprefs the evacuation by llool.
In dyfenteries, the (kin is for the mod part dry and
tenfe, and perfpiration obftrufted: the common dia¬
phoretics pafs off without efftft through the inteftinal
canal: but ipecacuan, if the patient after a puke or
two be covered up warm, brings on a plentiful fweat.
After the removal of the dyfentery, it is* neceffary to
continue the ufe of the medicine for fome time longer,
in order to prevent a relapfe ; for this purpofe, a few
grains divided into feveral dofes, fo as not to occafion
any fenfible evacuation, may be exhibited every day ;
by this means the cure is effeftually eftablifhed. And
indeed fmall dofes given, even from the beginning, have
been often found to have better effe&s in the cure of
this difeafe than larger ones. Geoffroy informs us
from his own experience, that he has obferved ten
grains of the powder to adt as effeftually as a fcruple
or two ; and therefore confines the dofe betwixt fix
and ten grains : it has lately been found, that even
fmaller dofes prove fufficiently emetic. The only
officinal preparation of this root is a tin&ure made in
wine, which accordingly has now the appellation of
'vlnum ipecacuanha, both in the London and Edinburgh
pharmacopoeias.
Many ingenious experiments have been made on the
fubjeft of ipecacuan by Dr Irving, for which he ob¬
tained the prize medal of the Harveian Society at
Edinburgh for 1784. He has afeertained, that while
this root contains a gummy refinous matter, yet that
the gummy exifts in a much greater proportion than
the refinous part; that the gummy part is much more
powerfully emetic than the refinous; that although the
conical part of the root be more aftive than the ligne¬
ous, yet that even the pure ligneous part poffeffeaa
confiderable emetic power; and that the whole of the
rootpoffeffes confiderable influence, both as an antifep-
tic and aftringent. To determine whether the emetic
power of ipecacuan was of a volatile or fixed nature.
Dr Irving fubjedted it to diftillation. The water ob¬
tained by diftillation was found to have very little in¬
fluence ; but the decodtion which remained in the (till,
not only operated violently as an emetic, but produced
rigours, cold fweats, and other alarming fymptoms.
By long continued boiling, the adtivity of the root it-
felf is almoft totally deftroyed ; but Dr Irving found,
that the emetic property of ipecacuan was moft effec¬
tually counteradted by means of the acetous acid, in-
fomuch that thirty grains of the powder taken in two
ounces of vinegar produced only fome loofe (tools.
Ipecacuan, particularly in the (late of powder, is
now advantageoully employed in almoft every difeafe
in which full vomiting is indicated ; and when combin¬
ed with opium under the form of the pulvis fudorificus,
it furniflies us with the moft ufeful and adtive fweating
medicine which we poffefs. It is alfo often given with
advantage in very fmall dofes, fo as neither to operate
by vomiting, purging, nor fweating.
The full dofe of the powder is a fcruple or half a
dram, and double that in form of watery infuffon.
The full dofe is recommended in the paroxyfm of
4
fpafmodic afthma, and a dofe of three or four grains (phleema
every morning in habitual afthmatic indifpofition. A -It
dofe of -f or -r grain rubbed with fugar, and given e- . Pome3•
very four hours or oftener, is recommended in uterine
hemorrhagy, cough, pleurify, hsemoptoe, &c. and has
often been found highly ferviceable.
IPHIGENIA, a daughter of Agamemnon and Cly-
temneftra. When the Greeks going to the Trojan war
were detained by contrary winds at Aulis, they were
informed by one of the foothfayers, that to appeafe
the gods theyr muft facrifice Iphigenia Agamemnon’s
daughter to Diana. The father, who had provoked
the goddefs by killing her favourite flag, heard this
with the greateft horror and indignation ; and rather
than to (hed the blood of his daughter, he commanded
one of his heralds, as chief of the Grecian forces, to or¬
der all the affembly to depart each to his refpedtive
home. Ulyffes and the other generals interfered, and-
Agamemnon confented to immolate his daughter for
the common caufe of Greece. As Iphigenia was ten¬
derly loved by her mother, the Greeks fent for her on
pretence of giving her in marriage to Achilles. Cly-
temneftra gladly permitted her departure, and Iphige¬
nia came to Aulis. Here (he faw the bloody prepara¬
tions for the facrifice. She implored the forgivenefs
and protection of her father; but tears and entreaties
were unavailing. Calchas took the knife in his hand ;
and as he was going to ftrikethe fatal blow, Iphigenia
fuddenly difappeared, and'a god of uncommon fize and
beauty was found in her place for the facrifice. This
fupernatural change animated the Greeks, the wind
fuddenly became favourable, and the combined fleet fet
fail from Aulis.
IPICRATES, general of the Athenians, had that-
command conferred upon.him at 20 years of age,
and became famous for the exaCtnefs of his military
difeipline. He made war on the Thracians ; reftored
Senthes, who was an ally of the Athenians; at¬
tacked the Lacedemonians; and, on many other occa-
fions, gave fignal proofs of his conduft and courage.
Many ingenious repartees have been mentioned of this •
general: a man of good family with no other merit
than his nobility, reproaching him one day for the
meannefs of his birth, he replied, “ 1 (hall be the
frrft of my race, and thou the lall of thine.” He died
380 B. C.
IPOMEA, quamoii.1T, or Scarlet Convolvulus : A
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs of plants; and in the natural method •
ranking under the 29th order, Campanacea. The corolla
is funnel-(haped ; the ftigma round-headed; the cap-
fule triloculor. There are feveral fpecics; but not
more than one, (the coccinea), cultivated in ow
gardens. This hath long, (lender, twining ftalks, ri-
fing upon fupport fix or feven feet high. The leaves
are heart-(haped, pointed, and angulated at the bafe,.
and from the fides of the ftalks and branches arife
many (lender footftalks; each fupporting feveral large
and beautiful funnel-ftiaped and fcarlet flowers. There
is a variety with orange-coloured flowers. Both of
them are annual, rifing from feed in fpring, flowering
in July and Auguft, ripening their feeds in September
and Oftober, and totally periffing in a ftiort time af¬
ter. They are tender, and muft be brought up in a
hot-bed till the latter end of May or beginning of."
June,,
IPS [31
Ipfwich June, when they may be planted out to adorn the
borders, or fome may be planted in pots to move occa-
fionally to adorn any particular place ; but in either
cafe, there muft be (ticks for them to twine upon.
IPSWICH, the capital of the County of Suffolk in
England, feated in E Long. 1. 6. N. Lat. 52. 12.
The name comes from the Saxon Gypefiuich, -that is,
a town fituated upon the Gyppen, now called Orwell.
It had once 21 churches, but now has only 12. It was
plundered by the Danes in 991, and afterwards be-
fieged by king Stephen. It had charters and a mint
in the reign of king John, but its lad charter was from
Charles II. The remains of a wall and fix or feven re¬
ligious houfes are ftill to be feen. Though it is not
in fo flourilhing a ftate as formerly when the harbour
was more commodious, yet it is ftill a large well-built
town. Befides the churches already mentioned, it has
feveral meeting-houfes, two chapels, a town-hall,
council-chamber, a large market-place with a crofs in
^the middle of it, a fhire-hall for the county feffions,
a library, feveral hofpitals, a free-fchool, a handfome
ftone-bridge over the river, ftately fhambles in the
market-place built by cardinal Wolfey, who was a na¬
tive of the town and a butcher’s fon, and who alfo
began to build a college here on the ruins of a fmall
college of black canons, which ftill bears his name,
though it was never finifhed. Here are alfo feveral
alms-houfes, three charity-fchools, and a convenient
key and cuftom-houfe. By virtue of Charles II.’s
charter, the town is governed by two bailiffs, a recorder,
12 portmen, of whom the bailiffs are two, a town-
clerk, two coroners, and 24 common-council. The
bailiffs and 4 of the portmen are juftices of the peace.
The town enjoys a great many privileges, as palling
fines and recoveries, trying criminal, and even crown
and capital caufes among themfelves, fettling the af
fize of bread, wine, and beer. No freeman is obliged
to ferve on juries out of the town, or bear any office
for the king, except that of the fheriff, or to pay tolls
or duties in any other part of the kingdom. They
have an admiralty jurifdi&ion beyond Harwich on the
Effex coaft, and on both fides the Suffolk coaft, by
which they are intitled to all goods call on ffiore.
The bailiffs even hold an admiralty-court beyond
Landguard-fort. By a trial in king Edward III.’s
time, is appears that the town had a right to the cu-
fiom-duties for all goods coming into Harwich-haven.
They claim a right alfo to all waifes and ftrays, &c.
The manufa&ures of the town are chiefly woollen and
linen cloth. It has ftill a confiderable foreign trade.
The tide rifes pretty high, and brings great fhips
within a fmall diftance of the town. They export a
great deal of corn to London, and fometimes to Hol¬
land. Formerly, they had a great trade in ftu'p-
building ; but that having declined, they now fend
great quantities of timber to the king’s yard at Cha¬
tham. It has feveral great fairs for cattle, cheefe, and
butter; and is admirably fituated for the trade to
Greenland, becaufe the fame wind that carries them
out of the river will carry them to Greenland. . It is
worth remarking, that it is one of the beft places in
England for perfons in narrow circumftances, houfe-
rent being eafy, provifions cheap and plentiful, the
paffage by land or water to London, &c. conve-
N° 168.
2 ] IRE
nient, and the company of the place good. It gives hafcible,
title of vifeount, as well as Thetford, to the duke of heland.
Grafton ; and fends two members to parliament. ' "1J
1RASCIBLE, in the old philofophy, a term ap¬
plied to an appetite or a part of the foul, where anger
and the other paffions, which animate us againft things
difficult or odious, were fuppofed to refide.
Of the eleven kinds of paffions attributed to the
foul, philofophers aferibe five to the irafcible appetite ;
viz. wtath, boldnefs, fear, hope, and defpair: the other
fix are charged on the concupifctble appetite, viz.
pleafure, pain, defire, averfion, love, and hatred.
Plato divided the foul into three parts; the reafon-
able, irafcible, and concupifcible parts. The two laft,
according to that philofopher, are the corporeal and
mortal parts of the foul, which give rife to our paf¬
fions.
Plato fixes the feat of. the irafcible appetite in the
heart; and of the concupifcible in the liver; as the two
fources of blood and fpirits, which alone affeeft the
mind.
IRELAND, one of the Britannic iflands, fituated
between the 5th and 10th degrees of weft longitude,
and between the 51ft and 56th of north latitude,,
extending in length about 300 miles, and about 150
in breadth.
The ancient hiftory of this ifland is involved in fo
much obfeurity, that it has been the obje& of con¬
tention among the antiquarians for upwards of a cen¬
tury and an half. The Irifti hiftorians pretend to very (
great antiquity. According to them, the ifland was Origin of
firft inhabited about 322 years after the flood. ,\tthe
that time Partholanus the fon of Scara landed in Mun- ,hdr own^
fter on the 14th of May with 1000 foldiers, and fome hiftonans.
women, from Greece. This voyage he had underta¬
ken on account of his having killed his father and mo¬
ther in his native country. The fame hiftorians in¬
form us, that a great number of lakes broke out in
Ireland during the reign of Partholanus, which had ,
no exiftence when he came into the ifland, with many
other particulars not worth mentioning ; but the moft
furprifing circumftance is, that about 300 years after
the arrival of this Grecian colony, all of them perilh-
ed by' a plague, not a Angle perfon remaining to tell
the fate of the reft ; in which cafe, it is wonderful how
the cataftrophe (hould have been known.
After the extinftion of this firft colony, Ireland re¬
mained a perfeft wildernefs for 30 years; when ano¬
ther colony arrived from the eaft, under the dire&ion
of one Nemedius. He fet fail from the Euxine fea
with 30 tranfports, each manned with 40 heroes ; and
at laft arrived on the coafts of Ireland, after a very te¬
dious and ftrange navigation. During his reign alfo
many lakes were formed in the country, which had no
exiftence before ; the moft material circumftance, how¬
ever, was an unfuccefsful war in which he was engaged
with fome African pirates, who in the end enflaved his
people. The viftors proved fuch infupportable ty¬
rants, that the Irilh found themfelves under a neceffity
of quitting the ifland altogether. They embarked on
board a fleet of 1130 fhips, under the command of
three grandfons of Nemedius, viz. Simon Breac, To
Chath, and Briatan Maol. The firft returned to
Greece, the fecond failed to the northern parts of Eu¬
rope,
IRE [ 313 1 IRE
IreUnd. rope, and the third landed in the north of Scotland,
——' and from him the ifland of Britain is faid to have ta¬
ken its name, and the Wehh their origin.
About 216 years after the death of Nemedius, the
defcendants of Simon Breac returned from Greece into
Ireland. They were conduced by five princes of great
reputation, who divided the ifland into five kingdoms,
nearly equal in fizt. Thefe kingdoms were called
Munjler, Ddnjler, Connaught, Meath, and Uljler ; and
the fubjefts of thefe kings are called by the Irilh hif-
torians Firbolgs.
The Firbolgs were in procefs of time expelled or
totally fubdued, after the lofs of 100,000 men in one
baltle, by the Tuuth de Dannans, a nation of necro¬
mancers who came from Attica, Boeotia, and Achaia,
into Denmark ; from Denmark to Scotland ; and
from Scotland to Ireland. Thefe necromancers were
fo completely {killed in their art, that they could even
rellore the dead to life, and bring again into the field
thofe warriors who had been (lain the day before.
They had alfo fome curiofities which pofiefled a won¬
derful virtue. Thefe were a fword, a fpear, a caul¬
dron, and a marble chair ; on which laft were crowned
firft the kings of Ireland, and afterwards thofe of
Scotland. But neither the powerful virtues of thefe
Danifh curiofities, nor the more powerful fpells of the
magic art, were able to preferve the Tuath de Dannfliis
from being fubdued by the Gadelians when they in¬
vaded Ireland.
The Gadelians were defcended from one Gathelns,
from whom they derived their name. He was a man
of great confequence in Egypt, and intimately ac¬
quainted with Mofes the Jewifli legiflator. His mo¬
ther was Scota, the daughter of Pharaoh, by Niul the
fon of a Scythian monarch cotemporary with Nimrod.
The Gadelians, called alfo Scots, from Scota above-
mentioned, conquered Ireland about 1 300 B. C. under
Heber and Heremon, two fons of Milefius king of
Spain, from whom were defcended all the kings of
Ireland down to the Englifli conqueft, and who are
therefore ftyled by the Irifli hiftorians princes of the
Milejian race.
From this period the Irifli hiftorians trace a gradual
refinement of their countrymen from a ftate of the
'groffeft barbarity, until a monarch, named OllamFod-
la, eftabliftied a regular form of government, erefled
a grand feminary of learning, and inftituted the Fes,
or triennial convention of provincial kings, priefts, and
poets, at Feamor or Tarah in Meath, for the eftablifh-
ment of laws and regulation of government. But
whatever were the ipftitutions of this monarch, it is
acknowledged that they proved infufficient to with-
ftand the wildnefs and diforder of the times. To Kim-
bath, one of his fucceffors, the annahfts give the ho¬
nour of reviving them, befides- that of regulating Ul-
fter, his family province, and adorning it with a (late¬
ly palace at Eamannia near Armagh. His immediate
fucceffor, called Hugony, is ftill more celebrated for
advancing the work of reformation. It feems, that,’
from the earlieft origin of the Irifli nation, the ifland had
been divided into the five provincial kingdoms above-
mentioned, and four of thefe had been fubjeft to the
fifth, who was nominal monarch of the whole ifland.
Thefe four, however, proved fuch obftinate difturbers
of the peace, that Hugony, to break their power,
Vol. IX. Part. I.
parcelled out the country into -251 dynafties, binding
them by oath to accept no other monarch but one of
his own family. This precaution proved inefferftual.
Hugony himfelf died a violent death, and all his fuc¬
ceffors for a feries of ages were affaffmated, fcarcely
with one exception.
About 100 B. C. the pentarchal government was
reftored, and is faid to have been fucceeded by a con-
liderable revolution in politics. The Irifli bards had
for many ages difpenfed the laws, and the whole na¬
tion fubmitted to their decifions; but as their laws
were exceedingly obfcure, and could be interpreted on¬
ly by themfelves, they took occafioji from thence to
opprefs the people, until at laft they were in danger of
being totally exterminated by a general infurre&ion.
In this emergency they fled to Convocar-Mac-Neffa,
the reigning monarch, who promifed them his .protec¬
tion in cafe they reformed; but at the fame time, in
order to quiet the juft complaints of his people, he em¬
ployed the moft eminent among them to compile an
intelligible, equitable, and diftindt, body of laws,
which were received with the greateft joy, and digni¬
fied with the name of celejiial decifions. Thefe deci¬
fions feem to have produced but very little reformation
among the people in general. We are now prefented
with a new feries of barbarities, murders, fa&ions,
and anarchy; and in this difordered lituation of af¬
fairs it was, according to the Irifli hiftorians, that the
chieftain mentioned by Tacitus addreffed himfelf to
Agricola, and encouraged him to make a defcent on
Ireland. This fcheme happened not to fuit the views
of the Roman general at that time, and therefore was
not adopted ; and fo confident are thefe hiftorians of
the ftrength of their country even in its then diftra&ed
ftate, that they treat the notion of its being fubdued
by a Roman legion and foifte auxiliaries (the force
propofed to Agricola), as utterly extravagant; ac¬
quainting us at the fame time, that the Irifli were fo
far from dreading a Roman invafion, that they failed
to the affiftance of the Picls, and having made a fuc-
cefsful incurfion into South Britain, returned home
with a confiderable booty.
In the fame ftate of barbarity and confufion the
kingdom of Ireland continued till the introduction of
Chriftianity by St Patrick, about the middle of the
fifth century. This miffionary, according to the adver-
faries of the Irifli antiquity, firft introduced letters into
Ireland, and thus laid the foundations of a future civi¬
lization. On the other hand, the advocates for that
antiquity maintain, that the Irifli had the knowledge
of letters, and had made confiderable progrefs in the arts,
before the time of St Patrick; though they allow,
that he introduced the Roman character, in which
his copies of the Scripture and liturgies were written.
To enter into the difpute would be contrary to our
plan. It is fufficient to obferve, that, excepting by
fome of the Irifti themfelves, the hiftory already given
is generally reckoned entirely fabulous, and thought
to have been invented after the introduction of Chrifti¬
anity. An-origin of the Irifli nation hath been found
out much nearer than Afia, Greece, or Egypt;
namely, the ifland of Britain, from whence it is now
thought that Ireland was firft peopled. A difpute hath
arifen conceining the place from whence the fitft emi¬
grants from Britain fet fail for Ireland. The honour
Rr of
Early hi*
ftflry of
Ireland by
Mr Whit¬
aker.
Names and
fmation of
the tribes
by which it
was inha¬
bited.
IRE [314
of being the mother-country of the Irifh hath been
difputed between the North and South Britons. Mr
Macpherfon has argued Itrenuoufly for the former,
and Mr Whitaker for the latter. For an account
of their difpute, however, we mud refer to the works
of thefe gentlemen. Mr Whitaker claims the vi£td-
ry, and challenges to himfelf the honour of being
the firll who clearly and truly demonftrated the ori¬
gin of the Irifh.
The name of Ireland, according to Mr Whitaker,
is obvioufly derived from the word Jur or 2?zV, which
in the Celtic language fignfies f‘ weft.” This word was
fometimes pronounced /wr, and Hiver; whence the
names of Iris, Itrna, Juwrna, Ivcrna, Hibernia, and
Ireland; by all of which it hath at iome time or other
been known.
About 350 B. C. according to the fame author,
the Belgse crofted the channel, invaded Britain, and
feized the whole extended line of the fouthern coaft,
from Kent to Devonftii’ e. Numbers of the former in¬
habitants, who had gradually retired before the enemy,
were obliged at laft to take (hipping on the weftern
coaft of England, and paffed over into the uninhabited
ifle of Ireland. Thefe were afterwards joined by a*
nother body of Britons driven out by the Bclgae un¬
der Divitiacus, about too B. C. For two centuries
and a half afterwards, thefe colonies were continually
reinforced with frtfti fwarms from Britain ; as the po-
puloufnefs of this ifland, and the vicinity of that invi¬
ted them to fettle in the one, or the bloody and fuc-
ceffive wars in Britain during this period naturally in¬
duced them to relinquifh the other : and the whole cir¬
cuit of Ireland appears to have been completely peo¬
pled about 150 years after Chrift : and as the inhabi¬
tants had all fled equally from the dominion of the
Belgae, or for fome other caufe left their native coun¬
try, they were diftinguiftied among the Britons by one
general and very appofite name, viz. that of Scuites,
or Scots, “ the wanderers, or refugees.”
Mr Whitaker alfo informs us, “ that in the times
of the Romans Ireland was inhabited by 18 tribes ; by
one upon the northern and three on the fouthern (bore,
feven upon the weftern, fix on the eaitern, and one in
the centre.
“ Along the eaftern coaft, and the Vergivian or inter¬
nal ocean, were ranged the Damnii, the Voluntii, and
the Eblani, the Caucii. the Menapii, and the Coriondii.
The firft inhabited a part of the two counties of An¬
trim and Down, extending from Fair-head, the moft
north-eafterly extremity of the ifland, to Ifamnum
Promontorium, or the point of Ardglafs haven in the
county of Down ; and having the Logia or Lagan,
which falls into Carrickfergus bay, within their pof-
feffions and Dunum or Down-patrick for their capital.
The Voluntii pofieffed the coaft from the point of that
haven to the river Buvinda or Boyne, the temainder
of Down, the breadth of Ardmagh, and all Louth ;
having the Vinderus or Carlingford river in their do¬
minions, and the town of Laberus near the river Deva
(Athevdee in the county of Louth) for their metro¬
polis. And the Eblani reached from the Boyne to the
Lsebius, Laev-ui, or Liffy ; refiding in Fall Meath,
and in the large portion of Dublin county which is to
the north of this river ; and acknowledging Mediola-
aum, Eblana, or Dublin, for their principal town. The
] IRE
Caucii fpread from the Liffy to the Letrim, the Oboca
of the ancients; had the reft of Dublin county, and
fuch parts of Wicklow as lie in the north of the lat¬
ter ; and owned Dunum or Rath-Downe for their chief
city. The Menapii occupied the coaft betwixt the
Lttrim and Cancarne-point, all the reft of Wicklow,
and all Wexford to the point; their chief town, Me-
napia, being placed upon and to the eaft of Modona,
Slanus, or Slane. And the Ceriondii inhabited at the
back of the Caucii and Menapii, to the weft of the
Slane and Liffy,and in all Kildare and all Catherlogh ;
being limited by the Boyne and Barrow on the weft,
the Eblani on the north, and the Brigantes on the
fouth.
“ Upon the fouthern (bore and along the verge of the
Cantabrian ocean, lay the Brigantes, the Vocfias, and
the Ibernii. The firft owned the reft of Wexford and
all Waterford : extending to the Blackwater, Aven-
More, or Dabrona, on the fouth-weft ; having the great
mouth of the Barrow with their territories, and Bri-
gantia, Waterford, or fome town near it, for their firft
city ; and giving name of Brigas to the Suir or Swire,
their limitary ftream on the north, and the appellation
of Bergie to their own part of the county of Wexford.
The Vodise poffeffed the (hire of Corke from the Black-
water to tlfo Ban, the river of Kinfale, and the Do-
bqnaorDubana of the ancients; and affixed the name
of Vodium Promontorium to the point of Balycotton
ifland. And the Ibernii inhabited the remainder of
Corke, and all that part of Kerry which lies to the
fouth-tail of Dingle-found ; having Ruiina or Ibanne
for their capital, the Promontorium Auftrinum or Mif-
fen-Head about the middle of their dominions, and
the river Ibernus or Dingle found for their northern
barrier ; and leaving their names to the three divifions
of Ibaune, Beare, and Ivetagh.
“ LTpon the wefttrn (bore of the ifland and along the
Great Britannic or Atlantic ocean, were the Eucanii
or Lucenii, the Velaborii, and the Cangani, the Au-
terii, the Naguatse, the Hardinii, and Venicnir. The
Lucenii inhabited the peninfula of land that lies along
the river Ibernus or Dingle-found, and peihaps fome
adjoining parts of Kerry. The Velaborii ranged along;
the (mall remainder of the Liter, and over the whole
of Limerick to the Senus or Shannon ; having the Da¬
rius or Caftieen flowing through their dominions, and
Regia, Limeric or fomt town near it, for their me¬
tropolis. And the latter was probably that city near
Limerick, the file of which is liill famous, and retains
the appellation of Cathair, or the fort refs; and where
the remains of ftretts, and other marks of a town, may
yet be traced. The Cangani lived in the county of
Clare: Macolicum near the Shannon, perhaps Feakle
or Melic, being their principal town ; a headland in
the bay of Galway, near Glaniny, being denominated
Benifamnum Promontorium ; and the adjoining ifles of
Arran called In/u/ee Cangamt. The Auterii were fet¬
tled in the county of Galway ; winding along the deep,
recefs of the Sinus Aufoba or bay of Galway ; ftretch-
ing towards the north as far as the Libnius, or the river
that bounds the (hire’ in that part ; and poflefling tlie
fmall portion of Mayo which lies to the fouth of it.
And thefe were fubjebl to Auteiium, anciently Aterith,
and now Athenree; and have left their name to the
divifion of Athenree. The Nagnatae. occupied the reft
i R E
Ireland, of the large county of Mayo, all Sligo and ail Rof-
’—-v  common, all Letrim as far as Logh Allin on the fouth-
caft, and all Fermanagh to Balyfhannon and Logh
Erne; being bounded by the Rhebius or river of 13a-
lyftiannon, and the Lake Rhebius or Logh Erne ; ha¬
ving a deep bay, called Magnus Sinus, that curves along
Mayo, Sligo, and Letrim counties; and acknowled¬
ging Nagnat, Necmaht, or Alnecmaht, the town of the
Nagnatse, for their capital. And the. Hardinii and
Venicnii were confederated together under the title of
the Venicnian Nations, extended from Balyfhannon to
the North-Cape, and pofieffed all Donnegalle, except
the two whole divifions of Raphoe and Enis-Owen, and
the eaftern part of Killmacrenen. The Venicnii lay
along the immediate margin of the fhore, giving name
to the Promontorium Venicnium or Cape Horn, and
to the Infula Venicnia or North-Arran ifland. And
their metropolis Rheba was feated upon the lake
Rhebius, and in the country of the Hardinii on the
fouth-eaft.
“ Upon the northern fliore and along the margin of
the Deucaledonian ocean, were only the Robogdii ; in¬
habiting the reft, of Donnegalle, all Derry, and all
Antrim to the Fair-Head, and the Damnii ; and gi¬
ving their own name to the former and the divifion of
Raphoe. And they had the rivers Vidua or Ship-
harbour, Arigta or Logh Swilly, Darabouna or Logh
Foile, and Banna or Ban, in their territories; and ac¬
knowledged Robogdium, Robogh, or Raphoe, for their
chief city.
“ The central regions of the ifland, all Tyrone, the
remainder of Fermanagh and Letrim, all Monaghan,
and the reft of Ardmagh ; all Cavan, all Longford,
and all Weft-Meath ; all the King’s and Queen’s coun¬
ty, all Kilkenny, and all Tipperary ; were planted by
the Scoti. The Shannon, Logh Allin, and Logh
Erne, were their great boundaries on the weft; the
Barrow, Boyne, and Logh Neagh, on the eaft; the
Swire and Blackwater on the fouth ; and a chain of
mountains on the north. And the two greateft of
their towns were Rheba, a city feated, like the Rhe¬
ba of the Venicnians, upon the lake and river Rhebius,
but on a different part of them, and fomewhere in the
north of Cavan ; and Ibernia, a town placed a little to
the eaft of the Shannon, and fomewhere in the coun¬
ty of Tipperary.”
But whether we are to receive as truth the accounts
given by Mr Whitaker, thofe of the Irifli annalifts,
or any other, it is certain, that, till little more than a
century ago, Ireland was a fcene of confufion and
flaughter. The Irifli hiftorians acknowledge this, as
we have already feen. Very few of their monarchs
efcaped a violent death. The hiftories of their kings
indeed amount to no more than this, viz. that they
began to reign in fuch a year, reigned a certain num¬
ber of years, and were flain in battle by the valiant
prince who fucceeded to the throne. The introduc¬
tion of Chriftianity feems to have mended the matter
very little, or rather not at all. The fame wars be¬
tween the chiefs continued ; and the fame murders and
4 treacheries took place among the inhabitants, till they
InvaOon of were invaded by the Danes or Normans, about the
the Dane>. end of the eighth century. At this time, we are told,
that the monarchical power was weak, by reafon of the
fad to ns and affuming difpofition of the inferior dyna-
[ 315 1
I R E
ftics; but that the evils of the political conftitution Ireland,
had confiderably fubfided by the refped paid to reli- v—
gion and learning. The firft invafions of the Danes
were made in fmall parties for the fake of plunder,
and were repelled by the chieftain whofe dominions
were invaded. Other parties appeared in different parts
of the ifland, and terrified the inhabitants by the ha¬
voc they committed. Thefe were in like manner put to
flight, but never failed to return in a fliort time; and in
this manner was Ireland harafl'ed for the fpace of 20
years, before the inhabitants thought of putting an
end to their inteftine contefts, and uniting againlt the
common enemy. The northern pirates, either by-
force or treaty, gradually obtained fome fmall fettle-
ments on the ifland ; till at length Turges, or Turge-
fius, a warlike Norwegian, landed with a powerful ar¬
mament in the year 815. He divided his fleet and^r-
my, in order to ftrike terror in different quarters. His
followers plundered, burned, and maffacred, without
mercy, and perfecuted the clergy in a dreadful manner
on account of their religion. The Danes already
fettled in Ireland, flocked to the ftandard of Turgefius,
who thus was enabled to feat himfelf in Armagh, from
which he expelled the clergy, and feized their lands.
The Irifli, in the mean time, were infatuated by their
private quarrels; till at laft, after fome ill-condu&ed
and unfuccefsful efforts, they funk into a ftate of ab-
je& fubmiffion, and Turgefius was proclaimed monarch
of the whole ifland in 845.
The new king proved fuch a tyrant, that he foon
became intolerable. A confpiracy was formed againtt
him ; and he was feized by Melachiine prince of Meath,
in a time of apparent peace. An univerfal infurrec-
tion enfued ; the Danes were maflacred or difperfed ;
their leader condemned to death for his cruelties, and
drowned in a lake. The foreigners, however, were
not exterminated, but the remains of them were al¬
lowed to continue on the ifland as fubjeds or tributa¬
ries to fome particular chieftains. A new colony foon
arrived, but under pretence of peaceable intentions,
and a defign of enriching the country by commerce.
The Irifli, through an infatuated policy, fuffered them
to become mafters of Dublin, Limeric, Waterford,
and other maritime places, which they enlarged and
fortified with fuch works as had till then been un¬
known in Ireland. The Danes did not fail to make
ufe of every opportunity of enlarging their territories,
and new wars quickly enfued. The Irifh were fome-
times vi&orious, and fometimes not; but were never
able to drive out their enemies, fo that they continued
to be a very diftinguiffied and powerfulJept, or tribe,
in Ireland. The wars with the Danes were no fooner
at at end, than the natives, as ufual, turned their arms
againft each other. The country was haraffed by the
competitions of the chiefs; laws and religion loft their
influence, and the moft horrid licentioufnefs and im¬
morality prevailed. Thus the whole ifland feemed
ready to become a prey to the firft invader, when an
attempt was made upon it by Magnus king of Nor¬
way. This attempt mifearried, through his own rafh-
nefs; for, having landed without oppofition, he ad¬
vanced into the country without the leaft apprehen-
fion. The confequence of this was, that he was fur-
rounded and cut in pieces with all his followers. His
death, however, proved of little benefit to Ireland ;
R r 2 the
ire r 31
Ireland, the fame diforders which had gradually reduced the
—v~kingdom to a Hate of extreme weaknefs, Hill conti¬
nued to operate, and to facilitate the fuccefs of the
Engliih invaiion, which happened in the reign of Hen*
g ry IL
Henry Tl. The firft. motives which induced this monarch to
of England think of an expedition againil Ireland are not well
an^nvafion ^nown- ^ was fnppofed that he had been provoked
of Ireland, by fome affidance which the Irifh princes had given
to the French ; but, whatever might be in this, it is
certain that the defign was conceived foon after he a-
fcended the throne ; and his flatterers foon furnilhed
him with fufficient reafons for confidering the Irilh as
his fubjefts. it was affirmed that they had original¬
ly poffeffed themfelves of their country by permiflion
of Gurguntius a Britifh king ; and that, as defcen-
dents of the Britons, they were the natural and right¬
ful fubje&s of the Englifh monarch. It was alfo fug-
gefted, that the renowned King Arthur, Egfred the
.Northumbrian prince, and Edgar one of the Saxon
kings of England, had all led their armies into Ireland,
and there made valuable acquifitions, which their fuc-
cefibr was in honour bound to recover and maintain.
All thefe fuggeftions, however, or whatever elfe had
occurred to himfelf, feemed yet infufficient to Henry;
and therefore he took the moft effe&ual method to en
fure his reputation, namely, by an application to the
pope. To him he reprefented, that the inhabitants
of Ireland were funk into the moft wretched ftate of
corruption, both with regard to morals and religion ;
that Henry, zealous for the honour and enlargement
of God’s kingdom, had conceived the pious delign of
ere&ing it in this unhappy country ; was ready to de¬
vote himfelf and all his powers to this meritorious fer-
vice ; implored the benedidf ion of the pontiff; and re-
quelled his permiffion and authority to enter Ireland,
to reduce the difobedient and corrupt, to eradicate
all fin and wickednefs, to inftrudt the ignorant, and
fpread the bleffed influence of the gofpel in all its pu¬
rity and perfe&ion ; promifing at the fame time to pay
a yearly tribute to St Peter from the land thus to be
reduced to his obedience, and to the holy fee. Adrian,
the reigning pope, rejoiced at this application which
£ tended fo much to the advancement of his own power.
Is inverted A bull was therefore immediately formed, conformable
with the tQ ^ mofl. fangUine wi(hes of Henry, which was fent
by^he^0 ^ to England without delay, together with.a ring, the
pope. token of his inveftiture as rightful fovereign of Ire¬
land. But whatever inclination the king of England
or the pope might at this time (A. D. 1156) have
for the fubje&ion of Ireland, the fltuation of the Eng-
lifh affairs obliged him to defer it for fome time.
The ftate of Ireland, as we have already obferved,
was at this time extremely favourable for an invaiion.
The monarch enjoyed little more than a titular dignity,
being haraffed by a faftion, and oppofed by powerful
rivals. A number of chieftains who affumed the title
and rights of royalty, paid a precarious tribute to
their fuperior,, and united, if they were difpofed to
unite, with him, rather as his allies than his fubjefts.
In Ulfter, the family of the northern Hi Nial, as it
was called, exercifed an hereditary jurifdidtion over
the counties now called Tirone, Derry, and Donnegal.
They alfo claimed a right of fupremacy over the lords
«f Fermanagh, Antrim, and Argial, which included
7
State of
Ireland at
that time.
6 ] IRE
the counties of Armagh, Monaghan, Lowth, and fome Ireland,
adjacent diftri&s: while Dunleve, prince of Uladh
(nowDoyvn), difputed the fuperiority of this family,
and affetted an independent ftate. In Munfter reign¬
ed the defeendants of Brien, a famous fovereign of
former times, impatient to recover the honours of
their family; but at laft, being confined by powerful
rivals to the territory of North Munfter, they were
obliged to leave the family of Mac Arthy fovereigna
of Defmond, the fouthern divilion. In Connaught, the
princes known by the name of O^Connor were ac¬
knowledged fovereigns of the eaftern territory. Tier-
nan O’Ruarc, an aftive and reftlefs military chief, had
the fupremacy in Breffney, containing the modern,
county of Leitrim, and fome adjacent diftri£ts. Meath,
or the fouthern Hi-Nial, was fubjeft to the family of
Clan-Colman, Murchard O’Malachlyn, and his fuc-
ceffors. Leinfter, divided into feveral principalities,
was fubjedt to Dermod, a fierce, haughty, and op-
preffive tyrant. His father had governed with great
cruelty. Seventeen of his vaffal lords had been either
put to death, or had their eyes put out, by his order
in one year ; and Det mod feemed to inherit too great
a portion of the fame temper. His llature and bodily
{Length made him admired by the inferior orders of
his fubje&s, and thefe he was careful to proteft and
favour. His donations and endowments of religious
houfes recommended him to the clergy; but his, tri¬
butary chieftains felt the weight of his pride and
tyranny, and to them his government was extremely
odious.
The chief competitors for the rank of monarch of
Ireland, in the mean time, were, the heirs of the two
houfes of O’Connor, and the northern Hi-Nial. Tor-
logh O’Connor was in poffelfion ; but he was not ge¬
nerally recognifed, and was oppofed by his rival
O’Lochlan : notwithftanding which, he maintained his
dignity with magnificence and vigour, till a decifivo
viftory gained by him over O’Brien raifed O’Lochlan’s
jealoufy fo much, that he obliged him in a convention
of the Hates, to allow him the fovereignty of the nor¬
thern divifion. In confequence of this partition, it was
refolved to transfer the territory of O’Ruarc to a perfon
more inclined to the interefts of the two fovereigns.
An expedition was accordingly undertaken ; O’Ruarc
was furprifed, defeated, and driven from his dominions.
Dermod, who had conceived an unlawful paffion for
Dervorghal, the wife of O’Ruarc, took the opportu¬
nity of her hulband’s diltreffes to carry her off in
triumph. O’Ruarc conceived the moft implacable refent-
ment againft Dermod ; and therefore applying himfelf
to Torlogh, promifed an inviolable attachment to his
intereft; and prevailed on him not only to reinftate
him in his poffelfions, but to revenge the infuk offered
by Dermod, and to reftore his wife. By means of
fuch a powerful ally, O’Ruarc found frequent oppor¬
tunities of haraffing his antagonift till the death of
Torlogh, which happened in 1156, upon which
O’Lochlan fucceeded to the fovereignty. Dermod
was the firft to acknowledge the authority of this new
fovereign, by whofe means he hoped to be able to re¬
venge himfelf on O’Ruarc. He foon found, however,
that he had afted too precipitately. His patron, ha¬
ving treacheroufly feized and put out the eyes of Dun¬
leve prince of Down, the neighbouring chieftains took.-
arms,
IRE [ ;
Ireland, arms, in order to fecure themfelves from his barbarity.
O’Lochlan was defeated and killed; upon which the
monarchy devolved on Roderic the fon of the late Tor-
logh O’Connor.
The new prince had acquired the reputation of va¬
lour, and was determined to eftablifh this reputation
by fome remarkable exploit in the beginning of his
reign. Having therefore engaged in his fervice the
Oilmen, or defcendants of the. Danes, he marched a-
gainft Dermod as the chief partizan of his fallen rival.
The king of Leinfter was feized with the utmoft con-
fternation ; and in defpair fet fire to his own town of
Ferns, left the enemy ftiould have the fatisfeftion of
fpoiling it. Roderic ftill advanced, attended by O’Ru-
s arc, Dermod’s implacable enemy, and foon over-ran
Dermod,' the whole province- All the inferior lords at once
an exiled acknowledged Roderic’s authority. Dermod was depo-
prince, fo- {'e^} as a man utterly unworthy of his ftation; another
ance*from" was raifed to the throne ; and the unfor-
Henry ti. tunate prince, finding it impoflible to flay with fafety
in Ireland, embarked with 60 of his followers for
England, and foon arrived at the port of Briftol, with
a defign to folicit affiftance from king Henry.
In England, Dermod’s charafter was unknown, and
he was regarded as an injured prince driven from his
throne by an iniquitous confederacy. The clergy re¬
ceived him as the benefactor of their order, and enter¬
tained him in the monaftery of Auguftines with great
hofpitality. Having learned that Henry was then in
Aquitain, he immediately went thither, and in a very
abjeft manner implored his affiftance, promifing to ac¬
knowledge him as his liege lord, and to hold his do¬
minions, which he was thus confident of regaining, in
vaflalage to Henry and his heirs.
Though nothing could be more flattering to the
ambition of the king of England than this fervile ad-
drefs, yet the fituation of his own affairs rendered it
impoffible for him at that time to reap from it any of
the advantages with which it flattered him. He there¬
fore difmiffed the Irilh prince with large prefents, and
a letter of credence addreffed to all his fubjetts; noti¬
fying his grace and prote&ion granted to the king of
Leinfter; and declaring, that whofoever within his
dominions ftiould be difpofed to aid the unfortunate
prince in the recovery of his kingdom, might be affured
of his free licence and royal favour.
Dermod returned to Engjand highly pleafed with
the reception he had met with; but notwithftanding
the king’s letter, none of the Englifh feemed to be
difpofed to %ry their fortunes in Ireland. A month
elapfed without any profpeft of fuccours, fo that Der-
9 mod began to defpmr. At laft, however, he perfuad-
Perfuades cti} wjt}j great promifes, Richard Earl of Chepftow, or,
venturers as't was formerly called, Strigulf a nobleman of confi-
to follow derahle influence in Wales, but of broken fortune, to
him to Ire affift him with a confiderable force to be tranfported
land. next fpring into Ireland. Overjoyed at thisfirft inftance
of fuccefs, he advanced into South Wales, where, by
the influence of the bifhop of St David’s, he procured
many other friends. Robert Fitz,-Stephen, a brave
and experienced officer, covenanted with him to en¬
gage in his fervice with all his followers, and Maurice
Fitz-Gerald his maternal brother; while Dermod, on
his part, promifed to cede to the two principal leaders,
Fitz-Stephen and Fitz-Gerald, the entire dominion of
the town of Wexford, with a large adjoining territory,
|i7 ] IRE
as foon as by their affiftance he fliould be reinftated in Ireland,
his rights.  
The Irifh prince having now accompliflied his pur-
pofe, fet fail for Ireland in the winter of 1169. and
recovered a fmall part of his dominions even before
the arrival of his new allies; but being attacked with
a fuperior force by his old enemies Roderic and
O’Ruarc, he found himfelf obliged to feign fubmif-
fion till the Englifh allies came to his affiftance. The
expe&ed fuccours arrived in the month of May 1 r 70,
in a creek called the Barm, near the city of Wexford.
Robert Fitz-Stephen commanded 30 knights,. 60 men
in armour, and 300 archers. With thefe came Har¬
vey of Mountmorris, nephew to earl Richard. He
had no military force along with him ; but came folely
with a view of difcovering the nature of the country,
and reporting it tp his uncle. Maurice of Pendentaft
commanded 10 knights and zoo archers: and thus the
Englifh force which was to contend with the whole
ftrength of Ireland, amounted to no more than 600
men. 10
Trifling as this affiftance may feem, it neverthelefsT,ieir h10*
changed the face of affairs almoft inftantaneoufly. cefli‘
Numbers of Dermod’s fubjeds, who had abandoned
him in his diftrefs, now flocked to his ftandard. Wex¬
ford was immediately attacked, and furrendered in a
few days; Fitz Stephen and Fitz-Gerald were jointly
invetted with the lordfhip of this city and its domain ;
and Harvey of Mountmorris was declared lord of two
confiderable diftri&s on the coaft. After three or four
weeks fpent in feafting and rejoicing, a new expedition
was undertaken againft the prince of Offory (a diftrift
of Leinfter), who had not only revolted from Dermod,
but put out the eyes of one of his fons, and that with
fuch cruelty , that the unhappy youth expired under the
operation. The allied army was now increafed to 30CO
men, who were oppofed by the prince of Offory at the
head of 5000, ftrongly entrenched among woods and
moraffes. By the fuperior conduft of the Englifh.
troops, however, the Irifh were decoyed from their
advantageous fituation, and thus were entirely defeat¬
ed. The Englifh were for keeping the field till they
had totally reduced their enemies: but Dermod, accu-
ftomed only to ravage and plunder, contented himfelf
with deftroying the country ; and a hidden reverfe of
fortune feemed ready to take place. The prince of
Offory, though defeated, ftill appeared in arms, and
only waited for an opportunity of again oppofing the
enemy in the field. Maurice Pendergaft alfo joined,
him with his whole troop, being provoked by Der¬
mod, who had refufed him leave to return to Wales.
This defe&ion, however, was in part fupplied by the
arrival of Fitz-Gerald with 10 knights, 30 horfe-
men, and too archers. Pendergaft in a fhort time re¬
pented of his new alliance, and retired into Wales;
fo that the prince was obliged to make his fubmiffion
to Dermod, which the latter with fome> reludlance ac¬
cepted.
In the meantime, Roderick, having fettled all hia
other affairs,, advanced againft the allies with a power¬
ful army. Dermod was thrown into defpair; but, en¬
couraged by Fitz Stephen, he.encamped in a very,
ftrong fituation, where he was foon befieged by Roderic.
The latter, however, dreading the valour of the Eng-
lifh, condefcended to treat firft with them, and then
with Dermod, in order to detach them from the inte
reft*.
IRE l 3i
SrdsmS. rsfts of each other: but as this proceeded evidently
1*' * from fear, his offers were rtjefted by both parties ;
upon which he began to prepare for battle : but at the
very time when the engagement fhould have commen¬
ced, either through the fuggeltions of his clergy, or of
tl his own fears, Roderic entered into a new negociation;
Peace con- which at lall terminated in a peace. The terms were,
chided. that Dermod ihould acknowledge the fupremacy of
Roderic, and pay him fuch fervice as the monarchs of
Ireland had ufualiy received from inferior princes;
and as a fecurity for his faithful performance of this
article, he delivered up his favourite fon as an hoftage
to Roderic: but in order to eftablilh this accommoda¬
tion on the firmed bafis, the latter obliged himfelf to
give his daughter in marriage to the young prince as
foon as Leinfter (hould be reduced, and the peace of the
ifland effeftually reftored. By a fecret article, Dtrmod
engaged to difmifs the Britifit forces immediately after
the iettlement of his own province, and in the mean
time not to bring over any further reinforcements from
England. .. .
Thus ended the firfl. Britilh expedition into Ireland;
the confcquences of which were £o little dreaded at that
time by the natives, that their hillorians, though they
dwell upon the principal wars and contells in other
parts of the ifland, fpeak of the fettlement of the
Welflimen in Leinfter with a carelefs indifference. But
though the fettlement of this colony feemed very little
alarming to the generality, it could not efcape the ob-
fervation of difeerning perfons, that a man of Dermod’s
charafter would not long keep his treaties j and that
on the firft emergency he would have recourfe to his
former allies, who thus would eftablifli themfelves more
and more, till at laft they would reduce the country
New ma entirely under their fubje&ion. Thefe rdle&ions, if
chinations any fuch were then made, were in a fhort time verified,
of DcrmoJ. Dermod was fcarce fettled in his own dominions, when
he began to afpire at the fovereignt.y, and form
fchemes for dethroning Roderic. He applied to Htz-
Stephen and Fitz-Gerald ; by whom he was again di¬
rected to apply to Richard earl of Chepftow, more
commonly known by the name of Strongbow, on ac¬
count of his feats of archery. Richard was very much
inclined to accept of his invitation; but thought it in¬
cumbent upon him firft to obtain the confent of king
Henry. The king, however, did not incline that his
fubjects fliould make conquefts for themfelves in any
other country, and therefore difmifled Richard with an
equivocal anfwer ; but the latter being* willing to un-
derftand his fovereign’s words in the moft favourable
I3 fenfe, immediately fet about the neceffary preparations
A new bo- for his expedition. In May 1171, Raymond le Grofs,
dy of Eng- Richard’s domeftic friend, and the near relation of
jifh arrive pq^Stepheu and Fitz-Gerald, landed at a place called
in re ant . jyongonaij^ near Waterford, with 10 knights and 70
archers ; and along with them came Harvey of Mount-
morris, attended by a fmall train. The Englifti imme¬
diately intrenched themfelves, and ere&ed a temporary
fort for themfelves : which proved a very neceflary pre¬
caution ; for the natives, juftly attributing this new
debarkation to the praftices of Dermod, inftantly
formed a tumultuous armv, and* marched to expel the
invaders. The Englifh prepared to meet them ; but
when they perceived the great fuperiority of the enemy,
8 1 IRE
they thought proper to retire to their fort. Here, Irehnd.
however, they tnuft have been totally cut off, had they -—'v——J
not luckily colle&ed a numerous herd of cattle from .'4
the neighbouring country for their fubfiftence. Thefe
they drove with fury among the Irifh, who were thus crUeity.
put into the utmoft confufion. The invaders feized
the favourable moment; and, falling upon their dif-
ordered enemies, put them to flight, and drove great
numbers of them into the fea, where they perilhed.
Seventy prifoners were taken, all of them principal ci¬
tizens of Waterford ; who, though they offered large
fums for their ranfom, and even that the city fliould be
delivered up to the Englifli, were all barbaroufly put to
death. This fuccefs and cruelty fo intimidated the
Irifli, that they fuffered thefe mercilefs invaders to
maintain their ftation unmolefted, and wait for the arri •
val of their affociates.
Richard in the mean time having affembled his vaf-
fals, led them through Wales, where he was joined by
great numbers of other adventurers; but, when juft
on the point of embarking, was furprifed by a pofitive
command from the king, to defill from his intended
enterpfize, on pain of forfeiture of his lands and ho¬
nours. He was now, however, too much interefted
in his. fcheme to retra<ft; and therefore pretended to
dilbelieve the authenticity of the royal mandate. On EarirRi^)„
the eve of the feaft of St Bartholomew, he landed at ard arrives
Waterford with 200 knights and 1200 infantry, all with a
chofen and well appointed foldiers. They were imme-P^r^j
diately joined by Raymond and his troop; and the*ment>
very next day it was refolved to make an attempt upon
Waterford. The city was taken by ftorm, and a
dreadful maflacre enfued; to which the cruel Dermod
had the merit of putting an end. The marriage of
Richard with Eva, the daughter of Dermod, was fo-
lemnized without delay, and a feene of joy and feftivity
fucceeded the calamities of war.
A new expedition was now undertaken againft
Dublin; the inhabitants of which had either manifeft-
ed fome recent difaffe&ion to Dermod, or had never
been thoroughly forgiven for their old defe&ion. Ro¬
deric advanced againlt the allied army with a formi¬
dable body, confifting, as is faid, of 30,000 men :
but, fearing to come to a general engagement, he.
contented himfelf with fome flight fleirmilhes; after
which, great part of his vaffals forced him to difmifs
them, and Dublin was left to its fate. The inhabitants
were treated very feverely ; however, a confide: ^le
body of them, with Hefculph their governor, had i,*:
good fortune to gain lome veffels lying-in the ha.
hour, and made their efcape to the northern iflands.
Earl Richard was now invefted with the lordlhip of
Dublin ; and appointed Milo de Cogan, a brave Eng-
lilh knight, his governor; while he himfelf, in con-
junftion with the forces of Dermod, over-ran the coun¬
try of Meath, committing every where the moft horrid
cruelties. Roderic, in the mean time, unable to op-
pofe them in the field, fent deputies to Dermod, com¬
manding him to retire, and putting him in mind that
his fon was in his hands, and mull anfwer with his life
for the breach of thofe treaties which his father made
fo little fcruple to violate. Natural affe6lion, however,
had very little place in the breaft of Dermod. He ex-
prefled the utmott indifference about his fon ; and, with
IRE [ 319 ] IRE
Ireland, the greatell arrogance, claimed the fovereignty of all
Ireland : Roderic, provoked at this anfwer, cut off the
young prince’s head.
This piece of impotent cruelty ferved only to make
the king odious to his own fuhje&s, while Dermod and
his Englifh allies committed every where the greateft
devallations, and threatened to fubdue the whole ifland.
This indeed they would probably have accomplifhed,
had not the extraordinary fuccefs of Strongbow alarm¬
ed king Henry ; who^ fearing th^t he might render
himfelf totally independent on the crown of Britain,
ifTued his royal edift. ftri&ly forbidding any Englifh
vefTtl from pafling into Ireland with men, arms, or
provifions ; and commanding all his fubje&s at that
time reiident in Ireland, of whatever rank or degree,
to return to their country before the enfuing fealt of
Efther, on pain of forfeiting their lands, and being
declared traitors.
Our adventurers were plunged into the greateft di-
ftrefs by this peremptory edidl. They now found
themfelves cut off from all fupplies in the midft of
their enraged enemies, and in danger of being forfaken
by thofe who had attached themfelves to •‘them during
their fuccefs. Raymond was difpatched with a molt
fubmiflive meffage to the offended monarch ; but be¬
fore he received any favourable anfwer, every thing was
♦ See Eng- thrown into confufion Sy the death of Beeket *, fo
Lincl,n rr9>that the king had neither leifure nor inclination to
attend to the affairs of Ireland. About the fame time
17 the death of Dermod their great ally feemed almoft to
DIftrefs of give a finilhing ftroke to the Englilh affairs. An uni-
theEiiglifti verfal defection took place among their afl'oeiates ; and
before they had time to concert any proper meafures,
Hcfeulph, who had formerly efcaped from Dublin,
appeared before that city with a formidable body of
troops armed aftei the Danifti manner. A furious at¬
tack enfued; which at laft ended in the defeat and
captivity of Hefculph, who was immediately put to
death. This danger, however, was foon followed by
one dill greater. Roderic had formed a powerful
confederacy with many of the Irifh chieftains, and the
kings of the northern ifles, in order to extirpate the
Eiiglifh totally from the ifland. The harbour of
Dublin was blocked up by a fleet of 30 fhrps from the
northern ifles; while the confederated Irifh took their
Rations in Inch a manner as to furround the city, and
totally cut off all fupplies cf provilions. In two
months time the Englifh were reduced to great ftraics.
On the tirft alarm, Richard had fent for affiitance to
Fitz-Stephen ; who having weakened his own force, in
order to ferve the earl, the people of Wexford had
rifen and befieged Fitz-Stephen in his fort called Carrij
near that city. A tntffcnger now arrived, informing
Strongbow that bis friend was in the utmoft danger,
and muff fall into the hands of his enemies if not affilled
within three days; upon which a council of war was
called, in order to deliberate on the meafures neceflary
to be purfued in this defperate emergency. It was foon
refolved to enter into a treaty with Rodevic upon any
terms that were not totally fervile or oppreflive. Lau¬
rence prelate of Dublin was appointed to carry the
terms; which were, that Richard propofed to acknow¬
ledge Rodtric as his fovereign, and to hold the pro¬
vince of Leinfter as his vaffal, provided he would
raife the iiege. Laurence foon returned with an
16
All the ad-
venturers
recailed by
the king.
anfwer, probably of his own framing; namely, that Ireland.
Dublin, Waterford, Wexford, and all the forts poffeffcd
by the Britifh, fhould be immediately given up; and
that the earl and his affociates ihould depart with
all their forces by a certain day, leaving every part of
the ifland free from their ufurpatiOns, and absolutely
renouncing all their pretended claims. On thefe con¬
ditions they were to be fpared ; but the lead relmftance
or delay would determine the beliegers to ftorm the
city.
Thefe terms, though they contained nothing info-
lent or unreafonable, confidering the prefent fituation
of the Englifh, were yet intolerable to our indigent
adventurers. After fotne time fpent in lilence, Milo
de Cogan, fuddenly flarting up, declared his refolu-
tion to die bravely rather than fubmit to the mercy of
barbarians. The fpirit of defperate valdur was in-
ftamly caught by the whole affembly ; and it was re¬
folved to rilk their whole fortune on one defperate ef¬
fort, by Rallying out againft the enemy, and to make
their attack upon that quarter where Roderic himfelf ,g
commanded. Accordingly, having perfuaded a bodyThev tofsl-
of the townfmen to take part in this defperate enter- ly defeat
prife, they marched out againft: their enemies, who t, 5ir ene"
txpe&ed nothing lefs than fuch a fudden attack. The
befu-gers were fecure and carelcfs, without difeipline
or order; in confequence of which,'they were un¬
able to fuftain the furious affault of the Englifh. A
terrible (laughter enfued, and the Irifh iuftantly fled in
the greateft. confufion ; their monarch himfelf efcaping.
only by mixing half naked with the crowd. The other
chieftains who were not attacked caught the panic,
and broke up their camps with precipitation; while
the vi&ors returned from the purfuit to plunder, and
among other advantages gained as much proviiion as
was fufficient to fupport them for a whole year.
Strongbovv being thus relieved from his difirefs,
committed the government of Dublin to Milo de Co¬
gan, while he proceeded immediately to Wexford in
order to relieve Fitz-Stephen : but in this he was dif-
appointed-; for that brave officer, having often repulfed
his enemies, was at laft treacheroufly deceived into fub-
miffion and laid in irons. Strongbovv, however, continu¬
ed to advance; and was again attacked by the Irifh, whom
he once more defeated. On his arrival at Wexford, he
found it burnt to the ground ; the enemy having retired
with Fitz-Stephen and the reft of-the prifoners to Holy
Ifland, a fmall iffand in the middle of the harbouiv
from whence they fe-nt a deputation, threatening to
put all the prifoners to death if the leaf! attempt was
made to moleft them in their prefent fituation. The
earl then proceeded to Waterford, and from thence to
Ferns; where he for Rune time ex-rcifed a regal autho¬
rity, rewarding his friends and puniihing his enemies.
A more important objeA, however, foon engaged his
attention. The king of England having fettled his
affairs as well as he could, now determined to conquer J()
Ireland for htmfelf. A funvnons was inftantly dif- Earl Rub-
patched to earl Richard, expreffing the greatell refent-ardfum-
ment at his prefumption and difobcdience, and requi-montd to
ring his immediate prefence in England. The earlEn*='uld*
found himfelf under a neceflity of obeying ; and ha¬
ving made the heft difpqfltions the time would permit
for the fecurity of his Irifh poffefiions, embarked for
England, and met the king at Newnham near Glou*
ceftcr-
I R E
[ 320 ]
I R E
JreW. cffter. Henry at firft affefted great difpleafure 4 but the city of Corke, did him homage, and ftipulated to Ireland.
foon allowed himfelf to be pacified by a furrender of pay a tribute for the reft of his territory. An Eng-v~
the city of Dublin, and a large territory adjacent, to- lifh governor and garrifon were immediately appointed
gether with all the maritime towns and forts acquired to take poffefiiomof his capital; and the kingdifplayed
by Strongbow : while on his part he confented that the his power and magnificence by marching to Lifmore,
earl (hould have all his other polfeffions granted in per¬
petuity, to be held of the king and his heirs. The
other adventurers made their peace in a fimilar man¬
ner ; while the Trifn chieftains, inftead of uniting in
the defence of their country, only thought how to
make the moft of the approaching invafion, or at leaft
how to avert the threatened evils from their own par¬
ticular diflrifts. They faw the power of their own
fovereign on the point of total diffolution ; and they
where he chofe a fituation and gave the neceffary or¬
ders for building a fort. The prince of Thompnd
next fubmitted and did homage. He was followed by
the princes of Offory, Decies, and all the inferior
chiefs of Munfter.
The king, after having provided for the fecurily of
all his newly acquired territories, and put garrifons in
the cities of Limerick, Corke, Waterford, and Wex¬
ford, proceeded to take pdfleffion of Dublin, which
faw it with indifference, if not with an envious and had been furrendered by Strongbow. The neighbour-
malignant fatisfa&ion. Some were even ready to pre- jng lords took the opportunity of fubrnitting as he ad¬
vent their invader, and to fubmit before he appeared vanced. O’Carrol of Argial, a chieftain of great con-
on the coaft. The men of Wexford, who had poffef- fequence, repaired to his camp, and engaged to become
fed themfelves of Fitz-Stephen, refolved to avert the his tributary ; and even O’Ruarc, whom Roderic had
confequences of their late perfidy and cruelty, by the made lord of a confiderable part of Meath, voluntari-
forwardnefs of their zeal for the fervice of the king of ly fubmitted to the new fovereign.
England, and the readinefs of their fubmiffions. Their Roderic, though furprifed at the defection of foRoderic
deputies cart themfelves at Henry’s feet; and, with many of his allies, ftill determined to maintain his own hol<^3
the moft pafiionate expreffions of obedience, humbly dignity, and at leaft preferve his province of Con-0111,
’ ’ ’ ” ' ■’ i--* .__r naughty feeing he could no longer call himfelf monarch
of the whole ifland. With this defign he entrenched
himfelf on the banks of the Shannon ; and now, when
difencumbered from a crowd of faithlefs and difcon-
intreated that he would accept them as his faithful vaf-
fals, ready to refign themfelves, their lands, and pof*
feflions, to his abfolute difpofal. “ They had already
(they faid) endeavoured to approve their zeal by feizing
Robert Fitz-Stephen, a traitor to his fovereign, who tented followers, he appears to have a£ted with a fpi-
had lately entered their territory by force of arms rit and dignity becoming his ftation. Hugh de Lacy
. , i  . r •    i J n U  i ntroi:  a     j
and William Fitz-Andelm were commiflioned by the
king to reduce him : but Roderic was too ftrong to
be attacked with any probability of fUccefs by a de¬
tachment from the Englilh army ; and he at leaft af¬
fected to believe, that his fituation was not yet fo to-
without any due warrant or fair pretence, had flaugh-
tered their people, feized their lands, and attempted
to eftablifti himfelf independent of his liege lord.
They kept him in chains, and were ready to deliver
him to the difpofal of his fovereign.”—The king re¬
ceived them with expreflions of the utmoft grace and tally defperaie as to reduce him to the necefiuy of re¬
favour ; commended their zeal in repvefiing the unwar- figning his dignity and authority, while his own terri-
rantable attempts of Fitz-Stephen ; declared that he tory remained inviolate, and the brave and powerful
fhoujd foon inquire into his crimes, and the wrongs chiefs of Ulfter ftill kept retired in their own diftridts
they had fuftained, and inflift condign punifhment for without any thoughts ©f fubnrtffion. Henry in the mean
every offence committed by his undutiful fubje&s.— time attempted to attach the Iriflr lords to his intereft by
Thus were the Iriihmen difmiffed in the utmoft joy and elegant and magnificent entertainments, fuch as to them
exultation ; and the artifice of Henry, while it infpired appeared quite aftonifliing. Some hiftorians pretend
thefe men with difpofiticms favourable to his interefts, that he eftablilhed the Englilh laws in all thofe parts
.proved alfo the moft effedlual means of faving Fitz- which had fubmitted to his jurifdiih'on ; but this muft
Stephen from their cruelty. appear extremely igiprobable, when we conlider how
Henry, having completed the preparations necefiary tenacious a rude and barbarous people are of their an-
for his expedition, embarked at Milford with feveral dent laws and cuftoms. The Irilh lords had been ac-
of bis barons, 400 knights, and about 4000 fnldiers, cuftomed to do homage to a fuperior; and they had
®Cing Hen- pn board a fleet of 240 fail. He landed at Water- made no fubmiffion to Henry which they had not for-
.cy lands in for(j on t^e feaft 0f St Luke in O&obcr 1172; with a merly done to Roderic, and probably thought their
Ireland. profeffed defign not to conquer, but to take poffeflion fubmiffion to the king of England more honourable
of a kingdom already his own, as being granted him than that to their Irilh monarchs ; and it cannot be
by the pope. Moft of the Irifh indeed feemed to be fuppofed, that a wife and politic monarch, fuch as
of the fame opinion, and therefore fubmitted without Flenry undoubtedly was, Ihould form at once fuch an
the leaft tefiftance. Strongbow fet them an example, extravagant fcheme as altering the laws of a great num-
by making a formal furrender of Waterford, and do- her of communities, none of which he had fubdued by
ing homage to the king for the territory of Leinfter. force of arms. By his tranfa&ions both with the na-
Fitz-Stephen was delivered up, with many accufations lives and adventurers, however, Henry had attained
of tyranny and injuftice. He was at firil fent to pri- the abfolute dominion of feveral maritime cities and
fon ; but foon purchafed his liberty, by furrendering their dependencies; fo that he had both a confiderable
it Wexford, and doing homage for the reft of his poffef- number of real fubje&s, and a large extent of territo-
Many Irilh pions to the king. The prince of Defmond was the ry, in the illand. To thefe fubjedls indeed Henry
afubmUto firrt Irifh chieftain who fubmitted. On the very day granted the Englilh laws ; and gave the city of Dublin
ip,, after the king’s arrival, he attended his court, refigned by charter to the inhabitants of Briftol, to be held ef
N° 1 <58. 5 rtira
IRE t 32i ] IRE
^Ireland. !ii’m and his heirs, with the fame liberties and free cuf-
—v  toms which they enjoyed at Briftol, and throughout
all his land. And, by another charter, executed foon
•after, he confirmed to his burgefles of Dublin all man¬
ner of rights and immunities throughout bis whole
land of England, Normandy, Wales, and Ireland,
wherever they and their efFefts fhall be, to be fully and
honourably enjoyed by them as his free and faithful
fuhje<fts. And as it was not eafy to induce his Eng-
lifh fubje&s immediately to fettle in thefe maritime
towns, he permitted the Oilmen to take pofTefiion of
Waterford; and to them he granted a particular right
of denization, whereby they were invefted with the
rights and privileges of free fubje&s, and for the fu¬
ture to be governed by the laws of his realm. For the
better execution of thefe new laws, the king alfo made
a divilion of the diftrifts now fubjeft to him into (hires
•or counties; which was afterwards improved and en¬
larged, as the extenfion of the Englilh fettlements and
the circumftances of the country required. Sheriffs
were appointed both for the counties and cities, with
itinerant jtidges, and other minifters of juflice, and
officers of ftate, and every appendage of Englifh go¬
vernment and law. To complete the whole fyftem, a
chief governor, or reprefentative of the king, was ap¬
pointed. His bufinefs was to exercife the royal au¬
thority, or fuch parts of it as might be committed to
him in the king’s abfence ; and, as the prefent ftate
of Ireland, and the apprehenfions of war or infurrec-
tions, made it necefl'ary to guard againft hidden
accidents, it was provided, That in cafe of the death
of any chief governor, the chancellor, treafurer, chief-
juftice, and chief baron, keeper of the rolls, and
king’s ferjeant at law. fhould be empowered, with
confent of the nobles of the land, to cleft a fucceffor,
who was to exercife the full power and authority of
this office, until the royal pleafure ffiould be further
53 known.
flenry ob- But while Henry was thus regulating the govern-
■liged to Hient 0f ncw dominions, he received the unwelcome
land? ^ news» that two cardinals, Albert and Theodine, de¬
legated by the pope, had arrived in Normandy the
year before, to make inquifition into the death of Bec-
ket; that having waited the king’s arrival until their
patience was exhaufted, they now fummoned him to
appear without delay, as he would avert the dieadful
fentence of excommunication, and preferve his domi¬
nions from a general interdift. Such denunciations
were of too great oonfequtnce to admit of his longer
ftay in Ireland ; he therefore ordered his forces and
the officers of his houfehold to embark without delay,
Teferving three ftu’ps for the conveyance of hirnfclf and
his immediate attendants. Having therefore but a
fhort time to fecure his Iriffi interefts, he addrefted
himfelf to the original Engliffi adventurers, and by
grants and ptomifes laboured to detach them from
Strongbow, and to bind them firmly to himfelf. To
inake amends for what he had taken from Fitz Stephen,
he granted him a confiderable didrift in the neigh-
bouihood of Dublin, to be held by knight's fervice;
at the fame time entrufting the maritime towns to his
own immediate dependants. Waterford was commit¬
ted to Humphrey de Bohun, Robert Fit^-Bernard,
and Hugh de Gundville, with a train of 20 knights.
In Wexford were (lationed William Fitz-Andelm,
Vqa. IX. Part I.
Philip of Hallings, and Philip de Braofa, with a like Ireland,
number of attendants. Hugh de Lacy had a grant v—J
of all the territory of Meath, where there was no
fortified place, and where of confequence no par¬
ticular refer vation was necelTary, to be held of the king
and his heirs, by the fervice of 50 knights, in as full a
manner as it had been enjoyed by any of the Iriffi
princes. He alfo conftituted him lord governor of
Dublin, with a guard of 20 knights. Robert Fitz-
Stephen and Maurice Fitz-Gerald were appointed his
coadjutors, with an equal train ; and thefe, with others
of the firft adventurers, were thus obliged, under
the pretence of an, honourable employment, to refide
at Dublin, fubjeft to the immediate infpeftion of de
Lacy, in whom Henry feems to have placed his chief
confidence. Lands were affigned in the neighbour¬
hood of each city for the maintenance of the knights
and foldiers. Orders were given to build a caftle in
Dublin, and fortreffes in other convenient places ; and
to John de Courcey, a baron diftinguiffied by his en-
terprifing genius and abilities for war, was granted the
whole province of Ulfter, provided he could reduce it
by force of arms.
Henry was no fooner gone, than his barons began Dif rder*
to contrive how they might heft (Lengthen their own enfue on
interefts, and the Iriffi how they might heft; ffiake offthe king’s
the yoke tojwhich they had fo readily fubmitted. j)edeparture*
Lacy parcelled out the lands of Meath to his friends
and adherents, and began to ereft forts to keep the
old inhabitants in awe. This gave offence to O’Ruarc,
who ftill enjoyed the eaftern part of this territory as a
tributary prince. He repaired to Dublin, in order to
obtain redrefs from Lacy for fome injuries real or pre¬
tended ; but, as the parties could not come to an agree¬
ment, another conference was appointed on a hill
called Taragh. Both parties came with a confiderable
train of armed followers; and the event was a feufije,
in which O’Ruarc and feveral of his followers were
killed, and which ferved to render the Eugliffi not a
little odious to the natives.
The fpirit of difaffeftion had foon after an oppor¬
tunity of ffiowing itfelf on the rebellion of king
Henry’s fons, of which an account is given under the
article England, n° i 2 i . Ss5 feq. The king had been
obliged to weaken his forces in Ireland, by withdraw¬
ing feveral of his garrifons. The foldiers who re¬
mained were alfo difeontented with their general
Hervey of Mountmorris, on account of his feverity in
difeipline, and reftraining them from plunder, to which
they imagined themfelves intitled on account of the
deficiencies of their pay. Raymond le Gros, the fe-
cond in command, was much more beloved by the
foldiery : and to fuch a height had the jealoufies be¬
tween the commanders arifen, that all cffeftual op-
pofitiqn to the Irilh chieftains was prevented ; and
the event might have been fatal to the Engliffi fnte- 25
reft, had not Henry found out a remedy. He furn-
moned earl Richard to attend him at Rouen in Nor- vemor of°?
mandy, and communicated his intentions of commit- Ireland,
ting the affairs of Ireland to his foie direftion. The
earl expreffed the utmoft readinefs to ferve his mailer;
but obferved, that he had already experienced the envy
and malignity of his fecret enemies ; that if he ffiould
appear in fuch a diilinguiffied charafter as that of the
king’s deputy in Ireland, their infidious praftices
S f would
IRE [ 322 ] IRE
Ireland, w u'd be renewed, and his conduft mifreprefented.
He therefore requefted that a colleague might be ap¬
pointed in the commiflion ; and recommended Ray¬
mond as a perfon of approved loyalty and abilities, as
well as highly acceptable to the foldieiy. The king
replied, with an affedted air of regard and confidence,
that he had' his free confent to employ Raymond in
any fervice he fliould deem necefiary, not as a col¬
league, but as an afliftant; but that he relied entirely
on the earl himfelf, and implicitly trufted every thing
to his direilion. To reward his fervices, he granted
him the town of Wexford, together with a fort ere&ed
at Wicklow ; and then difmiffed him with the mofl:
gracious expreflions pf favour.
The earl landed at Dublin, where he was received
with all the refpedl due to the royal commifiion. He
lignified the king’s pleafure, that Robert Fitz-Bernard,
with the garrifon of Waterford, Ihould inftantly em¬
bark and repair to Normandy; that Robert Fitz-
Stephen, and Maurice Pendergaft, (hould attend the
fervice of their fovereign in England ; and, agreeably
to the king’s inftrudb’ons, took on him the cuflody of
the cities of Dublin, Waterford, and Wexford. Hugh
de Lacy, and Milo de Cogan, were, with the other
lords, commanded to repair to England for the fervice
of the king ; by which the earl’s forces were confide-
rably weakened, and he foon found himfelf under a
neceffity of appointing Raymond to the chief com¬
mand. The new general proved fuccefsful in fome
enterprizes againft the rebellious Irifh; but having
prefumed upon his merits to demand in marriage Ba-
frlia the earl’s filter, Richard refufed his confent, and
Raymond retired into Wales.
Thus the fupreme command again devolved upon
Heryey of Mountmorris ; who, being fenfiblg that his
charafter had fuffered much from a comparifon with
that of Raymond, determined to emulate his fuccelfes
by fome bold attempt againlt the rebels. A detach¬
ment of 400 of his men, however, had the misfortune
to be furprize'd and cut off by the enemy; and this
fuccefs ferved as a fignal for a general revolt. Several
a6 of the Leinfter chieftains, who had lately made their
A general fubmiflions, and bound themfelves to the fervice of
thl°lrift king Henry, now openly difclaimed all engagements.
Even Donald Kevanagh, fon to the late king Dermod,
who had hitherto adhered to the Englifh in their
greateft difficulties, now declared againft them, and
claimed a right# to the kingdom of Leinfter; while
Roderic, on his part, was adtive in uniting the princes
of Ulfter, the native lords of Meath, and other chiefs,
againft their common enemy. This produced the
immediate recal of Raymond ; and Richard no longer
refufed his confent to the marriage with his filler,
which was folemnized immediately on Raymond’s
arrival. The very next morning, the bridegroom was
obliged to take the field againft Roderic, who had
committed great devaftations in Meath. By the vi¬
gorous conduct of the Englilh commander, however,
ay he was not only prevented from doing farther mifchief,
Roderic but a; laft convinced of the folly of refillance ; and
toWn” therefore determined to make a final fubmiffion. Yet,
Henry. confcious of his dignity, he difdained to fubmit to a
fubjeft; and therefore, inftead of treating with earl
Richard, he fent deputies direftly to the king. The
deputies were, Catholicus archbifhop of Tuam, the
abbot of St Erandan, and Mafler Lawrence, as he is Ireland,
ftyled, chancellor to the king of Connaught. Wi- v <•*
The terms of this fubmiffion, by which Henry be- 28
came foie monarch of Ireland, were as follow: Ro- hiftbbmif
deric confented to do homage and pay tribute, asfion.1' m
liege-man to the king of England ; on which condi¬
tion he was allowed to hold the kingdom of Con¬
naught, as well as his other lands and fovereignties, in
as ample a manner as he had enjoyed them before the
arrival of Henry in Ireland. His vaffals were to hold
under him in peace, as long as they paid their tribute
and continued faithful to the king of England ; in
which Roderic was to enforce their due obedience,
and for this purpofe to call to his affiftance the Eng¬
lifh government, if neceffary. The annual tribute to
be paid was every 10th merchantable hide, as well
from Connaught as from the reft of the illand ; ex¬
cepting thofe parts under the immediate dominion of
the king of England and his barons, viz. Dublin and
Meath with their appurtenances, Wexford and all
Leinfter, and Waterford with its lands as far as
Dungarvan inclufive ; in all which diftri&s RodericJ
was not to interfere, nor claim any power or autho¬
rity. The Irifh who had fled from thefe diftrifts were
to return, and either pay their tribute, or perform the
fervices required by their tenures, at the option of'
their immediate lords; and, if refra&ory, Roderic, at
the requifition of their lords, was to compel them to
return. He was to take hoftages from his vaffals,
fuch as he and his liege-lord fhould think proper ; and
on his part to deliver either thefe or others to the
king, according to the royal pleafure. His vaflals
were to furnifh hawks and hounds annually to the
Englifh monarch ; and were not to detain any tenant
of his immediate demefnes in Ireland, contrary to his
royal pleafure and command. This treaty was fo-
lemniy ratified in a grand council of prelates and tem¬
poral barons, among whom we find the archbilhop of
Dublin one of the fubferibing witneffes. As metro¬
politan of Leinfter, he was now become an Englifh
fubject, and was probably fummoned on this occafion
as one obliged to attend, and who had a right to affifl
in the king’s great council. It is alfo obfervable,
that Henry now treated with Roderic not merely as
a provincial prince, but as monarch of Ireland. This
is evidently implied and fuppofed in the articles; al¬
though his monarchical powers and privileges were
little more than nominal, frequently difregarded and
oppofed by the Irifh toparchs. Even by their fab--
miffions to Henry, many of them in effeft difavowed .
and renounced the fovereignty of Roderic; but now
his fupremacy feems to be induftrioufly acknowledged,
that the prefent fubmiffion might appear virtually the
fubmiffion of all the fubordinate princes, and thus the.
king of England be invefted with the fovereignty of
the whole ifland. The marks of fovereignty, however,
were no more than homage and tribute: in every other
particular, the regal rights of Roderic were left invio-,
late. The Englifh laws were only to be enforced in
the Englifh pale: and, even there, the Irifh tenant
might live in peace, as the fubjeft of the Irifh mo¬
narch; bound only to pay his quota of tribute, and not
to take arms againft the king of England.
But though the whole ifland of Ireland thus be¬
came fpbjedt to the king of England, it was far from
being
IRE [ 323 1 IRE
Ireland, being fettled in tranquillity, or indeed from having native Irith, provoked by fome depredations of the Ireland;
u“ ' the htuation of its inhabitants mended almoll in any Englifh, commenced hoftilities ; but Fitz-Andelm, in-l—
CavfTefof degree. One great occafion of dillurbance was, that ftead of reprefling thefe with vigour in the beginning,
the fubfe- the Englifh laws were confined only to thofe parts treated the chieftains with affefted courtefy and flat-
quoitdi- which had been fubdued by force of arms; while the tery. This they had fufficient difcernment to fee,
ftreflesof chieftains that had only fubmitted to pay tribute, were and to defpife ; while the original adventurers had the
re ' allowed to retain the ancient Irifh laws within the burden of the whole defence of the Engli/h pale, as
limits of their own jurifdicVions. By thefe old Iriflx the Englifh territories were called, thrown upon them,
laws, many crimes accounted capital with us, fuch as at the fame time that the bad conduit of the governor
robbery, murder, &c. might be compenfated by a fum was the caufe of perpetual diforders. The confequencs
of money. Hence it happened, that very unequal of this was, that the lords avowed their hatred of
punifhments were inflifted for the fame offence. If Fitz-Andelm ; the foldiers were mutinous, ill-appoint-
one Englifbman killed another, he was punifhed with ed, and unpaid : and .the Irifh came in crowds to the
death ; but if he killed an Irifhman, he was punifhed governor with perpetual complaints againft the old ad-
only by a fine. If an Irifhman, on. the other hand, venturers, which were always decided againft the lat-
killed an Englifhman, he was certainly punifhed with ter; and this decifion increafed their confidence, w-ith-
death : and as in times, of violence and outrage, the out leffening their difafledftion.
crime of murder was very frequent, the circutnftance In this unfavourable ftate cf affairs, John de Cour-
juft mentioned tended to produce an implacable hatred cey, a bold adventurer, who had as yet reaped none
between the original inhabitants and the Englifh. As of the benefits he expefted, refolved to undertake an
the Irifh laws were thus more favourable to the bar- expedition againft the natives, in order to enrich bim-
barity natural to the tempers of fome individuals, many felf with their fpoils. The Irilb at that time were gi-
©f the Englifh were alfo tempted to lay afide the man- ving no offence; and therefore pleaded the treaty
ners and cuftoms of their countrymen altogether, and lately concluded with King Henry : but treaties were
to affociate themfelves w'ith the Irifh, that, by becoming of little avail, when put in competition with the ne-
lubjedt to their laws, they might thus have an oppbr- ceffiries ol an indigent and rapacious adventurer. The
iunity of gratifying their brutal inclinations with lefs confequenCe was, that the flame of war was kindled
controul than formerly ; and in procefs of time, thefe through the whole ifland. The chieftains took ad-
degenerate Englijh, as they were called, proved more vantage of the war with the Englifh, to commence
bitter enemies to their countrymen than even the Irifh hoftilities againft each other. Defmond and Tho-
themfelves. mond, in the fouthern province, were diftrafted by the
Another caufe of . the diftreffes of Ireland was, the jealoufies of contending chiefs, and the whole land was
great power of the Englifh barons, among whom wafted by unnatural and bloody quarrels. Treachery
Henry had divided the greateft part of his Irifh domi- and murder were revenged by praftices of the fame
nions. The extent of their authority only inflamed kind, in fuch a manner as to perpetuate a fucceffion of
them with a defire for more; and, inftead of contri- outrages the moft horrid, and the moft difgraceful to
buting their endeavours to increafe the power of their humanity. The northern province was a fcene of the
fovereign, or to civilize the barbarous people over like enormities; though the new Englifh fettiers, who
■whom they were placed, they did every thing in their were eenfidered as a common enemy, ought to have
power to counteract and deftroy each other. Henry united the natives among themfelves. All were equally
himfelf, indeed, feems to have been infe&ed with a ftrangers to the virtues of humanity ; nor was religion,
very fatal jealoufy in this refpeft ; for, though the in the fornvdt then affumed, capable of reftraining thefe
abilities and fidelity of Raymond had abundantly ma violences in the leaft.
nifefted thepffelves, the king never could allow himfelf Ireland was thus in a fhort time reduced to fuch RHeisfu er-
to continue him in the government of the ifland : and ftate, that Henry perceived the neceflity of recalling feded by *
the confequence of degrading him never failed to be a Fitz-Andelm, and appointing another governor. He Hugh de
fcene of uproar and confufion. To thefe two reafons was recalled accordingly; and Hugh de Lacey ap-Lacey*
we mud likewife add another; namely, that in thofe pointed to fucceed him. He left his government with-
parts of the kingdom where the Irifh chieftains en- out being regretted, and is faid by the hiftorians of
joyed the fovereignty, they were at full liberty to thofe times to have done only one good aftion during
make war upon each other as formerly, without the the whole courfe of his adminiftration. This a&ion
leaft reftraint. This likewife induced many of the was nothing more important, than the removing of a
Englifh to degenerate, that they might have an op- relic, called the Jlaff of Jefus, from the cathedral of
portunity of Ibaring the plunder got by thefe petty Armagh to that of Dublin; probably that it might
wars; fo that, on the whole, the ifland was a perpe- be in greater fafety, as the war raged violently in
tual fcene of horr<or, almoft unequalled in the hiftory Ulfter. De Lacey, however, was a man of a quite
of any country. different difpofition, and every way qualified for the
Fitz-An- After the death of earl Richard, Raymond was im- difficult government with which he was invefted : but . 3*
ielm’s bad mediately defied to fucceed him; but was fuperfeded at the fame time, the king, by invefting his fon John Pr*"c<:J°h*
govern- by the king, who appointed William Fitz-Andelm, a with the lordfhip of Ireland, gave occafion to greater™alr*i°nd.
*ient. nobleman allied to Raymond, to fucceed in his place, difturbances than even thofe which had already hap-
The new governor had neither inclination nor abilities pened. The nature of this lordfhip hath been much
to perform the tafk affigned to him. He was of a difputed; but the moft probable opinion is, that the
rapacious temper, fenfual and corrupt in his manners; king’s fon was now to be invefted with all the rights
and therefore only ftudied to enrich himfelf. The and powers which had formerly belonged to Roderic,
3 S f2 whe>
IRE [ 3H 3 IRE
Ireland.
JFfis indif*
prcsion.
A general
Revolt.
who was allowed the title of king of Ireland. It doth
not appear,- indeed, that Henry had any right to de¬
prive Roderic of thefe powers, and ftill lefs had he to
difpofe of any of the territories of thofe chieftains who
had agreed to become his tributaries; which never*
thelefs he certainly did, and which failed not to be
prcdu&ive of an immediate war with thefe chiefs.
The new governor entered on his office with all that
fpirit and vigour which was neceffary ; hut being mif-
reprefented to the king by fome fa&ious barons, he
was in a {hort time recalled, and two others, totally
unfit for the government, appointed in his room. This
error was foon corre&ed, and Lacey was replaced in
three months. The fame jealonfy which produced his
firft degradation, foon produced a fecond ; and Philip
de Braofa, or Philip of JVorceJlcr, as he is called, a
man of a mod avaritious difpofition, was appointed to
fucceed him. This governor behaved in fuch a man¬
ner, that his fuperftitious fubje&s expe&ed every mo¬
ment that the vengeance of heaven would ftill upon
him, and deliver them from his tyranny. His power,
however, was of fiiort duration ; for now prince John
prepared to exercife the authority with which his father
had invefted him in Ireland. He was attended by a
confiderable military force : his train was formed of a
company of gallant Normans in the pride of youth;
but luxurious, infolent, and followed by a number of
Englishmen, ftrangers to Ithe country they were to vi-
fit, defperate in their fortunes, accuftomed to a life of
profligacy, and filled with great expe&arions of ad¬
vantage from their prefent fervice. The whole affem-
biy embarked in a fleet of 60 fhips; and arrived at
Waterford after a profperous voyage, filling the whole
Country with the greateft furprife and expectation.
The young prince had not yet arrived at the years
of difcretion; nor indeed, from his fubfequent con-
du&, doth it appear that his difpofition was fuch as
qualified him in the leaft for the high dignity to which
he was raifed. The hardy Welchmen who firft mi¬
grated into Ireland, immediately waited upon him to
do him homage; but they were difagreeable to the
gay courtiers, and to the prince himfelf, who minded
nothing but his pleafures. The Irifti lords were at
firft terrified by the magnificent reprefentation of the
force of the Engliih army ; and being reconciled to
fubmifiion by the dignity of the prince’s ftation, ha-
ftened in crowds to Waterford to do him homage.
They exhibited a fpe&acle to the Norman courtiers,
which the latter did not fail to treat with contempt
and ridicule. The Irifh lords, with uncouth attire,
thick bufhy beards, and hair ftanding on end, advan¬
ced with very little ceremony ; and, according to their
own notions of refpedt, offered to kifs the young
prince. His attendants ftepped in, and prevented
this horrid violation of decorum by thrufting away the
Irifhmen. The whole affembly burft into peals of
laughter, pulled the beards, and committed feveral
other indignities on the perfons of their guefts ; which
-were immediately and feverely refented. The chief¬
tains left the court, boiling with indignation; and
meeting others of their countrymen haftening to do
homage to the prince, they informed them of the re¬
ception they themfelves had met with. A league was
inftantly formed to extirpate the Englifli, and the
whole nation flew to arms ; while John and his cour¬
tiers, mftead of oppofing the enemy, employed them- Ireland;
felves in harafiing and oppreffing thofe who were un- v—
der their immediate jurifdi&ion. The country was
therefore over-run by the barbarians, agriculture en¬
tirely neglefted, and a dreadful famine threatened to
follow the calamities < '
This terrible devallation had continued for eight
months before the king was fully acquainted with it.
He then determined to recal his fon ;. but was at a lofs
whom he fhould name for his fucceflbr. Lacey had
been murdered by an Irilh peafant, and the king was
at laft obliged to have recourfe to John de Courcey,
whofe boifterous valour feemed now to be abfolutely
neceffary to prevent the Englilh from being totally ex¬
terminated. The new governor was obliged at firft to jy
aft on the defenfive ; but as his enemies foon forgot Supprefletfe 1
their league, and began their ufual hoililities againft John
each other, he was at lart enabled to maintain the ''ou,eey* ^
authority of the Englifh government, and to fupport
their acquifitions in Ireland, though not to extend
them. .
In this fituation were the affairs of Ireland when Miferable
Henry II. died, and was fucceeded by his fon Rich*- ftateoflrs*
T A....   .* ]   1 • * land undc?r
ard I. The new king was determined on an expedition
to the holy land, which left him no leifure to attend to Rlc“ar *
the affairs of Ireland. John, by virtue of the powers
granted him by his father, took upon him the manage¬
ment of Irifh affairs; and immediately degraded de
Courcey from his government, appointing in his place
Hugh de Lacey the younger. De Courcey, provoked
at this indignity, retired into Ulfter, where he was.
immediately engaged in a furious war with the natives,
and at laft almoft entirely detached himfelf from the Eng¬
lifh government. The greateft confufion enfued ; Hugh
de Lacey was recalled from his government, and Wil¬
liam Petit, earl marfhal of England, appointed in his
place. Petit’s adminiftration proved more unfortu¬
nate than that of any of his predeceffors. Confede¬
racies every where took place againft the Englifh ; the
latter were every where defeated, their towns taken ;
and their power would certainly have been annihilated,
had not the Irifh, as ufual, turned their arms againft
each other.
In this defperate fituation matters continued during somewhaft-
the whole reign of king Richard, and part of the reign
of John, while the diftreffes of the country were in-der Jahn*
creafed by the diffentions and difaffeftion of the Eng¬
lifh lords, who afpired at independency, and made war
upon each other like Irifh chieftains. The prudent
conduft of a governor named Metier Fitz-Henry, how¬
ever, at laft put an end to thefe terrible commotions j
and about the year 1208, the kingdom was more
quiet than it had been for a long time before. In
1210, John came over to Ireland in perfon with an
army, with a defign, as he faid, to reduce his refrac¬
tory nobles to a fenfe of their duty. More than 20
Irifh. chiefs waited upon him immediately to do him
homage ; while three of the Englifh barons, Hugh and .
Walter de Laceyand William de Braofa fled to France.
The king, at the defire of his Irifh fubjefts, granted
them, for their information, a regular code and char-
ter of laws, to be depofited in the exchequer of Dub¬
lin, under the king’s feal. For the tegular and effec¬
tual execution of thefe laws, befides the eftablifhment
of the king’s courts of jydicature in Dublin, there was
no#
38
Relapfes
IRE [ 325 1 I R E
oow made a new and more ample divifion of the king’s deed could it be otherwife ; for through the partiali- Irelands
lands of Ireland into counties, where fheriffs, and ties of Henry himfelf, the negledled, the worthlefs, and
many other officers, were appointed. Thefe counties the deprefled among the Englifh clergy, found refuge
were, Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Argial, now called in the church of Ireland. What were the manners of
Lowlli, Katherlagh, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, thefe clergy, will appear from the following petition of '
Cork, Kerry, Limeric, Tipperary ; which marks the a widow to king Edward I.
extent of the Englifh dominions at this time as confined “ Margaret le Blunde, of Caihc-l, petitions our lord
to a part of Leinfler and Munfter, and to thofe parts the king’s grace, that (he may have her inheritance
of Meath and Argial which lie in the province of Ul- . which flxe recovered at Clonmcll before the king’s
fter, as now defined. Before his departure, the king judges, &c. againft. David Macmackerwayt bifhop o£
gave liberty to John de Grey, bifhop of Norwich, Cafhel.
whom he appointed governor, to coin money of the “ Item, the faid Margaret petitions redrefs on ac-
farne weight witli that of England j and which, by royal count that her father was killed by the faid bifhop.
proclamation, was made current in England as well as “ Item, for the imprifonment of her grandfather
Ireland. and mother, whom he flint up and detained in pri-
This ecclefiaftical governor is faid to have managed fon until they perifhed by famine, becaufe they at¬
tempted to feek redrefs for the death of their fon, fa¬
ther of your petitioner, who liad been killed by the faid
bifhop.
“ Item, for the death of her fix brothers and fillers,
who were ftarved to death by the faid bifhop, becaufe
he had their inheritance in his hands at the time he
killed their father.
“ And it is to be noted, that the faid bifhop had
affairs fo happily, that during the violent contefts be¬
tween John and his barons, Ireland enjoyed an unufual
degree of tranquillity. Weare not to imagine, however,
that this unhappy country was at this or indeed any
other period, till the end of Queen Elizabeth’s reign,
perfectly free, from diforders, only they were confined
to thofe diftri&s tnoft remote from the Englifh govern¬
ment. In iziy, the commotions were renewed, thro?
the immeafurable ambition and contentions of the built an abbey in the city of Cafhel, on the king’s
into its for- -Englifh- barons, who defpifed all controul, and op,
stier ftate prefled the inhabitants in a terrible manner. The
tyUi HcR’diforders in England during the reign of Henry III.
encouraged them to defpife the royal authority ; they
were ever the fecret enemies, and fometimes the avowed
adverfaries, of each other; and in many places where
they had obtained fettlements, the natives were firfl
lands granted for this purpofe, which he hath filled
with robbers, who murder the Englifli, and depopu¬
late the country; and that when the council of our
lord the king attempts to take cognizance of the of¬
fence, he fulminates the fentence of excommunication
againfl them.
" It is to be noted alfb, that the faid Margaret has
driven into infurredlions by their cruelty, and thenpu- fn’e times crofled the Irifh fea. Wherefore, (he petl-
:Lty for their refiftance. The tions for God’s (fake, that the king’s grace will have
nifhed with double cruelty i
Englifh laws, which tended to punifh the authors of
thefe outrages, were fcorned by an imperious arifto-
cratic faction, who, in the phrenzy of rapine and
ambition, trampled on the molt falutary inftitutions.
In 1228, a remonftrance was, prefented to the king
againil this dangerous negledt and fufpenfion of the
ting s grace v
compaffion, andthat fhe may be admitted to take pof-
feffion of her inheritance.
‘ It is further to be noted, that the aforefaid bifhop
hath been guilty of the death of many other Englifh-
men beiides that of her father j and that the aforefaid
_ ^ Margaret hath many times obtained writs of our lord
laws; which he anfwered by a mandate to the chief the king, but to no efFe&, by reafon of the influence
governor,, dire&ing that the whole body of nobility, and bribery of the faid bifhop.
knights, free tenants, and bailiff's of the feveral coun- “ She further petitions, for God’s fake, that (he
ties, fhould be convened; that the charter of Englifh may have cods and damages, 3cc.”
laws and cuftcnns received from king John, and to Matters continued in the fame deplorable ftate du- .0 .
which they were bound by oath,.fhould be read over in ring the reign of Edward I. with this additional grie- Little altsi--
their prefence ; that they fhould be direfted for the vance, that the kingdom was infefted by invafions ofration un-
future ilridjy to obferve and adhere to thefe j and that the Scots. The Englifh monarch indeed pofTeiTed all ferf j~
proclamation fhould be made in every county of Ire- that prudence and valour which were neceffary to have *
land, ftridly enjoining obedience, on pain of forfeiture reduced the ifland to a ftate of tranquillity j but- his
of lands and tenements. How little effeft was produ- projeft of conquering Scotland left him but little leifure
ced by this order, we may learn from another, dated in to attend to the diftrafled ftate of Ireland. Certain it
1246 ; where the barons are commanded, for the peace is, however, that the grievous diftrefs of that country
and tranquillity of the land, to permit it to be governed gave him great uneafinefs ; .fo that he tranfmitted his
39 by the laws of England. mandate to the prelates of Ireland, requiring them to
Steefiive Nothing indeed can be conceived more terrible than interppfe their fpiritual authority for compofing the
dspravattonthe ftate of Ireland during the reign of Henry III. public diforders. About the fame time, the Irifh who
manners,pe0p]e 0f au ranl43 appear to have been funk in the lay contiguous to the Englifh, and who dwelt among
lowefl degree of depravity. The powerful Englifli them, prefented a petition to the king, offering to
lords not only fubvexted the peace and fecurity of the pay him 800a merks, upon condition that they were
people, by refufing to admit the falutary laws of their admitted to the privileges of Englifh fubjeds. To
own country, but behaved with the utmoft injuftice this petition he retured a favourable anfwer; but lun
and violence to the natives who did not enjoy the be- good intentions were defeated by the licentious nobi-.
nefits of the Englifli eonftitution. The clergy appear lity, who knew that thefe laws would have circum-,
to have been equally abandoned.with the reil; nor in- feribed their rapacious views, and controuled theira
£ vie—
Srelan).
I R. E r 326 ] IRE
violence and oppreffion. Petitions of tlie fame kind
were feveral times repeated daring this reign, but as
often defeated ; though fome means were ufed for
the peace of the kingdom, fuch as the frequent call¬
ing of parliaments, appointing fheriffs in fome new
counties, &c.
Thefe means were not altogether without effe&.
They ferved to give fome check to the diforders of
the realm, though by no means to terminate or fubdue
them. The incurfions of the natives were reprefled,
and the Engliih lords began to live on better terms
* with each other; and, in 1311, under Edward II.
the moft powerful of them were reconciled by the mar¬
riage of Mau-!ce and Thomas Fitz-John, afterwards
the heads of the illudrious houfes of Defmon and Kil¬
dare, to two daughters of the earl of Ulfter. Blit juft
at this happy period, when the nation feemed to.
have fome profpeA of tranquillity, more dreadful' ca-
Invafton of lamities than any hitherto related were about to take
the Scots place. The Scots had juft recovered their liberty uu-
re^rfof ^er ^-0^ert Bruce, and were now in no danger of being
■Edward If. asfam enflaved by a foreign power. Edwardj the
king’s brother, as a recompence for his fervices, de¬
manded a lhare of the royal authority. This was refu-
fed by Robert, and Edward was for the prefent fatisfied
by being declared heir apparent to the crown. But
the king, wifely eonfidering the neceffity of finding
out fbme employment for a youth of fuch an afpiring
and ambitious difpofition, pointed out to his brother
the ifland of Ireland, the conqueft of which would be
cafy, on account of the diftrafted ftate in whiph It al-
moft always was, and which would make him an inde¬
pendent fovereign. This propofal was eagerly em¬
braced by Edward, and every thing neceffary for the
expedition immediately got ready. On the 25th of
May 1315, he landed on the north-eaftern coaft of
Ireland with 600c men, to affert bis claim to the fo-
vereignty of this kingdom. The Irilh lords of Ulfter,
who had invited and encouraged him to this enter-
prize, were now prepared to receive their new monarch,
flocked with eagernefs to his ftandard, and prepared
to wreak their vengeance on the common enemy.
Their progrefs was marked by defolation and carnage.
The Englilh fettlers were flaughtered, or driven from
their poffeffions, their caftles levelled with the ground,
and their towns fet on fire. The Englilh lords were
neither prepared to refill the invafion, nor fufficiently
united among themfelves. The confequence was, that
Ihe enemy for fome time met with no interruption. An
intolerable fcarcity of provifions, however, prevented
Bruce from purfuing his advantages ; and though his
brother landed in Ireland with a powerful army, the
famine prevented him from being of any eflential ler-
vice. The forces which he left behind him, however,
proved of confiderable advantage; and by means of this
reinforcement, he was enabled to take the city of
Carrickfergus.
The terrible devaftations committed by Bruce and
his affociates, now induced fome Englilh lords to enter
into an affociation to defend their poileflions, and repel
thefe invaders. For this purpofe, they raifed a confi-
derable body of forces; which coming to an engage¬
ment with Fedlim prince of Connaught, one of Bruce’s
principal allies, entirely defeated and killed him with
.8.000 of his men. This defeat, however, had very
little effe£l on the operations of B-uce himfelf. He Ir«!an4
ravaged the country to the walls of Dublin, traverfed T’-w
the aiftrift of Offory, and penetrated into Munfter,
deftroying every thing with fire and fword. The
Englifh continued to augment their army, till at laft
it amounted to 30,000 men; and then Bruce, no longer
able tooppofe fuch a force, found it neceffary to retire
into the province of Ulfter. His retreat was effe&ed
with great difficulty ; and during the time of his in¬
activity, the diftreftes of his army increafed to fuch a
degree, that they are faid to have fed upon the bodies
of their dead companions. At laft an end was put
to the fufferings and the life of this adventurer in
the battle of Dundalk, in 1318, where he was defeated 4&
and killed by the Englilh under Sir Robert Birming- They zre
ham. A brave Englilh knight, named Maufias, had f^ted. C*
rallied forward to encounter Bruce himfelf, and both
antagotiifts had killed each other ; the body of Mau-
pas being found, after the battle, ftretched upon that
of Bruce. The king of Scotland had been advancing
with powerful fuccours to his brother : but Edward,
confident of viftory, refufed to wait his arrival; and
Robert, on hearing of his brother’s death, inftantly
retired.
The defeat of the Scottilh invaders did not put an
end to the difturbances of this unhappy country. The
contentions of the Englilh with one another, of the
Irifh with the Englilh, and among themfelves, ftill
kept the ifland in a ftate of the utmoft barbarity and
confufion. An attempt was made indeed, in the reigh
of Edward 11. to eftablilh an univerfity in Dublin ;
but for want of proper encouragement the inftitution
for fome time languilhed, and then expired amidft
the confufion and anarchy of the country. The reign
of Edward III. proved not much more favourable than 43
preceding times had been. He'was too much taken ^ **
up with the idea of conquering France, to pay much m,aer Ed-
regard to the interefts of Ireland. The unhappy ward IU.j
people, indeed, fenfible of their own miferies, peti¬
tioned the king to admit all his fubje&s in Ireland to
a participation of the Englilh laws ; but the petition
being delivered as ufual to the chief governor, and
laid before the parliament, it was either clandeflinely
defeated or openly reje&ed. A new feene of tumult
and bloodfhed immediately enfued ; which at laft pro- ■
duced an order from the king, prohibiting all Irilh-
men, or Englilhmen married and having eftates in
Ireland, from bearing any public office whatever.—
This, inftead of having a tendency to promote peace,
made the diforders much greater than before; and at
laft produced a remonftrance from the Hates met at
Kilkenny, in which they grievoufly complain not only
of the diforders of the kingdom, but alfb of the con¬
duct of the king himfelf in the edift above mentioned :
and to this remonftrance the king thought proper to
give a gracious and condefcending anfwer, in order to
procure from Ireland the fuccours he wanted in his
expedition againft Franc*-.
It is not to be fuppofed, that mere promifes, unaf-
fifted by any vigorous exertion, could make the leaft
alteration in the ftate of a kingdom involved in fo
much mifery. The diforders, however, at laft became
infupportable to the inhabitants thcmfelves ; and a
parliament was fummoned in 1367, the refult of which
was the famous ftatute of Kilkenny. The preamble
to
Ireland.
Statute of
Kilkenny.
IRE- [ 327 3 IRE
to this aft recites, that the Engh'fh had become mere
Irilh in their language, names, apparel, and manner
of living; had rejefted the Englilh laws, andfubmitted
to thofe of the Irifti, with whom they had united by
marriage-alliance, to the ruin of the common-wealth.
— It was therefore enafted, that marriage, nurture of
infants, &c. with the Iriflr, fhould be confidered and
punilhed as high treafon.—Again, if any man of
Englifn race fhall ufe an Iriflv name, the Irilh lan¬
guage, or the Irifh apparel, or any mode or cuftom of
the Irilh, the aft provides, that he lhall forfeit lands
and tenements, until he hath given fecurity in the
court of chancery to conform in every particular jo the
En?lilh manners ; or if he have no lands, that he lhall
be imprifoned till the like fecurity be given. The
Brehon law was pronounced to be a pernicious cuftom
and innovation lately introduced among the Englifn
fubjefts ; and it was therefore ordained, that in all
their controverfies they Ihould be governed by the
common law of England ; and that whoever ihould
fubmit to the Irilh juiifdiftion, Ihould be adjudged
guilty of high treafon. As the Englifh had been ac-
cuftomed to make war or peace with the bordering
Irilh at pleafure, they were now exprefsly prohibited
from levying war without fpecial warrant from the
date.—It was alfo made highly penal for the Eng¬
lilh to permit their Irilh neighbours to graze their
lands, to prefent them to ecclefiaftical benefices, or to
receive them into monafteries or religious houfes ; to
entertain their bards, who perverted their imagina¬
tions by romantic tales; or their news-tellers, who
feduqed them by falfe reports. —It was made felony to
impofe or cefs any forces upon the Englilh fubjeft
againft his will. And as the royal liberties and fran-
chifes were become fanftuaries for malefaftors, ex-
prefs power was given to the king’s (herilfs to enter
into all franchifes, and there to apprehend felons and
traitors.—Laftly, becaufe the great lords, wh«i they
levied forces for the public fervice, afted with partia¬
lity, and laid unequal burdens upon the fubjefts, it was
ordained that four wardens of the peace in every coun¬
ty Ihould adjudge what men and armour evety lord or
tenant Ihould provide.—The ftatute was promulged
with particular folemnity ; aad the fpiritual lords, the
better to enforce obedience, denounced an excommu¬
nication on thofe who Ihould prefume to violate it in
any inftance.
This ftatute, it is evident, could not tend to pro¬
mote the peace of the kingdom. This could only have
been done by removing the animofity between the native
Irilh and Englilh ; but fo far was the ftatute of Kil¬
kenny from having any tendency of this kind, that it
manifeftly tended to increafe the hatred between them.
During the whole of this feign, therefore, the ftate
of the Irifh government continued to be greatly difor-
dered and embroiled. The Englilh intereft gradually
declined ; and the conneftions of the king’s fubjefta
with the original inhabitants, occafioned by their vici¬
nity and neceffary intercourfe, in defpite of all legal
injunftions, obliged the king to relax the feverity of
the ftatutes of Kilkenny, in cafes where they proved
imprafticable, or oppreffive in the execution. The
perpetual hoftility, however, in which the different
parties lived, proved an effeftual bar to the introduc¬
tion of thofe arts which contribute to the comfort and
refinement of mankind. Even foreign merchants coiild Ire'and.
not venture into fuch a dangerous country without par-' * f
ticular letters of proteftion from the throne. The
perpetual fucceffion of new adventurers from England,
led by intereft or neceflity, ferved only to inflame dif-
fention, inftead of introducing any effentiaTimprove¬
ment. Lawyers fent from England were notorioufly
infufficient, if not corrupt; and, as fuch, had frequent¬
ly been the obiefts of complaint. The clergy were a
mean grovelling race, totally influenced by the crown.
Even prelates were commonly .made the inferior agents
of governmeut in collefting forces, and raifing war
againft the Irilh enemy ; but were not to be enticed
into this feryice, except by remittances from the ex¬
chequer. Attendance in parliament they dreaded as
the greateft hardlhip ; and either recurred to mean
excufes to avert the penalty of ebfence, or fued to the
king to be exempted by patent from contributing or
affenting to thofe laws by which they were to be go¬
verned.
In this deplorable fituation the kingdom continued p0We/of
till the time of Henry VII. who laid the foundation the Englifli-
of the future civilization of the Irilh, as he alfo did of revives un-
the Englilh nation. This he effected by enafting fome ^Hear)^
falutary laws, and appointing faithful and aftive go¬
vernors to fee them put in execution. Of chefe go¬
vernors Sir Edward Poynings contributed more than
any other to the tranquillity of the ftate. During his
adminiftration was enafted the law known by the name
of Poyningys Aaw, .and which hath fince been the fub¬
jeft of much political debate. The purport of it was, . 46
That no parliament Ihould be held in that ifland with- Poyning’#*
out firft giving notice to the king of England, andac- aw*
quainting him with the afts to be palled in that par¬
liament ; neither Ihould any aft palled, or any parlia¬
ment held, without the approbation of the king and
council, be deemed valid. Thus was the power of the
turbulent barons greatly broken ; and the governor,
not having it in his power to aflemble parliaments
when he pleafed, became a perfon of much lefs con-
fequence. The whole Irilh legiflatmn alfo became de¬
pendent on that of England, and hath ever fince conti¬
nued to be fo.
From this time we may date the revival of the Eng¬
lilh power in Ireland ; which from the Scottilh war in
the time of Edward II. had gradually declined into
a miferable and precarious ftate of weaknefs. The au¬
thority of the crown, .which had at laft been defied, .
infulted, and rejefted, even in the Englilh territory,
was reftored and copfirmed, and the rebellions vigo-
roufly oppofed and fupprefled. The feignory of the
Britilh crown over the whole body of the Irilh, which .
in former reigns feemed to have been totally forgotten,
was now formally claimed and aflerted, and fome of the
moft ferocious chieftains by their marriage-conneftions
became the avowed friends of the Englilh power. An.
ignominious, tribute, called the Black Rent, was indeed
ftill paid to fome chieftains; but their hoftilities were
oppofed and chaftifed, and even in their own diftrift*
they were made to feel the fuperiority of Englilh go¬
vernment.
During the reign of Henry VIII. the Irilh affairs
were neglefted; and the diforders, which had only-
been checked, and never thoroughly eradicated, re¬
turned as ufuai. They were further promoted by the
’ ir.«
IRE [ 32S 1 IRE
Ireland. Innovations in religion which the king introduced, and
w—y-™— which were exceedingly difagreeable both to Englifh
and Irifh. The Reformation, liowever, continued to
make fome progrefs, though flowly, during the reign
of Edward VI. and even in the reign of queen Mary ;
for as the perfecution did not reach thither, many Pro-
teftants fled to Ireland in order to avoid the queen’s
47 cruelty. The machinations of the Spaniards againft
All the queen Elizabeth excited the Iriih to frefli infurrec-
ended'in ti°ns* The king of Spain, indeed, not only encou-
therehm raged the natives in thofe infurre&ions, but actually
of queen fent over troops to aflift them in driving out the
^Elizabeth. Englifh altogether. This they had well nigh effe&ed;
but the Spaniards, upon feeing an entry of Irifh de¬
feated by an handful of their enemies, were fo much
provoked that they furrendered all the places they had
made themfelves maflers of, and even offered to aflift
the Englifh in reducing the rebels ; though it was not
thought proper to accept of their afliftance. The
confequence of this was, that the Irifh, abandoned
by thefe allies, were unable to canry on the war ; and
the grand rebel O’Neal af Tirowen, or Tirone, after
much treachery, evafron, and many pretended fubmif-
frons, was at laft obliged to fubmit in good carweft. He
fell upon his knees before the deputy, and petitioned
for mercy with an air and afpeft of dtftrefs. He fub-
Jcribed his fubmrffion in the molt ample manner and
form. He implored the queen’s gracious commifera-
tron ; and humbly fued'to be reftorid to his dignity,
and the ftate of a fubjeft, which he had juflly forfeit¬
ed. He utterly .renounced the name of O’iVW, which
he had affumed on account of the great veneration in
which it was htld among the Irifh. He abjured all
foreign power-, and all -dependency except on the
crown of England ; refigned all claim to any lands ex¬
cepting fuch as tfhould be conferred upon him by let¬
ters patent; promifing at the fame time to aflift the
Rate in abolifhing all barbarous cuftoms, and eftablifhing
law and civility among his people. The lord deputy,
on the part of the queen, promifed a full pardon to
him and all his followers; to himfelf the reftoration
of his blood and honours, with a new patent for his
lands, except fome portions refeived for certain chief¬
tains received into favour, and fome for the ufe of
Englifh garrifons.
No iufurgent now remained in this kingdom who
had not obtained or fued for mercy. Many, indeed,
were driven by neceflrty to the continent, and earned
a fubfiltence by ferving in the armies of Spain ; and
thus a race of Irifh exiles was trained to arms, filled
with a malignant refentment againft. the Englifh. Thus
the honour of reducing all the enemies of the crown of
England in this rfland, after a continued conteft for
440 years, was referved for the arms of Elizabeth. The
ghaftlinefs of famine and defolation was now fomewhat
Exorbitant enlivened by the reftoration of tranquillity. Indeed,
prices of from the moft authentic accounts, the prices of pro-
•provifions vifions were fo high, that confidering the value of
that money at that time, it is furprifing how the inhabi-
tiaie‘ tants could fubfift. From an account of the rates of
proviftons taken by the mayor of Dublin in 1602, it
appears, That wheat had rifen from 36 s. to 9I. the
quarter; barley-malt from 10s 10438. the barrel;
oat-malt from 5s. to 22s. the barrel; peafe from
5.3. to 40s. the peck 5 oats from 3^. 44. to 206. the
barrel; beef from 26 s. 8d. to 81. the carcafe ; mut- Irelar*.
ton from 3 s. to 26 s. the carcafe ; veal from xos. to -y—^
29 s. the carcafe ; a lamb from 12 d. to 6 s.; a pork
from 8 s. to 20 s. ^
Under James I. Ireland began to affiime a quite dif-The Irifh
ferent appearance. That monarch valued himfelf upon civilized bj
promoting the arts of peace, and made it his ftudy tofainssI*
civilize his barbarous Irifh fubjeds. By repeated con-
fpiracies and rebellions, a vaft tract of land had efeheat-
ed to the crown in fix northern counties, Tyrconnel,
now called Donnegal, Tirone, Derry, Farroanagh, Ca¬
van, and Armagh, amounting to about 500,000 acres;
a trad of country covered with woods, where rebels
and banditti found a fecure refuge, and which was de-
ftined to lie wafte without the timely interpofition of
government. James refolved to difpofe of thefe lands
in fuch a manner as might introduce all the happy con-
fequences of peace and cultivation. He caufed furveys
to be taken of the feveral counties where the new fet-
tlements weie to be eftablifhed ; deferibed particularly
the ftate of each ; pointed out the fituations proper
for the ere&ions of towns and cattles ; delineated the
chara&ers of the Irith chieftains, the manner in which
they fhould be treated, the temper and circumftances
of the old inhabitants, the rights of the new pur-
chafers, and the claims of both; together with the
impediments to former plantations, and the methods of
removing them.
At his inftance it was refolved, that the perfons to
whom lands were afiigned fliould be either new under¬
takers from Great Britain, efpecially from Scotland, or
ferviton, as they were called; that is, men who had
for fome time ferved in Ireland, either in civil or mili¬
tary offices; or old Irifh chieftains or captains. A-
mong the laft were included even thofe Irifh who had
engaged in the rebellion of Tirone, and flill harboured
their fecret difeontents. To gain them, if polfible, by
favour and lenity, they were treated with particular in¬
dulgence. Their under-tenants and fervants were al¬
lowed to be of their own religion; and, while all
the other planters were obliged to take the oath ,of
allegiance, they were tacitly excepted. The fervitors
were allowed to take their tenants either from Ireland
or Britain, provided no Popifh recufants were admit¬
ted. The Britifk undertakers were confined to their
own countrymen.
In the plantations which had been formerly attemp¬
ted, the Irifti and Englifh had been mixed together,
from a fond imagination that the one would have learn¬
ed civility and induftry from the other. But expe¬
rience had now difeovered, that this intercourfe ferved
only to make the Irilh envy the fuperior comforts of
their Englifh neighbours, and to take the advantage
of a free accefs to their howfes to fteal their goods and
plot againft their lives. It was therefore deemed ne-
ccfiary to plant them in feparate quarters ; and in the
choice of thefe fituafions, the errors of former times
were carefully corre&ed. The original Englifh adven¬
turers, on their firft fettlement in Ireland, were capti¬
vated by the fair appearance of the plain and open
diftrifts. Here they ere&cd their caftles and habita¬
tions ; and forced the old natives into the woods and
mountains, their natural fortrefTes. There they kept
themfelves unknown, living by the milk of their kine,
without hulbandry or tillage ; there they increafed to
IRE
Ireland. Incredible numbers by promifcuous generation ; and
r—v ' there they held their . hemblies, and formed their
confpiracies, without difcovery. But now the northern
Irifli were placed in the moft open and acceffible parts
of the country, where they might lie under the clofe
infpeftion of their neighbours, and be gradually habi¬
tuated to agriculture and the mechanic arts. To the
Britiih adventurers were afiigned places of the greateft
ftrength and command ; to the fervitors, ftations of
the greatetl danger, and greateft advantage to the
crown : but as this appeared a peculiar hardlhip, they
were allowed guards and entertainment, until the coun¬
try ftiould be quietly and completely planted.
The experience of ages had rtiown the inconvenience
of enormous grants to particular lords, attended with
fuch privileges as obftrudled the adminiftration of civil
government: and, even in the late reign, favourite un¬
dertakers had been gratified with fuch portions of land
as they were by no means able to plant. But, by the
prefent fcheme, the lands to be planted were divided
[ 329 3
I R E
fture, or creaghting, as they called it; to dwell in Ireland,
towns, and conform to the Englifti manner of tillage ’y”*""1
and hufbandry. An annual rent from all the lands
was referved to the crown for every 60 Englifh acres,
fix (hillings and eight pence from the undertakers, tea
(hillings from fervitors, and 13 (hillings and four pence
from Irifh natives. But for two years they were ex¬
empt from fuch payments, except the natives, who
were not fubjeft to the charge of tranfportation. What
gave particular credit to this undertaking, was the ca¬
pital pat^pwhich the city of London was perfuaded
to take-in it. The corporation accepted of large
grants in the county of Derry ; they engaged to ex¬
pend L. 20,000 on the plantation, to build the cities
of Derry end Colerain, and (lipulated for fuch privi¬
leges as might make their fettlements convenient and
refpedable. As a competent force was neceffary to
proteft this infant plantation, the king, to fupport
the charge, inftituted the order of baronets, an here¬
ditary dignity, to be conferred on a number not
in three differeet proportions ; the greateft to confift exceeding 200 ; each of whom, on pafiing his patent,
of 2000 Englifti acres, the leaft of 1000, and the was to pay into the exchequer fuch a fum as would
middle of 1500. One half of the efeheated lands in
each county was affigned to the fmalleft, the other
moiety divided between the other proportions: and the
general diftributions being thus afeertained, to pre¬
vent all difputes between the undertakers, their fettle¬
ments in the refpe&ive diftrids were to be determined
maintain 30 men in Ulfter, for three years, at 8 d.
daily pay.
But fcarcely had the lands been allotted to the dif¬
ferent patentees, when confiderable portions were re¬
claimed by the clergy as their rightful property. And
fo far had the eftates of the northern bifiioprics been
by lot. Eftates were afligned to all, to be held of embarrafled, both by the ufutpations of the Iri(h lords.
them and their heirs. The undertakers of 2000 acres
were to hold of the king in capite; thofe of 1500, by
knights fervice ; thofe of 1000, in common foccage.
The firft were to build a caftle, and inclofe a ftrong
court yard, or lawn as it was called, within four
years ; the fecond, to finilh an houfe and bawn within
two years; and the third, to inclofe a bawn ; for even
this rude fpecies of fortification was accounted no in-
. confiderable defence againft an Irifh enemy. The firft
were to plant upon their lands, within three years, 48
able men of Englifh or Scottifh birth, to be reduced to
20 families; to keep a demefne of 600 acres in their
own hands ; to have four fee farmers on 120 acres
each ; fix leafe holders, each on 100 acres ; and on
the reft, eight families of hufbandmen, artificers, and
' cottagers. The others were under the like obligations
propoftionably. All were, for five years after the date
and the claims of patentees, that they fcarcely afford¬
ed a competent, much lefs an honourable, provifion for
men of worth and learning, while the (late of the pa¬
rochial clergy was ftill more deplorable. Moft of the
northern churches had been either deftroyed in the late
wars or had fallen to ruin: the benefices were fmall, and
either (hamefully kept by the bifhops in the way of
commendam or fequeftration ; or filled with minifters
as fcandalous as their income. The wretched flock
was totally abandoned; and for many years divine
fervice had not been ufed in any parifh-church of Ul¬
fter, except in cities and great towns. To remedy
thefe abufes, and to make fome proper provifion for
the inftru&ion of a people immerfed in lamentable ig¬
norance, the king ordained, that all eeclefiaftical lands
(hould be reftored to their refpe&ive fees and churches,
and that all lands (hould be deemed ecclefiaftical from
of their patents, to refide upon their lands either in which bifhops had in former times received rents 0
perfon, or by fuch agents as (hould be approved by
the date, and to keep a fufiicient quantity of arms for
their defence. The Britifti and fervitors were not to
penfions: that compofitions (hould be made with the
patentees for the fite of cathedral churches, the refi-
dences of biftiops and dignitaries, and other church-
alienate their lands to mere Irifh, or to demife any lands which were not intended to be conveyed to them;
portions of them to fuch perfons as fhould refufe to who were to receive equivalents if they compounded
take the oaths to government; they were to let them at freely ; or elfe to be deprived of ‘their patents as the
determined rents, and for no (horter term than 21 years
or tbree lives. The houfes of their tenants were to be
built after the Englifti fafhion, and united together
towns or villages. They had power to ereft manou
to hold courts-baron, and to create tenures. The old
natives, whofe tenures were granted in fee-fimple, to
be held in foccage, w'ere allowed the like privileges.
king was deceived in his grant, and the poffefllons re¬
ftored to the church. To provide for the inferior
clergy, the biftiops were obliged to refign all their im-
They had power to ereft manours, propriations, and relinquifti the tythes paid them out
’ to rrpatp tennrpR. TI,p r.U of parifties, to the refpeftive incumbents; for which
ample recompence was made out of the king’s lands.
Every proportion allotted to undertakers was made a
They were enjoined to fet their lands at certain rents, parifti, with a parochial church to each. The incum-
and for the like terrcc as> the other undertakers
take no. Irifli exaftions from their inferior tenants, and
bents, befides their tythes and duties, had glebe-lands
afiigned to them of 60, 90, or 120 acres, according to
to oblige them to forfake their old Scythian cuftom of the extent of their pavifties. To provide for a fiiccef-
wandering with their cattle from place to place far pa- lion of worthy pallors, free-fchools were endowed in
Vol. IX. Part I. T t the
IRE [ 33° ] IRE
treUri'!. ^ the principal towns, and confiderable grants of laqds flaves to the defpicable, lazy, and oppreffive fubordi- Irelani.
conferred n the unlverfxty of Dublin, which had nate landlords.” 1 /-—*
been re-ivkblilhed by queen Elizabeth, together with Another caufe confided in the various reftri&ions Q •5-1
the advowfon of fix parochial churches, three of the which it had been thought proper to lay upon the Irilh theTrHh
larged, and three of the middle proportion in each trade, and the condant and great preference given by difcontents,
county. government to the Englifh manufacturers, at lad produ- 5*
Such was the general fcheme of this famous northern ced the mod grievous difcontents and diftreffcs. On the S|‘ate of^
plantation, fo honourable to the king, and of fuch part of England it was fuppoled, that as Ireland had LvaTfor*
confequence to the realm of Ireland. Its happy ef- been fubdued by force of arms, the inhabitants ought and againft
fefts were immediately perceived, although the execu- in every refpeCt to be fubjeCt to the victorious date ;che
tion by no means correfponded with the original idea, and that the intered of the Englifh ought on all
Buildings were (lowly ereCted ; Britifh tenants were occafions to be confulted, without regarding the in-
difficult to be procured in fufficient numbers ; the old conveniences which might enfue to the Irifh. A
natives were at hand, offered higher rents, and were very different idea, however, was entertained by the
received into thofe didri&s from which it was intend- Irifh themfelves, or at lead by the patriotic party a-
ed to exclude them. In this paiticular, the London- mong them. They rejeCted all notions of dependence
ers were accufed of being notorioufly delinquent. They upon the Britifh miniftry and parliament; and though
afted entirely by agents; their agents were intereded they did not fcruple to acknowledge the king’s right
and indolent, and therefore readily countenanced this of conqued, they mod pofitively denied that the Bri-
dangerous intrufion of the natives ; an error of which tifh parliament had any authority whatever over them ;
fufficient caufe was afterwards found to repent. For and therefore looked upon the reftriclions laid upon
the prefent, however, a number of loyal and indu- their trade as the mod grievous and intolerable op-
ftriems inhabitants was poured into the northern coun- predion.
ties, confiderable improvements made by the planters, In the year 1719, according to Mr Crawford, the Caufc
and many towns ere&ed. To encourage their indu- oppreffion and grievances of Ireland became a^togetfier
ftry, and advance his own projeft, the king was infupportable. A caufe relative to an edate, betwixt fleyinijfn.
pleafed to incorporate feveral of thefe towns, fo that Heder Sherlock and Maurice Annefley, was tried be-
they had a right of reprefentation in the Irifh parlia- fore the court of exchequer in Ireland. Here the lat-
ment. ter obtained a decree in his favour; but, on an appeal.
State f>n»e- The only didurbance that now enfued was from the the fentence was reverfed by the lords. Annefley ap-
]a»a fince Popifh party, who never could bear to fee the Prote- pealed from them to the Englifh peers ; who having
that time. ftant religion eflabliflred in preference to their own, reverfed the judgement of thofe of Ireland, he was put
while they had power to refid. After numberlefs in- in poffefiion of the fubjeft in difpute. Sherlock ap-
effeftual machinations and complaints, their fury broke pealed again to the Irifh lords, and the matter became
but in a terrible maflacre of the new Englifh fettlers in very ferious. It was propofed to the confideration of
•See Bri- the year 1641*. The affairs of Britain were at that the judges, Whether by the laws of the land an appeal
tain, n° 103 time in fuch confufion, that the rebellion could not be lies from a decree of the court of exchequer in Ireland
—106. quelled in lefs than ten years; during which time the to the king in parliament in Britain. This quedion
country was reduced to a mod deplorable fituation. It being determined in the negative, Sherlock was again
recovered again under Cromwell, Charles 11. and the put in poffeffion of the edate. A petition was fome
Ihort reign of James II. On the acceffion of Wil- time after prefeoted to the houfe by Alexander Bur-
liam III. matters were once more thrown into confu- rowes fheriff of Kildare, fetting forth, “ That his pre-
fion by an attempt made in favour of the exiled mo- deceffor in office had put Sherlock in poffeffion of the
uarch, who came over thither in perfon, and whofe premiffes; that, upon his entering into office, an injuno
bad fuccefs is related under the article Britain, tion, agreeable to the order of the Englifh peers, iffued
n<l 3°9 — 325- Since that time, Ireland hath re- from the exchequer, requiringhim toreltoreMaurice An-
covered from the miferable fituation to which it was nefley to the pofleffion of the above mentioned lands; and
fo long reduced. As yet, however, it is far from be- that, not daring to aft in contradiftion to the order of
ing in fuch a flourifhing date as either South or North the houfe, he was fined. In confequence of this, be-
Britain. One great obdacle to the improvement of ing afraid left he fhould be taken into cuftody, he durft
the kingdom is the extreme poverty asd oppreflion of not come in to pafs his accounts; and for this he was ^
the common people. The produce of the kingetem, fined L-1200.” His conduft was applauded by the nifpute be-
either in corn or cattle, is not above two thirds at Irifh lords, who commanded the fines impofed upon «vixt the
tnoft of what by good cultivation it might yield. The him to be taken off; and in a fhort time after drew up
high roads throughout the fouthern and weftern parts a memorial to be prefented to his majtfty. In thisand £i,g.
are lined with beggars, who live in huts or cabbins they fet forth, that having fubmitted to Henry II. as land,
without chimnies, or any covering capable of defend- their liege lord, they had from him obtained the bene-
rng the wretched inhabitants from the cold, wind, and fit of Englifh law, with many other privileges, parti-
rain “ It is a fcandal (fays a judicious traveller, cularly that of having a diftinft parliament. In con-
who lately vifited Ireland) to the proprietors of this feqtience of this conceflion, the Englifh had been en-
fertile country, that there is not the greateft plenty of couraged to come over and fettle in Ireland, where
good corn and hay in it; but fome of the beft land in they were to enjoy the fame privileges as in their own
the king’s dominions is fuffered to be torn in pieces, country. They farther infilled, that though the inl¬
and cultivated in the vileit manner, by a fet of abjeft perial crown of Ireland was annexed to that of Bri-
miferable occupiers ; who are absolutely uo better than tain, yet being a diftinft dominion, and no part of the
4. kingdom
I II E r 331 ] IRE
kingdom of England, none could determine with re-
gard to its affair*, but fuch as were authorifed by its
, known laws and cuftoms, or the exprefs confent of the
king. It was an invafion of his majefty’s prerogative
for any court of judicature to take upon them to de¬
clare, that he could not by^his authority in parliament
determine all controverfies betwixt his fubje&s of this
kingdom ; or that, when they appealed to his majefty
in parliament, they did not bring their caufe before a
competent judicature : and they reprefented, that the
praftice of appeals from the Irifh parliament to the'
Britifh peers was an ufurped jurifdittion affumed by
the latter ; the bad confequences of which they point¬
ed out very fully.
This reprefentation being laid before his majefty in
parliament, it was rcfolved, that the barons of exche¬
quer in Ireland had aded with courage and fidelity,
according to law, &c. and an addrefs was prefented to
his majefty, prayinghimto confer on them feme mark of
his royal favour as a recompenfe for the injuries they
Bill {raffed had fuftained from the Irifh legiflature. This was fol-
for the bet*lowed by a bill for the better fecuring the dependency
ter fecurirg 0f lreland upon the crown of Great Britain. By this
dence of" it: was determined, “ That the houfe of lords of Ire-
fceland. land have not, nor of right ought to have, any jurif-
didion to judge of, affirm, or reveffe, any judgment,
fentence, or decree, given or made in any court within
the kingdom; and that all proceedings before the faid
houfe of lords, upon any fuch judgment or decree, are
utterly null and void to all intents and purpofes what¬
ever.” It was alfo determined in this bill, that “ the
king’s majefty, by and with the advice and confent of
■the lords tpiritual and temporal, and commons of Great
Britain in parliament aflembled, had, hath, and of right
ought to have, full power and authority to make laws
and ftatutes of fufficient force and validity to bind the
people of Ireland.”
Th/bill This bill was looked upon by the Irifh to be equiva-
generally lent to a total annihilation of their liberties; and they
abhorred, were ftill faither txafperated in the year 1724, by the
57 patent granted to one Wood an Englifhman to coin
Jfcontent. a"d f\rthfinf3 for the £fe, °f In
®n arcom t this affair Wood is faid to have atted very difhonour-
of Wood’s ably ; infomuch that a (hilling of the halfpence he
patent. made were fcarcely worth a penny. Great quantities
of this bafe coin were fent over; and it was ufed not
only in change, but accounts were likely to be paid in
it, fo that dangerous confequences feemed ready to en-
fue. The Irifh parliament, in an addrefs to the king,
reprefented that they were called upon by their coun¬
try to lay before his majefty the ill confequences of
Wood’s patent, and that it was likely to be attended
with a diminution of the revenue and the ruin of
trade. The fame was fet forth in an application made
to his majefty by the privy council. In fhort, the
whole nation feemed to unite their efforts in order to
remedy an evil of fuch dangerous tendency, the effefts
_ of which already began to be felt.
Dr Swift in Among the controverfial pieces which appeared on
danger on this occafion, thofe of Dr Swift were particularly di¬
account of ftinguifhed. His Drapier’s letters are to this day held
tiorfto0^' grate^ remembrance by his countrymen; but he
Wood. was *n danger Offering deeply in the caufe. He
had been at particular pains to explain an argument
ufed by the Irifh on this occafion, vi%. that brafs
money, being illegal, could not be forced upon the na- Ireland,
tion by the king, without exceeding the limits of his v—
prerogative. Hence the oppofite party took occafion
to charge the Irifh with a defign of cafting off their
dependence on Britain altogether: but Swift having
examined the accufation with freedom, pointed out
the encroachments made by the Britifh parliament on
the liberties of Ireland ; and afferted, that any depen¬
dence on England, except that of being fubjefts to the
fame king, was contrary to the law of reafon, nature,
and nations, as well as to the law of the land. This
publication was fo difagreeable to government, that
they offered a reward of L.300 for the difcovery of
the author; but as nobody could be found who would
give him up, the printer was profecuted in his ftead:
however, he was unanimoufly acquitted by a jury of
his countrymen.
The Irifh continued to be jealous of their liberties,
while the Britifh miniftry feemed to watch every op¬
portunity of encroaching upon them as far as poffible.
Apprehenfions being entertained of a defign upon Ire¬
land by the partifans of the pretender in 1715, a vote
of credit to government was paffed by the houfe of
commons to a confiderable amount. This laid the Bjfpute
foundation of the national debt of that kingdom, which WIth K°-
was quickly augmented to feveral hundred thoufand about'thc
pounds ; foi* difcharge of which a fund had been pro- funrl for
vided by adminiftration. An attempt was made du- payment of
ring the adminiftration of Lord Carteret (who govern-
ed Ireland till 1730), to veft this fund in the hands0
of his majefty and of his heirs for ever, redeemable by
parliament. This was oppofed by the patriotic party,
who infifted, that it was inconfiftent with the public
fafety, and unconftitutional, to grant it longer than
from feffion to feffion. In 1731 another attempt was
made to veft the fame in the crown for 21 years; but
when the affair came to be debated, the ftrength of
both parties was found to be equally balanced. Im¬
mediately before the vote, however. Colonel Totting-
ham having rode poft on the occafion, arrived in the
houfe, and determined the queltion againft govern¬
ment. 60
The behaviour of Lord Chefterfield, who was made Excellent
governor of Ireland in 1745, is highly extolled on ac‘ Lor^hrf.
count of his moderation, and the favour he (bowed to tgrgei^,
the liberties of the people. A£<*he appr ehenfions of
government were then very confidcrable, on account
of the rebellion which raged in Scotland, his lordfhip
was advifed to augment the military force of Ireland
by 4000 men. Inftead of this, however, he fent four
battalions to the duke of Cumberland, and encouraged
the volunteer affoaations which formed in different
parts for the defence of their country. Thefe battalions
he replaced by additional companies to the regiments
already on the eftablifhment; by which means he faved
a confiderable expence to the nation, without augment¬
ing the influence of the crown. The fupplies afked
by him were ftnall, and raifed in the molt eafy and
agreeable manner to the people, expending the money
at the fame time with the utmoft economy. There
was even a faring, which he applied to the ufe of the
public. It had been a cuftom with many of the lieu¬
tenant governors of Ireland to bellow reverfionary
grants, in order to purchafe the affiftance of friends in
fupport of their meafures. Lord Chefterfield, how-
T t 2 ever.
His huma¬
nity to the
Roman Ca¬
tholics.
1 R E. . 1,33
ever, being convinced that this pra&lce was prejudi¬
cial to the intereft of the nation, put a (lop to it; but
the molt remarkable part of his adminiftration was,
the humanity with which he treated the Roman Ca*
tholics. Before his arrival, the Romirti chapels in
Dublin had been Ihut up; their priefts were command¬
ed by proclamation to leave the kingdom ; and fuch
as difobeyed had been fubje&ed to imprifonment and
other penalties. Lord Chefterfield, however, convin¬
ced that the affe&ion is to be engaged by gentle
ufage, permitted them to exercife their religion with¬
out dilturbance. The accufations brought againft
them of forming plots againft. government, were difre-
garded; and fo much was his moderation and upright-
nefs in this refpeft applauded by all parties, that, du¬
ring the whole time of his adminiftration, the nation¬
al tranquillity was not once interrupted by the fmall-
eft internal commotion. On his leaving the ifland, his
bull
Dublin.
Lord Chefterfield having left Ireland in the fpring
of 1746, the ifland continued to be governed by lords
juftices until the 13th of September, when William
earl of Harrington came over with the powers of lord
lieutenant. A conteft in the ele&ion of reprefenta-
tives for the city of Dublin this year called forth the
f abilities of Mr Charles Lucas, fo much celebrated for
i ] IRE
reafon the moft obnoxious paragraphs were extra&ed Ireland,
from his works, and made the foundation of a charge 'v—1
before parliament. The commons voted him an ene¬
my to his country; and addreffed the lord lieutenant
for an order to profecute him by the attorney-general.
The univerfal efteem in which he was held could not
fcreen him from minifterial vengeance : he was driven
from Ireland ; but having fpent fome years in banifti-
ment, he was once more enabled, through the exer¬
tions of his friends, to prefent himfelf as a candidate
for the city of Dublin. Being again ele&ed, he con¬
tinued to diftinguifli himfelf by the fame virtuous prin¬
ciples for which he had been from the beginning fo
remarkable, and died w’ith the chara&er which he had
preferved through life, of the incorruptible Lucas. 63
In the year 1753, a remarkable conteft took place
betwixt government and the Irilh parliament relative
to previous confent. As the taxes for defraying ftate concerning:
was placed at the public expence in the caftle of expences are impofed by the reprefentatives of the previous
people, it thence naturally follows, that they have a co°fent’
right to fuperintend the expenditure of them ; and by
an infpe&ion of the journals of the houfe of commons,
it appeared, that from the year 1692 they had exer-
cifed a right of calling for and examining the public
accounts. When any furplus remained in the treafury>
it was alfo cuftomary to difpofe of it by bill for the
good of the public. In the year 1749, however,
6s
Account of # _ _ _ _ „ . _ , . .,
Mr Lucas his patriotic virtues. Having fome years before been confiderable fum having remained in the treafury, the
the cele- .. . . - ’ " * ~
brated pa¬
triot.
admitted a member of the common council, he re- difpofal of this money in future became an object to
folved to exert himfelf in behalf of the privileges of miniftry. in 1751, it was intimated to parliament
his fellow-citizens. The powers of this city-corpora- by the lord lieutenant, the duke of Dorfet, that his
tion, as well as of others, had been changed by autho- majefty would gracioufly confent and recommend it to
rity derived from an aft in the time of Charles II.
and among other innovations, for the purpofe of aug-
them, that fuch part of the money as then remained
in the treafury ihould be applied to the reduftion of
menting the influence of the crown, they deprived the the national debt.” As this implied a right inherent
commons of the power of choofing the city magiftrates. in his majefty to difpofe of the money as he thought
This was now veiled in the board of aldermen ; which proper, the propofal was accounted an invafion of the
being fubjeft in the exercife of its jurifdiftion to the privileges of the houfe of commons. No notice was
approbation of the privy council, was confequently de- therefore taken of the direftion given by Dorfet, but
pendent on government. Mr Lucas complained loudly the bill was fent over to England as ufual without any
of the injury ; but as this law could not be altered, he notice taken of his majefty’s cohfent. In England,
fet himfelf to inquire, whether encroachments, which
could not be juftified by law, had not been made on
however, this very material alteration was made, and
the word confent introduced into it. The commons at
the rights of the citizens? Having fatisfied himfelf, by this time did not take any notice of fuch an eflential
fearching diligently into ancient records, that his ap-
prehenfions were well-founded, he publilhed his difeo-
alteration ; but next year, on its being repeated, the
bill was rejefted. Government were now at the ut-
■veries, explained the nature of the evidence refulting moft pains to defend the meafure they had adopted,
from them, and encouraged the people to take the and pamphlets were publiihed in which it was juftified
proper fteps for obtaining redrefs. on various grounds. The event at laft, however, was,
The confequence of this was a conteft between the that his majefty by letter took the money which had
commons and aldermen, which lafted two years. The been the fubjeft of difpute out of the treafury. 5^.
former ftruggkd in vain to recover their loft privileges; In the year 1760 Ireland fuftained an inconfiderable Invafion by
but the^exeitions of Lucas in every ftage of the dif- hoftile invafion, the firft that had been experienced in riV*rot ia
pute had rendered him fo refpeftable among his coun- the kingdom for 70 years. The armament confifted17®0,
trymen, that on the death of Sir James Somerville he originally of five fhips; one of 48 guns, two of 36,
was encouraged to declare himfelf a candidate for a and two of 24; having on board 1270 land-forces,
feat in parliament. This being highly agreeable to They were commanded by the celebrated Thurot,
his willies, he was elefted accordingly; and diftinguifti- whofe reputation, as captain of a privateer, had advau-
ed himfelf not only by the boldnefs and energy of his ced him to this dignity. Thefquadron, however, was
fpeeches, but more efpecially by a-number of addrefles driven by adverfe winds to Gottenburgh ; where ha-
to his countrymen. In fome of thefe he particularly ving continued a few days, they fet fail for the place of
confidered the feveral branchesof the conftitution, and their deftination. On their arrival at the coaft of Ire-
pointed out the encroachments of the Britilh legifla- land, they were obliged to flicker themfelves in Lough
ture. Government, alarmed at his boldnefs, determi- Foyle from a violent ftorm which again overtook them,
aed to crufh him. by the hand of power; for which The wind, however, having Ihifted, and continuing to.
blow
IRE [ ?33 ] IRE
blow tetnpeftuoufly, they were obliged to keep out to thods were purfued in expc&ation of redrefs. The Ireland
fea. Two of the (hips were thus feparated from the people, covered with white fkirts, afiembled in parties * '-1
reft by the violence of the ftorm, and returned to at night, turned up the ground, dedroyed bullocks,
France ; but the remaining three dbefted their courfe levelled the inclofures of the commons, and committed
to the ifland of Hay, where they anchored; and having other afts of violence. Thefe unavailing efforts were
repaired their damages, took in a fupply of provifions, conftrued into a plot againft the government; num-
' ' n . . r j3ers 0£ rjoters were apprehended in the counties of
Limerick, Cork, and Tipperary, and fome of them
and thence failed to Carrickfergus.
In the mean time, an officer belonging to the fmall
number of troops at that time in Carrickfergus took condemned and executed. In different places thefe
poll on a rifmg ground, with an advanced party, to
obferve the motions of the enemy. A flcirmifh en-
fued betwixt this party and Thwot’s men. until the
former, having expended all their ammunition, were
obliged to retire into the town. Having in vain at¬
tempted to prevent the enemy from taking poffeffion
of it, the Britifh troops fhut themfelves up in the
caftle, where they were foon obliged to capitulate, after
unhappy wretches, inftead of being looked upon as ob-
jefts of compaffion, were profecuted with the utmoft
feverity. Judge Afton, however, who was fent over
to try them, executed his office with fuch humanity as
did him the higheft honour. A moft extraordinary
and affe&ing inltance of this was, that on his return
from Dublin, for above ten miles from Clonmell, both
fides of the road were lined with men, women, and
having killed about 100 of their enemies, with the lofs children ; who, as he paffed along, kneeled down and
of only three on their own part. The French having implored the bleffing of heaven upon him as their
plundered the town, fet fail on the 26th of February ; guardian and proteftor.
and three days after were all taken by Captain Elliot,
<5^ Thurot himfelf being killed in the engagement.
Rife of the Soon after the accelfion of George III. Ireland firft
White began to be difturbed by a banditti who ftyled them-
In the mean time, the violences of the White Boys
continued, notwithftanding that many examples were
made. The idea of rebellion was ftill kept up ; and,
without the fmalleft foundation, gentlemen of the firft
felves White Boys; and as thefe were generally of the rank were publicly charged with being concerned in
Romifh perfuafion, the prejudices againft that fe£l
broke forth in the ufual manner. A plot was alleged
to have been formed againft government; French and
Spanifh emiffaries to have been fent over to Ireland,
and actually to be employed to affift In carrying it in¬
to execution. The real caufe of this commotion, how¬
ever, was as follows: About the year 1739 the mur¬
rain broke out among the horned cattle in the duchy
of Holftein, from whence it foon after fpread through
the other parts of Germany. From Germany it reach¬
ed Holland, from whence it was carried over to Eng-
infomuch that fome of them were obliged to enter
bail, in order to protefl themfelves from injury. The
Catholics of Waterford gave in a petition to Lord
Hertford, the governor in 1765, in behalf of them¬
felves and brethren, protefting their loyalty and obe¬
dience to government; but no effedhial ftep was taken
either to remove or even to inveftigate the caufe of the
difturbances. ^
About two years after the appearance of the White of the Oafe-
Boys, a fimilar commotion arofe in Ulfter ; which, Boys,
however, proceeded in part from a different caufe, and
land, where it raged with great violence for a number was of much Ihorter duration. By an aft of parlia-
of years. The mitigation of the penal laws againft ment, the.making and repairing of highways in Ire-
the Papifts about this time encouraged the natives of land was formerly a grievous oppreffion on the lower
the fouth of Ireland to turn their thoughts towards
agriculture, and the poor began to enjoy the neceffa-
ries of life in a comfortable manner. A foreign de¬
mand for beef and butter, however, having become un¬
commonly great, by reafon of the cattle diftemper juft
mentioned, ground appropriated to grazing became
more valuable than that employed in tillage. The
cotters were every where difpoffeffed of their little
pofftffions, which the landlords let to monopolizers
who could afford a higher rent. Whole baronies were
now laid open to pafturage, while the former inhabi-
ranks of people. An houfekeeper who had no horfe
was obliged to work at them fix days in the year; and
if he had a'horfe, the labour of both was required for
the fame fpace of time. Befides this opprelfion, the
poor complained that they were frequently obliged to
work at roads made for the convenience of individuals,
and which were of no fervice to the public. Nor were
thefe the only grievances of which the infurgents at
this time complained: the tythes exafted by the clergy
were faid to be unreafonable, and the rent of lands was
more than they could bear. In 1763, therefore, be¬
ta nts were driven defperate by want of fubfiftence. ing exafpetated by a road propofed to be made thro’
Numbers of them fled to the large cities, or emigrated a part of the county of Armagh, the inhabitants moft
to foreign countries, while thofe who remained took immediately affefted by it rofe in a body, and decla-
fmall fpots of land, about an acre each, at an exorbi- red that they would make no more highways of the
tant price, where they endeavoured if poffible to pro- kind. As a mark of diftinftion, they wore oak-
cure the means of protrafting a miferable exiftence for branches in their hats, from which circumftance they
themfdves and families. For fome time thefe poor called themfelves The number of their par-
creatures were allowed by the more humane landlords tizans foon increafed, and the infurreftion became ge-
the liberty of commonage; but afterwards this was neral through the counties of Armagh, Tyrone, Der-
taken away, in defpite of juftice and a pofitive agree- ry, and Fermanagh. In a few weeks, however, they.
ment; at the fame time, the payment of tythes,
and the low price of labour, not exceeding the wages
in the days of Queen Elizabeth, aggravated the di-
ftreffes of the unhappy fufferers beyond meafurc.
la,fuch % fituation, it is no wonder that illegal me-
were difperfed by parties of the military ; and the
public tranquillity was reftored with the lofs of only
two or thiee lives. The road-aft, which had been fo
juftly found fault with, was repealed next fdfion ; aad
it was determined, that for the future the roads Ihoul’d -
be.
I II E t 334 1 IRE
Ireland. ' be made and repaired by. a tax to be equally affefled year 1768, when, during the adminiftration of Lord
1 J on the lands of the rich and poor. r"
Befides thefe, another fet of infurgerets called Steel-
boys foon made their appearance, on the following ac¬
count. The eftate of an abfentee nobleman happen¬
ing to be out of leafe, he propofed, inftead of an addi-
• tional rent, to take fines from his tenants. Many
of thofe, who at that time poffefled his lands, were
unable to comply with his terms ; while others who
could afford to do fo, infifted upon a greater rent from
the immediate tenants than they were able to pay.
The ufual confequences of this kind of oppreffion in-
ftantly took place. Numbers being difpofTefied and
thrown deftitute, were forced into afts of outrage fimi-
lar to thofe already mentioned. One of thefe charged
with felony was carried to Belfaft, in order to be com¬
mitted to the county gaol; but his affociates, provoked
by the ufage they had received, determined to relieve
him. The defign was eagerly entered into by great
Townfhend, a bill was prepared and fent over to Eng- l"" v™'"™*
land, by which it was enafted, that the Trifh parlia¬
ments thenceforth fhould be held every feven years.
It was returned with the addition of one year; and
ever fince the parliaments of this country have been
o&ennial. During this feffion an attempt was made
by the Britifh miniftry to infringe the rights of the
houfe of commons in a very material point. A money- An Knglifh
bill, which had not originated in Ireland, was fent money-Wl
over from Britain, but was rejefted in a fpirited man- rej©&*'h
ver. Its rejeftion gave great offence to the Lord
Lieutenant, who repeatedly prorogued them till the
year 1771.
The affairs of Ireland began now to draw towards
that crifis which effe&ed the late remarkable revolu¬
tion in favour of the liberties of the people. The
pafiing of the oftennial bill had diminifhed, but not
taken away, the influence of the crown ; and the fitua-
numbers all over the country; and feveral thoufands, tion of affairs between Britain and America had inclined
having provided themfelves with offenfive weapons, pro¬
ceeded to Belfaft in order to refcue the prifoners. To
prevent this, he was removed to the barracks and put
miniftry to make the moft of this influence they could.
In 1773 Lord Harcourt, at that time governor of
Ireland, exerted himfelf fo powerfully in favour of
under the guard of a party of foldiers quartered there ; adminiftration, that the voice of oppofition in parlia-
but the Steel-boys preffed forward with a determina¬
tion to accomplifh their purpofe by force, and fome
ment was almoft entirely filenced The difficulties,
however, under which the whole nation laboured, began DiGrefled
% n r % r 1 \ ~ ftaf* of
Ihots were actually exchanged between them and the now to be fo feverely felt, that an addrefson the fubjeft j^nd laid^
foldiers. The confequences would undoubtedly have was prefented by the commons to his excellency. In before the
been fatal, had it not been fora phyfician of highly this they told him, that they hoped he would lay before lordlieute-J
refpedtable charafter, who interpofed at the rifle-of his the king the ftate of Ireland, reftridfed in itscom-nant*
life, and prevailed on thofe concerned to fet the pri- merce from the ftort-fighted policy of former times, to
foner at liberty. The tumult, however, was not thus the great injury of the kingdom, and the advantage of
quelled. The number of infurgents daily increafed, the rivals, if not of the enemies, of Great Britain,
and the violences committed by them were much greater Thefe hardlhips, they faid, were not only impolitic.
than thofe of the other two parties. Some were ta¬
ken and tried at Carrickfergus, but none condemned.
It was fuppofed that the fear of popular refentment
had influenced the judges; for which reafon an aft
but unjull; and they told his excellency plainly, that
they expefted to be retlored to fome, if not to all
their rights, which alone could juftify them to their
conftituents for laying upon them fo many burdens
was paired, enjoining the trial of fuch prifoners for during the courfe of this feffion.
the future to be held in counties different from thofe This reprefentation to the Lord Lieutenant produ-
where the crimes were committed. This breach of ced no effeft ; and Ireland for fome years longer con-
1 fundamental law of the conftitution gave fuch of- tinned to groan under the burden of intolerable 1
fence, that though feveral of the Steel-boys were af¬
terwards taken up and carried to the caftle of Dub-
ttriftions. Thefe had principally taken place in the
reign of Charles II. At this time it was enafted, that Acc unt of
lin, no jury would find them guilty. This obnoxious beef or live cattle Ihould not be exported to England ; toersttric-
law was therefore repealed; after which fome of the neither were the commodities of Ireland to be ex-
infurgents, being tried in their refpeftive counties, ported to the American colonies, nor American
were condemned and executed. Thus the cojnmotions goods to be imported to any port in Ireland without
were extinguiftied : but as no methods were taken to firft unloading them in fome part of England or Wales,
remove the caufe, the continued diftreffes of the people All trade with Afia was excluded by charters granted
drove many thoufands of them into America in a very to particular companies; and reftriftions were im-
few years.
Parliament In the mean time a very material alteration had ta-
«f Ii-Jand piace in the cenftitution of the kingdom, with
made oc r, . , • r  a . _ 1
pofed upon almoft every valuable article of commerce
fent to the different ports of Europe. Towards the
end of King William’s reign an abfolute prohibition
regard to the duration of parliaments. At an early was laid on the exportation of Irilh wool. This re¬
period thefe had continued only for a year ; but after¬
wards they were prolonged until the death of a fove
reign, unlefs he chofe to diffolve it fooner by an ex¬
ertion of his prerogative. Thus, from the moment
of their eleftion, the commeners of Ireland were in a
manner totally independent of the people and under
the influence of the crown; and government foon avail¬
ed itfelf of this power to bribe a majority to ferve its
ftriftion proved difadvantageous not only to Ireland,
but to Great Britain herfelf. The French were now
plentifully fupplied by fmuggling with Irilh wool; and
not only enabled to furnilh woollen fluffs fufficient for
their own confumpt, but even to vie with the Britilh
in foreign markets. Other reftriftions confpired to aug¬
ment the national calamity; but that which was moft
fenfibly felt took place in 1776. “ There had hither-
own purpofes. Various methods were thought of to to (fays Mr Crawford) been exported annually to
remedy this evil; but all proved ineffeftual until the America large quantities of Irelh linens: this very
IRE [
Gonfiderable fource of national advantage was
J fhut up, under pretence of rendering it more difficult
for the enemy to .be fupplied with the means of. fub~
filltnce ; but in reality, to enable a few rapacious Eng-
li(h contractors to fulfil their engagements, an embargo,
which continued, was in 1776 laid upon the expor¬
tation of provifions from Ireland, by an unconftitu-
tional ftretch of prerogative. Remittances to Eng¬
land, on various accounts, particulady for the pay¬
ment of our forces abroad, were more than ufually
confiderabk. Thefe immediate caufes jSeing com¬
bined with thofe whicti were invariable and perma-
tient, produced in this country very calamitous ef¬
fects. Black caule fell very contiderably in their va
lue; notwithllanding that cuftomers could not be had.
The price of wool was reduced in a ftill greater pro¬
portion. Rents every where fell ; nor, in many places,
was it poffible to collect them. An -univerfal Itagna-
n of bufinefs enfued. Credit was very materially
335 3 IRE
ly. The trading and marmfa&uring towns of Eng. Trelamf.
land, however, now took the alarm, and petitions y—
againlt the Iriih indulgence were brought forward from
many different quarters, and members inftrudted to
oppofe it. In contequence of this a warm conteft took
place on the fecond reading of the bills. Mr Burke
fupported them with all the ilrength of his eloquence ;
and as the miniller feemed to favour them, they were
committed ; though the violent oppofition to them ftill
continue !, which induced many of their friends at that
time to defert their caufe. ,
Though the efforts of thofe who favoured the caufe New7at-
of Ireland thus proved unfuccefsful for the prefent,^111!1 in
they renewed their endeavours before the Chriftmasf?ivourJ^,
vacation. They now urged, that, independent of sdl* IllQw'
claims from juftice and humani'y, the relief of Ireland
was enforced by neceffity. The trade with Britifh
America was now loft for ever ; and it was indifpenfably
requifite to unite the remaining parts of the empire in
injured. Farmers were preffed by extreme neceffity, one common intereil and affedion. Ireland had bl¬
and many of them failed. Numbers of manufadurers therto been paffive ; but there was danger that, by
“'ere reduced to extreme neceffity, and would have driving her to extremities, fhe would call off the yoke
.‘A,, j \ 1 ^ 1  *. 1   r. J u.. ui.    • n u .1 ,
perifhed, had they not been fupported by public cha¬
rity. Thofe of every rank and condition were deeply
affe&ed by the calamity of the times. Had the ftate
of the exchequer permitted, grants might have been
made to promote induftry, and to alleviate the national
ditlrefs ; but it was exhaufted to' a very uncommon
degree. Almoft every brailch of the revenue had fail¬
ed. From want of money the militia law could not
altogether ; or, even if this fhould not happen, the ty¬
ranny of Britain would be of little advantage ; as, on the.
event of a peace, the people would defert a country in -
which they had experienced fuch oppreffion, and emi¬
grate to America, where they had a greater profpeft
of liberty. On the other hand, they infilled, that very
confiderable advantages muft tnfue to Britain by the
emancipation of Ireland; and every benefit extended
be carried into execution. We could not pay our to that country would be returned with accumulated
forces abroad ; and, to enable us to pay thofe at home,
there was a neceffity for borrowing 50,000!. from
England. The money which parliament was forced
to raife, it was obliged to borrow at an exorbitant in-
tereft. England, in its prefent ftate, was affe&ed with
the vyretched condition to which our affairs were re¬
duced. Individuals there, who had eftates in Ireland,
were (harers of the common calamity ; and the atten-
to our fituation, who had even no perfonal intereft in
this country.”
Iriih affairs While things were in this deplorable fituation, earl
taken into Nugent, in the year 1778, undertook the caufe of the
tkm b^the by moving in parliament, that their affairs fhould
Bntifh par- ta^en 'nto confuieration by a committee of the
Jiatnent. whole houfe. This motion being agreed to almoft
uaanimoiifly, it was followed by feveral others, viz.
That the Irifh might be permitted to export direftly
to the Bntifli plantations, or to the fettiements on
the coaft of. Africa, all goods being the produce and
manufa&ure of the kingdom, excepting only wool, or
woollen manufactures, &c. That all goods, being the
produce of any of the Britifh plantations, or of the
intereft. The bufinefs was at lalt fummed up in a mo-
tion made by lord Newhavtn, in February 1779, t^at
liberty fhou!d be granted to the Irifh to import fugars
from the Weft Indies. This was carried; but the New7pe«-
merchants of Giafgow and Mancheller having peti- titions
tior.ed againft it, it was again loft through the interfe aKainft
renct of the minifter, who now exerted his influence thcn,"
againft the relief he had formerly declared in favour of.
gam: the
projofed
relief.
tion of individuals in the Britifh parliament was turned Various other efforts, however, were made to effe&
. n.--.:. .. L__I   r 1 <i • t[ie ,nten(}e{i pUrp0fe . but nothing more could be ob¬
tained than a kind of compromife, by which lord
Gower pledged himfelf, as far as he could anfwer
for the condud of others, that, during the recefs
fome plan fhould be fallen upon for accommodating
the affairs of Ireland to the fatisfaAion of all part
ties.
In the mean time the affairs of this country haftened !
to a criffs ; which forced the Britilh miniftry to give
that relief fo long folicited, and which they fo often
promifed without any intention of performing their
promifes. As long as the affairs of the country were An univer-
under confideiation of the Britifh parliament, the in-fal ferment 1
habitants preftrved fome degree of patience; but,enfues
fettiements on the coaft of Africa, tobacco excepted, when they found themfelves deferted by the minifter, t£roaShoul '
be allowed to be imported dite&ly from Ireland to all their difeontent was inflamed beyond meafure. Thedom.*112*
places, Britain excepted. That cotton yarn, the ma- laws he had paffed in their favour, viz. an allowance
nufadure of Ireland, be allowed to be imported into - 1 - - '
Great Britain. That glafs manufaCfurtd in Ireland be
permitfed to be exported .to all places,’ Britain ex¬
cepted.—With refpeA to the Inffi fail-cloth and cor¬
dage, it was moved, that they fliould have.the fame
privilege as for the cotton yarn.
- Thefe motions having palled unanimoufly, bills for
the relief of Ireland were framed upon them according-
to plant tobacco, and a bill for encouraging the growth
of hemp, were confidered as mockery inflead of relief,
and it was now reiolved to take fuch meafures as fhould
effectually convince the miniftry that it was not their T9 -
intereft to tyrannize any longer. With this view, affo;-Afl’wia'
ciations againft the importation of Britifh commodities, gj^I'T'lT
which had been entered into in forae places befoie, nowimpiTrtin^
became univerfal throughout the kingdom; and inchcon*.
Irelar d.
60
Rife of the
military af-
fociations
in Ireland.
8t
They re-
folve to de¬
liver their
country
from the
tyranny of
Britain.
IRE [ 336 1 IRE
as prefumed to oppofe the voice of the people in this
refpeft, had the mortification to find ihemfelves ex¬
posed to public obloquy and contempt on that ac¬
count. Thus the Irifh manufaftures began to re¬
vive ; and the people of Britain found themfelves
obliged ferioufly to take into confideration the relief
of that country, and to look upon it as a matter very
neceflary to their own intereft To this alfo they were
ftill more ferioufly difpofed by the military aflbciations,
which had taken place fome time before, and now
affumed a molt formidable appearance. Thefe at firft
were formed by accidental caufes. The fituation of
Britain, for fome time, had not admitted of any effec¬
tual method being taken for the defence of Ireland-
Its coafts had been infulted, and the trading flops
taken by the French and American privateers ; nor was
it at all improbable that an invafion might foon follow.
“ The minifter (fays Mr Crawford) told us, that the
fituation of Britain was fuch as rendered her incapable
of protefting us. The weaknefs of government, from
the following circumftance, was flrikingly obvious.
The mayor of Belfaft having tranfmitted a memorial
to the Lord Lieutenant, fetting forth the unprote&ed
ftate of the coaft, and requefting a body of the mili¬
tary for its defence, received for anfwer, that he could
not afford him any other afliftance than half a troop of
difmounted horfe and half a company of fnvalids.,>
In this dilemma, a number of the inhabitants of the
town afibciated for the purpofe of felf-defence; and,
on the fame principle, a few volunteer companies were
formed in different parts of the kingdom. Thefe chofe
their own officers, purchafed their own uniforms and
arms, and, with the affiftance of perfons properly qua¬
lified, affembled regularly on the parade to acquire a
knowledge in the military art. Their refpe&able ap¬
pearance, and the zeal they fhowed in the fervice of
their country, foon excited curiofity and attracted
refpeft. Their number increafed every day ; and peo¬
ple of the firft confequence became ambitious of being
enrolled among them. As no foreign enemy appeared,
againft whom they might exercife their military prowefs,
thefe patriotic bands foon began to turn their thoughts
' towards a deliverance from domeftic oppreffion. No
fooner was this idea made known, than it gave new
vigour to the fpirit of volunteering; infomuch that,
by the end of 1778, the military affociations were
thought to amount at leaft to 30,000 men. But,
while thus formidable from their numbers, and openly
avowing their intention to demand a reftitution of their
rights from the Britilh miniftry, they profeffed the
utmoft loyalty and afftftion to the king; and with re¬
gard to fobriety and decent demeanour,'they were not
only unexceptionable, but exemplary. Inftead of ex¬
citing diforders themfelves, they reitrained every kind
of irregularity, and exerted themfelves with unanimity
and vigour for the execution of the laws.
That fuch a body of armed men, afling without any
command or fupport from government, fliould be an
objeift of apprehenlion to miniftry, is not to be won¬
dered at. In the infancy of their affociations indeed
they might have been fuppreffed; but matters had been
fuffered to proceed too far ; and, as they flood at pre-
fent, all refiftance was vain. As the volunteers could
not be controuled, fome attempts were made to bring
them under the influence of the crown j but this being
169.
found impoffible, miniftry thought proper to treat them Ireland,
with an appearance of confidence ; and} accordingly, v—
orders were iffued for fupplying them with *6,000 rhe82are
fta^L0fraTS‘ fupplied
The Inih parliament, thus encouraged by the fpirit.with arm*
of the nation, and preffed by the difficulties arifing bythe mi"
from the diminifhed value of their eftates, refolved to " g‘
exert themfelves in a becoming manner, in order to The par-
procure relief to their country. At their meeting in‘iament ad»
October 1779, an addrefs to his Majefty was drawndrefs£he
up ; in which it was exprefsly declared, that “ it was
not by temporary expedients, but by a free trade alone/6 6 ’
that Ireland was now to be faved from impending
ruin.” When this addrefs was carried up to the Lord
Lieutenant, the ftreets of Dublin were lined with vo¬
lunteers, commanded by the duke of Leinfter, in
their arms and uniform. But, though a general
expeftation of relief was now diffufed, an anxious
fear of difappointment ftill continued. If the ufual
fupply was granted for two years, there was danger of
the diftreffes continuing for all that time ; and after it
was granted, the prorogation of parliament might put
a flop to the expeded relief altogether. The people,
however, were not now to be trifled with. As the
court-party (bowed an averfion to comply with the po
pular meafures, a mob rofe in Dublin, who, among Rjot ^
other ads of violence, pulled down che houfe of the Dublin,
attorney-general, and did their utmoft to compel the
members to promife their countenance to the matter
in hand. When the point therefore came to be de¬
bated, fome efpoufed the popular fide from principle,
others from neceffity; fo that on the whole a majority
appeared in favour of it. A (hort money bill was
palfed and tranfmitted to England; where, though
very mortifying to the minifter, it paffed alfo.
On the meeting of the Britifh parliament in Decern- Affa is of
ber, the affairs of Ireland were firft taken into confide- Ireland a-
ration in the houfe of peers. The neceffity of granting ?a,n
relief to that kingdom was ftrongly fet forth by the th/iirkilh
lord who introduced them. He faid, the Irifti, now parliament,
confeious of poffeffing a force and confequence to
which they had hitherto been ftrangers, had refolved
to apply it to obtain the advantages of which the na¬
tion, by this fpirited exertion, now ftiowed themfelves
worthy. Had they for fome time before been grati¬
fied in leffer matters, they would now have received
with gratitude, what they would, as affairs flood at
prefent, confider only as a matter ..of right. He then
moved for a vote of cenfure on his Majefty’s mini Iters
for their negleft of Ireland. This motion was re¬
jected ; but Earl Gower, who had now deferted the
caufe of miniftry, declared, that there did not exift in
his mind a Angle doubt that the vote of cenfure was
not well founded. He added, in his own vindication,
that early in the fummer he had promifed that relief
Ihould be granted to Ireland, and had done every thing
in his power to keep his word; but that all his efforts
had proved fruitlefs.
In the houfe of commons the minifter found him-
felf fo hard preffed by the arguments of the minority,
and the (hort money-bill from Ireland, that he was obli¬
ged to declare, that in lefs than a week he intended to
move for a committee of the whole houfe to take the
affairs of Ireland into confideration. On the 13th of
December he accordingly brought forward his pro-
6 pofitions
IRE [ 337 ] I R E
Ireland, pofitions In favour of this kingdom. The defign of
'■ thelfe was to repeal the laws prohibiting the exporta-
Lor(j tion of Irifn manufadfures made of wool or wool flocks;
North’s to repeal as much of the ad of igth Geo. II. as pro-
propofitions hiblted the importation of glafs into Ireland, except of
♦iL iHnBr Britifh manufadture, or the exportation of glafs from
dom. ° Ireland ; and to permit the Irifh to. export and import
commodities to and from the Weft Indies and the
Britifh fettlements on the coaft of Africa, fubjeft to
fuch refolutions and reftri&ions as Ihould be impofed
by the Iriih parliament.
His obfer 0° thefe propofltions his lordftiip made feveral re-
vations marks by way of explanation. One objed of them,
upon them, he faid, was to reftore to Ireland the wool export
and woollen manufadure. In 1692, from jealoufy or
fome other motive, an addrefs had been prefented by
the.Englifh parliament, recommending a kind of corn-
pad between the two kingdoms ; the terms of which
■were, that England fhould enjoy the woollen manufac¬
ture, and Ireland the linen, exclufively. But notwith-
ftanding this agreement, it was certain, that England
carried on the linen manufadure to as great extent as
Ireland, while at the fame time the former retain¬
ed the monopoly of woollens. The firft ftep taken,
in confequence of this agreement, was to lay a heavy
duty,- equal to a prohibition, upon all wool and wool¬
lens exported ; and when this ad, which was but a
temporary one by way of experiment, expired, the
Englifn parliament paffed a ilmilar one, and made it
perpetual; by means of which and fome others a total
end was put to the woollen trade of Ireland.
With regard to the trade of Ireland, his lordftiip
©bfervcd, that, upon an average of the fix years from
1766 to 1772, the export to Ireland was fomewhat
more than two millions ; and, in the fucceeding fix
years, from 1772 to 1778, about as much more; near¬
ly one half being Britifti manufadure and produce ;
the other half certified articles, of which this country
was the medium of conveyance. The native produce,
on an average, was fomewhat more than 900,0001. but
of this only 200,0001. were woollens. The woollen
manufadure of Ireland therefore would long continue
in a ftate of infancy ; and though cloths had been
manufadured fufficient for home confumption, yet it
could hardly be expeded that Ireland would rival
Great Britain at the foreign markets, when, after the
expence of land-carriage, freight, infurance, and fado-
rage, the latter was able to underfell Ireland in her
own market on the very fpot, even though aided by
the low wages and taxes paid in the country.
With regard to the linen, his lordftiip obferved, that
however profperous it might appear, yet ftili it was
capable of great improvement. The idea of extend¬
ing aiid improving the linen-manufadure of Ireland
originated from a pamphlet written by Sir William
Temple ; and this gave rife to the compad which had
been referred to. But though this oompad was now
about to be diflblved, it was his opinion that the boun¬
ties on importing Irifti linens ought not to be difcon-
tinued ; becaufe it appeared, that the Britifti bounties
had operated as a great encouragement to the Irifti
manufadures, at the fame time that the fum ap¬
propriated to this purpofe amounted to more than
*3,000!.
With regard to the diflblution',.of the compad be-
Vol. IX. Part I.
twixt England and Ireland, be obferved, that, as a Ir^faml.
more liberal fpirit had now appeared on both Tides of y—■*
the water, he hoped both kingdoms would be perfedly
contented. Ireland would never be able to rival Eng¬
land in the fine woollen fabrics ; but allowing the Irifti
to manufadure their own wool, would put an end to
the contraband trade with France : and it ought to be
remembered, that whatever was an advantage to Ire¬
land, muft, fooner or later, be of Angular advantage ts
Great Britain, and by the propofed regulations in their
commercial connedions, the two kingdoms would be
put more upon an equality.
With regard to the glafs manufadure, his lordftiip
likewife obferved, that Ireland had bean very injuri-
oufly treated. Before the ad of 19th Geo. II. they
had begun to make fome progrefs* in the lower branch¬
es of the glafs manufadure; but by that ad they were
nqt only prevented from importing any other glafs than
what was of Britifti manufadure, but alfo from export¬
ing their own glafs, or putting it on a horfe or carriage
with a defign to be exported. This ad had been com¬
plained of in Ireland as a great piece of injuftice, and it
was the intention of his propofition to remove that
grievance.
With regard to the third propofition, his lordftiip
obferved, that allowing Ireland a free trade to the
colonies muft be confidered as a favour to that king¬
dom. Confidering her even as an independent ftate,
flie could fet up no claim to an intercourfe with the
Britifti colonies. By every principle of juftice, of the
laws of nations, and the cuftom of the other European
powers who had fettlements and diftant dependencies,
the mother country had an exclufive right to trade
with, and to forbid all others from having any inter¬
courfe with them. Were not this the cafe, what na¬
tion under the fun would fpend their blood and treafure
in eftabliftiing a colony, and protecting and defending
it in its infant ftate, if other nations were afterwards
to reap the advantages derived from their labour, ha¬
zard, and expence. But though Great Britain had a
right to reftrain Ireland from trading with her colonies,
his lordfliip declared himfelf of opinion that it would
be proper to allow her to participate of the trade.
This would be the only prudent means of affording her
relief; it would bean unequivocal proof of the candour
and fincerity of Great Britain ; and he had not the
leaft doubt but it would be received as fuch in Ireland.
Bu'tain, however, ought not to be a fufferer by her
bounty to Ireland ; but this would be the cafe, fliould
the colony trade be thrown open to the latter, without
accompanying it with reflri&ions fimilar to thofe
which were laid upon the Britifti trade with them. An
equal trade muft include an equal ftiare of duties and
taxes ; and this was the only proper ground on which
the benefits exptfted by the Irifti nation could be
either granted or defired.
Having made fome other obfervations on the pro¬
priety of thefe meafures, they were regularly f°rnied
into motions, and paffed unanimoufly. In Ireland receiveci
they were received with the utmoft joy and gratitude with great
by both houfes of parliament. On the 20th of De-j07 tlw
cember the following rtfolutions were paffed; viz.
That the exportation of woollen and other manufac¬
tures from Ireland to all foreign places will materially
tend to relieve its diftrefles, increafe its wealth, promote
U u its
I R E
C 338 1
I R E
it* profperity, and thereby advance the walfare of exportation of woollens havine; been granted to Ire- Irehnd.
■' Britain, and the common ftrength, wealth, and com¬
merce of the Britifn empire; that a liberty to trade
land, the Iriih would naturally expeft a lhare in the ^
Turky trade, which, as matters Hood, was not pof-
with the Britifh colonies in America and the Weft fible, it having hitherto been a received opinion, that
) Irifhman could be elefted a member of the Turky
company. Notwithftanding all the fatisfa&ion, hovv-
Indies, and the fettlements on the coaft of Africa, will
|>e produ&ive of *ery great commercial benefits ; will
be a moft affe&ionate mark of the regard and attention ever, with which the news of thefe bills were received
of Great Britain to the diftrefies of the kingdom ; and
will give new vigour to the zeal^of his Majefty’s brave
and loyal people of Ireland to ftand forth in fupport
of his Majefty’s perfon and government, and the inte-
reft, the honour, and dignity of the Britifh empire.”
The fame refolutions were, next day, pafled in the
89 houfe of peers.
Exceflive The higheft encomiums were now pafled on Lord
e'n<LorT3 ^,s exertions in favour of Ireland were de-
NorthTto dated to have been great and noble; he was ftyled
the difad- “ the great advocate of Ireland and it was foretold.
in Ireland, it was not long before thoughts of a dif¬
ferent kind began to take place. It was fuggefted, jjevv^d f
that a free trade could be but of little ufe, if held by a co ,tentsbe-
precarious tenure. The repeal of the obnoxious laws gin t > takcj
was reprefented as an aft of neceffity, not of choice, Placc>
on the part of the Britifh parliament. When that ne¬
ceffity, therefore, no longer exifted, the fame parliament
might recal the benefits it had granted, and again fet¬
ter the Irifh trade by reftridions perhaps more oppref-
fiVe than before. To fecure the advantages they now
pofteffed, it was neceflary that the kingdom fhould en-
vantage that he would be of glorious and immortal memory in joy the benefits of a free conftitution. For this the
of the mi- tjlat kingdom. But while thefe panegyrics were fo
parliament, l^^ly made on the minifter, the members in oppofi-
tion, in the Britifh parliament, were fpoken of in very
indifferent terms. It was faid, that, while they
thought the minifter did not mean to go into the bu-
finefs of Ireland, they called loudly for cenfure againft
him for not doing it; but when it was found that he
meant ferioufly to take their affairs into con fide ration.
people looked up to the volunteer companies; and the
idea of haying fuch a glorious objeft in their power,
augmented the numbers of thofe which had alfo been 93
increafed from other caufes. They had now received Numbers
the thanks of both houfes of parliament, and thus had tlle vo.“
obtained the fanftion of the legiflature. Thus many ia*
who had formerly fcrupled to conneft themfelves with
a lawlefs body, made no fcruple to enter their lifts.
po they bad then bafely feceded, and wholly forfaken the Government alfo engaged feveral of their friends i
They are intereft of the kingdom. Thefe cenfures were fo loud, the volunteer caufe. New companies were therefore
checked by tkat a member of the Britifh houfe of commons wrote raifed ; but whatever might be the political fentiments
from? a letter to ke communicated to his friends in Ireland, of the officers, the private men were univerfaily at-
member of in which he reprefented, that however politic it might
the Britifh be to compliment the minifter on the prefent occafion,
houfe of jt was neither very wife nor generous in the members
tommons. of the pa,i;ament to be fo ready in beftowing invec¬
tives againft their old friends in England. With regard
to the minifter, it was alleged, that until he was driven
to it by the meafures adopted in Ireland, his conduft
had been extremely equivocal, dilatory, and indecifive.
The minority had been juftly incenfed againft him for
having fo grofsly facrificed the honour of the nation and
the dignity of parliament as to refufe any fubftantial
relief to the Irifh, until their own exertions had made
it appear that every thing which could be done for
tached to the popular caufe. The national fpirit was
likewife kept up by feveral patriotic publications, par¬
ticularly the letters figned Owen Roe O’Niel, which
in an efpecial manner attracted the public attention ;
nor was the pulpit backward in contributing its part
in the fame caule. 94
To give the greater weight to their determinations, They turns
the volunteers now began to form themfelves into bat- fhemfeUc*
talions ; and in a very fhort time they wereall united atta'
in this manner, excepting a fmall number of compa¬
nies, which, from accidental caufes, continued feparate.
The newfpapers were filled with refolutions from the 95
feveral corps, declaring Ireland to be an independent Ireland de-
them by the Britifh parliament was not a matter of kingdom, intitled by reafon, nature, and compaft, to^eper?
choice but of nectffity. The minority, it was faid, had
earneftly and repeatedly laboured to procure relief for
all the privileges of a free conftitution ; that no power <ient'king,
in the world, excepting the king, with the lords and dom.
the people of Ireland ; and if they had now contented commons of Ireland, had or ought to have, power to
themfelves with a filent acquiefcence in the minifter’s make laws for binding the Irifh ; and that, in fupport
propofitions, it was only until they fhould know whe¬
ther they would be fatisfaftory to the people of Ire¬
land ; and becaufe what was now done, appeared to be
more an aft of ftate than of mere parliamentary deli-
91 beration and difeuffion.
Additional To the propofitions already mentioned, Lord North
f-ropofitionsg^d tbree others. I. For repealing the prohibition
of Ireland of exporting gold coin from Great Britain to Ireland.
’ 2. For removing the prohibition to import foreign
hops into Ireland, and the drawback on the exporta-
rr •  V. — ^ « TTrsi- Viir
of thefe rights and privileges, they were determined
to facrifice their lives and property.
Notwithilanding all this zeal, however, the repre- Servile be-
fentatives of the people in Ireland feem yet to have hiviour of
behaved in a very fupine and carelefs manner, and to the Irilh
have been entirely obedient to the diftates of govern- *>ar lament•
ment. One of the houfe of commons declared in the
month of April 1780, that “ no power on earth, ex¬
cepting the king, lords, and commons of Ireland, had
- right to make laws to bind the people.” “ Every
tion of foreign hops. 3- For enabling his majefty’s member in the houfe (fays Mr Crawford), one except-
jrifh fubje&s to become members of the Turky com- ed, acknowledged the truth of the propofition, either
pany, and to export woollens in Britifh or Irifh hot- in exprefs terms, or by not oppofing it ; and yet, how-
ioms’to the Levant. In fupport of this lall refolution ever aftonifhing it may appear, it was evident, that had
his lordfnip urged, that it was neceffary, becaufe the the queftion been put, it would hare been carried in
IRE [ 339 1 IRE
Ireland, the negative. The matter was compromifed. The not at firft perceive the dangerous tendency of the bill Ireland.
u-—"v-queftion was not put; and nothing relating to it was in qudtion. The reprefentations of Mr Grattan and v—
entered on the journals. others, however, foon opened their eyes, and a gene-
Irifli mu- This inattention, or rather unwillingnefs, of the ma- ral difTatisfa&ion took place. -This was much increafed
tiny bill jority to ferve their country, was more fully manifefted by two unfuccefsful attempts in the houfe of commons;
made per- jn the cafc Qf a mutiny bill, which they allowed to be one to obtain an aft for modifying Poyning’s law ;
petuak macie perpetual in Ireland, though that in England and the other for fecuring the independency of the
had always been cautioufly paffed only from year to judges. A univerfal difguft againft the fpiritlefs con-
8 year. After it was paffed, however, fome of the zea- duft of parliament now took place ; and the hopes of
Bad cen- lous patriots, particularly Mr Grattan, took great pains the people were once more fet on the volunteers,
dency of it to fet forth the bad tendency of that aft. He cbfer- As it became now fomewhat probable that thefe
fet forth by vcd> that ftanding armies in the time of peace were companies might at lad be obliged to affert the rights
Mr Grat- contrary to the principles of the conftitution and the of their countrymen by force of arms, reviews were 99
an’ fafety of public liberty ; they had fubverted the liberty judged neceffary to teach them how to aft *n ^ar§er^eVv^r^
of all nations excepting in thofe cafes where their num- bodies, and to give them a more exaft knowledge
ber was fmall, or the power of the fovereign over the ufe of arms. Several of thefe reviews took place pointed*
them limited in fome refpeft or other; but it was in in the courfe of fummer 1780. The fpeftatois in ge-
vain to think of fetting bounds to the power of the neral were druck with the novelty and grandeur of the
chief magidrate, if the people chofe by a datute to fight; the volunteeis became more than ever the ob-
bind themfelves to give them a perpetual and irrefidible jefts of edeem and admiration, and their numbers in-
force. The mutiny bill, or martial law methodized, creafed accordingly. The reviews in 1781 exceeded
thofe of the former year; and the dexterity of the
was direftly oppofite to the common law of the land.
It fet afide the trial by jury and all the ordinary deps
of law ; edablifhing in their dead a fummary proceed¬
ing, arbitrary crimes and punifhments, a fecret fen-
tence, and fudden execution. The objeft of this was
to bring thofe who were fubjeft to it to a date of im¬
plicit fubordination, and render the authority of the
fovereign abfolute. The people of England, therefore,
from a laudable jealoufly on all fubjefts in which their
liberty was concerned, had in the matter of martial
law exceeded their ufual caution. In the preamble
to the mutiny aft, they recited part of the declaration
of right, “ that danding armies and martial law in
time of peace, without the confent of parliament, are
illegal. Having then dated the purity and fimplicity
of their ancient conditution, and fet forth the great
corps who had affociated more early was now obferved
to be greater than that of the red. More than 5000
men were reviewed at Belfad, whofe performances were
fet off to peculiar advantage by the difplay of 13
pieces of cannon. They Ihowed their alacrity to ferve
their country in the field, on a report having arifen
that the kingdom was to be invaded by the combined
fleets of France and Spain ; and for their fpirited beha¬
viour on this occafion they received a fccond time the
thanks of both houfes of parliament.
Such prodigious military preparations could not but
alarm the Britifh minidry in the highed degree ; and
it was not to be doubted that the Irifh volunteers would
come to the fame extremities the Americans had done
unlefs their wilhes were fpeedily complied with. Still,
principle of magna charta, they admitted a partial and however, it was imagined poffible to fupprefs them,
temporary repeal of it: they admitted an army, and a and it was fuppofed to be the duty of the lord lieute-
law for its regulation, but at the fame time they limit- nant to do fo. It was during the adminidration of
ed the number of the former, and the duration of the duke of Buckingham that the volunteers had
both ; confining the exidence of the troops themfelves, grown into fuch confequence: he was therefore re-
the law that regulated them, and the power that com- called, and the earl of Carlifle appointed in his place,
tnanded them, to one year. Thus were the danding Though it was impoffible for the new governor to fup-
forces of England rendered a parliamentary army, and
the military rendered effeftually fubordinate to the ci¬
vil magiilrate, becaufe dependent on parliament. Yet
the people of England confidered the army, even thus
limited, only as a neceflary evil, and would not admit
even of barracks, led the foldier diould be dill more
alienated from the date of a fubjeft; and in this date
of alienation have a pod of drength, which would aug¬
ment the danger arifing from his fituation. When
prefs the fpint of the nation, he found it no diffiedt Shameful
matter to obtain a majority in parliament. Thus every conduit of
redrefs was for the prefent effeftually denied. Neitherthe
the modification of Poyning’s law, nor the repeal 0f l)ar^ament’
the obnoxious parts of the mutiny bill, could be ob¬
tained. The volunteers, exafperated at this beha¬
viour, refolved at once to Ihow that they were refol-
ved to do -themfelves judice, and were confcious that
they had power to do fo. At a meeting of the of-
the parliament of Ireland proceeded to regulate the ficers of the fouthern battalion of the .Armagh regi-
army, therefore, they ought to have adopted the ma- ment, commanded "by the earl of Charlemont, the fol-
xims of the Britiih contlitution, as well as the rules of lowing refolutions were entered into December 28th
Britilh difeipline. But they had totally departed from 1781. 1. That the mod vigorous and efleftual me- 103
the maxims and example of the Englilh, and that in thods ought to be purfued for rooting corruption out A ?enera^.
the modJrnportant concern, the government of the from the legiflative body. 2. For this purpofe a meet-
ing of delegates from all the volunteer affociations was teers ap.
neceffary ; and Dungannon, as the mod central town pointed,
in the province of Ulder, feemed to be the mod pro¬
per for holding fuch a meeting. 3. That as many and
lading advantages might attend the holding fuch a
■U u 2 meeting
fword. They had omitted the preamble which decla
red the great charter of liberty; they had left the num¬
ber of forces in the bread of the king, and under thefe
circumftances they had made the bill perpetual.
•It is probable that the bulk of the irilh nation did
IRE [ 340 J IRE
Ireland meeting before the prefent feffion of parliament was
much farther advanced, the 15th of February next
fho'uld be appointed for it.
Thefe refolutions proved highly offenfive to the
friends of government, and every method was taken
to difcourage it. On the appointed day, however, the
reprefentatives of 143 volunteer corps did attend at
Dungannon ; and the refults of their deliberations were
.1P4. as follow. i. It having been afferted, that volunteers,
ofet^j“tl°nSas fuch, cannot with propriety debate or publifh their
aieeting. opinions on political fubjefts, or on the conduct of
parliament, or public men, it was refolvtxl unanimoufly,
that a citizen, by learning the ufe of arms, does not
abandon any of his civil rights. 2. That a claim from
any body of men, other than the king, lords, and com¬
mons of Ireland, to make laws to bind the people, is
illegal, unconllitutional, and a grievance. 3. Refol-
ved, with one diffenting voice only, that the powers
exercifed by the privy council of both kingdoms, under
colour or pretence of the law of Poyning’s, are uncomli-
tutional and a grievance. 4. Refolved unanimoufly,
that the ports of this country are by right open to all
foreign countries not at war with the king ; and that
any burden thereupon, or obftruclion thereto, except¬
ing only by the parliament of Ireland, are unconttitu-
tional, and a grievance. 5. Refolved, with one dif¬
fenting voice only, that a mutiny bill, not limited in
point of duration from fefiion to fefiion, is unconfti-
tutional and a grievance. 6. Refolved unanimoufly,
that the independence of judges is equally eflential to
the impartial adminiftration of juftice in Ireland as in
England, and that the rcfufal or delay of this right
is in itfelf unconftitutional and a grievance. 7. Re¬
folved, with 1 1 diffenting voices only, that it is the
decided and unalterable determination of the volunteer
companies to feek a redrefs of thefe grievances ; and
they pledged themfelves to their country, and to each
other, as freeholders, fellow-citizens, and men of ho¬
nour, that they would, at every enfuing ele&ion, fup-
port only thofe who had fupported them, and would
i'upport them therein, and that they would ufe all
conftitutional means to make fuch purfuit of redrefs
fpeedy and effectual. 8. Refolved, with only one dif-
i'enting voice, that the minority in parliament, who
had fupported thofe conffitutional rights, are intitled
to the moll grateful thanks of the volunteer compa¬
nies, and that an addrefs to the purpofe be figned by
the chairman, and publidaed with the refolutions of the
prefent meeting. 9. Refolved unanimoufly, that four
members from each county of the province of Ul-
fter, eleven to be a quorum, be appointed a committee
till the next general meeting, to aCP for the volunteer
corps, and to call general meetings of the province as
occafiort requires. 10. The committee being appoint¬
ed, and the time of general meetings, and'fome other
affairs of a limilar nature fettled, it was refolved una-
nimoufly, that the court of Portugal having unjulUy
refufed entry to certain Irifh commodities, the dele¬
gates would not confume any wine of the growth of
Portugal, and that they would ufe all their influence
to prevent the ufe of the faid wine, excepting what
was then in the kingdom, until fuch time as the Irilh
exports Ihould be received in the kingdom of Portu¬
gal. 11. Refolved, with only two diffenting voices,
that they hold the right of private judgment in mat¬
ters of religion equally facred in others as in them- Ireland,
felves ; and that they rejoiced in the relaxation of the
penal laws againft the Papifts, as a meafure fraught
with the happieft confequences to the union and pro-
fperity of the inhabitants of Ireland.
While thefe proceedings took place at Dungannon, toy
the miniftry carried all before them in parliament. InMmifterial
a debate concerning the exclufive legiflative Pr*v^eges V
of Ireland, a law member, fpeaking of the arbitrary *
acls of England, afferted, that “ power conllituted parliament*
rightand a motion that the commons fhould be de¬
clared the reprefentatives of the people was carried in
the negative. Thefe feandalous proceedings could not
but haiten the ruin of their caufe. The refolutions
entered into at the Dungannon meeting were received
throughout the kingdom with the utrnotl applaufe. A I0g
few days after, Mr Grattan, whofe patriotifm has been Mr Grat-
already taken notice of, moved in the houfe of com- tan’s mo-
mons for a long and fpirited addrefs to his majefty, deck- tl‘’" for art
ring therights of the kingdom,and affertingtheprinciple cLrinj^thc*
which now began to prevail, that Ireland could legally indepen-
be bound by no power but that of the king, lords, anddency o£
commons of the country; though the Britifh parliament lrir!a[ld
had aflumed fuch a power. This motion was at prefent re-1<x e *
rejefted by a large majority; but their eyes were foon
enlightened by the volunteers.
Thefe having now appointed their committees of
correfpondence, were enabled to communicate their
fentiments to one another with the utmoft-facility and
quicknefs. An affociation was formed in the name
the nobility, re'prefentatives, freeholders, and inhabi- 0f t^c vo_
tants of the county of Armagh, wherein theyfet forth iunteers t©
the neceffity of declaring their fentiments openly re-thatpur-
fpeftjng the fundamental and undoubted rights of the P°^e*
nation. They declared, that, in every lituation in
life, and with all the means in their power, they would
maintain the conttitutional right of the kingdom to be
governed only by the king and parliament of Ireland ;
and that they would, in every inftance, uniformly and
ftrenuoufly oppofe the execution of any ftatutes, ex¬
cepting fu>ch as derived their authority from the parlia¬
ment juft mentioned ; and they pledged themfelves, in
the ufual manner, to fupport what they now declared
with their lives and fortunes.
This declaration was quickly adopted by all the
other counties, and fimilar fentiments became univer-
fally avowed throughout the king. The change in the
Britifh miniftry in the fpring of 1782 facilitated the l0g
wilhes of the people. The duke of Portland, who Favourable
came over as lord lieutenant in April that year, fent ameffage
moft welcome meffage to parliament. He informed ffnt to Par-
them, that, “ his majefty, being concerned to y
that difeontents and jealoufies were prevailing among 0f Pon-
his loyal fuhjeds in Ireland, upon matters of great land,
weight and importance, he recommended it to parlia¬
ment to take the fame into their moft ferious conlide-
ration, in order to fuch a final adjuftment as might
. give mutual fatisfa&ion to his kingdoms of Great Bri¬
tain and Ireland._ io$
Mr Grattan, whofe patriotic efforts had never been Mr Grat-
flackened, now ventured to propofe a fecond time in tan’s lecond
parliament the addrefs which had been rejected before,
On the 16th of April he began a fpeech to this pur-his°acidrefA.
pofe with a panegyric on the volunteers, and the late
conduct of the people. The Irilh, he faid, were no
longer.
IRE [ 34
Ireland, longe-r a divided colony, but an united land, manifed-
ing itfelf to the reft of the world in fignal inftanees of
glory. In the reft of Europe the ancient fpirit was
expired ; liberty was yielded, or empire loft ; nations
were living upon the memory of paft glory, or under
the care of mercenary armies. In Ireland, however,
the people, by departing from the example of other
nations, had become an example to them. Liberty,
in former times, and in other nations, was recovered
by the quick feelings and rapid impulfe of the popu¬
lace. But in Ireland, at the prefent period, it was
recovered by an a£l of the whole nation reafoning for
three years on its fttuatidfr, and then rtfcuing itfelf by
a fettled feufe of righ^rervading the land. The meet¬
ing of the delegates at Dungannon was an original mea-
fure ; and, like all of that kind, continued to be matter
of furprife, until at laft it became matter of admira¬
tion. Great meafures, fuch as the meeting of the
Englilh at Runny Mead, and of the Iriih at Dungan¬
non, were not the confequences of ptecedent, but car¬
ried in themfelves both precedent and principle; and
the public caufe in both inftances would infallibly have
been loft had it been trufted to parliament. The
meeting at Dungannon had refolved, that the claim of
the Britilh parliament was illegal ;■ and this was a con-
ftitutional declaration. The irifh volunteers were af-
fociated for the prefervation of the laws, but the con-
du& of the Britilh parliament fubverted all law. Eng¬
land, however, had no reafon to fear the Iriih volun¬
teers ; they would facrifice their lives in her caufe.
The two nations formed a general confederacy. The
perpetual annexation of the crown was a great bond,
but magna «charta was a greater. It would be eafy
for Ireland to Hnd a king; but it would be impoflible
to find a nation who could communicate to them fuch
a charter as magna charta ; and it was this which made
their natural connexion with England. The Iriih
nation were too high in pride, charafter, and power,
to fuffer any other nation to make their laws. England
had indeed brought forward the qneftion, not only by
making laws for Ireland the preceding feffion, but by
enabling his majefty to repeal all the laws which Eng¬
land had made for America. Had (he confented to
repeal the declaratory law againft America ? and
would Ihe refufe to repeal that againft Ireland ? The
Iriih nation were incapable of fubmitting to fuch a
diftin&ion.
It hVneed ^ ^rattan now found his eloquence much more
to.1438'66 powerful than formerly. The motion which, during
this very feffion, had been rejecled by a great majority,
was now agreed to after a Ihort debate, and the addrefs
IIT to his majefty prepared accordingly. In this, after
SuMtance thanking his majefty for his gracious meffage, and de-
®f the ad- daring their attachment to his perfon and government,
rirefs. they 5gurecj him, that the fubje&s of Ireland are a free
people ; that the crown of Ireland is an Imperial
crown infeparably annexed to that of Britain^on which
connexion the interefts and happinefs of both nations
elfentially depend : but the kingdom of Ireland is di-
ftind, with a parliament of its own ; that there is no
body of men competent to make law's to bind Ireland,
except the king, lords, and commons thereof, nor any
other parliament that hath any power or authority of
any fort whatfoever, in this country, except the par¬
liament of Ireland. They allured his majefty, that they
i ] IRE
humbly conceive, that in this right the very eflence of Ireland.
their liberties did exift ; a right which they, on the' f"""*
part of all Ireland, do claim as their birthright, and
which they cannot yield but with their lives. They
allured his majefty, that they had feen with concern
certain, claims advanced by the parliament of Great
Britain, in an a£I entitled, “ For the better fecuring
the dependency of Ireland an aft containing matter
entirely irreconcileable to the fundamental rights of the
nation. They informed his majefty, that they-concei-
ved this aft, and the claims it advanced, to be the
great and principal caufe of the difcontents and jealou-
lies in the kingdom. They allured him, that his
commons did moft fincerely wilh, that all the bills,
which become law in Ireland, fhould receive the ap¬
probation of his majefty under the feal of Great Brit¬
tain ; but yet, thqt they conceived the praftice of
fuppreffing their bills in the council of Ireland, or al¬
tering them any where, to be another juft caufe of
difcontent and jealoufy. They further alTurejd his ma¬
jefty, that an aft intitled, “ For the better accommo¬
dation of his majefty’s forces,” being unlimited in du¬
ration, and defeftive in fome other circumttances, was
another juft caufe of jealoufy and difcontent. Thefe,
the principal caufes of jealoufies and difcontent in the
kingdom, they had fubmitted to his majefty, in humble
expeftation of redrefs : and they concluded with an
affurance, that they were more confident in the hope of
obtaining redrefs, as the people of Ireland had been,
and were, not more difpofed to lhare the freedom of
England, than to fupport her in her difficulties, and to
fhare her fate. na
To this remarkable addrefs a moft gracious anfwerlt isgracf*
was given. In a few days the lord lieutenant made a0ll.hy re*
fpeech to both houfes ; in which he informed them,ce‘veJ*
that, by the magnanimity of the king, and wifdom of
the Britilh parliament, he was enabled to allure them,
that immediate attention had been paid to their repre-
fentations, and that the legillature of Britain had con¬
curred in a refolution to remove the caufes of their
difcontents, and were united in a defire to gratify every
wilh exprefled in the late addrefs to the throne ; and
that, in the mean time, his majefty was gracioufly dif¬
pofed to give his royal aflent to afts to prevent the
fuppreffing of bills in the Iriih privy council, and to li¬
mit the mutiny-bill to the term of two years. tx^
The joy which now diffufed itfelf all over the king- Extreme
dom was extreme. The warmeft addrefles were pre-i°y of d1*
fented not only to his majefty but to the lord lieute-Infll’
nant. The commons inllantly voted iqo,ooo 1. to his
majefty, to enable him to raife 20,000 men for the
navy ; and foon after, 5000 men were likewife voted
from the Irilh eftablifhment. The volunteers became
in a peculiar manner the objefts of gratitude and (ni-
verlal panegyric ; but none was placed in fo confpicu-
ous a light as Mr Grattan. Addrefles of thanks flow¬
ed in upon him from all quarters ; and the commonsMr”4
addreffed his majefty to give him 50,000!. as a re-tanr *
compenfe of his fervices ; for which they promifed to warded.,
make provifion. jjj
This requelt was alfo complied with ; but ftill the Jealouli^
jealoufies of the Iriih were not completely eradicated. beSm to’
As the intended repeal of the declaratory aft was foundrevlWv'
to be fimple, without any claufe exprefsly relinquilhing
the claim of right, feveral members of the houfe of
eommo&fc
IRE [ 342 ] IRE
Ireland, commons were of opinion, that the liberties of Ireland there is no inconfiderable profptdl of gold and filver in Ireland.
 ‘ w ere not yet thoroughly fecured. The majority,however, fome parts of the kingdom. No country in the world 
were of opinion, that the Ample repeal of the obnoxious abounds more in beautiful lakes, both frelh and fait
a& was fufficient; but many of the nation at large dif- water ones ; and it is alfo plentifully watered with many
fered in fentiments. Mr Flood, a member of the houfe, beautiful rivers. The commodities which Ireland ex-
and a zealous patriot, now took the lead in this mat- ports, as far as her prefent trade will permit, are hides,
ter ; while Mr Grattan loft much of his popularity by tallow, beef, butter, cheefe, honey, wax, hemp, metals,
efpoufmg the contrary opinion. The matter, however, and filh : wool and glafs were, till December 23. 1779,
was to appearance finally fettled by the volunteers, who prohibited ; but her linen trade is of late grown of
declared themfelves on Mr Grattan’s fide. Still fome very great confequence. England, in the whole, is
murmurings were heard ; and it muft be owned, that thought togainyearlybylrdandupwards of 1,400,000!.
ll6 even yet the condudf of Britain appeared equivocal, and in many other refpe&s flit muft; be of very great
Equivocal An Engliih law was pafled,importation from advantage to that kingdom. Formerly, indeed, fhe
• conduit of one of the Weft India iflands to all his majefty’s domi- was rather a burden to her elder fitter than any bene-
Britain. nions ; and of courfe including Ireland, though the fit; but the times are changed now, and improve every
trade of the latter had already been declared abfolutely day. Il9
free. This was looked upon in a very unfavourable Mr O’Halloran fays, the linen manufacture was car-Linen ma-
light. Great offence was alfo taken at a member of the ried on in Ireland in very early days to a great ex-nu^ure
Englifh houfe of lords for a fpeech in parliament, in tent; and Gratianus Lucius quotes a defcription of^^|intro*
which he afferted, that Great Britain had a right to the kingdom, printed at Leyden in 1627; in which the •
bind Ireland in matters of an external nature; and author tells us, “ That this country abounds with flax,
ipropofed to bring in a bill for that purpofe. The pub- which is fent ready fpun in large quantities to foreign
lie difcontent was alfo greatly inflamed by fome circum- nations. Formerly (fays he) they wove great quan-
ftances relating to this bill, which were particularly tities of linen, which was moftly confumed at home,
obnoxious. Lord Beauchamp, in a letter addreffed the natives requiring above 30 yards of linen in a Ihirt
to one of the volunteer corps, was at pains to fhow that or fhift.” So truly expenfive was the Irifti faftiion of
the fecurity of the legiflative privileges obtained from making up fhirts, on account of the number of plaits
the parliament of Britain was infufficient. The lawyers and folds, that, in the reign of Henry VIII. a ftatute
corps alfo, who took the queftion into confidera- paffed, by which they were forbidden, under a fevere
tion, were of the fame opinion; but the circumftance penalty, to put more than feven yards of linen in a
which gave the greateft offence was, that the chief fhirt or (hift.
juftice in the Engliih court of king’s bench gave We may form fome idea of what the trade of Ire-
judgment in an Iriih caufe diredtly contrary to a land muft have been in former times, when, fo late as
law which had limited all fuch judgments to the firft the reign of Brien Bom, who died in 1014, notwith-
of June. All thefe reafons of difcontent, however, ftanding the ravages and diftreffes which a Danifh war,
were removed on the death of the marquis of Rocking- of above 200 years continuance, muft have produced
ham, and the appointment of the new miniftry who throughout the kingdom, the annual duties arifiqg
Affairs fucceeded him. Lord Temple came over to Ireland, from goods imported into the Angle port of Limerick,
'finally fet- and his brother and fecretary Mr Grenville went to and paid in red wine, amounted to 365 pipes! Even
tied under England, where he made fuch reprefentations of the fo lately as the laft century, it is fcarcely credible what
the admini- djicemtents which prevailed concerning the infufficiency riches this city derived from the bare manufacture of
ftrationof Gf declaratory adf, that Mr Townfhend, one of the fhoes, which were exported in amazing quantities;
iL.ora iem. . n . .  j • 1 r_  r _„i  • a j —1 1    .1 
4>lc.
fecretaries of ftate, moved in the houfe of commons for whereas now, inftead of Ihoes and boots, we fee the raw
leave to bring in a bill to remove from the minds of the hides fhipped off for foreign markets,
people of Ireland all doubts refpefting their legiflative No country in the world feems better fituated for a
and judicial privileges. This bill contained, in the fulleft maritime power than Ireland, where the ports are con-
and moft exprefs terms, a relinquilhment on the part of venient to every nation in Europe, and the havens
the Britilh legiflature of all claims of a right to inter- fafe and commodious. The great plenty of timber,
fere with the judgment of the Iriih courts, or to make the fuperior excellence of the oak, and the acknow-
laws to bind Ireland in time to come. Thus the con- ledged fltill of her ancient artizans in wood-works,
teft was at laft ended ; and ever fince this kingdom has are circumftances clearly in her favour. That the
continued to flourilh, and to enjoy the blefiings of Irilh formerly exported large quantities of timber, is
tranquillity and peace, free from every kind of reftric- manifeft from the churches of Gloucefter, Weftmin-
jjg tion either on its commerce or manufadfures. fter monaftery and palace, &c. being covered with
'Climate The climate of Ireland would almoft perfe&ly agree Irifti oak. r40
&c of Ire- with that of England, were the foil equally improved. The government of the kingdom is in the hands of Govern-
land. being abundantly fruitful both in corn and grafs, efpe- a viceroy, or lord-lieutenant, who lives in very great menr, po-
cially the latter ; in confequence of which, an infinite fplendor. In his abfence'there are lords-juftices (ftyledl£jlatioD»
number of black cattle and fheep are bred, particularly their excellencies), generally three in number, viz. lord&c‘
in the province of Connaught. Few countries produce primate, lord high chancellor, and the fpeaker of the
finer grain than that which grows in the improved houfe of commons. The parliament of Ireland meet
parts of this kingdem. The northern and eaftern every other winter, or oftener, according to exigencies,
counties are beft cultivated and inclofed, and the moft Ireland is divided into four large provinces, and thofe
populous. again into 32 countries, as follows;
Ireland is known to have many rich mines; and
I. U L-
J Counties.
1. Antrim
i. Armagh
3. Cavan
4. Down
5. Donnegal
6. Fermanagh
20738 Length 68 ]
13125 Breadth 98 J
9268 Trifh plantations.
26090 Acres, 2836837 4496205
miles ^ 4^oc*r‘
£ cumter.
357 Parifhes, 365
5674 Boroughs, 29
7. Londonderry 14527 Baronies, 55
8. Monaghan 26637 Archbifhop 1
9. Tyrone 16545 Bifhopncs, 6
Market towns, 58
LEINSTER.
II.
1. Caterlogh,
low
2. Dublin
3. Kildare
4. Kilkenny
5444 Bread. 55 !>
24145 I. acr. 2642958, or 4281155
8887 Parilhes, 858 [Englilh
3231 Boroughs, 53
5. King’s county 9294 Baronies, 99
6. Longford
7. Lowth
8. Meath (Eaft)
9. Qiieen’s coun¬
ty
10. Weftmeath
11. Wexford
12. Wicklow
6: 57 Market towns, 63
8150 Archbifhopric, 1
14000 Bilhoprics, 3
The rivers are, the Boyne,
11 226
962 1
l3°*5
7781
Barrow, Liffy, Noir, and moderate elt.mat
the May reckoned 160,coo cabins 1
1. Clare
2. Cork
3. Kerry
4. Limerick
5. Tipperary
6. Waterford
IV.
1. Galway
2. Leitrim
3. Mayo
5. Sligo
Connaught 21604^)
Leinder 203087 |
Munfter
Ulfter
IRE [ 343 3 IRE
I. ULSTER. and educated. Thefe fchools are maintained by an an- Ireland, <
Houfes. Extent, ice. nual bounty of 10001. by a tax upon hawkers and ped-
lars, and by fubfcriptions and legacies. The children
admitted are thofe born of Popifh parents, or fuch as
would be bred Papifts if negledled, and are found of
limbs. Their age mull be from fix to ten ; the boys at
£Engli{h 16, and the girls at 14, are apprenticed into Prote-
ftant families. The firft fchool was opened in 1734.
Five pounds are given to every perfon educated in thefe
fchools upon his or her marrying a Proteftant. An
Englilh a£k of parliament, lately tolerated the Catholic
religion in Ireland, and by that means has relieved
thoufands of ufeful fubjedts.
or~ Car- Leng. 104/? Oeocir- The return of houfes in Ireland for the year 1754,
5444 Bread. 55 mileS J cumf. ^as 395^439 5 and for the year 1766, U was 424,046.
- v buppoling thererore the numbers to have increated at
the fame rate, the number of houfes now cannot be lefs
than 454,130; which, allowing five perfons to a fa-,
mily, will make the number of inhabitants 2,260,650:
but as the return of houfes by hearth-colleftors is ra¬
ther under than above the truth, and as there are many
families in every parilh who are by law excufed from
that tax, and therefore not returned, the number on a
moderate eftimate will be 2,500,000. Sir W. Petty
ithout a chimney ; and if
there be an equal number of fuch houfes now, the num¬
ber of people will be above 3,000,000. Mr Molyneux
fays, “ Ireland has certainly been better inhabited for¬
merly ; for on the wild mountains between Ardmach
and Dundalk, are obfervable the marks of the plough,
11381 Leng. 100 I m|jeg ^ 6oocir- as they are alfo on the mountains of Altmore. The
47334 Bread 107 { ‘ £ cumfe. fame has been obferved in the counties of Londonderry
11653 Acres 3289932, 5329146 and Donnegal. Mountains that are now coveted with
19380 Parifties, 740 [Englilh bogs have been formerly ploughed ; for when you dig
18325 Boroughs, 26 five or fix feet deep, you difcover a proper foil for ve-
9485 Baronies, 63 getation, and find it ploughed into ridges and furrows :
Houfes, 117197 a plough was found in a very dead bog near Donne-
Archbiftiopric; I gal; and an hedge, with fome wattles, Handing under
Bifhops, 6 a bog that was five or fix feet in depth. The Hump
CONNAUGHT. °^a largc tree was found in a bog ten feet deep at
cnf. y Pnrr no-) fern rir- Caftle-Forbes ; the trunk had been burnt, and fome
Bread 80 S m^es 1 cumfer t^le c'n^ers an6 alhes Hill were lying on the flump.
5156 Acres’, 22729.5, 368.746, Mr Molyneux further fays, that on the top of an
Parilhes, 330 [Englilh ^ mountam, rn the north there were then-remain-
« — - ing the Hreets and other marks ol a large town.* 121
Beauty feems to be more diffufed in England, a-Appearancs-
mong the lower ranks of life, than in Ireland ; w^'c^jgrd0Cf1t:j1reC*
may, however, be attributed to the mere modes of li-
ving. In England, the meaneft cottager is better fed,
better lodged, and better deeded, than the mofl opu¬
lent farmers here, who, unaccuflomed to what-our
peafants reckon the comforts of life, know no luxury
but in deep potations of aquavrtae.
From this circumflance, we may account for a fact
reported by the officers of the army here. They fay,
that the young fellows of Ireland, who offer to enlifl,
f 22 1 7801 are more generally below the given height than in
| 447916 | England. There can be no appeal from their tefli-
III. MUNSTER.
15089 Boroughs,
Baronies, 43
8780 Atchbilhopric, 1
Bilhop. 1
5970 Houfes, 49966
Rivers are the Shannon,
May, Suck, and Gyll.
In 1731, while the duke of Dorfet was lord-lieute¬
nant, the inhabitants were numbered, and it was found
that the four provinces contained as follows :
1 1 l Prnfeftnnte <! 482044 par,:rtfi many ; for they were Irifli, and the flandard is an in-
360632 [ ^roteitants 8 ,58o20 f raPltts faii:ble teft. No reafon> indee(], can be given why,
700453 J
j .!£?!!-1
[1309768J
There are 44 charter working-fchools at prefent in
Ireland,, wherein 2025 boys and girls are maintained
given why .■
the caufes which promote or prevent the growth of o-
ther animals, flrould not have fimilar effefts upon the •
human fpecies. In England, where there is no flint
of provifions, the growth is not checked ; bur, on the
contrary, it is extended to the utmoft bound of na-
ture’ju
I R £ T 344 1 IRE
Ireland, ture’s original intention : whereast in Ireland, where
f0od i3 neirher in the fame quantity nor of the fame
quality, the body cannot expand itfelf, but is dwarfed
and Hunted in its dimenfions. The gentlemen of Ire¬
land are full as tall as thofe of England ; the difference,
then, between them and the commonalty, can only
proceed from the difference of food.
The inhabitants, in general, of this kingdom, are
very far from what they have too often and unjuftly
been reprefented by thofe of our country who never
Taw them, a nation of wild Irifh. Miferable and op-
preffed, as by far too many of them are, an Englilh-
man will find as much civility in general, as amongff
the fame clafs in his own country ; and, for a fmall pe¬
cuniary confideration, they will exert themfelves to
pleafe you as much as any people, perhaps, in the
king’s dominions. Poverty and oppreffion will natu¬
rally make mankind four, rude, and unfociable, and
eradicate, or at leaft fupprefs, aR the more amiable
principles and paffions of humanity. But it Ihould
feem unfair and ungenerous to judge of, or decide a-
gainft, the natural difpotition of a man reduced by in¬
digence and oppreffion almoft to defperation. Let
commerce, agriculture, and arts, but call forth the
dormant a&ivity of their genius, and roufe the native
fpirit of enterprize, which now lies torpid within them ;
let liberal laws unfetter their minds, and plenty cheer
their tables; they will foon (how themfelves deferving
jjj to rank with the moll rcfpedtable focieties in Europe.
Account of The bogs wherewith Ireland is in fome places over-
the bogs in grown, are not injurious to health, as is commonly
Ireland. imagined ; the watery exhalations from thefe are nei¬
ther fo abundant nor fo noxious as thofe from marlhes,
which become prejudicial from the various animal and
vegetable fubftances which are left to putrify as foon
as the waters are exhaled by the fun. Bogs are not,
as one might fuppofe from their blacknefs, maffes of
putrefaction ; but, on the contrary, they are of fuch a
texture, as to refill putrefaction above any other ftib-
ftance we know of A Ihoe, all of one piece of lea¬
ther, very neatly ditched, was taken out of a bog
fome yeats ago, yet entirely frelh from the very fa-
Ihion of which, there is fcarce room to doubt thst it
had lain there fome centuries. Butter, called roujlin,
hath been found in hollowed trunks of trees, where it
had been hid fo long, that it was become hard and al-
molt friable, yet not devoid of unduofity ; that the
length of time it had been buried was very great, w'e
learn from the depth of the bog, which was ten feet,
that had grown over it. But the common phenome¬
non of timber-trees dug out of thefe bogs not only
found, but alfo fo embalmed.as afterwards to defy the in¬
juries of time, demonllrate the antifeptic quality of
them. The horns of the moofe-deer mull have lain
many centuries in a bog ; for the Irilh hidories do not
recognize the exidence of the animal whereon they
grew. Indeed, human bodies have, in many places,
been dug up entire, which mud have lain there for
ages. The growth of bogs, however, is-variable in
different places, from the variety of conditions in the
fituation, foil, humidity, and quantity of vegetable
food ; in fome places it is very rapid, in fothers very
flow ; and therefore their altitudes cannot afford any
certain meafure of time. In the manufaduring coun¬
ties of the north, peat-fuel has become fo fcarce, that
N° 169.
turburies let from five to eight guineas an acre. In Ireland,
fome places they are fo eradicated, there does nbt re- '-—-v—■*
main a trace of them, the ground being now converted
into rich meadows and fweet paftures. I13
If we trud to authorities, we mud conclude thatTradeof
Ireland was not originally inferior to England, eitherlrelansi.
in the fertility of the foil or falubrity of the climate. °"e^e'n'
When this country (hall have felt the happy effc&s ofCrCa C’
the late concefiions and indulgencies of the Britiflt par¬
liament, by repealing fcveral afts which redrafned the
trade of this kingdom with foreign ports, and allow-,
ing the exportation of woollen manufactures and glafs,
and ihall have received further indulgencies from the
fame authority ; and when the fpirit of indudry fliall
be infufed, in confequence of it, into the common
people ; their country will not be inferior to any other
on the globe under the fame parallel. It is very dif-
dcult to fay, whether foreign or domedic caufes have
operated mod powerfully in laying wade this fruitful
country ; which, by being relieved from their late un¬
natural prohibitions, will be enabled to furnilh a grand
proportion of fupplies to Great Britain, and will un¬
avoidably become of vad importance, by its reciprocal
trade, in redraining the increafe of that of France,
who cannot carry on this important branch of traffic
without the affidance of Irifh wool. The wool of
France is fhort and coarfe, being, in the language of
the manufacturers, neither fine in the thread nor long
in the daple. This obliges them to have recourfe to
the wool of Ireland, which poffeffes both thefe quali¬
ties. Affifted by a pack of Irifh wool, the French are
enabled to manufacture two of their own ; which they
will no longer be enabled to procure, as the Irifh will
now work up their own wool which they ufed to ex¬
port ; great part of which found its way to France,
and enabled them to fupply other markets, to the great
prejudice of Britain. The happy effeCts of it have
been already felt; for notwithdariding it was fo late
as December 23. 1789, that the royal a'ffent was given
to the taking off their redraints on woollen exports, it
appears, that on January 10th following, an export-
entry was made at the cudom-houfe of Dublin of
1300 yards of ferge for a foreign market, by William
Worthington, Efq.
IRENiEUS (St), a bifhop of Lyons, was born in
Greece about the year 1 20. Fie was the difciple of
Pappias and St Poly carp, by whom, it is faid, he &a«
fent into Gaul in 157. He dopped at Lyons, where
he performed the office of a pried ; and in 178 was
fent to Rome, where he difputed with Valentinus, and
his two difciples Florinus and Bladus. At his return
to Lyons, he fucceeded Photinus, bifhop of that city ;
and fuffered martyrdom in 202, under the reign of
Severus. Fie wrote many works in Greek, of which
there Only remains a barbarous Latin verfion of his five
books Jgaind heretics, fome Greek fragments in dif¬
ferent authors, and pope ViClor’s letter mentioned by
Eufebius. The bell editions of his works are thofe
of Frafmus, in 1526; of Grabe, in 1702; and of
Father Maffuet, in 1710. St Irenasus’s ilyle is clofe,
clear, and flrong, but plain and fimple. Dodwell has
cpmpofed fix curious differtations on the works of St
Irenoeus.
He ought not to be confounded with St Irenseus the
deacon, who in 275 fuffered martyrdom in Tufcany,
5 under
X R I l 345 ] I U O
'Irene under the reign of AureKan ; nor with St Irseneus,
bifhop of Sirmich, who fuifered martyrdom on the
_. ‘s 25th of March 304, xfurjng the perfecution of Dio-
clefian and Maximianus.
IRENE, empiefs of the eaft, celebrated for her va¬
lour, wit, and beauty ; but deteftable for her cruelty,
having facrificed her own fon to the ambition of reign¬
ing alone. She died in 803.
IRESINE, in botany : A genns of the pentandria
order, belonging to the dioecia clafs of plants ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 54th order, Mif-
■ cellanea. The male calyx is diphyllous, the corolla
pentapetalous ; and there are five ne&aria. The fe¬
male calyx is diphyllous, the corolla pentapetalous;
there are two feffile ftigmata, and a capfule with fiocky
feeds.
IRIS, in phyfiology, the rainbow. The word is
' Greek, 'P‘r, fuppofed by fome to be derived from
“ I fpeak, I tellas being a meteor that is fuppofed to
foretel, or rather to declare rain. See Rainbow.
Lunar Iris, or Moon-rainbow. See Rainbow
(Lunar).
Iris, in anatomy, a ftriped variegated circle round
1:he pupil of the eye, formed of a duplicature of the
uvea. See Anatomy, p. 767.
Ikis is alfo applied to thofe changeable colours which
'fometimes appear in the glaffes of telefcopes, micro-
fcopes, &c. fo called from their fimilitude to a rain¬
bow. The fame appellation is alfo given to that co¬
loured fpeftrum, which a triangular prifmatic glafs will
projedt on a wall, when placed at a due angle in the
fun-beams.
Iris, the Flower de Luce, or Flag-flower, &c. in
botany : A genus of the monogynia order, belonging
to the triandria clafs of plants 5 and in the natural
method ranking under the fixth order, Enfata. The
corolla is divided into fix parts ; the petals alternately
reflexed ; the (ligmata refembling petals
There are 44 fpecies, all herbaceous flowering per¬
ennials, both of the fibrous, tuberous, and bulbous
rooted kind, producing thick annual ftalks from 3 or
4 inches to a yard high, terminated by large hexape-
talous flowers, having three of the petals reflexed quite
back and three eredi ; moft of which are very orna¬
mental, appearing in May, June, and July.
Culture. All the fpecies are eafily propagated by
offsets from the roots, which fliould be planted in Sep¬
tember, Odlober, or November, though almoft any
time from September to March will do. They may
alfo be raifed from feed, which is the belt method for
procuring varieties. It is to be fown in autumn, foon
“after it ripens, in a bed or border of common earth,
and raked in. The plants will rife in the fpring, and
are to be tranfplanted next autumn.
Properties. The roots of the Florentine white iris,
when dry, are fuppofed to have a pedtoral virtue. They
have an agreeable fmell, refembling that of violets ;
and hence are ufed in perfumes, and in flavouring of
liquors. When recent, they have a bitter, acrid,
naufeous tafte ; and when taken into the body, prove
•ftrongly cathartic ; on which account they have been
recommended in dropfies, in the dofe of three or four
fcruples.—The juice of the fpecies called bajlard ato-
rus, or yellow jlag-flower, is alfo very acrid, and hath
been found to produce plentiful evacuations from the
Vol. IX. Part I.
bowels when other means had failed. For this piir- Iris,
pofe, it may be given in doles of 80 drops every hour lron’
or two; but the degree of its acrimony is fo uncertain, ’" ’
that it can hardly ever come into general ufe. The
frelh roots have been mixed with the food of fwine
bitten by a mad dog, and they efcaped the difeafe,
when others, bitten by the fame dog, died raving mad.
Goats eat the leaves when frefh ; but cows, horfes. and
fwine, refufe them. Cows will eat them when dry.
The roots are ufed in the ifland of Jura for dying
black.—The roots or bulbs of a fpecies growing at the
Cape, are roalfed in the’alhes and ufed as food by the
natives : they are called oenkjes, and have nearly the
fame tafte with potatoes. The Hottentots, with more
refle&ion than generally falls to the (hare of favages, ufe
the word oenhjes in the fame fenfe in which Virgil ufed
that of arijl'a, that is, for reckoning of time ; always
beginning the new year whenever the oenkjes pufh out
of the ground, and marking their age and other events
by the number of times in which in a certain period
this vegetable has made its appearance. —The Sibe¬
rians cure the venereal difeafe by a deco&ion of
the root of the Iris Sibirica, which a<fts by purging
and vomiting. They keep the patient eight days in a
ftove, and place him in a bed of the leaves of the arc-
tium lappa, or common burdock, which they frequently
change till the cure is effefted.
Iris-Stone. See Moon-Stone.
IRON, one of the imperfed metals, but the hardeft
and moft ufeful as well as the moft plentiful of them
all, is of a livid whitifh colour inclining to grey, and
internally compofed to appearance of fmall facets; fuf-
ceptible of a fine polifh, and capable of having its
hardnefs more increafed or diminifhed by certain che¬
mical proceffes than any other metal. t
It is very generally diffufed throughout the globe, D'ffufed al-
being frequently found mixed with fand, clay, chalk, and
being likewife the colouring matter of a great numberXb,;1. 6
of ftones and earth. It is found alfo in the afties of
vegetables, and in the blood of animals, in fuch abun¬
dance, that fome authors have attributed both the co¬
lours of vegetables and of the vital fluid itfelf to the
iron contained in them. In confequence of this abun¬
dance the iron ores are extremely numerous. %
}. Native iron, formerly thought not to have an found na-
exiftence any where,-is now certainly known to havetive in si“
been met with in feveral places. It is, however, bybcria1’
no means common, but occurs fometimes in iron mines.neSa > &C"
Margraaff found a fibrous kind of it at Eibenftock in
Saxony, and Dr Pallas found a mafs in Siberia weigh¬
ing 1600 pounds. Mr Adanfon likewife informs us,
that native iron is common about Senegal; but fome
naturalifts are of opinion that thefe pieces which have
been taken for native iron, are in reality artificial, and
have been accidentally buried in the earth. The large
piece mentioned by Dr Pallas is of that fpecies called
redJhort, which is malleable when cold, but brittle
when red hot.—A mafs of a fimilar nature is faid to
have been lately found in South America.
This American mafs of iron was difcovered by fome
Indians in the diftriA of Santiago del Eftero in the^X'g™^'
midft of a wide extended plain. It projefted about a 7 '
foot above the ground, and almoft the whole of its
upper fuiface was vifible ; and the news of its being
found in a country where there are no mountains, nor
X s even
IRQ [ 346 1 I R O
even the fmalleft ftone within a circumference of too dral granuV-ted form, and of a bright yellow colour ;
leagues, could not but be very furprifing. Though the but which* on being polifhed, (how the proper colour
journey was attended with great danger on account of of the metal. Mr Bergman informs us, that the great
the want of water, and abundance of wild beads in
thefe deferts, fome private perfons, in hopes of gain,
undertook to vifit this mafs; and having accomplilhed
their journey, fent a fpecimen of the metal to Lima
and Madrid, where it was found to be very pure foft
iron.
As it was reported that this mafs was only the ex-
mafs of native metal found in Siberia refembles forged
iron in its compofition, a centenary, or 63 grains,
yielding 49 cubic inches of inflammable air ; and front
many experiments it appears, that du&ile iron yield*
from 48 to 51 cubic inches of the fame kind of air.
Dr Matthew Guthrie informs us, that “ the pores of
this iron were filled with a yellow vitreous matter, of
tremity of an immenfe vein of the metal, a commiffion fuch hardnefs as to cut glafs.” The cells are lined
was given to Don Michael Rubin de Celis to examine
the fpot; and the following is an abftradt of his ac¬
count.
“ The place is called Otumpa,‘m lat. 27. 28. S. and
the mafs was found almoft buried in pure clay and
alhes. Externally it had the appearance of very com-
pa& iron ; but internally was full of cavities, as if the
whole had been formerly in a liquid ftate. I was con¬
firmed in this idea (fays our author), by obferving, on
the furface of it, the impreffion of human feet and
hands of a large fize, as well as of the feet of large
with a kind of varnifh contiguous to the glaffy fubftance
within. 3
2. The calciform ores are either compofed of the Cakifornt
blackilh, blackiih-brown, or red calx of the metal; the ores.,
former being in fome meafure magnetic, in confequence
of the phlogifton it contains ; the latter (bowing no¬
thing of this property until it be roafted.
The name of calciform may be applied to all the ore*
of this metal, excepting the native iron already men¬
tioned, and the native Pruflian blues, of which we (hall
afterwards treat. All of them are mixed with diffe-
birds, which are common in this country. Though rent minerals, and generally take their colour from that
thefe impreflions feem very perfeft, yet 1 am per-
fuaded that they are either a lufus nature, or that im¬
preflions of this kind were previoufly upon the ground,
and that the liquid mafs of iron falling upon it recei-
of the calx of iron which is prevalent in them. Mr
Kirwan enumerates a great many different fpecies. ^
3. Steel ore, Stachlerse, the ferrum chalybeatum Steel ore*-
Linnai, and miner a ferri nigra of Cronjledt. This is of
ved them. It refembled nothing fo much as a mafs of a dark colour, folid, and compad, but with diffi-
dqugh ; which having been damped with impreflions culty ftriking fire with fteel; reducible to a black pow-
of hands and feet, and marked with a finger, had af- der, obedient to the magnet, and fomewhat malleable
terwards oeen converted into iron. when red hot; affording from 60 to 80 per cent, of
“ On digging round the mafs, the under furface good iron. It is met with in Sweden, the Ille of Elbe*
was found covered with a coat of fcorias from four to and North America. The ferrum tejfulare and miner a ferri
fix inches thick, undoubtedly occafioned by the moi- cryjlallizata of Wallerius, belongs to this fpecies, but is
flure of the earth, becaufe the upper furface was clean, fomewhat lefs magnetic. Our author denominates it
No appearance of generation was obferved in the earth
below or round it to a great diftance. About two
leagues to the eaftward is a brackifh mineral fpfing,
the only one to be met with in all the country. Here
there was a very gentle afeent of between four and fix
feet in height, running from north to fouth ; all the
reft being as perfect a level as can be imagined. The
earth in every part about this fpring, as well as near
the mafs, is very light, loofe, and greatly refembling
but that at a diftance is long and extremely grate¬
ful to them : from all which circumftances it is proba¬
ble that this mafs was produced by a volcanic explofion.
cryftallized iron ore in an odtohedral or cubic form.
4. The magnet, according to Fourcroy, is a muddy Magnet*
iron ore, which, however, fome authors fuppofe to be
very near the metallic ftate. Mr Kirwan fays it differs
but little from the foregoing, only that it has lefs
luftre. There are two kinds, the fine and the coarfc
grained, of which the latter lofe their power the
fooneft. When heated red hot, it fmells of fulphur.
_ Our author thinks it may contain nickel, as this femi-
afhes even in colour. The grafs of the adjacent parts metal is found to poffefs a magnetic property whenpu- nickel",
is very (hort, fmall, and extremely unpalatable to cattle; rifled to a certain degree. ^
5. The brown calx of iron combined with plumba- Brown 01
go, black eifen glimmer, fchnuartvc, eifen bahen or eifenman,
dortfifts of black (hining feales more or lefs magnetic.
Its weight might be eftimated at about 300 quintals affording, according to Mr Rinman, 26 per cent, of
It is like wife an undoubted fa&, that in thefe forefts
there exifts a mafs of pure iron in the (hape of a tree
with its branches. At a little depth in the earth are
found (tones of quartz of a beautiful red colour,
which the honey-gatherers, the only perfons who fre¬
quent this country, make ufe of as flints to light their
fires. They had formerly carried fome of them away
on account of their peculiar beauty, being fpotted and
ftudded as it were with gold. One of thefe, weigh-
iron, the reft being plumbago.
6. The brown calx of iron united with the white White
calx of manganefe, and mild calcareous earth in various ores*
proportions. Thefe conftitute the white ores of iron,
on which Mr Bergman has given a diflertation.—
“ They have received (fays he) divers denominations
from the Angular heat with which they are accompa¬
nied. Their texture is almoft the fame with that of
the calcareous ftone, yet it is rarely found compaft.
ing about an ounce, was ground by the governor of and compofed of impalpable particles. It is fometimes
the diftrift, who extracted from it a drachm of gold.” fquamous, fometimes granulated with fmall diftincl
The native iron faid to have been found about Sene- particles, fome of them (hining, but in general fpa-
gal has a cubical form ; and out of this the black thous. This defeription, however, is not meant for their
inhabitants make different kinds of veffels for their complete and perfect ftate ; for the figure of their parts
own ufe. Some maffes have been found in a polyhe- is more or lefs deftroyed by fpontaneous calcina¬
tion 3
I R O T 347 1 I R O
Tron. tion ; nay, the whole mafs is at length refolved into a
powder : fometimes it is found ftalaftitic, fiftulous and
ramous, cellular, or even germinating like mofs. Some¬
times, though very feldom, they have fufficient hard-
nefs to ftrike fire with fteel; but though, when found
mixed with flint and newly dug up, they are of this
kind, yet they foon lofe the property we fpeak of.
When perfeft, they generally refemble the calcareous
ftone, unlefs when expofed for fome time to the air,
by which the union of their parts are gradually dimi-
nifhed. Their colour is white, but the furface which
, comes into contact with the air grows gradually brown,
or even blackilh ; yet as long as the iron which is con¬
verted into an ochre remains in them, they have a
ferruginous hue ; but though the furface is thus
changed, the internal parts remain the fame, and,
on being filed or broken, exhibit the natural colour.
—This change is effedled by the air, not upon the
iron, as is commonly believed, but on the white calx
of manganefe which is dephlogifticated by the atmof-
phere.
“ The fpecific gravity of the ore, when per feel, va¬
ries between 3,640 and 3,810 and is diminiftred ac¬
cording to the degree of calcination. The ore whofe
particles are quite feparated is from 2.5 to 2.9; but
that which is not perfe&ly corroded, from 3.3 to
3.6. It is rarely at traced by the magnet, whether
perfedl or calcined, though the metallic part ibmetimes
amounts to nearly one half the weight.
A moun ^'^e wh‘te ores *ron are f°un<l> though in very
tainofTron fmall quantity, in Sweden. The Suaft-leggtr, or Black
ore in De- Mountain, in Dalecarlia, has its name from its furface,
kcarl.a in which is grown black by calcination. It is high, and
Sweden. nake(i on the fummit, which is crofled by a broad cal¬
careous vein with fhining particles of fpar, and a
white ore of iron, together with a galena, pfeudo-
galena, black ore of iron, pyrites, fchoerl, and garnet
intermixed. In the old mines at Halleforo, or the
eallern mines, the rock itfelf appears to confitl of a
white ore of iron ; but in other places it is either found
in fmall quantity, or very poor in metal. Many moun¬
tains about Smialkald in Germany contain thefe ores.
In one called Stahlleggcr, a broad vein occurs almoft
horizontal, and from 25 to 30 fathoms thick, it con-
fifts of an irregular fpar, in which aredifperfed quartz
and pieces of the ore, which are found of a better
quality in proportion as they are more deeply feated.
The uppermoft fide, which is pendant, confifts of a
fandy ftone from 9 to zo fathom high; but the
lower is margaceous, and is found more indurated to¬
wards the lower parts; and at the very loweft is ex¬
tended by a blue mica : the fides fcarcely cohere to
the vein. The whole mountain in Nauffavia confifts of
a yellowifh ore of iron, certain veins of which are ac-
companiL-d with copper, and others with haematites.
The hill of Ar%berg, fituated at Eifenartz in Upper Si
nia, is 6000 fathoms in circuit, 900 in diameter, and
450 in height. According to fome accounts the ore is
irregularly accumulated and concreted, confifting of
mafles of quartz charged with argillaceous earth and
white ore of iron ; but, according to others, the ore is
found there not only in heaps, but in various veins.”
This ore, when analyfed, gave 38 parts of the
brown calx of iron, 24 of the white calx of manga¬
nefe, and 50 of mild calcareous earth. Another from
Weft Silvathreg, yielded 22 of the brown calx of iron,
28 ol the white calx of mangar.efe,,and yo of mild fton*
calcareous earth. The aerial acid is ufed, and is united » ''
not only to the earth, but alfo to the metallic calx.
The above proportions of the crude materials in the
ore of Eifenartz, would yield, according to Mr Kirwan,
38 parts of calcareous earth, 38 of iron in its metallic
ftate, and 24 of manganefe. Many others are poorer,
and fome to fuch a degree as fcarcely to deferve the
name of an ore. They abound alfo in France and
Spain, and are found fometimes in heaps, fometimes alfo
forming veins, ftrata, or even whole mountains. Mr
Bergman never found them contain any organifed bo¬
dies ; a mark (fays he) by which the moft ancient
produftions of the earth have been diftinguiftied.
When this iron ore bears a ftala&itical appearance,
and is very white, it is called Jlos ferri, and eifen bluth.
An hundred parts of it yield 65 of calcareous earth,
and 35 of calx of iron ; which, according to Rin-
man, produce 27 of iron in its metallic ftate. l0
7. Magnetic /and. Of this kind is the black fand Black fand
of Virginia, whofe fpecific gravity is about 4.600,°f Virgi-
and contains half its weight of metal.
From an account inferted in the Philofophical
Tranfadlions for 1763, we are informed, that there are
very large quantities of this fand-iron ore in Virginia ;
perhaps as large as of any other kinds of iromore. It
is fo pure, that it requires a mixture of bog-ore, or of
flags from other fmeltings, to reduce it to a metallic
form. The iron and fteel produced from it were
above 60 per cent, or from 50 to 85; the quality of
both extremely good ; and two fmall bars were fent as
a fample to the mufeum of the Royal Society of Lon¬
don. Large ftrata of black fand iron-ore are found in
Portugal, even at a conliderable diftance from the fea-
fhore, or from any running waters A very great
part of this black fand is attra&ed by the magnet.
There is alfo found, particularly in France, a black,
heavy, unmagnetic fand, of the filiceous kind, which
is faid to contain iron and zinc in great quantity. Mr
Kirwan, p. 143. of his Mineralogy, fpeaks of a filice¬
ous fand confolidatcd by femiphlogiiticated calx of
iron, which does not crumble into fand when powder¬
ed. It is generally of a black or brown colour ; but
grows reddifti or yellowifh, and moulders by expofure
to the air. It does not effervefee with acids, unlefs it
contains teftaceous particles, which is frequently
the cafp; it is ever, frequently covered with (hells.
He adds, that the agglutinating power of folutions of
iron has been (hown by a ftony concretion of this fort
that had been long buried in the fea, and is mention¬
ed in a paper of Mr Edward King in the Philofophi¬
cal Tranfaftions for 1779. Mr Rinman, however,
has found that dephlogifticated calces of iron, and par¬
ticularly its folutions in mineral acids, have no binding
power.
8. Red calx of iron indurated and combined with a 11
fmall quantity of clay, frequently with manganefe.—
Fourcroy calls this a muddy it on-ore, which feems to
be formed in the manner of ftala&ites, and deriving its
name from its colour, which is commonly red, or the
colour of blood, though not without variations. Mr
Kirwan fays, that “ it is generally of a red, yellow,
purple, or brown colour, of a metallic luftre, and very
hard, though feldom capable of giving fire with fteel.”
Fourcroy tells us, that it is ufually compofed of layers
which cover each other, and are themfelves formed of
X x 2 COB-
I R O
Ochre' of
different
kinds
„ ’3
Emery.
convergent needles, the external part being covered
with tubercles; and that it is not only dtftingnifhed
by the colour, but by the form, as the hsen-itites bo.
trytes, in the form of bunches of grapes. Mr Kirwan
tells us, that its ilrudture is either folid, granular,
fcaly, or fibrous; that it occurs in lhapelefs maffes, in
a ilaladlitical form ; or, according to Grnelin, cryflal-
h'zed in regular forms, though M. de Lille denies
tlris. In fome places it forms whole mountains, and
affords from 40 to 2,0 per cent, of iron. Mr Gerhard
extra&ed alum from it, which affords a proof of its
containing clay ; and Mr Hilan found it alfo to con¬
tain manganefe. In its natural ftate it is not affefted
by the magnet; but by torrefa&ion it becomes black
and magnetic.
, 9. Hasmatitical, red, yellow, and brown ochres
Thefe are, by Mr Kirwan, intitled “ haematites in a
loofe form, mixed with a notable proportion of argill”
(clay.) They are diftinguilhed, he fays, from clays, by
containing a larger proportion of martial particles. To
this fpecies belong the ores which become brown by
calcination, and likewife magnetic. They are fome-
times mixed with clay or calcareous earths ; in which
[ 348 1
I R O
4.000. It is ufed in poHfhing glafs and metals; for a
which purpofe it mutt firtl be ground down and le-
vigated in mills. 14
it. The argillaceous era. Thefe comprehend the ore*»
ochres, and more particularly, thofe mentioned by c*
Fourcroy under the name < l bog-ores of iron, which are
commoply met with difpofed iu beds, and feemingly
depofited by waters. Mr Fourcroy informs us, that
this kind of ore is very often in the form of fpherical.
bodies either regular or irregular. Organic, matters,.
fuch as wood, leaves, bark, (Kells, &c. are not unfre-
quently found in the ftate of bog-ores. This kind of
traniition feems to indicate an analogy betwixt iron and
organic fubftances. In the wood of Boulogne near
Auteuil there is a mine of bog-ore of iron, in which ,
vegetable fubftances become mineralized almoft imme- g
diately under our eyesi
Mr Kirwan diftinguifhes two principal varieties of
thefe ; one found on mountains, and fuch as are met
with in fwampy grounds or low lands overflown with
water; both of them very heavy, and fome abforbing
water like clays.
The Highland argillaceous ochres are either yellow, HghlanJ ;
cafe thefe ores effervefee with acids. The hxmatites, ' red, brown, or greyifh, indurated and friable, or loofe
or blood ftones, have their names, noton account of and powdery, or in grains ; they are compofed chieflyores’
their external colours, but becaufe, when reduced to of the red or yellow calx ofiron, or of a grey iron ore
powder, they produce a red or blood-colour. The called Torjlen, in a loofe form mixed with day. Hence
yellow hsmatites, however, only produce the fame co- they often contain manganefe.or fiderite, and in France
lour by pulverifation. They are produftive of very are faid to be mixed with a calx of zinc. They do not.
good iron, and are found in great abundance in the obey the magnet before calcination, and rarely after it.
province of Galiza in Spain. The inhabitants of Com- They effervefee with acids only in confequence of be-
poftella, the capital, make a good commerce of thefe ing mixed with calcareous earths; they are foluble
bseniatites of the hardeft kind for the burnifhing gold with difficulty in the acids, but the moft foluble are
the beft. The iroir produced from them is of very dif-'
ferent quality, according to the nature of the ore from .
whence it is produced. To this fpecies belong the
hornftone overloaded with iron, and a white iron ore
mentioned by Rinman found in Kent. It is mixed
with clay or marl, and is fcarcely foluble in acids. It
affords 4."] -per cent, of brittle iron.
The fwampy argillaceous ore, according to Mr Kir- Swampf
wan, are found in irregular lumps of a brown or brow-oresi.
any where elfe. They exhibit various gradations of nifh-black, and iometimesin round balls, porous or fo-
the fineft colours, as red, violet, blue, green, yellow, lid, or in flat round pieces or in grains* and fometimes
brown, and black; infomuch that, according to Coud- in flender triangular prifms parallel to each other, and
rai’s expreffion, they look like fo many clufters of veryrbrittle. It is mixed with clay and extraftive, and
emeralds, fapphires, diamonds, ruhies, and topazes. E. becomes magnetic by calcination; during which opera-
Peni and Mongez affiim, that thefe ores are minerali- tion it gives out a quantity of aerated volatile alkali,
zed only by the aerial acid; tho’ Coudraiisof opinion, and loies one-fourth of its weight. The crude ore af-
that they contain fulphur alfo. Befides thefe beauti- fords about $6per cent, of metal, and 50 per cent, af-
ful cryftalhzed ores, this ifland contains alfo many ter calcination. The iron produced from it, at leaf!:
others; being indeed little other than a group of iron- in Sweden, is that called cold/hort. According to
mountains. The ores in general produce the very beft Mr Hialm fome forts of this ore contain 28 per cent.
kind of iron. . of manganefe.
10. Emery, fmyris, is a grey or reddifh iron-ore 12. Red calcareous iron ore is found loofe in many
found in great quantity on the iflands of Jerfey and parts of England, effervefees ftrongly with acids, and is reous ore.
Guernfey. It is extremely hard, yielding in this re- ufed as a paint under the name of red ochre,
fpeft to no fubftance except, the diamond itfelf. It is 13. Martial calamine. Though calamine is proper- rS.
alfo very refra&ory, and for thefe reafons is not ufed ly an ore of zinc, it fometimes contains fuch a large ^
for the fake of the metal it contains, nor indeed is it proportiomof iron as to make it worth while to extraift
well known what proportion is contained in it. “ The the iron. The ore confifts of a mixture of quartz and
beft fort (fays Mr Kirwan) is of a dark grey colour, clay, with the calces of iron and zinc. It is of a mode-
but becomes brown, and in great meafure magnetic, by rate hardnefs, and a yellow, red, or brown colour,
calcination: other forts are of a nifty reddifh white 14. Martial pyrites. This has its name from its Martial
or yellowifEcolour. Its fpecific gravity is from 3.000 to property of giving fire with fteel. It is commonly in pyrites.
3 fmall
leaves, and various other metals. A dark blue kind,
fomewhat fimilar to black-lead, is principally employ¬
ed for thefe purpofes. They are found in many parts
of Europe, fometimes forming whole mountains. The
moft extraordinary ores of this kind, both @n account
of their forms and of their various and brilliant colours,
are found in the ifland of Elba near the coaft of Tuf
cany. The cryftaHized ores are here the moft beauti¬
ful and the moft common, though not to be met with
I R O
Arfemcal,
»i ss mil.
vickel, or
ifeifs.
White,
grey, &c.
Native
Pruihan
blue/
[ 349 ]
I R O
fmal! red mafTes, fomctime* regularly formedt and
ufually cubical, fphericalf or dodecahedral, though their
form varies confiderably. Some are brown on the out-
fide, others of the colour of iron* fume yello.wifh, and
refembling. the' ores of copper, even on their furface }
but all of them are yellow, and as it were coppery
within, and for the moft part eompofed of needles, or
pyramids of feveral fides, whofe fummits converge to a
common centre. The pyrites are commonly difperfed,
and particularly in copper mines in the neighbourhood
of iron mines, and in clays and coal mines, the upper
hratum of the latter being almoil always pyritous.
They are all eafily decompofed, and yitld green
vitriol, as is explained under the article Chemistry.
15. Iron mineralized-by arfenic. This combination
takes place either by the combination of arfenic alone
with the metal, or in conjun&ion with fulphur. The
former is called in Germany mifpichel, and by the
Bohemians ; is- of a bright white colour, fometimes,
turally with the phofphoric acid. The muddy or bog
ores are fometimes of this nature : a portion of this u
compound remaining in the iron gives it the property
of being brittle when cold. Iron in this Hate was
called fiderile by Bergman, and it has lince been called
water-iron.
There are feveral other kinds of iron ore enumerated
by mineralogifts ; but thofe already mentioned are the
moft remarkable.
The following obfervations on iron in its different
ftates, with an account of the methods of manufa&u-
ing it, &c. are extracted from Magellan’s Notes on
Cronftedt’s Mineralogy.
1, Iron is employed in three different ftates, each
having its peculiar properties, by which they are each
mote particularly applicable to various ptirpofes. The
firft is cajl irony the fecond is wrought or malleable iron,
and the third is calledJhel.
According to Bergman, call iron, which may be
though rarely, variegated like a pigeon’s neck, and is called unripe or raw-iron, contains the fmalleft {hare of
not eafily altered by expofare to the air. It
magnetic either before or after- calcination ; it is fo-
luble in acids, and affords arfenic by diftillation in the
proportion of 30 or 40 per cent, and fometimes con¬
tains a fmall proportion of copper and fdver. It is
frequently found in indurated clay, quartz, fpar,
fchoerl, &c. and mixed with other metallic ores. When
this metal contains lefs than -j^g-th of arfenic, it is mag¬
netic, according to Scheffer ; whence, if the calcina¬
tion bepulhed to a fufficient length, the ore muft remain
magnetic.
That fpecies of ore which confifts of iron mineralized
by fulphur and arfenic together, contains the white,
grey or bluiflv grey pyrites or marcafite. It is found
either in folid compatt maffes of a moderate fize, or in
grains, and gives fire with fteel. When burnt it affords
a blue flame and the fmell of arfenie, with orpiment or
realgar* inftead of pure arfenic by diftillation in clofe
vtffels. It is not magnetic either before or after cal-
phlogifton. The malleable iron contains the greateft
quantity; and the fteel a middling (hare between both,
neither fo much as the malleable, nor fo little as the
caft-iron. This laft is called alfo pig iron, and yetlin in
England.
2. The richeft ores of iron are the compaft and
ponderous, of a brow nidi, reddifh-brown, or red co¬
lour. Some of thefe ores, in colour and appearance,
do not ill refernble iron itfelf; as the grey ores of Der¬
by fliire, and the bjuilh of the Foreft of Dean in Glou-
cefterihire. Moft of the Swedifh ores are likewife of
this kind. Others are blackiih, brown, r«d, yellowifh,
or rufty-coloured; thefe are the moft common in Eng¬
land and Germany. There is one very Angular fpe¬
cies of a ftriated texture, and of a pale yellowifh or
greyilh colour, oftentimes white, and in fome degree
pellucid ; which, although in its crude ftate, promifea
nothing metallic, neverthelefs, on being moderately
calcined, difcovers, by the deep colour it affumes, that
cination, and contains much more arfenic than ful- it abounds in iron, Cramer informs us, that it gives
phur.
16. Native Prujjian Wz/wconfifts of clay mixed with
iron, and coloured with fome unknown tinging fub-
ftance, generally found in fwampy grounds or bogs. It
is at firft white, but when expofed to the air becomes
either of a light or deep blue. By heat it turns green-
iflr, and-emits a flight flame, becoming afterward red
and magnetic. It is foluble both in alkalies and acids 5
but the alkaline folution is precipitated by acids, and
the acid folution by alkalies. The precipitate at firft
is greeniih, and gradually affumes a white hue, but
regains its blue colour on being mixed with vegetable
aftringents. MrWoulfe found this kind of ore in Scot¬
land on the furface of the earth. The greateft part of
out by-fufion from 30 to 60per cent. But fome richer
ores yield no lefs than 70 and 80 on the hundred.
3. Different kinds of iron ore are found adhering
in fome mines to the tops of caverns in form of icicles
or ftriae* fometimes irregularly cluftered-together, fome¬
times hanging down like the briftles of a brulh } from
whence the name of brufh-iron-ore. Other particular
forms of the iron ftone have occafioned a variety of
fanciful names, that are met with in fome of the me-
tallurgic writers.-
4. The. iron of Great Britain is made from three
different kinds of ores: i. From the iron-ore called
the Laneafhire ore, from the country where it is found
greateft abundance. This ore is very heavy, of a !
marftiy grounds containing turf, likewife have fome of fibrous or lamellated texture; it is of a dark purple.
varth of
Verona,
17. The terre verts, or green earth of Verona and
green Normandy, is ufed as a pigment, and contains iron in
approaching to a fhining black; and when reduced to
powder, it becomes of a deep red ; it lies in veins like
the ores of other metals. 2. The bog-ore, which re-
fome unknown Hate, mixed with clay, and fometimes fembles a deep yellow ochry clay, and feems to be the
with chalk and pyrites; alum and felenite being like¬
wife accidentally mixed with it. It is foluble with dif-
ficulty in acids, is not magnetic before calcination, and
Iron mine- becomes of a coffee-colour by heat.
depofition of fome ferruginaceous rivulets, whofe cur¬
rents had formerly been over the furfaee of thofe flit
marlhy plains. It lies in beds of irregular thicknefs,
commonly from 12 to 20 inches, and very various in
rahzedby 18. Mr Fourcroy informs us, that “ it has been their breadths from fide to fide, never being of great'
IV\w-,0 —n 1 ^^ —    r^ 1  j*  _ tit 1 . •  n  _ 1   t
phofphoric difeovered fome years ago, that iron is often united na- dimenfions.
The iron-ftones, however, have no re-
gqlar-r
IRQ
[ 350 1
I R O
gular appearance, and do not in the leaft referable j
J metal in their external furface. They lie often in beds
of great extent, like other ftony matters, and are fome-
times ftratified with feams of pit-coal, forming alternate
layers.
5. The ores of iron are commonly calcined previ-
out, whatever may be the expence of rekindling it, and
the furnace examined and repaired.
7. The quantity! of fuel, the additions, and the
heat, muft be regulated, in order to obtain iron of good
quality; and this quality muft likewife in the firft pro-
du& be neceffarily different, according to the nature
s to the fufion, evfen the harder ones, though they of the parts that compofe the ore.
fliould contain nothing fulphureous or arfenical, in or- 8. Two or three tons, viz. 4000 or 6000 pounds
der t;o calcine the hard adhering matrices, and render weight of iron, are now run off in 24 hours, at fome
,the maffes foft enough to be ealily broken into frag- large furnaces, after the application of the large bel-
ments of a convenient fize for melting. After the lows; whilft fcarcely an hundred weight could be ob-
mineral is duly prepared, it muft be fmelted in fur- tained in a day before that application, becaufe a large
naces of large capacities, from 16 to 25 feethigh, and quantity of the metal was left in the drofs ; hence in
from 10 to .'4 wide : the moft approved fliape neatly fome places the flags of different ores, left by old ope-
refembles that of a hen’s egg, with the largeft end un- rators in former times, are now remelted to advantage
dermoft, below which is a fquare cavity to contain the along with frefh ore; and on account of the richnefs
melted metal, and at the top a very fhort vent about of thefe old flags of different ores, fome .people have
20 inches in diameter. The inner wall is built of fire- been milled into the opinion, that the metal was rege-
jftone, which endures very flrong heat with little rifle nerated in them.
•of melting, and all the joints are cemented with mor- 9. Peat and turf has been found to anfwer tole-
tar compofed of fand and clay. This is furrounded rably well, mixed with charcoal, for the fmelting of
with more building, which deviates more and more iron ores; but an attempt to ufe it on a large fcale
From a circular form, and becomes a fquare building of has at laft been found not to anfwer the expectations
that had been conceived from the firft trials. Pit-coal,
if applied to the fame purpofe, renders the iron hard
and brittle; but this inconvenience is prevented, by
about 20 feet at the bafe, and gradually converges to
.the top.
6. Near the bottom is an aperture, for the infer- _ r ,
tion of the pipe of a large bellows, worked by water previoufly coaking the coal, and employing it in the
or by other machines that may produce a ftrong cur¬
rent of air. Some yery powerful ones, as thofe in the
ftate of true coak. Cramer, in his Art of Aflaying,
p. 347. fays, that pit-coals, kennel-coals, and Scotch-
iron works at Colebrook-dale and at Carron, confift coals, which burn to a white afh like wood, and abound
of two or more iron cylinders, about upwards of two more in bitumen, may be ufed in the firft fluxion of
feet wide, whofe piftons are alternately moved by a the iron from its ore; and if the iron proves not fo
fmall fire engine or by a water wheel: but Mr Wil- malleable as required, this property may be given to
kinfon very ingenioufly adapted to his own a larg<
vaulted receiver furrounded by water, which produces
a very regular and uniform blaft. Two or more holes
are alfo left ready to be occafionally opened at the bot¬
tom of the futnace, to permit at a proper time the fco-
ria and the metal to flow out, as the pvocefs may re-
it by melting the metal a fecond time with wood.
10. The beft caft-iron or raw-iron, as much freed
from heterogeneous matters as the ufual procefs of
fmelting can effedl it, is not at all malleable, and fo
hard as perfectly to withftand the file.
In general the impure caft-iron, as run from
quire. Charcoal, or coke with lighted brulhwood, is the ore, is melted down a fecond time in another fur-
firft thrown in: and when the infide of the furnace has nace, intermixed with charcoal A ftrong blaft of air
acquired a ftrong ignition, the ore is thrown in by^ being impelled on the furface of the metal, its fufion
fmall quantities at a time, with more of the fuel; is remarkably promoted; the iron thickens into a re afs
and commonly a portion of lime-ftone is thrown alfo called a loop, which is conveyed under a large hammer
as a flux. The ore gradually fubfides into the hotteft ^ ^0 1 rr,L~ ;— -'-
part of the furnace, where it becomes fufed ; and the
metallic parts being revived by the coal, pafs through
the fcoria, and fall to the lower part or bottom of the
furnace, where a pafiage is open for taking off the feum ly malleable, and is at length formed into bars for
or drofs. The metal now in ftrong fufion is let out fale.
>2. Iron in this ftate of malleability is much foft-
er than before, and of a fibrous texture. But if it is
ft ill crude and brittle after the above procefs, it fhows
that there have remained heterogeneous matters, beinggj
hidden in its interftices, which muft be expelled ; for
this purpofe the iron muft be flratified withcharcoal-duft
raifed by the motion of a water-wheel. The i
there beaten into a thick fquare form, is then heated
again until almoft ready to melt, and is forged; by a
few repetitions of this procefs, it becomes complete-
 II 1 t r , • . . <•
by a tap-hole into furrows made in a bed of fand : the
large mafs, which fets in the main furrow, is called by
the workmen a fotv, and the lefler ones pigs of iron.
Chimney-backs, ftoves, garden-rollers, &c. are formed
of this rouglr metal, taken out of the receiver with
ladles, and call into moulds made of fine fand.”
It is proper to obferve, that the exceffive and long- within a proper furnace, heaped up in good quantity
continued ignition kept up in thefe furnaces gradually in ft rata ; then the fire muft be blown pretty ftrongly,
waftes the materials of which they are compofed, ren- fo as to bring it to a fufion, which is to be helped by
Bering their fides thinner until at laft they become
able to fuftain the weight of the melted metal; fo that
it has fometimes been known to burft out fuddenly in
a violent and moft deftru&ive ftream. At certain in-
the addition of fufible fcorias or of fand. The fire
muft not be much greater than neceflary to make all
thefe melt as equally as pofiible ; to obtain this end,
the melted mafs muft be agitated here and there with
’fcervals, therefore, the fire ought to be allowed to go poking rods of wrought iron, in order to make every
J>art
I R O
part feel alike the a&ion of the fire and air; ahd the
increafing fcorias taken out once or twice.
13. In the mean time, a great many fparkles will
be thrown out from the Iron, which diminifh the more
as the iron comes nearer to the defired degree of pu¬
rity, but they never ceafe entirely. The burning coals
being then removed, and the fcoria conveyed out of
the fire through a channel made for that purpofe, the
iron, by leffening the violence of the fire, grows folid,
and mull be taken out red-hot, and tried by ftriktug
it with a hammer. If it proves crude ftill, let the
melting be repeated ; and when it is at laft fufficiently
purified, it is to be hammered, and extended various
ways, by making it red-hot many times over ; this
done, it will no longer be brittle, even when cold, as
Cramer afferts.
14. Caft-iron has of late been brought into the
malleable ftate by palling it through rollers inftead
of forging it. Indeed this feems to be a real improve¬
ment in the procefs, as well in point of difpatch, as in
its not requiring that He ill and dexterity which forge-
men only acquire by long practice. If the purpofts
of commerce Ihould require more iron to be made, it
will be eafy to fabricate and ere& rolling machines,
though it might be impracticable to procure expert
forgemen in a Ihort time.
13. This method was difcovered by Henry Cort
of Gofport, who obtained an exclufive privilege grant¬
ed by the king’s patent. By this procefs the raw or
call-iron is freed from the impurities, which are not
difcharged in the common methods of rendering this
metal malleable ; for iron is in itfelf a fimple homo¬
geneous metal; and all iron mult become equally good,
if it be purified from the heterogeneous and unmetallic
particles that are any ways mixed with it.
16. The ordinary method of converting call-iron
into malleable, is, as we have feen, by employing great
quantities of charcoal, which furnilhes phlogifton, and
remetallizes the particles, which are unmetallized and
mixed with the heterogeneous matters contained in
the fufed mafs: but in Cort’s method there is no need
of charcoal, inftead of which only fea-coal is employ¬
ed ; becaufe the objeCt is not to remetallize, but only
to expel what is unmetallic, inftead of endeavouring
to reftore the calcined parts with charcoal at a great
expence, and ftill leaving the bufinefs undone. In
this method the iron is only heated and wrought fim-
ply by the heat of the flame, inftead of being mixed
with the burning fuel and aihes, which arc not eafily
difengaged afterwards from the metal. The fqueezing
it between the rollers, forces out the melted flags from
the metallic pores, and brings its metallic fibres into a
perfed folidity and elofe contad, fo that they are
obliged to cohere much more peifedly to each other,
than by the intenupted and partial adion of the ham¬
mer. By the operation of being long ftirred, the ful-
phureous particles are more difpofed to be difengaged,
and are burned away in the form of blue fparks ; the
metal then begins to curdle, and to lofe its fufibility,
like folder when it juft begins to fettle ; the metallic
particles meeting and coalefcing together, much like
the churning of milk, where the cream is feparated by
the union formed between the fibrous particles of the
cheefe. The curdles formed into a conneded mafs
I R O
become what is called loops. The procefs is as fol- Iron,
lows : 1—' y—
17. Five or fix hundred weight of raw caft-iron
(and even of cold Ihort iron) is brought into a low
fufion, on a kind of hearth or low furnace, in which it
lies to the depth of about 6 inches. One or two
workmen continually ftir this fufed mafs with long
iron pokers for about 4 or 5 hours. The heat is then
lowered : the men faftiion the iron into narrow pieces
of about 34- feet long, and 3 inches fquare, with long
knives or chiffels made for that purpofe. They are
then heated to the welding degree, and hammered to
expel and fcatter the unmetallic drofs. Thefe flaba
are then formed to a wedge-point at one end, in order
to adapt them to be received between the rollers:
they are malleable already, but they contain ftill fome
drofs.
18. They are then heated again to the hotteft
welding heat in the air furnace: and immediatefy pafc
fed through large iron-rollers, turned by a water-wheel
or by horfes. If the end prefented to the rollers ftiould
flip inftead of entering, a boy, who Hands ready,
throws fome fand upon the iron, and it goes in eafilyi
Much foreign and heterogeneous matter is fqueezed
out by the rollers ; and the iron comes out in a purer
malleable ftate. The fame heat will ferve to pafs the
iron through two fets of rollers, which are grooved f©
as to faftiion it into nail-rods or other forms according
to the required purpofes.
19. Various and repeated fevere trials have been
made in the royal dock-yards of England, in the pre¬
fence of perfons of knowledge and rank, to prove the
ftrength, malleability, and foftnefs or toughnefs of this
new iron; and it has proved to be equal, and even
fometimes fuperior, to the belt Swedifti iron. But it
is not eafy to conceive by what Angular fatality fo
great an improvement in manufacturing this moft ufe-
ful metal has not yet been generally adopted by the
iron-mafters.
20. Steel is iron in an intermediate ftate between
caft-Iion and malleable iron, which is foft and tough.
The iron run from fome German ores is found to be a
good fteel when forged only to a certain point.
But the bell fteel is ufually made by cementation
from the bed forged iron, with matters chiefly of the
inflammable kind. Two parts of pounded charcoal
and one of wood alhes is efteemed a good cement;
The charcoal dull may be made of bones, horns, lea¬
ther, and hairs of animals, or of any of thefe ingre¬
dients after they are burned in a elofe veffel till they
are black: thefe being pulverized, and mixed with
wood-alhes, muft be well mixed together. The iron
Ihould be of pure metal, not over thick, and quite free
from heterogeneous matters: their flexibility, both
when hot and when cold, is a very good fign thereof.
A deep crucible, two-or three inches higher than the
bars, is to receive part of the cement, well prefled at
the bottom, the height of 14 inch ; and the bars are
to be placed perpendicularly, about one inch diftant
from the Tides of the veflel and from each other. AH
the interftices are to be filled with the fame cements,
and the whole covered to the top with it ; then a
tile is applied to cover the veffel, flopping the joint* .
with thin lute.
[ 351 1
3
IRQ l 35* 1 I R O
Iron- 21. The crucible is then to be put in the fur-
“"V nace, and a ftrong fire is to be made, that it be kept
moderately red hot for fix or ten hours together; at
the end of which time they will be found converted in¬
to tteel. If the cementation be continued too long,
the fteel will become exceffively brittle, incapable of
being welded, and apt to crack and fly in forging. On
the contrary, flee! cemented with abforbent earths is
reduced to the dlate of forged iron.
22 Steel is further purified for making the mi-
ceft kinds of inftruments, fuch as lancets, pen-knives,
razors, and various pieces, for the belt kind of
watches, time-keepers, or chronometers, and aftrono-
mical regulators. This purification of fteel confifts
in melting it again with a ftrong but regular fire in a
• crucible, the better to free it from the heterogeneous
parts, and little flaws that may be contained in it. It
is then ciWz&.caft-Jleel when fufed into bars: which
name, however, does not imply that the pieces, for in-
ilance the catt-fteel razors, have been really caft in their
prefent fliape; for they muft be forged from the bar
after it is caft. The fufion muft have been perfeft,
ib that the metallic parts be rendered uniform. The
metal diminilhes a little by this procefs, for a bar of
common fteel 36 inches long, will afterwards pro¬
duce another only of 35, if properly fufed and puri-
iied.
23. The caft-fteel will not bear more than a red
heat; otherwife it runs away, like fand under the
.hammer, if the heat is pufhed to the welding degree.
Dr Watfon fays, that this manufa&ure of caft-fteel
was introduced at Sheffield only about 40 years ago
by one Waller. This man was Hill living about the
year 1765 ; he dwelt at St Bartholomew’s clofe, and
was a galloon-wire drawer by trade. The difficulty of
procuring fmall cylinders of good fteel to flatten the
wire for lace-work in his bufinefs, whofe defeft pro¬
ceeded from the bad texture of the fteel, fet his imagi¬
nation on the enquiry after a method of purifying the
metal to a greater perfection : and he thought that a
new fufion of it was the moft likely to accomplilh his
■■views. After fome trials, he at laft fucceeded; but it
was foon known to others, who got the advantages for
themfelyes ; of which ill fate the real inventor very bit¬
terly complained till the end of his life. His own name
was even forgotten, as one Huntfman praCtifed this art
40 fuch an extent, that caft fteel was known under his
"foie name afterwards.
24. But before this difcovery made by Waller in
England, this kind of fteel was made already in Germa¬
ny, as Watfon aflerts; and from thence fome fmall quan¬
tities were brought to England at a confiderable price.
Since that time this branch of bufinefs is carried on
advantageoufly at Sheffield ; for the manufactures there
furnifti a great abundance of broken tools and old bits
of fteel, at a penny a pound, which, after fufion and
purification, fell for 10 or 12 times as much.
25. It is a valuable property of iron, after it is
reduced into the ftate of fteel, that though it is fuffi-
ciently foft when hot, or when gradually cooled, to be
formed without difficulty into various tools and utenfils;
yet it may be afterwards rendered more or lefs bard,
even to an extreme degree, by Amply plunging it,
when red-hot, into cold water. This is called
The hardnefs produced is greater in proportion as the
^ 169.
fteel is hotter and the water colder. Hence arifes the bon.
fuperiority of this metal for making mechanic inftru- v***
ments or tools, by which all other metals, and even
itfelf, are filed, drilled, and cut. The various degrees
of hardnefs given to iron, depend on the quantity of
ignition it poflefles at the moment of being tempered,
which is manifefted by the fucceffion of colours, exhi¬
bited on the furface of the metal, in the progrefs of its
receiving the increafing heat. They are the yellowifh-
white, yellow, gold-colour, purple, violet, and deep-
blue ; after which, the complete ignition takes place.
They proceed from a kind of fcorification on the furface
of the heated metal.
26. A bar of clean white fteel may be made to
affume all the above colours at once, by placing one end
in the fire, and keeping the other end out, which is
fuppofed of a proper length to remain cold.
27. Thefe colours ferve as figns to diredt the artift
in tempering this metal. For though ignited fteel,
fuddenly quenched in very cold water, proves exceffive¬
ly hard and brittle; yet it may be reduced to the re¬
quired degree of temper by heating It till it exhibits
a known colour. This is the method employed in this
procefs by theartifts. As foon as the piece of fteel is
completely ignited, they plunge it in a very cold water;
and as foon as it loofes its fiery appearance, they take
it out, rub it quickly with a file, or on a plate covered
with fand, that it may have a white furface. The heat,
which is ftill within the metal, foon begins to produce
the fucceffion of colours. If a hard temper is defined, as
foon as the yellow tinge appears, the piece is dipped a-
gain, and ftirred about in the cold water. If the purple
appears before the dipping it, the temper will be fit for
tools employed in working upon metals; if dipped
-while blue, it will be proper for fprings, and for o»
ther inftruments fit to cut all forts of foft fubrtances ;
but if the laft pale colour be waited for, the fteel will
not be hard at all.
28. It deferves notice, that a piece of iron is ren¬
dered confiderably warm by hammering, fo as even
to become red hot^ But after the iron has been com¬
pletely hammered once, it is aflerted that it cannot be
rendered again red hot by the fame operation, becaufe
no further compreffion can then be made. Hard fteel
is the only metal that, being ftruck fiantwife with the
ffiarp edge of a flint, or of another hard ftone, produces
fparks of fire.
29. Iron is often manufa&ured fo as to be 150
times, and even above 630 times, more valuable than
gold. On weighing fome common watch pendu-
lum-fprings at Mr Tho. Wright’s, watch-maker to the
king, fuch as are fold at half a crown by the London
artifts for common work, ten of them weighed but
one Angle grain. Hence one pound avoirdupois
( = 7000 gr.) contains ten-times as many of thefe
fprings ; which, at half a crown a-piece, amount to
87501. Sterling. The troy ounce of gold fells at 4 1.
Sterling, and the pound 5760 gr.) at 481. Ster¬
ling, which gives 58,33 (or581. 6 s. 7 d.) for each
pound avoirdupois of gold : and of conrfe /g-V;0;’ = 150.
But the pendulum-fprings of the belt kind of watches
felt at half a guinea each ; and at this rate the above-
mentioned value muft be increafed in the ratio of i.
to 4.2 ; viz. of half a crown to half a guinea : which
will amount to 36,750!. Sterling; and this fum divided
by
I R O [ 353 3 I R O
by tbe value’of this pound of gold, gives above 630 to
the quotient.
Under the article Electricity, we have taken no¬
tice of a curious experiment of burning iron in dephlo-
gifticated air; of which an account is alfo given under
Aerology, where the experiments of Dr Prieftley
are related. In the lad number of the Chemical An¬
nals we find the fubjedl particularly treated of by M.
Lavoifier. “ The beautiful experiment of Mr Ingen-
houfz (fays he) is now well known. A piece of very
fine iron wire is turned into a fpiral form ; one end of it
is fixed in a bottle- cork ; to the other a piece of agaric
is faftened : when this has been done, a bottle is filled
with vital air ; the agaric is lighted, and it is then, a-
long with the iron wire, quickly introduced into the
bottle, which is Hopped with the cork. As foon as
the agaric is plunged into the vital air, it begins to
burn with a dazzling light; the inflammation is com¬
municated to the iron, which alfo burns, throwing off
bright fparks that fall to the bottom of the bottle in
round globules. Thefe globules become black as they
cool, and preferve fome remains of their metallic luftre.
The iron thus burnt is more brittle than glafs kfelf;
it powders ealily; is attra&able by the magnet, but
lefs fo than before the operation.”
M. Lavoifier, in order to obferve more fully the
changes which happened to the metal on this occafion,
repeated the experiment upon a fcale confiderably lar¬
ger. He immerfed chips of iron turned into a-fpiral
form into a veffel filled with pure air which contained
about 12 quarts; fixing to the end of each chip a fmall
bit of agaric, and a particle of phofphorus weighing
fcarce a gratn- Having fet fire to the phol-
phorus and agaric, the iron is wholly confumed to the
very laft particle with a bright white light refembling
ftars in rockets. The heat in this combuftion melts
the iron, which falls down in globules of different fizes.
In the firft inftant of the combuftion there is a flight
dilatation of the air; but this is fucceeded by a very
rapid diminution ; and when the quantity of iron is
fufficient, and the air very pure, almoft the whole gas
is abforbed- Our author recommends only fmall quan
tities of iron to be burnt at a time ; becaufe the heat
produced by its combuftion is fo great, that the glafs
is apt to fly. A dram, or a dram and an half, is fuffi-
ci.ent for ajar holding four gallons, which ought to be
Very flrong in order to refill the weight of the mercury
with which it is to be filled. The increafe of weight
in the iron, by being burnt in this manner, is, accord¬
ing to our author, about 35 per cent. It is then in a
ftate of ethiops, and may be powdered in a mortar.
When the air in which the combuftion has been per¬
formed is very pure, there is no great difference be¬
twixt that in which the iron has been burnt and the
Original quantity, excepting only a fmall mixture of
fixed air from the little portion of charcoal contained
in the iron.
In this work alfo we find fome obfervations on the
folubility of iron in pure water from Crell’s Annals for
the year 1788. It has generally been fuppofed that
pure water is incapable of diffolving or holding iron in
iblution ; but the fadt feems now to be eftablilhed by
the following experiment. A pound of frefti diftilled
water was poured upon two ounces of iron-filings into
narrow-necked glafs retort; the veffel was then put
Vol. IX. Part I.
in a fand heat, and th'e liquid evaporated to one half; Iron,
after which the mouth was flightly Hopped with a cork, Irony*
and the matter left to digeft in a gentle heat. On open- "“"'v'--"
ing the veffel it was found that the water had become
ftyptic, and had a ferruginous tafte ; whenqe it appear¬
ed that part of the metal was diflblved. Phlogifticated
alkali had no effedt upon this folution until a few drops
of pure diftilled acetous acid were added, when a little
Pruflian blue fell to the bottom. Soon after making
this experiment, our author met with a natural mineral
water whigh contained iron in folution, though it
would not precipitate any thing until a few drops of
acid were added. This folubility of iron in pure water
has been alfo taken notice of by M. Landriani and M.
Monnet. 25
Iron is eafiljr calcinable by fire, and is foluble in all How to
the acids, even that of fixed air. By expofure to the
atmofphere it is attacked by the pure part of the fur-rufting°ta
rounding fluid, which thus becomes converted into fix¬
ed air, the metal in the mean time being changed into
a yellowifh brown powder called ruji. Common iron
is much more fubjedl to ruft than fteel; and this facility
of calcination renders it a matter of great importance
to difcover fome effedlual method of preventing it from
taking place. Various compofitions have been recom¬
mended, but none have been found more effedlual than
common oil. As the ufe of this, however, muff; be
on many occations troublefome and difagreeable, a ftill
more commodious method has been fallen upon. It is
known that the metal, after having undergone that
kind of calcination in which it combines with the bafe
of dephlogifticated air, or begins to combine with it, is
not (ubjedt to ruft. By giving it a coating of this kind,
therefore, it is effectually preferved from any action of
the air; and this is done by heating it till it affumes a
blue colour, which indicates a partial calcination on
the outfide : and thus utenfils are made capable of be¬
ing preferved from ruft for a long time; though even
thefe, when expofed wet, or even a long time to the
atmofphere, will be covered with ruft and decay like
others. For the chemical properties of iron, fee Che¬
mistry ; for its eledtrical and magnetical ones, fee E-
lectricity and Magnetism.
Iron-MouUs, and fpots of ink in linen, may be ta¬
ken out by dipping the ftained part in water, fprinkling
it with a little of the powdered effential fait of wood-
forrel, then rubbing on a pewter plate, and wafhing the
fpot out with warm water.
IRON-Sick, in the fea-language, is faid of a fhip or
boat, when her bolts or nails are fo eaten with ruft, and
fo worn away, that they occafion hollows in the planks,
whereby the veffel is rendered leaky.
Iron-WoocI, in botany. See the article Sideroxy-
lum.
IKON-Work, in botany. See the article Sideritis.
IRONY, in rhetoric, is when a perfon fpeaks con¬
trary to his thoughts, in order to add force to his dif-
courfe ; whence Quintilian calls it diverfiloquium.
Thus, when a notorious villain is fcornfully compli¬
mented with the titles of a very honefl and excellent
perfon; the character of the perfon commended, the air
of contempt that appears in the fpeaker, and the exor¬
bitancy of the commendations, fufficiently difcover the
diffimulation of irony.
Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kind of trope;
Y y which.
I R R _ [ 354 1 I R R
Iroquois which, after having fet the inconveniences of a thing their being of the fame nature with the Ikin : the heart IrritabiXtj^
. |J... in the cleareft light, concludes w.th a feigned encou- is alfo admitted to be fenfible: but the lungs, liver, ljr°gatio. ^
rota i ity. racirgment tQ purfue it. Such is that of Horace, when, fpleen, and kidneys, are pofleffed of a very imperfeft, ^
■ 'r’—v having beautifully defcribed the noife and tumults of if any, fenfatio'n. The glands, having few nerves, are
Rome, he ^dds ironically, endowed with only an obtufe fenfation. Some fenfibt-
“ Go now,and ftudy tuneful verfe at Rome!’’; lity is allowed to the tunica choroidis and the iris, tho*
IROQUOIS, the name of five nations in North in a lefs degree than the retina; but none to the cor-
America, in alliance with the BritHh colonies. They nea. Dr Haller concludes, in general, that the nerves
are bounded by Canada on the north, by the Britilh alone are fenfible of themfelves; and that, in propor-
plantations of New York and Pennfylvania on the eaft tion to the number of nerves apparently diftributed to
and fouth, and by the lake Ontario on the weft. particular parts, fuch parts poffefs a greater or lefs de*
IRRADIATION, the aft of emitting fubtile efflu- gree of fenfibility.
via, like the rays of the fun, every way. See Efflu¬
via.
IRREGULAR, fomething that deviates from the
common forms or rules: thus, we fay an irregular for-
Irritability, he fays, is fo different from fenfibility,
that the moft irritable parts are not at all fenfible, and
vice verfa. He alleges fads to prove this pofition, and
alfo to demonftrate, that irritability does not depend
tification, an irregular building, an irregular figure, upon the nerves, which are not irritable, but upon the
Irregular, in grammar, fuch infle&ions of words
as vary from the general rules; thus we fay, irregular
nouns, irregular verbs, &c.
The diftindion of irregular nouns, according to Mr
Ruddiman, is into three kinds, viz. variable, defedive,
and abundant; and that of irregular verbs into anoma¬
lous, defedive, and abundant.
IRRITABILITY, in anatomy and medicine, a
term firft invented by Gliffon, and adopted by Dr Hal¬
ler to denote an effential property of all animal bodies;
and which, he fays, exifts independently of and in
contradiftindion to fenfibility. This ingenious author
calls that part of the human body irritable, which be¬
comes fhorter upon being touched ; very irritable, if it
contrads upon a flight touch ; and the contrary, if by
a violent touch it contrads but little. He calls that -
original formation of the parts which are fufceptible of
it. Irritability, he fays, is not proportioned to fenfi¬
bility ; in proof of which, he obferves, that the inte-
ftines, though rather lefs fenfible than the ftomach,
are more irritable ; and that the heart is very irri¬
table, though it has but a fmall degree of fenfation.
Irritability, according to Dr Haller, is the diftin-
guifhing charaderiftic between the mufcular and cellu¬
lar fibres; whence he determines the ligaments, perio-
fteum, meninges of the brain, and all the membranes
compofed of the cellular fubftance, to be void of irrita¬
bility. The tendons are unirritable; and though he
does not abfolutely deny irritability to the arteries, yet
his experiments on the aorta produced no contradion.
The veins and excretory duds are in a fmall degree
irritable, and the gall-bladder, the dudus chole-dochus,
the ureters and urethra, are only affeded by a very
fenfible part of the human body, which upon being acrid corrofive; but the ladeal veffels are confiderably
touched tranfmits the impreffion of it to the foul; and irritable. The glands and mucous finufes, the uterus
in brutes, he calls thofe parts fenfible, the irritation of in quadrupeds, the human matrix, and the genitals, are
which occafions evident figns of pain and difquiet in all irritable ; as are alfo the mufcles, particularly the
the animal. On the contrary, he calls that infenfible, diaphragm. The cefophagus, ftomach, and intellines,
which being burnt, tore, pricked, or cut till it is quite are irritable : but of all the animal organs the heart is
deftroyed, occafions no fign of pain nor convulfion, nor endued with the greateft irritability. In general, there
any fort of change in the fituation of the body. From is nothing irritable in the animal body but the mufcular
the refult of many cruel experiments he concludes, that fibres ; and the vital parts are the moft irritable. This
the epidermis is infenfible ; that the flcin is fenfible in a power of motion, arifing from irritations, is fuppofed
greater degree than any other part of the body ; that to be different from all other properties of bodies, and
the fat and cellular membrane are infenfible; andthemuf- probably refides in the glutinous mucus of the mufcular
cular fleftr fenfible, the fenfibility of which he afcribes ra- fibres, altogether independent of the influence of the
ther to the nerves than to the flelh itfelf. The tendons, he
fays, having no nerves diftributed to them, are infenfible.
The ligaments and capfuls of the articulations are alfo
concluded to be infenfible ; whence Dr Haller infers,
that the (harp pains of the gout are not feated in the
capfuls of the joint, but in the fliin, and in the nerves by Caftell and Zimmermann, and alfo by Dr Brock-
which creep upon its external furface. The bones are all lefby, who fuggefts, that irritability, as diftinguilhed
infenfible, fays Dr Haller, except the teeth ; and like- from fenfibility, may depend upon a feries of nerves dif-
foul. The irritability of the mufcles is faid to be de¬
ftroyed by drying of the fibres, congealing of the fat,
and more efpecially by the ufe of opium in living ani¬
mals. The phyfiological fyftem, of which an abftrach
has been now given, has been adopted and confirmed
wife the marrow. Under his experiments the perio-
fteum and pericranium, the dura and pia mater, appear¬
ed infenfible ; and he infers, that the fenfibility of the
nerves is owing to the medulla, and not to the mem¬
branes. Ttye arteries and veins are held fufceptible of
little or no fenfation, except the carotid, the lingual,
ferent from fuch as ferve either for voluntary motion or
fenfation. This doftrine, however, has been contro¬
verted by M. le Cat, and particularly by Dr Whytt
in his Phyfiological Effays. See alfo Anatomy,
n° 86, et/eg. and n° 136.
IRROGATIO, alaw term amongft the ftoma/is, fig-
temporal, pharyngal, labial, thyroidal, and the aorta nifying the inftrument in which were put down the pu-
near the heart; the fenfibility ©f which is afcribed to niihments which the law provided againft fuch offences
the nerves that accompany them. Senfibility is allowed as any perfon was accufed of by a magiftrate before
to the internal membranes of the ftomach, inteftines, the people. Thefe puniftiments were firft proclaimed
bladder, ureters, vagina, and womb, on account of viva voce by the accufer, and this was called Inguifitio ;
6 The
ISA [ 355 1 ISA
ItrQRiaago The fame, being immediately after exprefled in wri-
Ifaiah t^nS» t0°^ t^ie name oiRogatio, in refpedt of the people,
' . who were to be confulted or alked about it, and was
called Irrogatio in refpedl of the criminal, as it import¬
ed! the muldl or puniihment affigned him by the ac-
cufer.
IRROMANGO, or Erramongo, one of the New
Hebrides illands, is about 24 or 25 leagues in circuit;
the middle of it lies in E. Long. 169. 19. S. Lat. 18.
54. The inhabitants are of the middle fize, and have
a good ftiape and tolerable features. Their colour is
very dark; and they paint their faces, fome with black,
and others with red pigment: their hair is curly and
crifp, and fomewhat woolly. Few women were feen,
and thofe very ugly : they wore a petticoat made of
the leaves of fome plant. The men were quite naked,
excepting a belt tied about the waift, and a piece of
cloth, or a leaf, ufed for a wrapper. No canoes were
feen in any part of the ifland. They live in houfes
covered with thatch 5 and their plantations are laid out
by line, and fenced round. An unlucky fculfle be¬
tween the Britilh failors and thefe people, in which
four of the latter were defperately wounded, prevented
captain Cook from being able to give any particular
information concerning the produce, &c. of this ifland.
IRTIS, a large river of Afia, in Siberia, which
rifes among the hills of the country of the Kalmucks,
and, running north-eaft, falls into the Oby near To-
bolik. It abounds with filh, particularly fturgeon,
and delicate falmon.
IRVINE, a fea-port and parliamenttown of Scotland,
in the bailiewick of Cunningham; feated at the mouth
of a river of the fame name on the frith of Clyde, in
W. Long. 2. 55. N. Lat. 55. 36. This port had for¬
merly feveral bufles in the herring-filhery. At prefent
that branch is given up; but the inhabitants ftill em¬
ploy a number of brigs in the coal-trade to Ireland.
Irvine had a vifcount’s title, now extin&.
ISAAC, the Jewifh patriarch, and example of fi¬
lial obedience, died 1716 B. C. aged 180.
ISiEUS, a Greek orator, born at Colchis, in Sy¬
ria, was the difciple of Lyfias, and the matter of De-
mofthenes; and taught eloquence at Athens, about
344 years B. C. Sixty-four orations are attributed
to him ; but he compofed no more than 50, of which
only 10 are now remaining. He took Lyfias for his
model, and fo well imitated his ftyle and elegance,
that we might eafily confound the one with the other,
were it not for the figures which Ifaeus firft introduced
into frequent ufe. He was alfo the firft who applied
eloquence to politics, in which he was followed by his
difciple Demofthenes.
He ought not to be confounded with Ifseus, ano¬
ther celebrated orator, who lived at Rome in the time
of Pliny the Younger, about the year 97.
ISAIAH, or the Prophefy of Isaiah, a canonical
book of the Old Teftament. Ifaiah is the firft of the
four greater prophets; the other three being Jeremiah,
Ezekiel,, and Daniel. This prophet was of royal
blood, his father Amos being brother to Azariah king
of Judah. The five firft chapters of his prophecy re¬
late to the reign of Uzziah ; the vifion in the fixth
chapter happened in the time of Jotham : the next
chapters, to the fifteenth, include his prophecies un¬
der the reign of Ahaz; and thofe that were made un¬
der the reigns of Hezekiah and Manaflth, are related
in the next chapters to the end. Ifaiah foretold the
deliverance of the Jews from their captivity in Babylon
by Cyrus, one hundred years before it came to pafs.
But the moft remarkable of his prediftions are thofe
concerning the Mdfiah, which defcribe not only his
defcent, but all the remarkable circumftances of his life
and death. The ftyle of this prophet is noble, ner¬
vous, fublime, and florid, which he acquired by con-
verfe with men of the greateft abilities and elocution ;
Grotius calls him the Demofthenes of the Hebrews.
However, the profoundnefs of his thoughts, the lofti-
nefs of his expreffions, and the extent of his prophecy,
render him one of the moft difficult of all the pro¬
phets ; and the commentaries that have been hitherto
written on his prophecy fall ftrort of a full explication
of it. Bilhop Lowth’s new tranflation, &c. publiftied-
in 1778, throws confiderable light on the compofitioa
and meaning of Ifaiah.
ISATIS, woab : A genus of the filiquofa order,
belonging to fhe tetradynamia clafs of plants; and in
the natural method ranking under the 39th order, the
Siliqucfa. The filiqua is lanceolated, unilocular, mo-
nofpermous, bivalved, and deciduous; the valves navi¬
cular or canoe-ffiaped. There are four fpecies; but
the only one worthy of notice is the tin&oria, or com¬
mon woad, which is cultivated in feveral parts of Bri¬
tain for the purpofes of dyeing ; being ufed as a foun¬
dation for many of the dark colours. See Colour-
Making, n° 37 ; and Woad.
The plant is biennial; the lower leaves are of an ob¬
long oval figure, and pretty thick confiftence, ending
in obtufe roundifh points; they are entire on their edges,
and of a lucid green. The ftalks rife four feet high,
dividing into feveral branches, garnifhed with arrow-
fliaped leaves fitting clofe to the ftalks; the branches
are terminated by fmall yellow flowers, in very clofe
clutters, which are compofed of four fmall petals,
placed in form of a crofs, which are fucceeded by pods
fhaped like a bird’s tongue, which, when ripe, turn
black, and open with two valves, having one cell, in
which is fituated a fingle feed.
This fort is fown upon frelh land which is in good
heart, for which the cultivators of woad pay a large
rent. They generally choofe to have their lands fituated
near great towns, where there is plenty of dreffing ;
but they never ftay long on the fame fpot: for the
beft ground will not admit of being fown with woad
more than twice ; and if it is oftener repeated, the
crop feldom pays the charges of culture, &c. Thofe
who cultivate this commodity have gangs of people
who have been bred to the employment; fo that whole
families travel about from place to place wherever
their principal fixes on land for the purpofe. As the
goodnefs of woad confifts in the fize and fatnefs or
thicknefs of the leaves, the only method to obtain this,
is by fowing the feed upon ground at a proper feafon,
and allowing the plants proper room to grow; as alfo
to keep them clean from weeds, which, if permitted to
grow, will rob the plants of their nouriftiment. After
having made choice of a proper fpot of land, which
fhould not be too light and fandy, nor over ftiff and
moift, but rather a gentle hazel loam, whofe parts
will eafily feparate, the next is to plough this up juft
before winter, laying it in narrow high ridges, that
Y y 2 the
ISA [ 356 1 ISA
Ifetis. the froft may penetrate through the ridges to mellow
“"“V"—and foften the clods; then in the fpring plough it
again croffwife, laying it again in narrow ridges.
After it has lain fer fome time in this manner, and the
weeds begin to grow, it (hould be well harrowed to
deftroy them: this Ihould be repeated twice while the
weeds are young ; and, if there are any roots of large
perennial weeds, they muft be harrowed out, and car¬
ried off the ground. In June the ground {hould be a
third time ploughed, when the farrows {hould be nar¬
row, and the ground ftirred as deep as the plough
will go, that the parts may be as well feparated as
poffible; and when the weeds appear again, the ground
Ihould be well harrowed to deftroy them. Toward
the end of July, or the beginning of Auguft, it {hould
be ploughed the laft time, when the land fhould be
laid fmooth ; and when there is a profpedf of (bowers,
the ground muft be harrowed to receive the feeds,
which (hould be fown in rows with the drill-plough,
or. in broad-caft after the common method ; but it will
be proper to fteep the feeds one night in water before
they are fown, which will prepare them for vegeta¬
tion : if the feeds are fown in drills, they will be co¬
vered with an inftrument fixed to the plough for that
purpofe, but thofe which are fown broad-caft in the
common way muft be well harrowed in. If the feeds
are good, and the feafon favourable, the plants will
appear in a fortnight, and in a month or five weeks
will be fit to hoe ; for the fooner this is performed
when the plants are diftinguiftiable, the better they
will thrive, and the weeds being then young will be
feon deftroyed. The method of hoeing thefe plants
is. the fame as for turnips : with this difference only,
that thefe plants need not be thinned fo much ; for at
the firft hoeing, if they are feparated to the diftance
of four inches, and at the laft to fix inches, it will be
fpace enough for the growth of the plants ; and if this
is carefully performed, and in dry weather, moft of the
weeds will be deftroyed: but as fome of them may
efcape in this operation, and young weeds will rife,
fo the ground (hould be a fecond time hoed in the
beginning of Oftober, always choofing a dry time for
this work ; at this fecond operation, the plants {hould
be fingled out to the diftance they are to remain.
After this, if carefully performed, the ground will be
clean from weeds till the fpring, when young weeds
will come up : therefore about the middle of March
will be a good time to hoe the ground again ; for
while the weeds are young, it may be pet formed in
lefs than half the time it would require if the weeds
were permitted to grow large, and the fun.and wind
will much fooner kill them ; thi^hoeing will alfo ftir
the furface of the ground, and greatly promote the
growth of the plants ; if this is performed in dry
weather, the ground will be clean till the firft crop of
woad is gathered, after which it muft be again well
cleaned ; if this is carefully repeated after the gather¬
ing each crop, the land will always lie clean, and the
plants will thrive the better. The expence of the firft
hoeing will be about fix (hillings/w acre, and for the
after hoeings half that price will be fufficient, pro¬
vided they ate performed when the weeds are young,
for if they are fuffered to grow large, it will require
. more labour,, nor can it be £p well performed.
If. the land, in which this feed is fown, ftiould have.
been irr culture before for other crops, fo not in g&od Ifatis
heart, it will require drefiing before it is fown, in II.
which cafe rotten ftable-dung is preferable to any other; lfauria'
but this {hould not be laid on till the laft ploughing, 'r"~"
juft before the feeds are fown, and not fpread till the
land is ploughed, that the fun may not exhale the
goodnefs of it, which in fummer is foon loft when
fpread on the ground. The quantity {hould not be
lefs than 20 loads to each acre, which will keep the
ground in heart till the crop of woad is fpent.
The time for gathering of the crop is according to
the feafon : but it {hould be performed as foon as the
leaves are fully grown, while they are perfectly green ;
for when they begin to change pale, great part of
their goodnefs is over, for the quantity will be lefs,
and the quality greatly diminiftied.
If the land is good, and the crop well hufbanded,
it will produce three or four gatherings; but the two
firft are the bed. Thefe ate commonly mixed toge¬
ther in the manufafturing of it: but the after crops
are always kept feparate ; for if thefe are mixed with
the other, the whole will be of little value. The two
firft crops will fell from 25 1. to 301. a ton ; but the
latter will not bring more than 7I. or 81. and fometimes
not fo much. An acre of land will produce a ton of
woad, and in good feafonsnear a ton and an half.
When the planters intend to fave the feeds, they
cut three crops of the leaves, and then let the plants
ftand till the next year for feed; but if only one crop
is cut, and that only of the outer leaves, letting all
the middle leaves ftand to nourifti the ftalks, the plants
will grow ftronger, and produce a much greater quan¬
tity of feeds.
Thefe feeds are often kept two years, but it is al¬
ways heft to fow new feeds when they can be obtained.
The feeds ripen in Auguft ; and when the pods turn to
a dark colour, the feeds {hould be gathered. It is heft
done by reaping the ftalks in the fame manner as wheat,
fpreading the ftalks in rows upon the gr< :md : and in
four or five days the feeds will be fit to threfh out,
provided the weather is dry ; for if it lies long, the
pods will open and let out the feeds.
There are fome of the woad planters who feed
down the leaves in winter with {beep; which is a very
bad method : for all plants which are to remain for a
future crop {hould never be eaten by cattle, for that
greatly weakens the plants ; therefore thofe who eat
down their wheat in winter with fheep are equally
blameable.
Isatis, in zoology, a fynonyme of the canis lagopus.
See Canis.
IS AURA, or Isaurus (anc. geog.), a ftrong city
at mount Taurus, in Ifauria, twice demolilhed ; firft
by Perdiccas, or rather by the inhabitants, who, thro''
defpair, deftroyed themfelves by fire, rather than fall
into the hands of the enemy ; again by Servilius, who
thence took the furname Ifauricus Strabo fays there
were two Ifauras, the old and the new, but fo near
that other writers took them but for one.
ISAURIA,acountry touching Pa-mphylia and Cil'cia
on the north, rugged and mountainous,'fituated almoft
in mount Taurus, and taking its name from Ifaura;
according to fome, extending to the Mediterranean
by a narrow flip. Stephanas, Ptolemy, and Zofimua,
make no mention of places on the fea ; though Pliny
does.
I S E [ 357 ] 15 1
Ifaurica does, as alfo Strabo ; but doubtful, whether they are
Ifelakics P^ace3 *n Ifauria Proper» or in Pamphylia, or in Ci-
licia.
ISAURICA, a part of Lycaonia,bordering on mount
Taurus.
ISCA Dumniorum (anc. geog.); a town in Britain.
Now Exeter, capital of Devonfhire. W. Long. 30
40', Lat. 50 44. Called Caer-IJk in Britifh, (Cam¬
den.)
I^CA Silurum (anc. geog.); the Ration of the Le-
gio II. Augufla, in Britain. Now Caerleon, a town
of Monmouthfhire, on the Ulke.
ISCHAUS, orlscALjs (anc. geog.); a town of the
Belgte in Britain. Now 'llchejler, in Somerfetfhire, on
the river 111.
ISCPLEMUiVI, in botany: A genus of the moncecia
order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 4th order,
Gramina. The calyx of the hermaphrodite is a biflorous
glume ; the corolla bivalved ; there are three ftamina,
two ttyles, atld one teed. The calyx and corolla of
the male as in the former with three ftamina.
ISCHIUM, in anatomy, one of the bones of the
pelvis. See Anatomy, n°4i.
ISCHIA, an iftand of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, about 15 miles in circumference, lyinv on the
coaft of the Terra di Lavoro, from which it is three
miles diftant. It is full of agreeable valleys, which
produce excellent fruits. It hath alfo nftountains on
which grow vines of an excellent kind : likewife
fountains, rivulets, and fine gardens.
Ischia, a towm of Italy, and capital of an ifland of
the fame name, with a bifhop’s fee and a ftrong fort.
Both the city and fortrefs hand upon a rock, which is
joined to the ifland by a ftrong bridge ; the rock is
about feven furlongs in circumference. The city is
like a pyramid of houfes piled upon one another,
which makes a very Angular and Unking appearance.
At the end of the bridge next the city are iron gates,
which open into a fubterraneous paffage, through
which they enter the city. They are always guarded
by foldiers who are natives of the illand. E. Long.
*3- U- N- Lat- 40- 5°-
ISCHURIA, (formed from ^'xa “ I flop,”
and “ urine,” in phyfic), a difeafe confifting in an
entire fuppreffion of urine. See Medicine Index.
It is occafioned by any thing which may obltruft the
paflages of the reins, ureters, or the neck of the blad¬
der, as fand, ftone, mucus, See. It may alfo ariie
from an obftru&ion of the nerves which pafs to the
reins or bladder, as we fee it does in a palfy of the
parts below the diaphragm. The too great dUenfion
of the bladder may alfo produce the fame effeft : for
the fibres being much lengthened, and confequently
condenfed, the fpirits neceffary for their contraction
cannot get admittance ; whence it is that perfons who
have retained their urine a long time, find a great deal
of difficulty in difeharging it.
ISELASTICS, a kind of games, or combats, ce¬
lebrated in Greece and Afia, in the time of the Ro¬
man emperors.
The viCtor at thefe games had very confiderable
privileges conferred on him, after the example of Au^
gutlus and the Athenians, who did the like to con¬
querors at the Olympic, Pythian, and Ifthmian games. Ifenach
They were crowned on the fpot immediately after their !i _ I
victory, had penfions allowed them, were furnifhed, t
with provifions at the public coft, and were carried in v
triumph to their country.
ISENACH, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, from whence one of the Saxotl
princes takes the title of duke. There are iron mines
in the neighbourhood. E. Long. 9. 17. N. Lat.
51.0.
ISENARTS, or Eisenarts, a confiderable town
of Germany in Auftria and in Styria; famous for its
iron mines. E Long. 15. 25. N. Lat. 46. 56.
ISENBURG, a large town of Germany, capital
of a county of the fame name, with a handfome
caftle, feated on the river Seine, in E. Long. 7.14.
N Lat. 50. 28. The county belongs to the elector
of Treves.
1 SENG HEIN, a town of the Auftrian Nether¬
lands, with the title of a principality, feated on the
river Mandera, in E. Long. 3. 18. N. Lat 50. 44.
ISERNIA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the county of Mblfe, with a bifhop’a
fee. It is feated at the foot of the Appenines, in E.
Long. 14. 20.
ISH, in Scots law, fignifies expiry. Thus we fay
“ the i/ft of a leafe.” It fignifies z\(o to go out; thus
we fay “ free ijh and entry” from and to any place.
IS1A, feafts and facrifices anciently folemni-
ze 1 in honour of the goddefs Ifis.—The Ilia were full
of the moll abominable impurities; and for that rea-
fon, thofe who were initiated into them were obliged
to take an oath of fecrecy. They held for nine days
fucceflively, but grew fo fcandalous, that the fenate
aboliftied them at Rome, under the confulate of Pifo
and Gabimus. They were re-eftablifhed by Auguilus,
and the emperor Commodus himfelf affifted at them,
appearing among the priefts of that goddefs with his
head Ihaven, and carrying the Anubis.
ISIAC table is one of the moil confiderable mo¬
numents of antiquity, difeovered at Rome in 1575,
and fuppofed by the various figures in has relief upon
it, to reprefent the feafts of IGs, and other Egyptian
deities. There have been various opinions as to the
antiquity of this monument: fome hive fuppofed that
it was engraved long before the time when the Egyp¬
tians worlhipped the figures of men and women. O-
thers, among whom is bifhop Warburton, apprehend, ,
that it wa* made at Rome by perfons attached to the
worlhip of Ifis. Dr Warburton confiders it as one of
the mod modern of- the Egyptian monuments, on ac¬
count of the great^ pixture of hieroglyphic characters
which it bears.
ISIACI, prieft of the goddefs Ifis.—Diofcorides,
tells us, that they bore a branch of fen-wormwood in
their hands in (lead of olive. They fung the praifes of
the goddefs twice a-day, viz. at the riling of the fun,
when they opened her temple; after which they begged
alms the reft of the day, and returning at night, re-
. peated their orifons, and ftuit up the temple.
Such was the life and office of the Ifidci; they ne¬
ver covereed their feet with any thing but the thin,
bark of the plant papyrus,.which occafioned Bruden-
tius and others to fay they went bare-footed. They
4 wore.
I S L
[ 358 1
I S L
Iflam.
Fidorus wore no garments but linen, becaufe Ifis was the firft ISLAND, a traft of dry land encompafied with
J who taught mankind the culture of this commodity. water; in which fenfe it ftands contradiftinguilhed from -
ISIDORUS, called Damiatensis, or Pelusiota, Continent, or Terra Firma.
from his living in a folitude near that city, was one of Several naturalifts are of opinion, that the iflands
the moft famous of all St Chryfoftom’s difciples, and were formed at the- deluge ; others think, that there
flourifhed in the time of the general council held in have been new iflands formed by the calling up of vaft
421. We have 20x2 of his epiftles in five books, heaps of clay, mud, fand, &c.; others think they have
They are fliort, but well written, in Greek. The bell been feparated from the continent by violent ftorms,
edition is that of Paris, in Greek and Latin, printed in inundations, and earthquakes. Thefe laft have ob-
1638, in folio. ferved, that the Fall Indies, which abound in iflands
ISIGNI, a town of France, in Lower Normandy, more than any other part of the world, are likewife
with a fmall harbour, and well known on account of more annoyed with earthquakes, tempefts, lightnings,
its fait-works, its cyder, and its butter. W. Long, volcanoes, &c. than any other part. Others again
c. 50. N. Lat. 49. 20. conclude, that iflands are as ancient as the world, and
ISINGLASS. See Ichthyocolla. that there were fame at the beginning ; and, among
ISIS, a celebrated deity of the Egyptians, daugh- other arguments, fupport their opinion from Gen. x. 5.
ter of Saturn and Rhea, according to Diodorus of Si- and other paflages of Scripture.
cily. Some fuppofe her to be the fame as lo, who Varenius thinks that there have been iflands pro-
was changed into a cow, and rellored to her human duced each of thefe ways. St Helena, Afcenfion,
form in Egypt, where (he taught agriculture, and go- and other deep rocky iflands, he fuppofes to have be-
verned the people with mildnefs and equity, for come fo by the fea’s overflowing their neighbouring
which reafons (he received divine honours after death, champaigns: but by the heaping up huge quantities
According to fome traditions mentioned by Plutarch, of fand, and other terrellrial matter, he thinks the
Ifis married her brother Ofiris, and was pregnant by iflands of Zealand, Japan, &c. were formed. Suma*
him even before Ihe had left her mother’s womb. Thefe tra and Ceylon, and moft of the Eaft India iflands,
two ancient deities, as fome authors obferve, compre- he thinks, were rent off from the main land; and con-
hended all nature and all the gods of the heathens, eludes, that the iflands of the Archipelago were form-
Ifis was the Venus of Cyprus, the Minerva of Athens, ed in the fame way, imagining it probable that Deu-
the Cybele of the Phrygians, the Ceres of Eleufis, calion’s flood might contribute towards it. The an*
the Proferpine of Sicily, the Diana of Crete, the Bel- cients had a notion that Delos, and a few other iflands,
Iona of the Romans, &c. Ofiris and Ifis reigned con- rofe from the bottom of the fea ; which, how fabulous
jointly in Egypt; but the rebellion of Typhon, the foever it may appear, agrees with later obfervations.
brother of Ofiris, proved fatal to this fovereign. The Seneca takes notice, that the ifland Therafia rofe thus
ox and the cow were the fymbols of Ofiris and Ifis; out of the JEgean fea in his time, of which the ma-
becaufe thefe deities, while on earth, had diligently riners were eye-witnefles.
applied themfelves in cultivating the earth. As Ifis It is indeed very probable, that many iflands have
was fuppofed to be the moon as Ofiris the fun, (he exifted not only from the deluge, but from the crea-
was reprefented as holding a globe in her hand, with tion of the world; and we have undoubted proofs of
a vefiel full of ears of corn. The Egyptians believed the formation of iflands in all the different ways above-
that the yearly and regular inundations of the Nile mentioned. Another way, however, in which iflands
proceeded from the abundant tears which Ifis Ihed for are frequently formed in the South Sea, is by the
the lofs of Ofiris, whom Typhon had bafely murdered, coralline in feds. On this fubjeft the following curi-
The word Ifis, according to fome, fignifies “ ancient,” ous differtation by Alexander Dalrymple, Efq; hath
and on that account the inferiptions on the ftatues of appeared in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for the year
the goddefs were often in thefe wordst “ I am all that 1767.
has been, that lhall be, and none among mortals has “ Thefe Iflands are generally long and narrow:
hitherto taken off my veil.” The worihip of Ifis was they are formed by a narrow bar'of land, inclofing
uniyerfal in Egypt, the priefts were obliged to obferve the fea witkin it; generally, perhaps always, with
perpetual chattily, their head was clofely lhaved, and fome ingrefs at lead to the tide ; commonly with an
they always walked barefooted, and clothed themfelves opening capable of receiving a canoe, and frequently
in linen garments. They never eat onions, they ab- fufficient to admit even larger veffels.
ftained from fait with their meat, and were forbidden “ The origin of thefe iflands will explain their na-
to eat the flelh of Iheep and of hogs. During the ture. What led me firft to this dedu&ion was an ob-
night they wrre employed in continual devotion near fervation of Abdul Roobin, a Sooloo pilot, that all
the ftatue of the goddefs. Cleopatra, the beautiful the iflands lying off the north-eaft coaft of Borneo had
queen of Egypt, was wmnt to drefs herfelf like this fhoals to the eaftward of them.
goddefs, and affe&ed to be called a fecond Ifis. “ Thefe iflands being covered to the weftward by
Isis, or Thames, a river that has its rife in Glou- Borneo, the winds from that quarter do not attack
cefterlhire, and flows through only a fmall part of Wilt- them with violence. But the north-eaft winds, tum-
fhire. It enters this county near its fource, and be- bling in the billows from a wide ocean, heap up.the
gins to be navigable for boats at Cricklade ; but after coral with which thofe feas are filled. This, obvious
running in a ferpentine manner about four miles, it after ftorms, is perhaps at all other times imperceptibly
leaves Gloucefterfhire at a village called Cajlle Eaton. effeded.
ISLAM; the true faith, according to the Maho- “ The coral banks, raifed in the fame manner, be-
tnetans. See Mahometanism. come dry. Thefe banks are found of all depths, at
all
I S L [ 359 3 I S L
all diftancea from fhore, entirely unconneifted with the
land, and detached from each other : although it often
happens that they are divided by a narrow gut with¬
out bottom.
“ Coral banks alfo grow, by a quick progreffion,
towards the furface; but the winds, heaping up the
coral from deeper water, chiefly accelerate the forma¬
tion of thefe into Ihoals and iflands. They become
gradually flrallower; and, when once the fea meets
with refiftance, the coral is quickly thrown up by the
force of the waves breaking againft the bank; and
hence it is, that, in the open fea, there is fcarce an in-
ftance of a coral bank having 'fo little water that a
large (hip cannot pafs over, but it is alfo fo (hallow
that a boat would ground on it.
“ I have feen thefe coral banks in all the ftages;
fome in deep water, others with few rocks appearing
above the furface; fome juft formed into iflands, with-
ou the lead appearance of vegetation; and others
from fuch as have a few weeds on the higheft part, to
thofe which are covered with large timber, with a bot-
tomlefs fea at a piftol-ftrot diftance.
“ The loofe coral, rolled inward by the billows in
large pieces, will ground ? and the reflux being
unable to carry them away, they become a bar to
coagulate the fand, always found intermixed with
coral; which fand, being eafieft raifed, will be lodged
at top. When the fand-bank is raifed by violent
ftorms beyond the reach of common waves, it becomes
a refting-place to vagrant birds, whom the fearch of
prey draws thither. The dung, feathers, &c. increafe
the foil, and prepare it for the reception of accidental
roots, branches, and feed, caft up by the waves, or
brought thither by birds. Thus iflands are formed :
the leaves and rotten branches intermixing with the
fand, form in time a light black mould, of which in
general thefe iflands confift; more fandy as lefs woody;
and, when full of large trees, with a greater propor¬
tion of mould.
“ Cocoa nuts, continuing long in the fea without
lofing their vegetative powers, are commonly to be
found in fuch iflands; particularly as they are adapted
to all foils, whether fandy, rich, or rocky.
“ The violence of the waves within the tropics,
niuft generally be dire&ed to two points, according to
the monfoons.
“ Hence the iflands formed from coral banks muft
be long and narrow, and lie nearly in a meridional
direftion. For even fuppofing the banks to be round,
as they feldom are when large, the fea, meeting moft
refiftance in the middle, muft heave up the matter in
greater quantities there than towards the extremities :
and, by the fame rule, the ends will generally be open,
or at leaft lowed. They will alfo commonly have
foundings there, as the remains of the bank, not accu¬
mulated, will be under water.
“ Where the coral banks are not expofed to the
common monfoon, they will alter their dire&ion;
and be either round, extending the parallel, or be of
irregular forms, according to accidental circumftances.
“ The interior parts of thefe iflands being fea,
fometimes form harbours capable of receiving veflels
of fome burthen, and, I believe, always abound great¬
ly with fift j and, fueh as I have feen, with tuitle-
grafs and other fea-plants, particularly one fpecies,
called by the Sooloos gammye, which grows in little
globules, and is fomewhat pungent, as well as acid, to
the tafte.
“ It need not be repeated, that the ends of thofe
iflands only are the places to expeft foundings ; and
they commonly have a (hallow fpit running out from
each point.
“ Abdul Roobin’s obfervation points out another
circumftance, which may be ufeful to navigators ; by
confideration of the winds to which any iflands are
moft expofed, to form a probable conjecture which
fide has deeped water; and from a view which fide
has the fhoals, an idea may be formed which winds rage
with moft violence.”
Iflands from their fituation enjoy many great advan¬
tages, the principal of which are thefe. In the firft
place, many benefits are derived to the inhabitants of
an ifland from its unity. The very lorgeft country on
a continent is (till but a part, which implies depen¬
dence, and is neceflarily attended with a train of im¬
perfections ; from all of which, by the unerring and
unalterable laws of nature, the people who live in an
ifland are or may be entirely free. All countries on
the continent are expofed to continual dangers, againil
which their inhabitants muft be perpetually upon their
guard. This renders a large military force requifite.
It involves them in continual negociations, leagues, and
alliances; all of which, however, cannot exempt them
from frequent wars, or the miferies that attend them,
and which have commonly bad effeCts on their inter¬
nal policy. In the next place, the climate is general¬
ly mild and falubrious from the vapours of the furround¬
ing fea, which according to the latitude abates the vio¬
lence of heat, and moderates the rigour of cold, both
which are fenfibly and conftantly lefs than on conti¬
nents under the fame elevation of the pole. We have
a remarkable inftance of this in the iflands called an¬
ciently Sltehacles, in the modern Latin Infula Arearunii
by us the iflands of Hieres. They are three in num¬
ber, lying in 430 north latitude, before the port of
Toulon. In them, the fruits of France and Italy ar¬
rive at the higheft perfection, and all the medical herbs
of Italy, Greece, and Egypt, grow wild. Yet the
climate is wonderfully temperate and pleafant in all
feafons *.—There is alfo commonly a greater variety; * gee
and always a greater fertility, in the foil, occafioned nVa, i.° 6—
chiefly by the warmth of the circumambient air, fre- se¬
quent (bowers, and, in confequence of both, being
continually impregnated with vegetable falts. Another
confidtrable advantage arifes from its accefiibility on
every fide, by which it is open to receive fupplies from
other countries, and has the conveniency of exporting
its commodities and manufactures to all markets, and,
in comparifon [of the continent, at all feafons. The
oppofite (ides of an ifland may in regard to commerce
be confidered as two countries ; each has its ports, its
proper commodities, its proper correfpondcncies; in
confequence of which, it promotes the cultivation, and
procures vent for the manufactures, of a large diftriCt
behind it ; while the intermediate midland fpace finds
a profit in that inland trade, which thefe two diftriCta.
fupply. The winds contrary on one fide, are favour¬
able on the other; and the fea, the common road to
both
I S L C 360 1 I S L
Ifiand. both coafts, is continually ploughed by veffels out- dations, that every little accident ftiook and removed
— war<j aH(i homeward bound, which keeps up that ac- them.
tive and enterprizing fpirit which charafterizes ifian- Island (or Iceland) Cryftal. See Crystal (let-
ders. An ifland has at once the moft extenfive and land).
the moft effe&ual frontier, and this on all Tides, fub- ISLE-adam, a town of France, with a handfome
filling for ever, without repairs, and without expence : caftle, and the title of a baron ; feated on the river
and, which is ttill more, derives from this very frontier Oife, three miles from Beaumont, and 20 from Paris,
a great part of the fubliftence of its inhabitants, and E. Long. 2. 13. N. Lat. 49. 7,
a valuable article in its commerce, from its filheries. IsLE-de-Dieu, a fmall ifland of France in the fea of
It is commonly faid the fea is-a mine, but in truth it Gafcony, and on the coaft of Poitou, from which it is
is better; its treafures are more lafting and more cer- 14 miles. W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 46. 45.
tain, procured by labour folely, and fit for ufe or for Isis-de-France, is one of the 12 general government*
fale as foon as procured, quickly confumed, and there- of France ; bounded on the north by Picardy, on the
by the fource of continual employment to a ftout. har- weft by Normandy, on the fouth by the government
dy, laborious race of men, who likewife find employ- of Orleannois, and on the eaft by that of Champagne,
ment for numbers, and are in various refpe&s other- It is about 90 miles in length, and as much in breadth;
wife beneficial members of the community. The de- and is watered by the rivers Seine, Marne, Oife, and
fence of this natural barrier, which, as we have faid, Aifne. The air is temperate, and the foil fertile ; and
cofts nothing, but on the contrary yields much, is it abounds in wine, corn, and fruits. It contains 10
not only permanent, but in every refpedl more to be fmall diftri&s, and Paris is the capital city.'
relied on than any.that could be raifed by the fldll and ISLEBIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a name
induftry of men at the greateft expence. All thefe given to thofe who adopted the fentiments of a Luthe-
bleffings and benefits are infured by the leflbn that Na- ran divine of Saxony, called John Agricola, a difciple
ture diftates, fome would fay the law which fhe pre- and companion of Luther, a native of Ifleb, whence
feribes, to the inhabitants of every ifland, to place all the name ; who interpreting literally fome of the pre-
their hopes in the afliduous cultivation of their own cepts of St Paul with regard to the Jewiih law, de¬
country, to bend all their endeavours to raifing and claimed againft the law and the neceffity of good
extending their commerce, and to put their trull in works. See Antinomians.
Providence, and in the fafeguard which fhe direfts ; ISLINGTON, a village of Middlefex, on the north
men accuftomed to robuft and hardy exercifes, and in fide of London, to which it is almoft contiguous. It
what neceflarily arifes from their way of life, a naval appears to be of Saxon origin ; and in the conqueror’s
force. The firft inhabitants come in veffels, are for a time was written Iflcdon, or Ifendon. The church
time dependent on the country from whence they is one of the prebends of St Paul’s; to the dean and
came, arrive at independence by enlarging their cor- chapter of which a certain precinfl here belongs, for
refpondence: and thus commerce is natural and ef- the probate of wills, and granting adminiftrations;
fential to the people of an ifland ; which is the rea- The church was a Gothic ftruflure. eredled in 1503,
fon that they thrive fo long as they poflefs it, and and flood till 1751, when the inhabitants applied to
gradually decline in the fame proportion in which that parliament for leave to rebuild it, and foon after eredl-
decays. ed the prefent ftrudlure, which is a very fubftantial
Islands of Ice. See IcE-Ifland. brick edifice, though it does not want an air of light-
Floating-Islands. Hiftories are full of accounts of nefs. Its houfes are above 2000, including the Upper
floating iflands ; but the greateft part of them are and Lower Holloways, three fides of Newmgton-
either falfe or exaggerated. What we generally fee Green, and part of Kingfland, on the road to Ware,
of this kind is no more than the concretion of the The White Conduit-houfe in this place, fo called from
lighter and more vifeous matter floating on the furface a white ftone conduit that Hands before the entrance,
of the water in cakes; and, with the roots of the has handfome gardens with good walks, and two large
plants, forming congeries of different fizes, which, not rooms one above the other for the entertainment of
being fixed to the fhore in any part, are blown about company at tea, &c. In the S. W. part of this vil-
by the winds, and float on the furface. Thefe are lage is that noble refervoir, improperly called New-
generally found in lakes, where they are confined from River Head ; though they are only two bafons, which
being carried too far; and, in procefs of time, fome receive that river from Hertford/hire, and from whence
of them acquire a very confiderable fize. Seneca tells the water is thrown by an engine into the company’s
us of many of thefe floating iflands in Italy ; and fome pipes for the fupply of London. In the red-moat on the
later writers have deferibed not a few of them in other north fide of thefe bafons, called Six-Acre Field, from
places. But, however true, thefe accounts might have the contents of it, which is the third field beyond the
been at the time when they were written, very few White-Conduit, there appears to have been a fortrefs
proofs of their authenticity are now to be found ; the in former days, inclofed with a rampart and ditch,
floating iflands having either difappeared again, or which is fuppofed to have been a Roman camp made
been fixed to the fides in fuch a manner as to make a ufe of by Suetonius Paulinus after his retreat, which
part of the fhore. Pliny tells us of a great ifland which Tacitus mentions, from London, before he fallied
at one time fwam about in the lake Cutilia in the coun- thence, and routed the Britons under their queen Boa-
try of Reatinum, which was difeovered to the old Ro- dicea ; and that which is vulgarly, but erroneoufly,
taans by a miracle ; and Pomponius tells us, that in called Jack Straw’s caftle, in a fquare place in the
Lydia there were feveral iflands fo loofe in their foun- S. W. angle of the field, fuppofed to liave been the
N°i69. feat
Ifland
II
Iflmgton.
ISO [ 361 ] ISP
Tflip feat of the Roman' general’s pretorlum or tent. In
.. H this parilh are two charity-fchools; one founded in
oc ^rona. ^y Dame Alice Owen, for educating 30 chil¬
dren. This foundation, together with that of a row of
alms-houfes, are under the care of the brewers com¬
pany. Here is an hofpital with its chapel, and a work-
houfe for the poor. There is a fpring of chalybeate
water, in a very pleafant garden, which for fome years
was honoured by the conltant attendance of the prin-
cefs Amelia, and many perfons of quality, who drank
the waters. To this place, which is called New Tun¬
bridge Wells, many people refort, particularly during
the fummer, the price of drinking the waters being
1 os. 6d. for the feafon. Near this place is a houfe of
entertainment called Saddler’s Wells, where, during the
fummer feafon, people are amufed with balance ma¬
ilers, walking on the wire, rope-dancing, tumbling,
and pantomime entertainments.
ISLIP, a town of Oxfprdlhire, 56 miles from Lon¬
don, is noted for the birth and baptifm of Edward
the ConftfTor. By the late inland navigation, it has
communication with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble,
Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames,
Avon, &c. which navigation, including its windings,
extends above 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln,
Nottingham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, Chdter,
Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter,
&c. It has a good market for fheep, and fome re¬
mains of an ancient palace, faid to have been king
Ethelred’s. Here is a charity-fchool. The chapel
wherein Edward was baptized flood at a fmall diftance
north from the church, is Hill called the king’s chapel,
■was entirely defecrated during Cromwell’s ufurpation,
and converted to the meaneft ufes of a farm-yard ; at
prefent it has a roof of thatch. It is built of Hone
15 yards long and 7 broad, and retains traces of the
arches of an oblong window at the eaft end. This
manor was given by Edward the Confeffor to Weft-
minfter abbey, to which it Hill belongs.
ISMAELITES, the defendants of Ifmael; dwell¬
ing from Havila to the wildernefs of Sur, towards
Egypt, and thus overfpreading Arabia Petraea, and
therefore Jofephus calls Ifmael the founder of the
Arabs.
ISMARUS (anc. geog.), a town of the Cicones
in Thrace, giving name to a lake. In Virgil it is called
Ifmara. Servius fuppofes it to be a mountain of
Thrace ; on which mountain Orpheus dwelt.
ISNARDIA, in botany: A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking tinder the 17th or¬
der, Calycanthema. There is no corolla ; the calyx is
quadrifid ; the capfule quadrilocular, and girt with
the calyx.
ISNY, an imperial town of Germany, in Suabia,
and in Algow ; feated on the river Ifny, in E. Long.
9. 10. N. Lat. 47. 33.
ISNIC, a town of Turky in Afia, and in Natolia,
with a Greek archbifhop’s fee. It is the ancient Nice,
famous for the firfl general council held here in 325.
There is now nothing remaining of its ancient fplendor
but an aqueduft. The Jews inhabit the greateft part
of it; and it is feated in a country fertile in corn and
excellent wine. E. Long. 30. 9. N. Lat. 47. 15.
» ISOCHRONAL, is applied to fuch vibrations of
Vol.IX. Parti.
a pendulum as are performed in the fame fpace of Ifochronal
time ; as all the vibrations or fwings of the fame pen- II
dulum are, whether the arches it defcribes are fhorter . pa an* ^
or longer.
hocHRONAL-Line, that in which a heavy body is fup-
pofed to defcend without any acceleration.
ISOCRATES, one of the greateft orators of
Greece, was born at Athens, 436 B. C. He was the
fon of Theodorus, who had enriched himfelf by ma¬
king mufical inftruments, and gave his fon a liberal
education. Ifocrates was the difciple of Prodicus,
Gorgias, and other great orators. He endeavoured at
firft to declaim in public, but without fuccefs; he
therefore contented himfelf with inftrudling his fcho-
lars, and making private orations. He always (bowed
great love for his country ; and being informed of the
Ms of the battle of Cheronea, he abdained four days
from eating, and died, aged 98. There are dill ex¬
tant 21 of his difcourfes or orations, which are excel¬
lent performances, and have been tranflated from the
Greek into Latin by Woltius. Ifocrates particularly
excelled in the juftnefs of his thoughts, and the ele¬
gance of his expreffions. There are alfo nine letters
attributed to him.
ISOETES, in botany ; a genus of the natural or¬
der of filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. The antherse of the male flower are within
the bafe of the frons or leaf. The capfule of the fe¬
male flower is bilocular, and within the bafe of the
leaf.
ISOLA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Farther Calabria, with a biftrop’s
fee. It is a fea port town, and is feated 15 miles
fouth-eaft of St Severina. E. Long. 7. 33. N. Lat.
39- i-
ISOPERIMETRICAL figures, in geometry,
are fuch as have equal perimeters or circumferences.
ISOPYRUM, in botany : A genus of the polygy-
nia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 26th or¬
der, Multifiliqua. There is no calyx, but five petals ;
the ne&aria trifid and tubular; the capfules recurved
and polyfpermous.
ISOSCELES triangle, in geometry, one that
has two equal fides
ISPAHAN, or, as the Perfians pronounce it, Spau-
ha<wn, the capital of Perfia, is fitpated in the province
of Irac, Agemi, or Perfia Proper, upon the ruins, as
generally fuppofed, of the ancient Hecatompylos, or,
as others think, of the Afpa of Ptolemy. Mod of
the eaflern aftronomers and geographers place it in N.
Lat. 32. ay. E Long. 86. 40. It (lands in a very
extenlive plain, furrounded by mountains ; and has
eight diftricls belonging to it, that contain about 400
towns and villages. The fertility of the foil, the mild-
nefs of the feafons, and the fine temperature of the
air, all confpire to render Ifpahan one of the moft
charming and delightful cities in the world. It is
unanimoufly agreed, that the prefent city is of no
great antiquity ; and the two parts into which it is
divided, preferve the names of two contiguous towns,
from the junction of which it was formed. The in¬
habitants of thefe, notwithftauding^ their neighbour¬
hood, bear an inveterate antipathy to each other;
which they difeover on all public occafions. Spauhawa
Z z owes
Ifpahan.
ISP [ 362 ] I S R
owes the glory it now poffeffes to the great Shah A*
has } who, after the conquefl of the kingdoms of Lar
ancl*Orrr.us, charmed with the fituation of this place,
made it the capital of his empire, between the years
1620 and 1628. The mountains, with which this
city is furrounded, defend it alike from the fultry
heats of fumtner and the piercing winds of the win¬
ter feafon; and the plain on which it (lands is watered
by feveral rivers, which contnbute alike to its orna¬
ment and ufe. Of thefe rivers, the Zenderoud, after
being joined by the Mahmood, pafles by Spauhawn ;
where it has three fine bridges over it, and is as broad
as the Seine at Paris. The waters of thefe united
ftreams are fweet, pleafant, and wholefome, alrnoft be¬
yond comparifon ; as, indeed, are all the fprings found
in the gardens belonging to the houfes of Spauhawn.
The extent of Spauhawn is very great ; not lefs, per¬
haps, than 20 miles within the walls, which are of
earth, poorly built, and fo covered with houfes and
fhaded with gardens, that in many places it is difficult
to difcover them. The Perfians are wont to fay, Spau¬
hawn nlfpigehon, i. e. Spauhawn is half the world. Sir
John Chardin fays, that though foine reckoned
11,000,000 inhabitants in it, he did not himfelf look
upon it as more populous than London. At a di-
ftance, the city is not eafily diftinguifhed; for many
of the ftfects being adorned with plantains, and every
houfe having its garden, the whole looks like a wood.
The ftreets in general are neither broad nor convenient;
there being three great evils which attend them : the
firft is, that being built on common fewers, thefe are
frequently broke up, which is very dangerous, confi-
dering that moft people are on horfeback; the fecond
is, that there are many wells or pits in them, which
are not lefs dangerous ; the third arifes from the peo¬
ple’s emptying all their ordure from the tops of their
houfes : this laft, indeed, is in fame meafure qualified
by the drynefs of the air, and by its being quickly
removed by the peafants, who carry it away to dung
their grounds. Some reckon eight, and others ten
gates, befides pofterns; but all agree that there is no
difficulty of entering at any hour of the day or night.
The three principal fuburbs annexed to it are, Abbas-
abad, built by Shah Abas, and belonging to the peo¬
ple of Tauris; Julfa, inhabited by a colony of Arme¬
nians, called by fome New JuJfa, to diftinguiffi it from
the ancient city of that name, fituated in Armenia,
upon the Araxes, whence the original inhabitants of
New Julfa were brought; and Ghebr-Abad, or, as
the Arabs pronounce it, Kebr Abad, the ftreet of
the magians, occupied entirely by the profeflbrs
of magifm, or the religion of the ancient Per¬
fians. The river Zenderoud feparates the city of If¬
pahan and Abas-Abad from Julfa and Ghebr-Abad.
This city has fuffered greatly fince the commencement
of the dreadful rebellion in 1721 ; the whole kingdom
from that period, till a ftw years ago, having been al-
moft a continued fcene of blood, ravages, and confu-
fion. A celebrated modern traveller, who was on the
fpot, tells us, that the inhabitants of Julfa, not many
years before the above revolution happened, amounted
to 30,000 fouls; had 13 churches, and above 100
prielf s ; and paid the Perfian court 200 tomans yearly
for the free exercife of their religion : that fome of the
ftreets were broad and handfome, and planted with
J
trees, with canals and fountains in the middle > others Ifpahwt
narrow and crooked, and arched a-top ; others again, II
though extremely narrow, as well as turning and Ifrae'
winding many ways, were of an incredible length, and ’
refembled fo many labyrinths : that, at a fmall dillance
from the town, there were public walks adorned
with plane-trees on either hand, and ways paved with
ftones, fountains, and cifterns : that there were above
100 caravanferas for the ufe of merchants and travel¬
lers, many of which were built by the kings and prime
nobility of Perfia : that, as little rain fell there, the
ftreets were frequently full of dull, which rendered the
city difagreeable during a confiderable part of the fum*
mer ; that the citizens, however, to make this incon¬
venience more tolerable, ufed to water them when the
weather was warmer than ufual: that there was a caftle
in the eaftern part of the town, which the citizens
looked upon as impregnable, in which the public mo¬
ney, and moft of the military (lores, were faid to be
kept: that, notwithftanding the baths and caravanfe¬
ras were almoft innumerable, there was not one public
hofpital : that moft of the public buildings were rather
neat than magnificent, though the great meydan or
market-place, the royal palace (which is three quarters
of a league in circumference), and the alley denomi¬
nated Toher-bag adjoining to it, made a very grand
appearance : that the former contained the royal
rnofque ; the building denominated kayfcrich, where all
forts of foreign commodities were expofed to fale ;
and the mint, ftyled by the Perfians ferraa-khoneh,
where the current money of the kingdom was coined :
that, befides the native Perfians there were then in
Ifpahan above 10,000 Indians all fupported by trade ;
20,000 Georgians, Circaffians, and Tartars of Dag-
heftan or Lefgees, with a confiderable number of Eng-
li(h, Dutch, Portuguefe, and a few French : that the
Captschins, difcalceated or bare-footed Carmelites,
Jefuits, Dominicans, and Auftin friars, had likewife
their convents here, though they were unable to make
any converts ; and that there were above 100 mofques
and public colleges. But fince the fatal period above-
mentioned, the fuburb of Juifa was almoft totally a-
bandoned by the Armenians, The government of If¬
pahan, 23 leagues long and as many broad, compre¬
hending feveral diftridls, moft of them formerly well
peopled, appeared not many years ago little better
than a defert ; moft of the inhabitants of that fertile
and delightful traft being fled and difperfed. Multi¬
tudes of them had taken a precarious refuge in the
mountains of Loriftan, lying between Ifpahan and
Sufter, whofe lands were left untilled, and their houfes
mouldered into ruins. In fliort, all the diftrefles of
an unfuccefsful war, or the invafion of a barbarous e-
nemy, could'not have plunged the people of Ifpahan
into greater mifery than the viStories of their tyranni¬
cal king Nadir Shah, who feemed more folicitous to
humble his own fubje&s than his enemies. See Persia.
ISPIDA, in ornithology. See Alcedo.
ISRAEL, the name which the angel gave Jacob,
after having wreftled with him all night at Mahanaim
or Penuel (Gen. xxxii. 1, 2, and 28, 2g, 30. and
Hofea xii. 3.) It fignifies the conqueror of God, or a
prince of God, or, according to many of the ancients, a
man who fees God.
By the name of Ifrael is fometimes underftood the
perfon
i s s r 363 i 1 s s
Jfraelites perfon of Jacob; fometimes the whole people of Ifrael,
H or the whole race of Jacob; andfometimes the kingdom
l ’J~' of Ifrael, or of the ten tribes, diilin<Sfc from the king-
dom of Judah.
ISRAELITES, the defendants of Ifrael; who
were at firft called Hebrews, by reafou of Abraham, who
came from the other fide of the Euphrates ; and after¬
wards Ifraelites, from Ifrael the father of the twelve
patriarchs; and laftly Jews, particularly after their
return from the captivity of Babylon, becaufe the
tribe of Judah was then much ftronger and more nu¬
merous than the other tribes, and foreigners had fcarce
any knowledge of this tribe.
ISSACHAR, one of the divifions of Paleftine by
tribes; lying to the fouth of Zabulon, fo as by a nar¬
row flip to reach the Jordan, between Zabulon and
Manaffeh, Jofli. xix. But whether it reached to the
fea, is a qudlion ; fome holding that it did : an afler-
tion not tafy to be proved, as Joflrua makes no men¬
tion of the fea in this tribe, nor does Jofephus extend
it farther than to mount Carmel ; and in Jolh. xvii. 10.
Alher is faid to touch Manaffeh on the north, which
could not be if Iffachar extended to the fea.
ISSOUDUN, a confiderable town of France, in
Berry. It carries on a great trade in wood, cattle,
cloth, hats, and ftockings ; is feated partly on a plain,
and partly on an eminence. E. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat.
46- 57- . .
ISSUE, in common law, has various applications;
being fometimes taken for the children begotten be¬
tween a man and his wife—fometimes, for profits grow¬
ing from amercements or fines—fometimes, for pro¬
fits of lands and tenements—but more frequently
for the point of matter depending in fuit, whereupon
the parties join, and put their caufe to the trial of
the jury.
In all thefe occafions, iffue has but one fignifica-
tion, which is, an effeft of a caufe preceding; as the
children are the effeft of the marriage between the
parents ; the profits growing to the king or lord, from
the punifhment of any man’s offence, are the effeft of
his tranfgrefiion ; the point referred to the trial of
twelve men, is the effeA of pleading, or procefs. See
Plea and IJJue.
ISSUES, in furgery, are little ulcers made defign-
edly by the furgeon in various parts of the body, and
kept open by the patient, for the prefervation and re¬
covery of his health.
ISSUS, now Ajazo, a town of Cilicia in Natolia,
with a harbour on the Levant Sea, a little to the north
of Scanderoon. E. Long. 36. 25. N. Lat. 36.
Near this place, in a difficult pafs between the
mountains and the fea, Alexander the Great fought
his fecond battle wuh Darius. One great caufe of
the defeat which the Perfians received here was
the bad conduct of their monarch, who led his nu¬
merous forces into a narrow place, where they had
not room to aft. Alexander was fo much furprifed
when he firft received the news that Darius was be¬
hind him, that he could fcarce believe it to be true :
but when he was thoroughly fatisfied of the faft, and
that Darius had again paffed die river Pinarus, he
called a council of war, wherein, without afldng any
body’s advice, he only told them, that he hoped they
would remember their former aftions j and that they,
who where always conquerors, were about to fight
people who were always beat. He further obferved, v-“
that Darius feemed to be infatuated, fince he had with
fuch expedition quitted an open and champaign coun¬
try, where his numbers might have afted with advan¬
tage, to fight in a place inclofed, where the Macedo¬
nian phalanx might be well drawn up, and where his
numbers could only incommode him. He then made
the neceffary difpofitions for repaffing the mountains,
ported guards where he found them neceffary and then
commanded his troops to refrefh themfelves, and to
take their reft till morning.
At break of day he began to repafs the mountains,
obliging his forces to move in clofe order where the
road was narrow, and to extend themfelves as they
had more room ; the right wing keeping always clofe
to the mountain, and the left to the fea-ftiore. On
the right there was a battalion of heavy-armed troops,
befides the targeteers under the command of Nicanor
the fon of Parmenio. Next thefe, extending to the
phalanx, were the corps of Ccenus and Perdiccas; and
on the left, the refpeftive bodies commanded by A-
myntas, Ptolemy, and Meleager. The'foot appointed
to fupport them were commanded by Craterus; but
the whole left wing was committed to Parmenio, with
ftrift orders not to decline from the fea-fhore, left the
Perfians ftrould furround them. Darius ordered
20,000 foot and 30,000 horfe to retire, finding that
he already wanted room to draw up the reft. His
firft line confifted of 30,000 Greek mercenaries, having
on their right and left 60,000 heavy-armed troops,
being the utmoft the ground would allow. On the
left, towards the mountain, he polled 20,000 men,
which, from the hollow fituation of the place, were
brought quite behind Alexander’s right wing. The
reft of his troops were formed into clofe and ufelefs
lines behind the Greek mercenaries, to the number in
all of 600,000 men. When this was done, he fud-
denly recalled the horfe who had retired, fending part
of them to take poll on his right againft the Mace¬
donians commanded by Parmenio; and the reft he
ordered to the left towards the mountain : but, finding
them unferviceable there, he fent the greateft part of
them to the right; and then took upon himfelf, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of the Perfian kings, the com¬
mand of the main body. As foon as Alexander per¬
ceived that the weight of the Perfian horfe was dif-
pofed againft his left wing, he difpatched, with as
much fecrecy as he could, the Theffalian cavalry
thither, and fupplied their places on the right by
fome brigades of horfe from the van, and light-arm¬
ed troops. He alfo made fuch difpofitions, that, not-
withftanding the mighty advantage of the hollow
mountain, the Perfians could not furround him. But,
as thefe precautions had confiderably weakened the
centre of his army, he ordered thofe advanced polls
on the enemy’s left, of which he w'as moll apprehen-
five, to be attacked at the very beginning of the
fight; and, when they were eafily driven from them,
he recalled as many troops as were neceffary to ilrength-
en his centre.
When all things were in order, Alexander gave ftrift
command, that his army ftiould march very flowly.
As for Darius, he kept his troops fixed in their polls,
and in fotae places threw up ramparts; whence the
Z z 2 Mace*
I s S [ 364 1 I T A
Macedonians rightly obferved, that he thought himfelf
already a prifoner. Alexander at the head of the
right wing engaged full, and without any difficulty
broke and defeated the left wing of Darius. But,
endeavouring to pafs the river Piuarus after them, his
troops in fome meafure lofmg their order, the Greek
mercenaries fell upon them in flank, and made them
fight, not only for vidlory, but for their lire*, Pto¬
lemy the fon of Seleucus, and x zo Macedonians of
fome rank, were killed upon the fpot. But the foot
next to Alexander’s right wing coming in feafonably
to its relief, fell upon the mercenaries in flank, amongil
whom a dreadful carnage was made; they being in a
manner furrounded by the horfe and light-armed troops,
which at firft. purfued the left wing, and the foot that
now pafied the river. The Perfian horfe on the
light ftill fought gallantly; but, when they were
thoroughly informed of the rout of their left wing and
of the deftrudtion of the Greek mercenaries, and that
Darius himfelf was fled, they began to break, and be¬
take themfelves to flight alfo. The Theffalian cavalry
purfued them clofe at the heels; and the narrow craggy
roads incommoded them exceedingly, fo that vafl num¬
bers of them perifhed. As for Darius, he fled, foon
after the left wing was broken, in a chariot with a
few of his favourites: as far as the country was plain
and open, he efcaped well enough ; but, when the
roads became rofcky and narrow, he quitted it, and,
mounting a horfe, rode all the night: his chariot, in
which were his cloak and his bow, fell into the hands
of Alexander, who carried them back to his camp.
In refpeft to the battle of Iffus, Diodorus informs
us, that Alexander looked every where about for Da¬
rius ; and, as foon as he difcovered him, with his
handful of guards attacked him and the flower of the
Perfian army which was about him ; being as defirous
of obtaining this viftory by his perfonal valour, as of
fubduing the Perfian empire by the courage of his
foldiers. But when Oxathres, the brother of Darius,
faw Alexander’s defign, and how fiercely he fought
to accomplifh it, he threw himfelf, with the horfe who
were about him, between his brother’s chariot and the
enemy, where an obftinate fight was maintained, till
the dead bodies rofe like an entrenchment about the
chariot of Darius. Many of the Perfian nobility were
{lain, and Alexander himfelf was wounded in the thigh.
At lall, the horfes in the chariot of Darius Hatted,
and became fo unruly, that the king himfelf was for¬
ced to take the reins; the enemy, however, preffed
fo hard upon him, that he was conftrained to call for
another chariot, and mounted it in great danger. This
was the beginning of the rout, which foon after became
general. According to this author, the Perfians loft
200,000 foot, and jo,coo horfe; the Macedonians
300 foot, and 150 horfe.
Juftin informs us, that the Perfian army confifted
of 400,000 foot, and 100,000 horfe. He fays, that
the battle was hard fought; that both the kings were
wounded : and that the Perfians ftill fought gallantly
when their king fled, but that they were afterwards
fpeedily and totally routed : he is very particular as to
their lofs, which he fays amounted to 61,000 foot,
10,000 horfe, and 40,000 taken prifoners ; of the Ma¬
cedonians he fays there fell no more than 130 foot, and
150 horfe. Curtius fays, that of the Perfians there Ifthmia
fell 100,000 foot, and 10,000 horfe: of Alexander’s II
army 504, he fays, were wounded ; 3Z foot and 150 ltaUan’ , j
horfe killed. That we may not fufpect any error in * ^ •
tranfcribers, his'own obfervation confirms the fa ft:
Tantulo impendio ingens vi3oria Jietit, ‘‘ So fmall was the
coft of fo great a viftory.”
ISTHMIA, or Isthmian Games ; one of the four
folemn games which were celebrated every fifth year
in Greece. They had the name from the Ifthmus of
Corinth, where they were celebrated. In their firft
inftitution, according to Paufanias, they confifted only
of funeral rites and ceremonies in honour of Meli-
certes: but Thefeus afterwards, as Plutarch informs
us, in emulation of Hercules, who had appointed
games at Olympia in honour of Jupiter, dedicated
thofe to Neptune, his reputed father, who was re¬
garded as the particular proteflor of the Ifthmus and
commerce of Corinth. The fame trials of {kill were
exhibited here as at the other three facred games;
and particularly thofe of mufic and poetry. Thefe
games, in which the viftors were only rewarded with
garlands of pine-leaves, were celebrated with great
magnificence and fplendor as long as paganifm conti¬
nued to be the eftabliftied religion of Greece; nor
were they omitted even when Corinth was fackei and
burnt by Mummius the Roman general; at which
time the care of them was transferred to the Sicyo-
nians, but was reftored again to the Corinthians when
their^city wa? rebuilt.
ISTHMUS, a narrow neck, or flip of ground,
which joins two continents; or joins a peniufula to
the terra firma, and feparates two feas. See Penin¬
sula.
The moft celebrated ifthmufes are, that of Panama
or Darien, which joins North and South America ;
that of Suez, which conneds Afia and Africa ; that
of Corinth, or Peloponnefus, in the Morea ; that of
Crim-Tartary, otherwife called Taurica Cherfonefus;
that of the peninfula Romania, and Eriflb, or the
ifthmus of the Thracian Cherfonefus, twelve furlongs
broad, being that which Xerxes undertook to cut
through. The ancients had feveral defigns of qutting
the ifthmus of Corinth, which is a rocky hillock, about
ten miles over; but they were all in vain, the inven¬
tion of fluices being not then known. There have
been attempts too for cutting the ifthmus of Suez, to
make a communication between the Red Sea and the
Mediterranean : but thefe alfo failed ; and in one of
them, a king of Egypt is faid to have loft 120,000
men.
ISTRIA,'a peninfula of Italy, in the territory of
Venice, lying in the north part of the Adriatic lea. It
is bounded by Carniola on the north; and on the fouth,
call, amd weft, by the fea. The air is unwholefome,
efpecially near the coaft ; but the foil produces plenty
of wine, oil, and paftures; there are alfo quarries of fine
marble. One part of it belongs to the Venetians, and
the other to the houfe of Auftria. Cabo d’lftria is the
capital town.
ITALIAN, the language fpoken in Italy. See
the article Language.
This tongue is derived principally from the Latin;
and of all the languages formed from the Latin, there:»
none
Hate CCLV1I.
I T A L 365 ] I T A
Italian none which carries with it more vifible marks of its Dri¬
ll ginal than the Italian.
Uy It is accounted one of the mofl: perfeft among the
' modern tongues. It is complained, indeed, that it has
too many diminutives and fuperlatives, or rather aug-
mentatives; but without any gi eat reafon: forifthofe
words convey nothing farther to the mind than the juft
ideas of things, they are no more faulty than our ple-
onafms and hyperboles.
The language correfponds to the genius of the
people, who are flow and thoughtful: accordingly,
their language runs heavily, though fmoothly and
many of their words are lengthened out to a great de¬
gree. They have a great tafte for mufic ; and to gra¬
tify their paffion this way, have altered abundance of
their primitive words ; leaving out confonants, taking
in vowels, foftening and lengthening out their termina¬
tions, for the fake of the cadence.
Hence the language is rendered extremely mufical,
and fucceeds better than any other in operas and fome
parts of poetry : but it fails in ftrength and nervouf-
nefs; and a great part of its words, borrowed from
the Latin, become fo far difguifed, that they are not
eafily known again.
The multitude of fovereign ftates into which Italy
is divided, has given rife to a great number of dif¬
ferent diale&s in that language; which, however,
are all good in the place where they are ufed. The
Tufcan is ufually preferred to the other diale&s, and
the Roman pronunciation to that of the other cities;
whence the Italian proverb, Lingua Tbfcana in bocca
Romana.
The Italian is generally pretty well underftood
throughout Europe; and is frequently fpoken in Ger¬
many, Poland, and Hungary. At Conftantinople in
Greece, and in the ports of the Levant, the Italian is
ufed as commonly as the language of the country : in¬
deed in thofe places it is not fpoken fo pure as in Tuf-
cany, but is corrupted with many of the proper words
and idioms of the place ; whence it takes a new name,
and is called Frank Italian.
ITALIC character, in printing. See Letter.
ITALIC A (anc. geog.), a town of Baetica in
Spain, built by Scipio Africanus, after finiflring the Spa-
nifh war, for the reception of the wounded foldiers.
At fiift it was a mufticipium; afterwards a colony :
which was a matter of wonder to the emperor
Adrian, the privileges of a municipium being beyond
thofe of a colony (Gellius). Famous for being the
birth-place of the emperors Trajan and Adrian, and
of the poet Silius Italicus. Now Sevilla Fieja, fcarce
four miles from Seville; a fmall village of Andalu-
fia on the Guadalquivir.—Corfiniwn in Italy was thus
alfo called.
ITALY, one of the fineft countries of Europe, ly¬
ing between 7 and. 10 degrees of E. Long, and be¬
tween 37 and 46 degrees of N. Lat. On the north,
north-weft, and north-eaft, it is bounded by France,
Switzerland, the country of the Grifons, and Germa¬
ny ; on the eaft, by the Adriatic fea or gulf of Ve¬
nice ; and on the fouth and weft, by the Mediterra¬
nean ; its figure bearing fome refemblance to that of
a boot. Its length from Aofta, at the foot of the
Alps in Savoy, to the utmoft verge of Calabria, is
about 600 miles; but its breadth is very unequal,
being in fome places near 400 miles, in others not half,
above 25 or 30. v——'
Italy was anciently known by the names of Satur- *
nia, Oenotria, Hefperia, and Aufonia It was called
Saturnia from Saturn ; who, being driven out of
Crete by his fon Jupiter, is fuppofed to have taken
refuge here. The names of Oenotria and Aufonia, is
borrowed from its ancient inhabitants the Oenotrians
and Aufones; and that of Hefperia or Wejlern was
given it by the Greeks, from its fituation with refpedl
. to Greece. The names of Italia or Italy, which in
procefs of time prevailed over all the reft, is by fome
derived from Italus, a king of the Siculi: by others,
from the Greek word halos, fignifying an ox ; this
country abounding, by reafon of its rich paftures,
with oxen of an extraordinary fize and beauty. All
thefe names were originally peculiar to particular pro¬
vinces of Italy, but afterwards applied to the whole
country.
This country, like moft others, was in ancient times Divifion in
divided into a great number of petty ftates and king- ancient
doms. Afterwards when the Gauls fettled in thet:mes‘
weftern, and many Greek colonies in the eaftern paus,
it was divided, with refpedf to its inhabitants, into
three great parts, viz. Gallia Cifalpina, Italy properly
fo called, and Magna Grecia. The moft weftern and
northern parts of Italy were in great part pofiefled by
the Gauls ; and hence took the name of Gallia, with
the epithets of Cifalpina and Citerior, becaufe they lay
on the fide of the Alps next to Rome ; and Togata,
with relation to the Roman gown or drefs which the
inhabitants ufed: but this laft epithet is of a much
later date than the former. This appellation was an¬
tiquated in the reign of Auguftus, when the divifion
of Italy into eleven provinces, introduced by that
prince, took place. Hence it is that the nan^of Cif
alpine Gaul frequently occurs in the authors who flou-
riihed before, and fcarce ever in thofe who wrote af¬
ter, the reign of Auguftus. This country extended
from the Alps and the river Varus, parting it from
Tranfalpine Gaul, to the river Aefus ; or, as Pliny
will have it, to the city of Ancona, in the ancient Pj-
cenum. On the north, it was divided from Rhtetia
by the Alps, called Alpes Rhaliae; and from Illyricum
by the river Formio : but on this fide, the borders of
Italy were, in Pliny’s time, extended to the river
Arfia in Iftria. On the fouth, it reached to the Li-
guftic fea, and the Apennines parting it from Etruria;
fo that under the common name of Cif alpine Gaul
were comprehended the countries lying at the foot of
the Alps, called by Pliny and Strabo the Subalpine
countries, Liguria, Gallia Cifpadana, and Tranfpadana.
Italy, properly fo called, extended, on the coaft of the
Adriatic, from the city of Ancona to the river Trento*
now the Fortore; and on the Mediterranean, from the
Macra to the Silarus, now the Sele. Magna Graecia
comprifed Apulia, Lucania, and the country of the
Brutii. It was called Greece, becaufe moft of the ci¬
ties on the coaft were Greek colonies. The inhabi¬
tants gave it the name of Great, not as if it was larger
than Greece, but merely out of oftencation, as Pliny
informs us.
All thefe countries were inhabited by a great num¬
ber of different nations fettled at different times, and
from many different parts. The names of the moife
remarkable-
I T A [ ,i66 ] I T A
Italy, remakable of them were the Aboriginest or thofe whofe and foon forced him to a fecond engagement. The Italy.
origin was utterly unknown, and confequently were Goths obtained another victory; but it coft them dear.  *
thought to have none ; the Sabines, Hetrurians or Tuf- Odoacer’s men made a much better refinance than
cans, the Umbri, Sammies, Campani, Apulii, Calabrii, before, and great numbers fell on both fides. The
Lucanii, the Bruin, and the Latins. From a colony victory, however, was fo far decifive, that Odoacer
3 of the latter proceeded the Romans, who gradually was obliged to {hut himfelf up in Ravenna; fo that
the Ro^ fubdued all thefe nations one after another, and held Theodoric having now no enemy to oppofe him in the
mans. them in fubje&ion for upwards of 700 years. All field, befieged and took feveral important places, and
thefe nations were originally brave, hardy, temperate, among the reft Milan and Pavia. At the fame time,
and well {killed in the art of war; and the Romans Tufa, commander in chief of Odoacer’s forces, de-
much more fo than the reft. Their fubjedion to ferted to the enemy with the greateft part of the
Rome, however, inured them to flavery; their oppref- troops he had with him, and was immediately employ-
fion by the emperors broke their fpirit; and the vaft ed in conjun&ion with a Gothic officer in purfuit of
wealth which was poured into the country from all his fovereign. Odoacer had left that city, and was
parts of the world, during the time of the Roman advanced as far as Faenza, where he was clofely be-
profperity, corrupted their manners, and made them fieged by Tufa; but the traitor, declaring again for
degenerate from their former valour. Of this degene- his old matter, joined him with all his troops, and de-
racy the barbarous nations of the north took the ad- livered up feveral officers that had been appointed by
vantage to invade the empire in innumerable multi- Theodoric to ferve under him. Thefe were fent in
tudes. Though often repelled, they never failed to irons to Ravenna; and Odoacer being joined by Fri-
return ; and it was found neceffary to take great num- deric, one of Theodoric’s allies, with a confiderable
hers of them into the Roman fervice, in order to de- body of troops, once more advanced againft his ene-
fend the empire againft the reft of their countrymen, mies. He recovered all Liguria, took the city of
By the He- ^ year 47^. the Heruli, prefuming on the fervi- Milan, and at laft befieged Theodoric himfelf in Pa-
euli. ces they had done the empire, demanded a third part via. The Goths, having brought all their families and
of the lands of Italy; and being refufed, chofe one effe&s along with them, were greatly diltrelfed for
Odoacer, a man of low birth, but of great valour and want of room; and muft have undoubtedly fubmitted,
experience, for their king ; and having totally de- if their enemies had continued to agree among them-
ftroyed the remains of the Roman empire, proclaimed felves. The quarrels of his followers proved the ruin
Odoacer king of Italy. The new monarch, however, of Odoacer Theodoric, finding that the enemy re¬
did not think proper to alter the Roman form of go- milted the vigour of their operations, applied for fuc-
vernment, but fuffered the people to be governed by cours to Alaric king of the Viiigoths, who had fet-
the fenate, confuls, &c. as before. He enjoyed his tied in Gaul. As the Vifigoths and Oftrogoths were
dignity in peace till the year 488, v/hen Zeno, empe- originally one and the fame nation, and the Viiigoths
ror of Conftantinople, being hard preffed by Theo- had received among them fame years before a great
doric king of the Oftrogoths, advifed him to turn his number of Oftrogoths under the condudt of Videmer
arms againft Odoacer, whom he could eafily overcome, coufin-german to Theodoric, the fupplies were readily
and thus make himfelf fovereign of one of the fined granted. The inadlion of the enemy gave thefe fuc-
5 countries in the world. cours time to arrive ; upon which Theodoric inttantly
Invaded by Theodoric accepted the propofal with great joy, joined them, and marching againft his enemies gave
Theoderic and fet out for Italy, attended by an infinite number them a total overthrow. Odoacer again took refuge
the Oftro- 0f pe0ple) carrying with them their wives, children, in Ravenna, but was clofely befieged by Theodoric in
' and effe&s, on waggons. Several Romans of great 490. The fiege lafted three years; during which O-
diftin&ion attended him in this war ; while, on the doacer defended himfelf with great bravery, and great-
other hand, many of his countrymen chofe to remain ly annoyed the befiegers with his fallies. Theodoric,
in Thrace, where they became a feparate nation, and however, impatient of delay, leaving part of his army
lived for a long time in amity with the Romans. The to blockade the city, marched with the reft againft
Goths, being deftitute of {hipping, w'ere obliged to the 1 Irong holds which Odoacer had garrifoned. All
go round the Adriatic. Their march was performed thefe he reduced with little difficulty ; and in 492 re¬
in the depth of winter; and during the whole time, a turned to the fiege of Ravenna. The befieged were
violent famine and plague raged in their army. They now reduced to great ftraits both by the enemy with-
were alfo oppofed by the Gepidae and Sarmatians ; but out and a famine within, the price of wheat being rifen
at laft having defeated thefe enemies, and overcome to fix pieces of gold per buftid. On the other hand,
every other obftacle, they arrived in Italy in the year the Goths were quite worn out with the fatigues of
489. Theodoric advanced to the river Sontius, now fuch a long fiege ; io that both parties being willing
Zonzlf), near Aquileia, where he halted for feme time to put an end to the war, Odoacer feut John bifhop of
to refreffi his troops. Here he was met by Odoacer Ravenna to Theodoric with terms of accommodation,
at the head of a very numerous army, but compofed Jornandes informs us, that Odoacer only begged his
of many different nations commanded by their refpec- life; which Theodoric bound himfelf, by a folemn
tive chiefs, and confequently without fufficient union oath, to grant him : but Procopius fays, that they
^ or zeal for the common caufe. Theodoric therefore agreed to live together on equal terms. This lait ^
Odoacer de-ga*ned an eafy vi<ftot7> cut many of his enemies in pie- feems very improbable: but whatever were the terms Submit*,
ces, and took their camp. Odoacer retired to the of the agreement, it is certain that Theodoric did not and is put
plains of Verona, and encamped there at a imall di-
ftancc from the city; but Theodoric purfued him clofe,
keep them; for having a few days after invited Odoa-to death,
cer to a banquet, he difpatched him with his own
hand.
I T A l 367 I I T A
Italy, hand. All his femnts and relations were maflacred
^— at the fame time; except his brother Arnulphus, and
a few more, who had the good luck to make their
efcape, and retired beyond the Danube.
5 . Thus Theodoric became mafter of all Italy, and
Theodork toolt u_on l.imfelf the title of ling of that country, as
{ina oHta- Odoacer had done before 5 though, with a pretended
Iv, and ufes deference to the emperor of Conftantinople, he fent
his powei meffengers afking liberty to afiume that title after he
with mode-jia(1 a<3.uaily taken it. Having fecured his new king-
jatiQ". ^om as wtjj aR coui,j by foreign alliances, Theodonc
next applied himfelf to legiflation, and enadted many
falutary laws btfides thofe of the Romans which he re¬
tained. He chofe Ravenna for the place of his refi-
dence, in order to be near at hand to put a flop to
the incurfions of the barbarians. The provinces were
governed by the fame magiftrates that had prefided
over them in the times of the emperors, viz. the confu-
lares, cor re Bores, and prtefides. But befides thefe, he
fent, according to the cuftom of the Goths, inferior
judges, diftinguifhed by the name of counts, to each
city. Thefe were to adminifter juftice, and to decide
all controverfies and difputes. And herein the polity
of the Goths far excelled that of the Romans. For in
the Roman times a whole province was governed by
a confularis, a corre&or, or a praefes, who refided in
the chief city, and to whom recouife was to be had at
a great charge from the molt remote parts: but Theo¬
doric, befides thefe officers, appointed not only in the
principal cities, but in every fmall town and village,
inferior magiftrates of known integrity, who were to
adminifter juftice, and by that means fave thofe who
had law-fuits the trouble and expence of recurring to
the governor of the whole province ; no appeals to di-
flant tribunals being allowed, but in matters of the
greateft importance, or in cafes of manifeft injuftice.
Under the adminiftration of Theodoric Italy enjoy¬
ed as great happinefs as had been experienced under
the very beft emperors. As he had.made no altera¬
tion in the laws except that above mentioned ; fo he
contented himfelf with the fame tributes and taxes that
had been levied by the emperors ; but was, on all oc-
cafions of public calamity,' much more ready to remit
them than moft of the emperors had been. He did
not treat the natives as thofe of the other Roman pro¬
vinces were treated by the barbarians who conquered
them. Thefe ftripped the ancient proprietors of their
lands, eftates, and poffeffions, dividing them among
their chiefs; and giving to one a province with the
title of duke, to another a frontier country with the
title of marauis ; to feme a city with the title of count,
to others a caftle or village with the title of baron. But
Theodoric, who piqued himfelf upon governing after
the Roman manner, and obferving the Roman laws and
inftitutions, left every one in the full enjoyment of his
ancient property. As to religion, though he himfelf,
like moft of his countrymen, profeffed the tenets of
Arms, he allowed his fubje&s to profefs the orthodox
do&rine without moleftation, giving liberty even to
the Goths to renounce the doctrines in which they
had been educated, and embrace the contrary opinions.
In fhort, his many virtues, and the happinefs of his
fubjefts, are celebrated by all the hiftorians of thofe
times.. The end of his reign, however, was fullied.by
the death of the celebrated philofopher Boethius, and Italy,
his father-in-law Symmachus. They were both be- '
headed in Pavia, on an unjuft fufpicion of treafon 5 Breads
and fearce was the fentence put in execution when the B oethius
king repented, and abandoned himfelf to the moft and.Sym-
pungent forrow. The excefs of his grief afft&ed hisin^“s>
underftanding : for not long after, the head of a large gri(.f.ie8 °
fifh being ferved up to fupper, he fancied the head of8
the fifh to be that of Symmachus threatening him in a
ghaftly manner. Hereupon, leized with horror >nd
amazement, he was carried to his bed-chamber, where
he died in a few days, on the 2d of September 526.
After the death of Theodoricj the kingdom devol¬
ved to Athalric his grandfon ; who being at that time
only eight years of age, his mother Amalafuntha took
upon hei the regency. Her adminiftration w'as equally
upright with that of Theodoric himfelf; but the barba¬
rians of whom her court was compofed, finding fault ^
with the encouragement ihe gave to learning, forced her Ama|al-uni
to abandon the education of her fon. The latter the regent j;
thereupon plunged into all manner of vvickednefs, and8ov.er:is
behaved to his mother with the greateft arrogance; andc^uiu^*
the faftion finding themfelves thus ftrengthened, at laft
commanded the queen to retire from court.
Amalafuntha, exerting her authority, feized three of
the ringleaders of the fedition, whom fhe confined in
the moft remote parts of Italy. But thefe maintaining
a fecret correfpondence with their friends and rela¬
tions, never ceafed to ftir up the people againft her;
infomuch, that the queen, apprehending that the fac¬
tion might in the end prevail, wrote to the emperor
Juftinian, begging leave to take refqge in his domi¬
nions. The emperor readily complied with her requeft,
offering a noble palace at Durazzo for her habitation;
but the queen having in the mean time caufed the three
ringleaders to be put to death, and no new difturb-
ances arifing thereupon, {he did not accept of the em¬
peror’s offer. In 533, Athalric having contracted a
lingering diftemper by his riotous living and debauch¬
eries, Amalafuntha, to avoid the calamities with which
Italy was threatened in cafe of his death, formed a de-
fign of delivering it up to Juftinian : but before her
fcheme was ripe for execution, Athalric died. Upon *
which the queen took for her colleague one Theodotus
her coufin ; obliging him, however, to fwear that he
would fuffer her to enjoy and exercife her former power. it
This he very readily did, but foon forgot his promife; *s ft1refc^er.i'
and when Ihe took the liberty to remind him of it,foned'andi"
caufed her to be feized and confined in an ifland of the put to
lake Bolfena in Tufcany.. But as Theodotus had great‘kathj
rcafon to believe that this conduCl; wquld be refented
by Juftinian, he obliged her to write to him that no
injury or injuftice had been-done her. Along wdth
this letter he fent one written by himfelf, and filled
with heavy complaints againft Amalafuntha. The em¬
peror, however, was fo far from giving ctedit to what
Theodotus urged, againft her, that he openly efpoufed
her caufe, wrote her a moft affe&ionate letter, and af-
fured her of his prote&ion. But before this letter
could reach her, the unhappy princefs was ftrangled in
the bath by the friends ol thofe w'hom in the reign of:
her fon Ihe had defervedly put to death for raifing dx—
fturbances in the ftate.
. On the news of Amalafuntha’s death, Juftinian re*-
folvedi
I T A
Italy.
For which
reafon Ju¬
ft in ian
makes war
C 363 ]
I T A
folved upon an immediate war with the Goths; and, to
facilitate the enterprife, ufed his utmoft endeavours to
induce the Franks to affift him. To his felicitations
he added a large fum of money; which laft was very
acceptable to his new allies. They promifed to affift
the emperor to the utmoft of their power; but inftead commanded by the fon of Mundus above mentioned,
of performing their promife, while Juftinian’s arms The Goths proved victorious ; and the young general
   1 1 • n. rr»i_: : .u. ..u.a n    n. _r 0 0
patched to Belifariu? to take poffeffion of Italy in his Italy,
name.
In the mean time, a body of Goths having entered
Dalmatia, with a defign to recover the city of Salona*,
were encountered by an inferior army of Romans,
T;heodo-
<tus offers
refigm
Jdngd<
the
were employed againft the Goths, Thierri, the eldeft
fon of Clovis, feized on feveral cities of Liguria, the
Alpes Cottiae, and great part of the prefent territory
of Venice, for himfelf. Juftinian, however, found fut-
ficient refources in the valour -of Belifarius, notwith-
ftanding the defection of his treacherous allies. This
celebrated general was veiled with the fupreme com¬
mand, and abfolute authority. His inftruCtions were
to pretend a voyage to Carthage, but to make an at¬
tempt upon Sicily ; and if he thought he could fuc-
ceed in the attempt, to land there ; otherwife to fail
for Africa, without difeovering his intentions. An¬
other general, named Mundus, commander of the troops
in illyricum, was ordered to march into Dalmatia,
which was fubjeft to the Goths, and attempt the re¬
duction of Salonae, the better to open a paffage into
Italy. This he accomplifhed without difficulty, and
•Belifarius made himfelf matter of Sicily fooner than he
himfelf had expeCted. The ifland was reduced on*the
laft of December 535 ; upon which Belifarius, with¬
out lofs of time, palled over to Reggio, which opened
its gates to him. From Reggio he purfued his march
to Rome, the provinces of Abrutium, Lucania, Pug¬
lia, Calabria, and Samnium, readily fubmitting to him.
The city of Naples endured a fiege : but Belifarius
entered in through an aqueduCt, and gave it up to be
plundered by his foldiers.
Theodotus, alarmed at thefe fucceffes, and having
neither capacity nor inclination to carry on the war,
fent ambaffadors to Juftinian with propofals of peace.
He agreed to renounce all pretenlions to the illand of
Sicily ; to fend the emperor yearly a crown of gold
weighing 300 pounds; and to fupply him with 3000 men
whenever he Ihould think proper to demand them.
Several other articles were contained in the propofal,
which amounted to the owning of Juftinian for his
lord, and that he held the crown of Italy only through
his favour. As he apprehended, however, that thefe
offers might not yet be fatisfaCtory, he recalled his
ambaffadors for further orders. They were now de
fired to inform Juftinian, that Theodotus was willing
,to refign the kingdom to him, and content himfelf
with a penfion fuitable to his quality. But he obliged
them by an oath not to mention this propofal, till
they found that the emperor would not accept of the
other. The firft propofals were accordingly rejected
as they had fuppofed; upon which the ambaffadors
produced the fecond, figned by Theodotus himfelf,
who in his letter to the emperor told him, among
other things, that being unacquainted with war, and
addi&ed to the ftudy of philofophy, he preferred his
quiet to a kingdom. Juftinian, tranfported with joy,
and imagining the war already finiftied, anfwered the
king in a moft obliging manner, extolling his wifdom,
and giving him befides what he demanded the greateft
honours of the empire. The agreement being con¬
firmed by mutual oaths, lands were affigned to Theo-
idotus out of the king’s domain, and orders were dif-
170.
ides of
r’ the treaty.
of the Romans was,, killed, and moft of his army cut
in pieces. Mundus marched againft the enemy to re¬
venge the death of his fon ; but met with no better
fuccefs, his troops being defeated, and he himfelf kill¬
ed in the engagement. Upon this the Romans aban¬
doned Salome and all Dalmatia ; and Theodotus, ela- Theodotur
ted with his fuccefs, refufed to fulfil the articles of the refutes to
treaty. Juftinian difpatched Conftantianus, an officer offu1?* ‘he
great valour and experience, into Illyricum, with or-T*°
ders to raife forces there, and to enter Dalmatia ; at
the fame time he wrote to Belifarius to purfue the war
with the utmoft vigour.
The G«ths were now reduced to the greateft ftraits.
Conftantianus drove them out of Dalmatia ; and Beli¬
farius having reduced all the provinces which compofe
the prefent kingdom of Naples, advanced toward*
Rome. The chief men of the nation, finding their
king incapable of preventing the impending ruin, af-
fembled without his confent, and difpatched ambaf¬
fadors to Belifarius with propofals of peace. Thefe
propofals were rejected; and Belifari us returned for
anfwer, that he would hearken to no terms, nor iheath
his fword, till Italy was reannexed to the empire to
which it belonged. The Goths finding TheodotKSpjgj^g.
ftill inactive, unanimoufly depofed him; and chofe inpofed,and
his ftead one Vitiges, a man of great valour, but of aVitjcescho-
mean defeent. Theodotus fled to Ravenna; but thejj^1*1**
new king difpatched after him a meffenger, who foon
overtook him and cut off his head.
Vitiges began his government by writing a circular
letter, in which he exhorted his countrymen to exert
their ancient courage, and fight bravely for their lives
and liberties. He then marched with what forces he
could colleft towards Rome ; but not thinking himfelf
able to defend that city againft the Roman forces, he
abandoned it to Belifarius; and arriving at Ravenna
was joined by the Goths from all parts, fo that he
foon found himfelf at the head of a confiderable army.
Belifarius in the mean time entered Rome without op-
pofition, on the 9th or 10th of December 537. The
Gothic garrifon retired by the Porta Flaminia, while
Belifarius entered by the Porta Afinaria. Leudaris,
governor of the city, who ftaid behind, was fent, to¬
gether with the keys, to the emperor. Belifarius
immediately applied himfelf to the repairing of the
w-alls and other fortifications ; filled the granaries
with corn, which he caufed to be brought from Sicily ;
and ftored the place with provifions, as if he had been
preparing for a fiege ; which gave no fmall uneafinefs
to the inhabitants, who chofe rather that their city
fhould lie open to every invader, than that they fhould
be liable to the calamities of a fiege. While Belifarius
was thus employed at Rome, the city of Benevento,
with great part of the territory of Samnium, was de¬
livered up to him : at the fame time the cities of Nar¬
nia, Spoleto, and Perufia, revolting from the Goths,
received Roman garrifons; as did moft of the cities of
Tufcany.
In
In tTie mean time, Vitiges having colla&ed an army
of 150,000 men, refolved to march direflly to Rome,
..He^ie)as and engage Belifarins ; or, if he declined an engage-
great merit, "’So lay fiege to the city. But apprehending
rmy. that the Franks, who were in confederacy with the entered the city, where he
emperor, might fall upon him at the fame time, he mations.
fent ambaffadors to them, with offers of all the Gothic
I T A
1 ]
I T A
attacked the enemy with fuch fury, that the Goths,
imagining frelh troops were Tallying out upon them, L
began to give ground, and at lall retired to their
camp. The Roman general did not purfuethem ; but
*UA  1 — received with loud accla-
A few days after, the city was clofely invefted by Rome he.
pofleffions in Gaul, befides a confiderable fum of Vitiges; who, to diftrefsthe inhabitants, pulled downfieKel by
money, provided they joined him againft the emperor, the aquedu&s by which water was conveyed into thethe Gotlls<
money, provided they joined him againft the emperor.
The Franks with their ufual treachery confented to the
city, and which had been built at an immenfe charge
propofal, received the money and the territories agreed by the Roman emperors. Belifarius on his part omitted
’ •’ rrj r,i'1 ‘ -'c    nothing far his defence; infomuch th^t the cowardly
citizens aflembkd in a tumultuous manner, and railed
at the general on account of his fuppofed temerity.
Vitiges, to encourage this mutinous difpofition, dif-
patched ambaffadors to the fenate with propofals of
peace. Thcfe ambaffadors, however, were difmiffed
without any anfwer, and the fiege was begun with
great vigour. Belifarius made a gallant defence ; and
in feven months is faid to have deftroyed 40,000 of
the Goths. About this time he received a fupply of
1600 archers from the emperor ; and thefe, in feveral
fuccefsful fallies, are faid to have killed 4000 more of
the enemy.
The Romans, elated with their fucceffes, now be¬
came impatient for an engagement ; and at laft, not-
withflanding all the remonftrances of their general,
forced him to lead them out againft the enemy. The
fuccefs was anfwerable to the rafh attempt. The Ro¬
mans were defeated, with the lofs of fome of their
braveft officers, and a great many of their common
foldiers; after which they contented themfelves with
Tallying out in fmall parties, which they commonly did
with the greateft fuccefs.
But though the Romans had the fatisfa&ion of thus
on, and then refufed to fulfil the terms of the treaty.
Vitiges, however, began his march to Rome, leaving
behind him all the fortified towns on the road, the
reduction of which he knew would coft him too much
trouble. Belifarius, whofe army, reduced by the
many towns he had garrifoned, did not now amount
to above 5000 men, difpatched m^fiengers to Conftan-
tianus in Tufcany ; and to Befias, by nation a Goth,
1»ut of the emperor’s party, in Umbria, with orders
to join him with all poffible expedition ; writing at
the fame time to the emperor himfelf for fupplies in
"the moft preffing manner. Conftantianus joined him
purfuant to his orders; and foon after, BefTas, fall¬
ing in with part of the enemy’s vanguard, killed a
'confiderable number of them, and put the reft to flight.
Belifarius had built a fort upon a bridge about a mile
from Rome, and placed a ftrong garrifon in it to
difpute the pafiage with the enemy; but the garrifon,
feized with a panic at the approach of the Goths,
abandoned their poft in the night, and fled into Cam¬
pania. Early in the morning Vitiges palled over great
part of his army, and marched on till he was met by
Belifarius, who, knowing nothing of what had hap¬
pened, came with xooo horfe to view the ground
lobftinate about the bridge. He was greatly furprifed when he cutting off their enemies, they were moft grievoufly
-engage- beheld the enemy marching up againft him : however, afflifted with a famine and plague ; infomuch that the
Twetn^he heighten their courage by his flight or inhabitants, no longer able to bear their calamities,
Gothsand retreat, he flood his ground, and received the enemy at
Homans, the head of his fraall body, expofing himfelf, without
his ufual prudence and difcretion, to the greateft dan¬
gers. Being known by fome fugitives, and difeovered of other nations, together with 500 Italians who joined
the point of forcing Belifarius to venture c
fecond battle, when a feafonable fupply of troops, viz,
3000 Ifaurtans, 800 Thracian horfe, and 1300 horfe
to the enemy, they all aimed at him alone, which
made his own men the more felicitous to defend him ;
fo that the whole conteft was for fome time about his
them by the way, arrived at Rome. Belifarius imme¬
diately fallied out by the Flaminian gate, and fell
upon the Goths in order to give his allies time to
perfon. At laft the Goths were driven back to their enter by the oppofite fide of the city, which they did
camp, which the Romans with great temerity attemp- without the lofs of a man.—The Goths hearing of
ted to force. In this attempt, however, they met with the arrival of thefe troops, and their numbers being
fuch a vigorous refiftance, that they footi abandoned magnified as is ufual in fuch cafes, began to defpair
the enterprife, and retired with precipitation to
neighbouring eminence; whence they were forced down
by the enemy, put to flight, and purfued to the very
gates of the city. Here they were in greater danger
than ever ; for thofe - within, fearing that the enemy
might in that confufibn enter with them, refufed to
admit them. The general himfelf cried out earneftly
to them, telling who he was, and commanding them
to open the gates; but as they had been informed by
of becoming mafters of the city; efpecially as the fa¬
mine and plague raged with great violence in their
camp, and their army was much reduced. Ambaffadors
were therefore difpatched to Belifarius with propofals
of peace ; but the only thing they could obtain was a
ceffation of arms for three months, during which time
they might fend ainbaffadors to the emperor. The
negociations with the emperor, however, proved un-
fuccefsful; and the fiege was purfued with great vigour
thofe who firft fled, that he was flain, and they could till Vitiges received the news of the taking of Rimini
a j.n a. 1 a _r -e. li j j j /1 ^ Roman8, As this city was but a day’s journey
from Ravenna, the Goths were fo much alarmed, that
they immediately raifed the fiege of Rome, after it had
, who were now driven into a narrow compafs, continued a year and nine days. Belifarius fell upon
e a laft effort, he put himfelf at their head, and their rear as they palled the bridge of the Tiber, and
TV n—* T 3 A cut
not diftinguifti him on account of the blood and dull
with which his face was covered, they gave
what he faid. In this extremity, having encouraged
bis men, who
to make
Von, IX. Part L
I T A [ 370 ] I T A
Italy, cat great numbers of them in pieces, while others,
ftruck with a panic, threw themfelves into the river and
The fiege were drowned.
railed. The firft enterprife of Vitiges, after raifing the
fiege of Rome, was an attempt upon Rimini : but
while he was employed in this fiege, the Romans made
themfelves mailers of Milan t upon which a Gothic
general, named Uraia, was immediately difpatched with
a powerful army to retake it. In the mean time,
however, a fupply of 7000 Romans arrived from the
emperor, under the command of Narfes, a celebrated
general. The immediate confequence of this was the
raifing of the fiege of Rimini; for Vitiges perceiving
the two Roman armies coming againft him, and con-
cfuding, from the many fires they made, that they
were much more numerous than they really were, fled
in fuch hafte, that the greateft part of the baggage was
left behind. The confufion of the Goths was fo great,
that, had not the garrifon been extremely feeble, they
might have eafily cut them off in their retreat, and thus
put an end to the war at once. The fuccefs of the
Romans, however, was now retarded by fome mifun-
derftandings between the two generals: fo that, though
ao Belifarius made himfelf mailer of Urbinum and Urbi-
Milan ta- ventum, while Narfes reduced fome other places, yet
ken by the ^ ;mp0rtant city of Milan was fuffered to fall into
' Q S' the hands of the Goths, who maffacred all the inhabi¬
tants that were able to bear arms, to the number of
300,000, and fold the women for flaves. The city
was alfo totally demolifhed ; and this difafter made
fuch an impreflion on the mind of Juftinian, that he
immediately recalled Narfes, and gave the command of
his troops to Belifarius.
Vitiges, who had promifed himfelf great advantages
from the difagreement of the two generals, was much
difappointed by the recall of Narfes; and therefore
dreading the power of Belifarius when at the head of
a formidable army, thought of engaging in ‘ alliance
with fome foreign prince. In his choice, however, he
was fomewhat at a lofs. He knew the treachery of
the Franks, and therefore did not apply to them. He
applied to the Lombards ; but, though tempted lay
the offer of a large fum of money, they continued in¬
violably attached to the Roman intereft. At lall he
found means to perfuade Chofroes king of Perfia to
make war upon Juftinian, which he thought would
infallibly procure the recall of Belifarius. But the
21 Roman general, underftanding his defign, puttied on
Etalyinva- the war in the moft vigorous manner ; while, in the
‘’ed mean time, the treacherous Franks, thinking both na-
,ran tions fufiiciently weakened by their mutual hoflilities,
refolved to attack both, and feize upon the country
for which they contended. Accordingly, Theodehert,
unmindful of the oaths he had taken both to the
Goths and Romans, paffed the Alps at the head of
150,000, or, as fome will have it, 200,000 men, and
entered Liguria. As fio hoftilities were committed by
them on their march, the Goths concluded that they
were come to their affiftance ; and therefore took care
to fupply them with provifions. Thus they crofs-
ed the Po without oppofition ; and having fecured the
bridge, marched towards the place where a body of
Goths were encamped ; who, looking upon them as
friends, admitted them without heiitation. But they
were fooa convinced of their miftake ; for the Franks
falling unexpe&edly upon them, drove them out of the Italy.
camp with great daughter, and feized on their bag- 1 v—*
gage and provifions. A body of Romans that lay at a
fmall diftance from the Goths concluding that they
had been defeated by Belifarius, advanced with great
joy to meet him as they imagined ; but the Franks fall¬
ing unawares upon them, treated them as they had
done the Goths, and made themfelves mailers of their
camp. Thus they acquired a very confiderable booty
and ftore of provifions: but the latter being foon
confumed, and the country round about quite exhauft-
ed, vail numbers of the Franks periihed; fo that
Theodebcrt at laft found himfelf obliged to return. In
his way he deftroyed Genoa and feveral other places,
and arrived in his own dominions loaded with booty. a2.
In the mean time, Belifarius was making great pro- Succtfs of
grefs. He took the cities of Auximum and Fsefulse Belifarius.
after an obftinate fiege ; the inhabitants of the former
having for fome time fed on grafs before they would
furrender. After this he invefted Ravenna, the capital
of all the Gothic dominions in Italy. The place was
defended by a very numerous garrifon, commanded by
the king in perfon, who exerted all his bravery in the
defence of his metropolis. As the fiege, however, was
pufhed on with great vigour, it was evident that the
city muff at laft fubmit; and the great fucceffes of the
Romans began to give jealoufy to the neighbouring
potentates. Theodebert king of the Franks offered t®
aflift Vitiges with an army of 500,000 men ; but Be¬
lifarius, being informed of this negociation, fent am-
baffadors to Vitiges, putting him in mind of the
treachery of the Franks, and affured him that the em¬
peror was ready to grant him very honourable terms.
The king, by-the advice of his counfellors, rejected
the alliance of the Franks, and fent ambaffadors to
Conftantinople; but in the mean time, Belifarius, in
order to bring the citizens to his own terms, bribed
one of them to fet fire to a magazine of corn, by
which means the city was foon ftraitened for want of
provifions. But, notwithftanding this difafter, they
ftill continued to hold out, till the arrival of the am¬
baffadors from Conftantinople, who brought very fa¬
vourable terms. Thefe were, That the country beyond
the Po, with refpeft to Rome, fhould remain to the
Goths; but that the reft of Italy fhould be yielded to
the emperor, and the royal treafure of the Goths fhould
be equally divided between him and the king. To
thefe conditions, however, Belifarius pofitively refufed
to affent; being defirous of leading captive®he king of
the Goths, as he had formerly done the king of the
Vandals, to Conftantinople. He therefore purfued
the fiege with more vigour than ever, without heark¬
ening to the complaints of his foldiers and officers,
who were quite tired out with the length of the fiege :
he only obliged fuch of the officers as were of opi¬
nion that the town could not be taken, to exprels-
their opinion in writing, that they might not deny it
afterwards.
The Goths were as weary of the fiege as the Ro¬
mans ; but fearing left Juftinian fhould tranfplant
them to Thrace, formed a refolution, without the con-
fent of their king, of furrendering to Belifarius himfelf,
and declaring him emperor of the weft. To this they
were the more encouraged by the refufal of Beli¬
farius to agree to the terms propofed by the emperor $.
3 whence.
I T A [ 371 1 I T A
Italy, whence they concluded that he defigned to revolt,
' r—' and make himfelf emperor of Italy. Of this, however*
Beltfarius had no defign ; but thought proper to ac¬
cept of the title, in order to accelerate the furrender of
the city, after acquainting his principal officers with
what had paffed. Vitiges at laft difcovered the plot;
but finding himfelf in no condition to oppofe it, he
commended the refolution of his people, and even
wrote to Belifarius, encouraging him to take upon him
the title of king., and affuring him of his affiftance.
Hereupon Belifarius prtffed the Goths to furrender ;
which, however, they ftill refufed, till he had taken
an oath that he would treat them with humanity, and
maintain them in the pofleffion of all their rights and
Ravenna privileges. Upon this he was admitted into the city,
reduced where he behaved with great moderation towards the
and VitiyesGotha ; but feized on the royal treafure, and fecured
fouer t^le Perf°n t^ie The Roman army, when it
entered Ravenna, appeared fo very inconfiderable, that
the Gothic women on beholding it could not forbear
fpitting in the faces of their hufbands, and reviling
them as cowards.
The captivity of Vitiges, and the taking of Raven¬
na, did not put an end to the war. Belifarius was foon
after recalled to take the command of the army in
the eaft. The Goths were ^greatly furprifed that he
fhould leave his new kingdom out of regard to the
orders of the emperor ; but, after his departure, chofe
one Ildebald, a man of great experience in affairs both
civil and military, for their king. He revived the
drooping fpirits of his countrymen, defeated the Ro¬
mans, and reduced all the province of Venetia ; but
• was in a fhort time murdered, and Eraric, a Rugian,
fucceeded to the throne. He was icarcc invefted with
the fovereignty, when his fubje&s began to think of
depofing him, and raffing Totila to the throne; which
the latter accepted, upon condition that they pre-
vioufly difpatched Eraric. This was accordingly done ;
after which Totila was proclaimed king of Italy in the
a4 year 542.
Succefs of The new king proved a very formidable enemy to
?* the Romans, who now loft ground every-where. They
jLemans.6 111 ade an attempt on the city of Verona ; in which
they mifearried through their own avarice, having dif-
puted about the divifion of the plunder till the oppor¬
tunity of taking the town was paft. They were next
defeated in two bloody engagements ; .the confequence
of which was, that the Goths made themfelves matters
of all the ftrong places in Tufcany. From thence
marching into Campania and Samnium, they reduced
the itrong town of Beneventum, and laid liege to
Naples. During the fiege of this laft place, feveral
detachments were fent from the king’s army, which
took Cumae, and recovered all Brutia, Lucania, A-
pulia, and Calabria, where they found confiderable
firms which had Been gathered for the emperor’s ufe.
The Romans, in the mean time, dilheartened by their
Ioffes, and deprived of thofe fums which Ihould have
paid their wages, refufed to take the field. A confi¬
derable fleet was therefore fent by Juftinian to the re¬
lief of Naples: but Totila, having timely notice of
this defign, manned, with incredible expedition, a
great number of light veffels; which, falling unex-
|»ededly on the Roman fleet, took or funk every /hip,
and made prifoners of all on board, excepting a few Italy.
who efcaped in their boats. A fimilar fate attended ’ —
another fleet difpatched from Sicily for the fame pur-
pofe. They put to fea in the depth of winter; and,
meetinglwith a violent ftorm, were driven afirore near
the enemy’s camp ; who funk the (hips, and made
what daughter they pleafed of the feamen and foldiers.
Upon this fecond difafter, the Neapolitans, defpairing
of further relief, fubmitted to Totila ; who granted
them honourable terms, and treated them with great
humanity. As they had been long pinched with fa¬
mine, Totila, apprehending they might endanger their
lives by indulging their appetites too much at firft,
placed guards at the gates to prevent their going out,
taking care at the fame time to fupply them fparingly
with provifions, but increafing their allowance every
day. Being thus by degrees reftored to their former
ftrength, he ordered the gates to befet open, and gave
every one full liberty to flay in the city or remove as
he thought fit. The garrifon he treated with extraor¬
dinary kindnefs. They were firft fupplied with fhips
to carry them to Conftantinople; but the king having
difcovered that their real defign was to fail to Rome,
in order to reinforce the garrifon of that city (which
they knew he was foon to befiege), he was fo far
from puniftiing them as they expe&ed, that he furniffir
ed them with horfes, waggons, and provifions, and
ordered a body of Goths to efcort them to Rome by
land, as the winds had proved unfavourable for their
paffage by fea.
Totila having thus become matter of Naples and
moft of the other fortreffes in thefe parts, began to
think of reducing Rome alfo. He firft attempted to
perfuade the citizens to a furrender: but finding his
perfuafions ineffe&ual, he fent a detachment of his
army into Calabria to reduce Otranto, which had not
yet fubmitted ; after which, he marched with the reft
of his forces againft the towns in the neighbourhood of
Rome. The city of Tibur, now Tivoli, about 18
miles from Rome, was betrayed to him; and all the inr
habitants, together with their bifhbp, were put to the
fword. Several other ftrong-holds in the neighbourhood
of that city he took by ftorm ; fo that Rome was in a
manner blocked up by land, all communication with
the neighbouring country being cut off.
Juftinian, in the mean time, being greatly perplex¬
ed by the bad news he every day received from Italy,
recalled Belifarius from Perfia, notwithftanding the
fuccefs which attended him there. To fave Rome,
however, was now impoffible even for Belifarius him¬
felf. As foon as he arrived in Italy, finding himfelf
unable either to relieve the towns which were befieged,
or to-ftop the progrefs of the Goths, he difpatched
letters to Juftinian, informing him, that being defti-
tute of men, arms, and money, it was impoffible for
him to profecute the war; upon which the emperor
ordered new levies to be made, all the veterans being
engaged in the Perfian war. In the mean time, how¬
ever, Totila purfued his good fortune ; took the cities
of Firmum, Afculum, Auximum, Spoletum, &c. and
at length advanced to Rome, which he invefted on all
fides. As he drew near the city, two officers, whom
Belifarius had fent into the city, ventured to make a ^
fally, though contrary to the exprefs orders of their S *
3 A 2 gen$.
I T A
Italy.
general, thinking they Ihould furprife the Goths ; but
they were themfelves taken in an ambufcade, and, moft
of their men being cut in pieces, narrowly efcaped
falling into the hands of the enemy. Belinirius made
feveral attempts to relieve the city : but all of them,
however well concerted, by fome accident or other
proved unfuccefsful; which gave him fo much uneafi-
nefs, that he fell into a feverilh diforder, and was for
fome time thought to be in danger of his life. The
city was foon reduced to great ftraits ; a dreadful fa-
[ 372 1
I T A
and had a&ually thrown down a third part of the
wall, when he received a letter from Belifarius, dif-v"
fuading him from his intention. After having ferioufly
confidered this letter, Totila thought proper to alter
his refolution with regard to the deftnuftion of the
city; but fent every one of the inhabitants into Luca-
nia, without leaving a Angle perfon in the metropolis.
Belifarius hearing of this, immediately returned to the
capital, and undertook to repeople and repair it. He
cleared the ditch which had been filled by Totila, but
mine enfued; and the unhappy citizens having confumed was for the prefent obliged to fill up the breaches in.
every thing that could be fuppofed to give them nourifh- the walls with (tones loolely heaped upon one another^,
ment, even the grafs that grew near the walls, wereobli- and in this fituatlon the city was again attacked by the
ged, it is faid, to feed on their own excrements. Many Goths. Belifarius, however, had taken care to fupply
put an end to their lives, in order to free themfelves
from the intolerable calamities they fuffered. The reft
addreffed their governor Beflas in the moil patheti'
manner, intreating him to fupply them with food ; or
if that was not in his power, either to give them leave
to go out of the town, or to terminate their mi-
feries by putting them to death. Bdfas replied, that
to fupply them with food was impoffible ; to let them
go, unfafe; and to kill them, impious. In the end, how'
the inhabitants with plenty of provifions, fo that they
were now in no danger of fuffering by famine ; and the
affaults of the enemy were vigoioufly repelled, not-
withftanding the bad fituation of the fortifications, fo
that Totila at lad abandoned the enterprife.
In the mean time the Perfians gained great advan¬
tages over the Romans in the Eaft, fo that there was a
neceffity for recalling Belifarius a fecond time. He was
fooner gone, than Totila renewed his efforts with
*r
R-lifariU*
recalled*-
ever, he fuffered thofe who were willing to retire, to greater vigour than ever; and at the fame time the
leave the city, upon paying him a fum of money; but *Tn»fiks, concluding that both Romans and Goths would
n r    ‘,.1 J! ‘j a.1 I    * L   1 * ..... • ~ -
mod of them either died on the road, or were cut
pieces by the enemy. At lad, the befieged, unable
to bear their miferies any longer, began to mutiny, and
to -prefs their governor to come to an agreement with
Totila. This, however, he dill refufed ; upon which,
four of the Ifaurians who guarded one of the gates,
went privately to the camp of Totila, and offered to
#nd tAeD.gclunt him into the city. The king received this pro-
pofal with great joy; and fending four Goths of great
drength and intrepidity into the town along with
them, he filently approached the gates in the night-
be much weakened by fuch a dedru&ive war, feized
upon Venetia, which belonged to both nations, an V
made it a province of the French empire. Totila did
not oppofe them ; but having obtained 3 reinforcement
of 6000 Lombards, returned immediately before Rome,
fully intent on making himfelf mader of that metro¬
polis. Having clofely inveded it by fea and land, he
hoped in a fhort time to reduce it by famine : but a-
gaind this the governor wifely provided, by caufing
corn to be fown within the walls ; fo that he could pro¬
bably have defied the power of Totila, had not the city
time with his whole army. The gates were opened by been again betrayed by the Ifaurians, who opened one
the Ifaurians, as they had promifed ; and upon the
fird alarm, Beffas with mod of the foldiers and offi-
of the gates and admitted the enemy.
Thus the empire of the Goths was a third time eda-
cers fled out of the town. The inhabitants took bliflied in Italy; and Totila, immediately on his be-
fan&uary in the churches ; and only 60 of them and coming mader of Rome, difpatched ambaffadors to
26 foldiers were killed after the town was taken. To¬
tila, however, gave his foldiers full liberty to plunder
the city : which they did for feveral days together,
dripping the inhabitants of all their wealth, and leaving
nothing in their houfes but naked walls; by which
means many perfons of didin&ion were reduced to beg
Judinian, offering to aflid him as a faithful ally a-
gaind any nation whatever, provided he would al¬
low him the quiet poffeflion of Italy. But Judinian
was fo far from hearkening to this propofal, that
he would not even admit the ambaffadors into his
prefence; upon which Totila refolved to purfue the
their bread from door to door. In the houfe of Beffas war with the utmod vigour, and to make himfelf ma-
was found an immenfe treafure, which he had fcanda-
loufly amaffcd during the fiege, by felling to the people,
der not only of thofe places which the Romans poffef-
fed in Italy, but in Sicily alfo. This he fully accom-1
 ^ Narfesfent
at an exorbitant ptice, the corn which had been dored pliflied ; when Narfes, who had formerly been joined in int0
«p for the ufe of the garrifon.
Totila, thus become mailer of Italy, fent ambaffa-
the command with Belifarius, was appointed general,
with abfolute and uncontrouled authority. But while
dors to Judinian with very refpe&ful letters, defiring this general was making the neceffary preparations for
to live on the fame terms with him that Theodoric had his expedition, Totila, having equipped a fleet of joo
done with his predeceffor Anadafius; promifing in that galleys, fent them to pillage the coads of Greece,
cafe to refpeft him as his father, and to affid him, where they got an immenfe booty. They made a de-
■when he pleafed, with all his force, againd any other fcent on the ifland of Corfu; and having laid it waile,
nation whatever. On the contrary, if the emperor re- they failed to Epirus, where they furprifed and plun-
jefted his offers, he threatened to level Rome with the dered the cities of Nicopolis and Anchialus,taking ma-
ground, to put the whole fenate to the fword, and to ny (hips on the coad, among which were fome laden
.1  * _ Til V. ^ J   r A. k     t-k/3 O »-»■»-» 'rr f o *-P-a n A f — 4- k
carry the war into Illyricum. The emperor returned no
other anfwer, than that he referred the whole to Beli¬
farius, who had full power to manage all things of that
nature. Upon this Totila refolved to dedroy the city;
with provifions for the army of Narfes. After thefe
fucceffes they laid fiege to Ancona in Dalmatia. Being
defeated, however, both by fea and land, Totila once
more fent ambaffadors to Condantinople, offeringto yield
Sicily
I T A [ 373 1 I T, A
Italy. Sicily and all Dalmatia, to pay an annual tribute for
*•—"V"""*'1 Italy, and to affift the Romans as a faithful ally in all
their wars ; but Juftinian, bent upon driving the Goths
out of Italy, would not even fuffer the ambafladors to
appear in his prefence.
Totila finding that no terms could be obtained, be¬
gan to levy new forces, and to makegre?; preparations
by fea and land. He foon reduced the iflands of
Coi flea and Sardinia ; but this was the laft of his fuc-
cefles. Narfes arrived in Italy with a very formidable
army, and an immenfe treafure to pay the troops their
arrears, the want of which had been one great caufe of
the bad fuccefs of Btlif&i ius in his fall expedition. He
immediately took the road to Rome; while Totila af-
femhled all his forces, in order to decide the fate of
Who ce- Italy by a general engagement. The battle proved
feats and vety obftinate ; but at lalt the Gothic cavalry being
** * 0!*la>put to the rout, and retiring in great confufion among
the infantry, the latter were thereby thrown into fuch
difcrder, that they could never afterwards rally. Nar¬
fes, obferving their confufion, encouraged his men to
make a lafl effort; which the Goths not being able to
withftand, betook themftlves to flight, with the lofs of
6cco men killed on the fpot. Totila finding the day
irrecoverably loft, fled with only five horfemen for his
attendants ; but was purfued and mortally wounded by
a commander of one of the bodies of barbarians who
followed Narfes. He continued his flight, however,
for feme time longer; but was at laft obliged to halt
io order to get his wound dreffed, foon after which he
expired.
This difafter did not yet entirely break the fpirit of
the Goths. They chofe for their king one Teia, de-
fervedly cfteemed one of the moft valiant men of their
nation, and who had on feveral oc * (ions diftinguiftied
himfelf in a moft eminent manner. All the valour and
experience of Teia, however, were now infufficient to
flop the progrefs of the Romans. Narfts made him¬
felf mafter of a great number of cities, and of Rome
itfelf, before the Goths could affemble their forces.
The Roman general next proceeded to inveft Cumoe ;
which Teia determined at all events to relieve, as the
royal treafure was lodged in that city. This brought
on an engagement, which, if Procopius is to be credit¬
ed, proved one of the moft bloody that ever was
ArnTTeia The Roman army confifted of vaft multi-
‘ tudes brought from different nations: the Goths were
few in comparifon ; hot, animated by defpair, and
knowing that all was at flake, they fought with the
utmoft fury. Their king placed himfelf in the firft
rank, to encourage his men by his example ; and is
faid to have given fuch proofs of his valour and con-
duel as equalled him to the moft renowned heroes of
antiquity. The Romans difeovering him, and know¬
ing that his death would probably put an end to the
battle, if not to the war itfelf, directed their whole
force againft him, fome attacking him with fpears, and
others difeharging againft him {bowers of darts and
arrows. Teia maintained his ground with great in¬
trepidity, received the miffive weapons on his fhield,
and killed a great number of the enemy with his own
hand. When his fhield was fo loaded with darts that
be could not tafily wield it, he called for another.
Thus he fhifted his fhield three times; but as he at¬
tempted to change it another time, his bread being
neceffarily expofed for a momeifl, a dart (truck him in Italy,
that moment with fuch force, that he immediately fell -v-—*
down dead in the place where he had flood from the
beginning of the battle, and upon heaps of the enemy
whom hi had killed. The Romans, feeing him fall,
cut off his head and expofed it to the fight of the
Goths, not doubting but they would be immediately
difheartened and retire. In this, however, they were
difappointed. The Goths maintained the fight with
great vigour, till night put an end to the engagement.
The next day the engagement was renewed early in
the morning, and continued till night: but on the
third day, the Goths defpairing of being able to over¬
come an enemy fo much fuperior to them in numbers,
feat deputies to Narfes, offering to lay down their
arms, provided fuch of them as chofe to remain in I •
taly were allowed to enjoy their eftates and pofftffions
without moleftation, as fubje&s of the empire; and
thofe who were willing to retire elfewhere, were fuf-
fered to carry with them all their goods and effe&s.
To thefe terms Narfes readily affented ; and thus the The end of
empire of the Goths in Italy was finally deflroyed, the the empire
country now becoming a province of the eaitern Ro- of ^ .
man empire. <$“■“
In this conqueft Narfes had been aflifted, as al¬
ready obferved, by many barbarous nations, among
whom were the Lombards, at that time fettled in Pan-
nonia. On the conclufion of the war, they were dif-
miffed with rich prefents, and the nation for fome time
continued faithful allies to the Romans. In the mean
time Juftinian dying, Narfes, who governed Italy with
an abfolute fway, was accufed to the emperor Juftin
II. and to the emprefs Sophia, of afpiring to the fo-
verelgnty of the country. Hereupon he was recalled,
and Longinus fent to fucceed him. As Narfes was au
eunuch, the emprefs is reported to have faid, that hia
employment at Conftantinople fhould be to diftribute
in the apartment of her women the portion of wool
which each was to fpin. Narfes, enraged at this
farcafm, replied, that he ftiould begin fuch a web as
fhe fhould never be able to finifh ; and immediately dif- Nar^s i01i
pa.ched meffengers to Alboinus king of the Lorn- vites the
bards, inviting them into Italy. Along with the mef- Lombard*^
fengers he fent fome of the beft fruits the country af¬
forded, in order to tempt him the more to become ma¬
fter of fuch a rich kingdom.
Alboinus, highly pleafed with the opportunity of
invading a country with which his fubje&s were already
well acquainted, began without lofs of time to make
the neceflary preparations for his journey. In the
month of April 568, he fet out with his whole nation,
men, women, and children ; carrying with them all
their moveables. This promifeuous multitude arrived
by the way of Iftria ; and advancing through the pro¬
vince of Venetla, found the whole country abandoned,
the inhabitants having fled to the neighbouring iflands
in the Adriatic. The gates of Aquileia were opened
by the few inhabitants who had courage to flay : moft
of them, however, had fled with all their valuable ef-
fe&s ; and among the reft the patriarch Paulinus,
who had carried with him all the facred utenfils of
the churches. From Aquileia, Alboinus proceeded to
Forum Julii, of which he likewife became mafter with¬
out oppofition. Here he fptnt the winter ; during:
which time he erected Friuli into a dukedom, which .
^ has
I T A [
lias continued ever fince. In 569, he made himfelf
J mafter of Trivigi, Oderzo, Monte Selce, Vicenza,
Verona, and Trent; in each of which cities he left a
llrong garrifon of Lombards under the command of an
officer, whom he diftinguilhed by the title of duke:
but thefe dukes were only officers and governors of ci-
who bore the title no longer than the prince
374 1 I T A
of Genoa, Parma, Modena, Tufcany, Bologna, the
dukedoms of Friuli, Spoleto, and Benevento ; the laft u
of which contained the greateft part of the prefent
kingdom of Naples.
The feudal government which the Lombards had in¬
troduced into Italy, naturally produced revolts and
commotions, as the different dukes inclined either to
change their mafters or to fet up for themfelves. Se¬
veral revolts indeed happened during the life of Char¬
lemagne himfelf; which, however, he always found
means to crufh : but after his death, the fovereignty'
of Italy became an object of contention between the
kings of France and the emperors of Germany. That
great monarch had divided his exteniive dominions a-
mong his children ; but they all died during his life¬
time, except Louis, whom he affociated with himfelt
in the empire, and who fucceeded to all his dominions
after his death. From this time we may date the trou¬
bles with which Italy was fo long overwhelmed ; and
of which, as they proceeded from the ambition of thofe
called kings of Italy and their nobles, of the kings of
France, and of the emperors of Germany, it is difficult
to have any clear idea. The following fliort Iketch,
however, may perhaps give fome fatisfa&ion on this
perplexed fubjedt.
At the time Louis the fon of Charlemagne was de- Hiftory of
elated emperor of the Weft, Italy was held by Ber-the difturb-
nard the fon of Pepin, brother to Louis. Though thisances in l'
Bernard bore the title of king, yet he was only ac- th/time" of
counted a vaffal of the emperor. His ambition, how- charle-
ever, foon prompted him to rebel againft his uncle'; magne.
but being abandoned by his troops, he was taken pri-
foner, had his eyes pulled out, and died three days
after. As the difturbances ftill continued, and the
nobles of Lombardy were yet very refra&ory, Lo-
thaire, eldeft fon to the emperor, was in the year
823 fent into Italy ; of which country he was tirft
crowned king at Rome, and aftewards emperor of the
Weft, during his father’s lifetime. But though his
abilities were fufficient to have fettled every thing in a
ftate of tranquillity, his unbounded ambition promp¬
ted him to engage in rebellion againft his father ;
whom he more than once took prifoner ; though in the
end he was obliged to fubmit, and aik pardon for his
offences, which was obtained only on condition of his
not palling the Alps without leave obtained from his
father.
In the mean time, the Saracens, taking advantage
of thefe inteftine wars, landed on the coafts of Italy,
and committed fuch ravages, that-even the bifhops
were obliged to arm themfelves for the defence of the
Italy.
thought proper to continue them in their command
or government. Padua and fome other cities Al-
boinus left behind him without attempting to re¬
duce them, either becaufe they were too well garri-
foned, or becaufe they lay too much out of his way.
In 570, he entered Liguria. The inhabitants were fo
terrified at his approach, that they left their habita¬
tions with fuch of their effedts as they could carry off,
and fled into the moft mountainous and inacceffible
"Who re- parts of the country. The cities of Brefcia, Barga-
duce the mo, Lodi, Como, and others quite to the Alps, being
greateft i£ft almoft without inhabitants, fubmitted of courfe ;
^part of I- after wfiich he reduced Milan, and was thereupon pro¬
claimed king of Italy.
But though the Lombards had thus conferred the
title of king of Italy on their fovereign, he was by no
means poffeffed of the whole country, nor indeed was
it ever in the power of the Lombards to get poffeffion
of the whole. Alboinus having made himfelf mafter
of Venetia, Liguria, Atmilia, Hetruria, and Umbria,
applied himfelf to legillation and the civilifation of his
fubjedfs. But before he could make any progrefs in
this work, he was taken off by the treachery of his
wife ; and Clephis, one of the nobles, chofen king in
dus ftead. Clephis rebuilt fome cities which had been
ruined during the wars between the Goths and Ro¬
mans, and extended his conquefts to the very gates of
Rome; but as he behaved both to the Romans and
Lombards with the greateft cruelty, he was murdered,
after a ftiort reign of 18 months. His cruelty gave the
Lombards fuch an averfion againft regal power, that
they changed their form of government, being govern¬
ed only by their dukes for the fpace of ten years. Du¬
ring this interregnum, they proved fuccefsful in their
wars with the Romans, and made themfelves mafters
of feveral cities : but perceiving that their kingdom,
thus divided, could not fubfift, they refolved once
more to fubmit to the authority of one man ; and ac¬
cordingly, in 585, Autharis was chofen king of the
Lombards.
The great objedl of ambition to the new race of
Lombard monarchs was the conqueft of all Italy ; and
; Subdued by this proved at laft the ruin of their empire by Charles
' Charle- the Great, as related under the article France, n° 27,
. 36
•nagne. As the Lombards, however, had not been poffeffed of country. Lothaire, however, after returning from his
the whole territory of Italy, fo the whole of it never
came into the poffeffion of Charlemagne : neither, fince
the time of the Goths, has the whole of this country
been under the dominion of any Angle ftate. Some of
the fouthern provinces were ftill poffeffed by the em¬
perors of Conftantinople ; and the liberal grants of Pe¬
pin and Charlemagne himfelf to the pope, had invefted
him with a confiderable ftiare of temporal power. The
territories of the pope indeed were fuppofed to be held
in vaffalage from France ; but this the popes them-
3<; felves always ftiffly denied. The undifputed territory
Charlemagne in Italy, therefore, was reftridted to
Auninions. Piedmont, the Milanefe, the Mantuan, the territory
unnatural war with his father, was fo far from attempt¬
ing to put an end to thefe ravages, or to reftore tran¬
quillity, that he feized on fome places belonging to the
lee of Rome, under pretence that they were part of
his kingdom of Lombardy ; nor would he forbear
thefe encroachments till exprefsly commanded to do
fo by his father. After having embroiled himfelf, and
almoft loft all his dominions, in a war with his brothers
after the death of Louis, and declared his fon, alfo
called Louis, king of Italy, this ambitious prince
died, leaving to Louis the title of emperor as well
as king of Italy, with which he had before invefted
him.
The
I T A l 315 1 I T A
The new emperor applied himfelf to the reftoration
of tranquillity in his dominions, and driving out the
Saracens from thofe places which they had feized in I-
taly. This he fully accomplilhed, and obliged the in*
fidels to retire into Africa ; but in 875 he died with¬
out naming any fucceflbr. After his death, fome of
the Italian nobles, headed by the duke of Tufcany,
reprefented to the pope, that as Louis had left no
fuccefibr, the regal dignity, which had fo long been
ufurped by foreigners, ought now to return to the I-
talians. The pope, however, finding that Charles
the Bald, king of France, had fuch an ambition for
the imperial crown, that he would flick at nothing to
obtain it, refolved to gratify him, though at as high
a price as polfible. He accordingly crowned him em¬
peror and king of Lombardy, on condition of his own¬
ing the independency of Rome, and that he himfelf
only held the empire by the gift of the pope. This
produced a confpiracy among the difcontented nobles;
and at the fame time the Saracens renewing their in-
curfions, threatened the ecclefiaftical territories with
the utmoft danger. The pope folicited the emperor’s
afiiftancewith thegreateftearneftnefs; but the latter died
before any thing effe&ual could be done : after which,
being diftreffed by the Saracens on one hand, and the
Lombard nobles on the other, the unhappy pontiff was
forced to fly into France. Italy now fell into the ut-
moft confufion and anarchy ; during which time many
of the nobles and ftates of Lombardy affumed an inde¬
pendence, which they have ever fince retained.
In 879, the pope was recondufted to Italy with an
army by Bofon fon-in-law to Louis II. of France : but
though he inclined very much to have raifed this prince
to the dignity of king of Italy, he found his intereft
infufficient for that purpofe, and matters remained in
their former fituation. The nobles, who had driven
out the pope, were now indeed reconciled to him : but
notwithflanding this reconciliation, the date of the
country was worfe than ever ; the great men renoun¬
cing the authority of any fuperior, and every one
claiming to be fovereign in his own territories. To
add to the calamities which enfued through the am¬
bition of thefe defpots, the Saracens committed every
where the mod terrible ravages; till at laft. the Italian
nobles, defpifing the kings of the Carlovingian race,
who had weakened themfelves by their mutual difl'en-
tions, began to think of throwing off even all nominal
fubmiffion to a foreign yoke, and retaining the imperial
dignity among themfelves. Thus they hoped, that, by
being more united among themfelves, they might be
more able to refill the common enemy. Accordingly,
in 885 they went to pope Adrian ; and requefting him
to join them in afferting the independency of Italy,
they obtained of him the two following decrees, viz.
That the popes, after their eleftion, might be confe-
crated without waiting for the prefence of the king or
his ambaffadors; and that, if Charles the Grofs died
without fons, the kingdom of Italy, with the title of
emperor, fhould be conferred on fome of the Italian,
nobles.
Thefe decrees were produdfive of the worft confe-
quences imaginable. The emperor complained of be¬
ing deprived of his right ; and the diffentions between
the Italian nobles themfelves became more fatal than
earer.. The two moft powerful of thefe noblemen, Be-
rengarius duke of Friuli, and Guido or Vido duke of Italy.
Spoleto, entered into an agreement, that on the death u—v—
of the emperor the former fhould feize on the king¬
dom of Italy, and the latter on the kingdom of
France. Berengarius fucceeded without oppofition ;
but Vido was difappointed, the French having al¬
ready chofen Eudes or Otho for their king. Up¬
on this he returned to Italy, and turned his arms .
againff Berengarius. Vido proved victorious in an
engagement, and drove his rival into Germany ; where
he fought the affiftance of Arnolphus, who had fuc¬
ceeded to the crown after the death of Charles. Ha¬
ving thus obtained the kingdom of Italy, Vido em¬
ployed his time in reforming the abufes of the date,
and confirming the grants formerly given to the pope,,
out of gratitude for his having fanftified his ufurpation
and declared him lawful king of Italy. This tran¬
quillity, however, was of ffiort duration. Arnolphus
fent an army into Italy; the Saracens from Spain ra¬
vaged the northern parts of the country, and getting
poffeflion of a caftle near the Alps, held it for many
years after, to the great diftrefs of the neighbouring
parts, which were expofed to their continual incur-
fions ; and at the fame time Benevento was befieged
and taken by the forces of the eaftern emperor, fo that
Vido found his empire very confiderably circumfcribed
in its dimenfions.
The new king, diftreffed by fo many enemies, affo-
ciated his fon Lambert with him in the government,
and bribed the Germans to return to their own coun¬
try. In 893, however, they again invaded Italy ; but
were fuddenly obliged to leave the country, after ha¬
ving put Berengarius in poffeflion of Pavia. In the
mean time, Vido died, and his fon Lambert drove
out Berengarius: but having joined a fadtion, head¬
ed by one Sergius, againft pope Formofus, the latter:
offered the kingdom of Italy to Arnolphus ; who there¬
upon entered the country with an army, befieged and
took Rome, maffacring the fadtion of Sergius with the
moft Unrelenting cruelty.
Arnolphus thus mafter of Italy, and crowned em¬
peror by the pope, began to form fchemes of ftrength-
ening himfelf in his new acquifitions by putting out
the eyes of Berengarius : but the latter having timely
notice of this treachery, fled to Verona; and the Ita¬
lians were fo provoked at this and the other cruelties of
Arnolphus, that they drove him out of the country.
His departure occafioned the greateft confufion at
Rome. Formofus died foon after; and the fucceffors to
the papal dignity, having now no army to fear, excited
thegreateftdifturbances. The body pfFormofus wasdug
up and thrown into the Tiber by one pope; after which
that pope was ftrangled, and Formofus’s body buried
again in the Vatican, by order of another. At laft the
coronation of Arnolphus was declared void, the Sergi-
an faftion entirely demolifhed, and the above mentioned
decrees of Adrian were annulled; it being now deter¬
mined that the eleCted popes ftiould not be confecrated ;
but in prefence of the emperor or his ambaffadors.
During thefe confufions Lambert enjoyed the king¬
dom in quiet; but the nobles hating him on account
of his arbitrary and tyrannical, government, began
again to think of Berengarius. In the mean time,
however, another faCtion offered the crown to Louis
king of Arles. This new competitor entered Italy-
,s wkhh
I T A I 37<5 ] I T A
ftaly. with an anny in 899 ; but was forced by Berengarius
■—r~-; to renounce his claim upon oath, and to fwear that
he would never again enter Italy, even though he
fhould be invited to be crowned emperor.—This oath,
however, was foon forgot. Louis readily accepted
of another invitation, and was crowned king of Italy
at Pavia in 901. The following year he forced Be¬
rengarius to fly into Bavaria ; but having unadvifedly
difbanded his army, as thinking himfelf now fecurely
feated on the throne, Berengarius, who watched every
opportunity, furprifed him at Verona, and put out
; his eyes. •
Thus ' Berengarius at laft became king of Italy
vwithout a rival; and held his kingdom for 30 years
, afterwards, without any oppofition from his fubjefts,
-who at laft became fenfible of the mifchiefs arifing
• from civil difcords. He was not yet, however, with-
out troubles. The Hungarians invaded Italy with a
formidable army, and advanced within a fmall diftance
of Pavia. Berengarius armed the whole force of his
dominions ; and came againft them with fuch a multi¬
tude, that the Hungarians retired • without venturing
an engagement. A great many of their men were loft
in palling a river ; upon which they fent deputies to
Berengarius, offering to reftore all their booty, and
never to come again into Italy, provided they were
, allowed ^ a fafe retreat. Thefe conditions were im-
r prudently denied ; upon which the Hungarians at¬
tacked the army of Berengarius in defpair, and de¬
feated them with great llaughter. After this they
. over-ran the whole country, and plundered the towns
of Trevifo, Vicenza, and Padua, without refiftance, the
inhabitants flying every where into fortified places.
This devaftation they continued for two years ; nor
. could their departure be procured without paying them
a large fum of money : which, however, proved of
little avail; for the following year they returned and
ravaged the -territory of Friuli without controul.
Scarcely were thefe invaders departed, when the Sa¬
racens, who had fettled at the foot of the Alps, in¬
vaded Apulia and Calabria, and made an irruption as
far as Acqui in the neighbourhood of Pavia ; while
the inhabitants, inftead of oppofing them, fled to
fome forts which had been erefted in the time of the
'firft irruption of the Hungarians. In 912, however,
John, prefbyter of Ravenna, having attained the pa¬
pal dignity by means of Theodora wife of Alderbert
count of Tufcany, applied himfelf to regulate the af¬
fairs of the church, and to reprefs the infults of the
Saracens. While he was confidering on the moft pro¬
per methods of effecting this, one of the Saracens, who
had received an injury from his countrymen, fled to
Rome, and offered to deliver the Italians from their
invafions, if the pope would but allow him a fmall
-body of men. His propofals being accepted, 60
young men were chofen, all well armed; who being
condu&ed by the Saracen into by-paths, attacked the
infidels as they were returning from their inroads, and
feveral times defeated great patties of them. Thefe
Ioffes affefting the Saracens, a general alliance was
concluded amongft all their cities; and having forti¬
fied a town on the Garigliano, they abandoned the
reft, and retired hither. Thus they became much
more formidable than before ; which alarming the
jpope, he confulted with Arnulphus prince of Bene-
JN°.i70*
vento and Capua, fending at the fame time ambaffa- Italy,
dors to Conftantine the Greek emperor, inviting him l——v—
to an alliance againft the infidels. The Saracens, un¬
able to withftand fuch a powerful combination, were
befieged in their city : where being reduced to great
firaits, they at laft fet fire to it, and fallied out into
the woods; but being purfued by the Italians, they
were all cut off to -a man.
‘in this expedition it is probable that Berengarius
gave great affiftance ; for this very year, 915, he was
crowned emperor by the pope. This gave difpleafure
to many of the ambitious nobles; confpiracies were
repeatedly formed againft him; in 922, Rodolphus
king of Burgundy was crowned alfo king of Italy ;
and in 924, Berengarius was treacheroufly affaffmated
at Verona ; of which difturbances the Hungarians
taking the advantage, plundered the cities of Mantua,
Brefcia, and Bergamo. Marching afterwards to Pa- .37
via, they inverted it clofely on all Tides; and about the
middle of March 925, taking advantage of the wind, burnt by
they fet fire to the houfes next the walls, and during the Hung*-
the confufion broke open the gates, and getting pof- nan6-
feflion of the city treated the inhabitants with the
greateft barbarity. Having burnt the capital of the
kingdom, they next proceeded to Piacenza, where
they plundered the fuburbs; and then returned to Pan-
nonia laden with booty.
The affairs of Italy now fell into the utmoft confu¬
fion. A faftion was formed againft Rodolphus in fa¬
vour of Hugh count of Arles. The latter prevailed,
and was crowned king at Pavia in 927. The Ita¬
lians, however, foon repented of their choice. The
Romans firft invited him to be their governor, and
then drove him out with difgrace; at the fame time
choofing a conful, tribunes, &c. as if they had defigned
to affert their ancient liberty. One fabtion, in the
mean time, offered the crown to Rodolphus, and the
other to Arnold duke of Bavaria, while the Saracens
took this opportunity to plunderthe city of Genoa.
Hugh, in the mean time, was not'ina&ive. Ha¬
ving colle&ed an army, he marched directly again ft
Arnold, and entirely defeated him. Rodclphus deli¬
vered him from all apprehenfions on his part, by en¬
tering into an alliance with him, and giving his daugh¬
ter Adelaide in marriage to Lotharius, Hugh’s fon.
Being thus free from all danger from foreign enemies,
he marched againft the Romans ; but with them he
alfo came to an agreement, and even gave his daugh¬
ter in marriage to Alberic, whom they had chofen
conful. In the mean time the country was infefted by
the Hungarians and Saracens, and at the fame time
depopulated by a plague. Endlefs confpiracies were
formed againft Hugh himfelf ; and at laft, in 94.7, he
was totally deprived of the regal power by Berenga¬
rius, grandfon to the firft king of that name ; foon
after which he retired into Burgundy, and became a
monk.
Though Berengarius was thus poffeffed of the fu-
preme power, he did not affume the title of king till
after the death of Lotharius, which happened in 950 j
but in the mean time Italy was invaded by Henry
duke of Bavaria, and the Hungarians. The former
took and plundered the city of Aquileia, and ravaged
the neighbouring country ; after which he returned
without moleftation into Germany : the latter made a
furious
I T A [ 377 1 I T A
Italy. Furious irruption ; and Berengarius being unable to
v  oppofe them, was at laft obliged to purchafe their de-
38 parture by money. In railing the fum agreed upon,
prefied^by however, Berengarius is faid to have been more op-
the Hunga- preflive than even the Hungarians themfelves. Every
rians and individual, without diftinfiion of age or fex, was
33er?nga- obliged to pay fo much for their head, not excepting
rJltS‘ even the poor. The churches were likewife robbed;
by which means the king raifed an immenfe fum of
money, tobuflielsof which he gave to the Hunga¬
rians, but kept the much greater part to himfelf.
Berengarius, not yet fatisfied, wanted to be put in
poflelfion of Pavia, which was held by Adelaide, the
widow of Lotharius. In order to obtain his purpofe,
he propofed a marriage between her and his fon Adel-
bert. This propofal was rejected ; upon which Be¬
rengarius befieged and took the city. The queen was
confined in a neighbouring caftle, from whence (he
made her efcape by a contrivance of her confeffor.
With him and one female attendant (he concealed
herfelf for fome days in a wood ; but being obliged
to remove from thence for want of food, (he applied
for prote&ion to Adelard bilhop of Reggio. By him
(he was recommended to his uncle Atho, who had a
(Irong cattle in the neighbourhood of Canoza. Here
(he was quickly befieged by Berengarius; upon which
meffenger^ were difpatched to Otho king of Germany,
acquainting him, that, by expelling Berengarius, and
marrying Adelaide, he might eafily obtain the king¬
dom of Italy. This propofal he readily accepted,
and married Adelaide; but allowed Berengarius to
retain the greateft part of his dominions, upon condi¬
tion of his doing homage for them to the kings of
Germany. He deprived him, however, of the duke¬
dom of Friuli and marquifate of Verona, which he
gave to Hemy duke of Bavaria.
Otho9 Berengarius, thus freed from all apprehenfion, not
crowned only opprefled his fubje&s in a moll, tyrannical manner,
kii g of but revolted againft: Otho himfelf. This at laft pro-
► em* ro^of cured hi® ru'n : f°r> ’n 9^l> Otho returned with an
the weft ° army into Italy, where he was crowned king by the
archbifhop of Milan ; and the year following was crown¬
ed emperor by the pope. On this occafion He received
the.imperial crown from his holinefs, and kiffed his
feet with great humility : after which they both went
to the altar of St Peter, and bound themfelves by a
folemn oath, the pope to be always faithful to the em¬
peror, and to give no afliftance to Berengarius or-A-
delbert his enemies; and Otho, to confult the welfare
of the church, and to rdlore to it all its patrimony
granted by former emperors. Otho, belides this, be¬
llowed very rich prefents on the church of St Peter.
He ordained that the ele&ion of popes (hould be ac¬
cording to the canons ; that the drifted pope (hould
not be confecrated till he had publicly promifed, in
prefence of the emperor’s commifTaries, to obferve every
thing formerly fpecified with regard to the rights of
the emperors; that thefe commiflaries (hould conftantly
rtfide at Rome, and make a report every year how
juftice was adminiftered by the judges; and in cafe of
any complaints, the commiflaries (hould lay them be¬
fore die pope ; but if he negk&ed to intimate them,
the imperial commiffaiies might then do what they
pleafed.
Thus we fee that Otho, however much he might
Vol. IX. Part I.
allow the pope’s fupremacy in fpiritual matters, plainly Italy,
aflumed the fovereignty in temporals to himfelf; and 'ir-—J
thus Italy was for upwards of 300 years accounted a
part of the German empire. The popes, however, by
no means relilhed this fuperiority of the emperor.
The latter was hardly departed, when the pope
(John XII.) broke the oath which he had juft be¬
fore fworn with fo much folemnity; and entered (lift
into an alliance with Adelbert count of Tufcany to
expel the Germans, and then folicited the Hungarians
to invade Italy. This treachery was foon punifhed
by Otho. He returned with part of his army, and
affembled a council of biftiops. As the pope did not
appear, Otho pretended great concern for his abfence.
The bifhops replied, that the confcioufnefs of his guilt
made him afraid to (how himfelf. The emperor then
inquired particularly into his crimes; upon which
the biftiops accufed him of filling the palace with
lewd women, of ordaining a biftiop in a liable, ca-
ftrating a cardinal, drinking the devil’s health, &c. 40
As the pope (till refufed to appear in order to juftify He depofea
himfelf from thefe charges, he was formally dtpofed ;the P0!*-
and Leo the chief fecretat'y, though a layman, ele&ed
in his (lead.
The new pope, in compliment to the emperor,
granted a bull, by which it was ordained that Otho
and his fucceflbrs ftiould have a right of appointing the
popes and invefting archbiftiops and biftiops; and
that none (hould dare to confecrate a biftiop without
leave obtained from the emperor. Thus were the af¬
fairs of the Italians ilill kept in the utmoft confufton
even during the reigh of Otho I. who appears to
have been a wife and adtive prince. He was no
fooner gone, than the new pope was depofed, all his
decrees annulled, and John replaced. The party of
Leo was now treated with great cruelty : but John
w as foon (lopped in his career; for about the middle
of May, the fame year (964) in which he had been
reftored, being furprifed in bed with a Roman lady,
he received a blow on the head from the devil (accord¬
ing to the authors of thofe times), of which he died
eight days after. After his death a cardinal-deacon,
named Benedict, was eledled by the Romans, but de-
pofed by Otho, and baniftied to Hamburgh.
The emperor was fcarce returned to Germany, when The Ita-
his fickle Italians revolted, and fent for Adelbert, who fianf revolt^
had fled to Corfica. But being foon reduced, they con- ^ut are rc''
tinued quiet for about a year; after which they re-dUCed‘
volted again, and imprifoned the pope. Otho, how¬
ever, provoked at their rebellious difpofition, foon re¬
turned, and puniftied the rebels with great feverity }
after which he made feveral laws for the better regu¬
lation of the city of Rome, granted feveral privileges
to the Venetians, and caufed his fon Otho, then only
13 years of age, to be crowned emperor.
This ceremony being over, Otho difpatched an am-
baflador to Nicephorus, emperor of Conftantinople,
demanding his ftep daughter Theophania in marriage
for the young emperor; but upon this alliance being
rejedled, and that not withqut circumftances of the
mod atrocious perfidy, Otho inftantly invaded the
countries.of Apulia and Calabria, and entirely defeated
the Greek army in thofe parts. In the mean time,
however, Nicephorus being killed, and his throne
ufurped by John Zimifces, Otho immediately entered
3 B into
I T A L 378 1 I T A
Italy, into an alliance, with the latter, and eafily obtained
Vn / Theophania for his fon. She was crowned with great
folemnity 0:1 the 8th of April 969 : at the fame time
it is pretended by fome authors, that the Greeks re¬
nounced their rights to Calabria and Apulia ; though
this is denied by others. After the celebration of this
marriage, the emperor undertook an expedition againft
the Saracens, who ftill relided at the foot of the Alps;
but being informed of the death of feveral nobles in
Germany, he thought proper to return thither, where
he died of an apoplexy in the year 973.
State of At the time of Otho’s death Italy was divided into
Italy at the the provinces of Apulia, Calabria, the -dukedom of
Otho Beneventp, Campania, Terra Romana, the dukedom
of Spoleto, Tufcany, Romagna, Lombardy, and the
marquifates of Acona, Verona, Friuli, Trevifo, and
Genoa. Apulia and Calabria were Hill claimed by
the.Greeks; but all the reft were either immediately
fubjeft to, or held of, the kings of Italy. Otho con¬
ferred Benevento (including the ancient Samnium)
on the duke of that name. Campania and Lucania
he gave to the dukes of Capu?, Naples, and Salerno.
Rome with its territory, Ravenna with the exarchate,
the dukedom of Spoleto, with Tufcany, and the mar-
quifate of Ancona, he granted to the pope ; and re¬
tained the reft of Italy under the form of a kingdom.
Some of the cities were left free, but all tributary.
He appointed feveral hereditary marquifates and coun¬
ties, but referved to himfelf the fovereign jurifdi&ion
in their territories. The liberty of the cities confifted
in a freedom to choofe their own magiftrates, to be
judged by their own laws, and to difpofe of their
own revenues, on condition that they took the oath
of allegiance to the king, and paid the cuftomary
tribute. The cities that were not free were governed
by the commiflaries or lieutenants of the emperor: but
the free cities were governed by two or more confuls,
afterwards called flete/tatef, chofen annually who took
the oath of allegiance to the emperor before the bi-
fhop of the 'city or the emperor's commiffary. The
tribute exacted was called foderum, parata, et manfiona-
ticum. By the foderum was meant a certain quantity
of corn which the cities were obliged to furnifh to the
king wdien marching with an army or making a
progrefs through the- country ; though the value of
this was frequently paid in money. By the parata
was underftood the expence laid out in keeping the
public roads and bridges in repair; and the manfwna-
ticum included thofe expences which were required for
lodging the troops or accommodating them in their
camp. Under pretence of this laft article the iuhabi
tants were fometimes ftripped of all they pofTeffed
except their oxen and feed for the land. Belides re¬
gulating what regarded the cities, Otho diftributed
honours and pofieffions to thofe who had ferved him
faithfully. The honours confided in the titles ofduke,
marquis, count, captain, vahafor, and valvafin; the
olfeffions were, befides land, the duties ariting from
arbours, ferries, roads, fifh-ponds, mills, falt-pits,
the ufes of rivers, and all pertaining to them, and
fuch like. The dukes, marquifes, and counts, were
thofe who received dukedoms, marquifates, and coun¬
ties, from the king in fiefs; the captains had the
command of a certain number of men by a grant from
the king, duke, marquis, or count; the valvafors
were fubordinate to the captains, and the valvafins to Italy,
them. —v'- J
Nofooner was the death of Gtho I. known in Italy,
than, as if they had been now freed from all reftraint, turbances"
the nobles declared war againft each other : fome ci- happen on
ties revolted, and chofe to themfelves confuls; while thethedeathof
dominions of others were feized by the nobles, who0thol?
confirmed their power by ere£ling citadels. Rome
efpecially was harafled by tumults, occafioned chiefly
by the feditious praftices of one Cincius, who prefled
his fellow-citizens to teftore the ancient republic. As
the pope continued firm in the interefls of the em¬
peror, Cincius caufed him to be ftrangled by one
Franco a cardinal deacon ; who was foon after re¬
warded with the pontificate, and took upon him the
name of Boniface VII. Another Pope was chofen by
the fa&ion of the count of Tufcany; who being ap¬
proved by the emperor, drove Cincius and Boniface
out of the city. Difturbances of a fimilar kind took
place in other cities, though Milan continued quiet
and loyal in the midft of all this uproar and confu-
fion.
In the mean time Boniface fled for refuge to Con-
ftantinople, where he excited the emperor to make
war againft Otho II. In 979 an army was accordingly
fent into Italy, which conquered Apulia and Calabria;
but the next year Otho entered Italy with a formidable
army ; and having taken a fevere revenge on the au¬
thors of the difturbances, drove the Greeks entirely out
of the provinces they had feized. Having then caufed
his fon Otho III. at that time a boy of ten years of
age. to be proclaimed emperor, he died at Rome in
the year 983. Among the regulations made by this
emperor, one is very remarkable, and muft give us a
flrange idea of the inhabitants of Italy at that time.
He made a law. That no Italian fliould be believed
upon his oath ; and that in any difpute which could
not be decided otherwife than by witnefles, the parties
iho-nld have recocrfe to a duel.
Oiho III. fucceeded to the empire at twelve years
of age; and during his minority the diihirbanccs in
Italy revived. Cincius, called alfo Crefcentius, re¬
newed his fcheme of reftoring the republic. The
pope (John XV.) oppofing his fchemes, was driven
out of the city ; but was foon after recalled, on hearing
that he had applied to the emperor for affiftance. A
few years after Crefcentins again revolted, and ex¬
pelled Gregory V. the fuccefibr of John XV-; railing
to the p-apal dignity a creature of his own under the
name of John XVI. Otho, enraged at this infult, R
returned to Rome with a powerful army in 998, be- -!
fieged and took it by aflault; after which he caufed Ocho III.
Crefcentius to be beheaded, and the pope he had fet
up to be thrown headlong from t he caftle of St. An¬
gelo, after having his eyes pulled out, and his nofe cut
off. Four years after, he himfelf died of the final!-pox;
or, according to fome, was poifoned by the widow of
Crefcentius, whom he had debauched under a promife
of marriage, juft as he was about to punilh the Romans
for another revolt.
Otho was fucceeded' in the imperial throne by Hen¬
ry duke of Bavaria, and grandfon to Otho II. Henry
had no fooner fettled the affairs of Germany, than he
found it neceflary to march into Italy againft Ardouin
marquis of Ivrea, who had affumed the title of King
ef
I T A [ 379 1 1 T A
Italy, of Italy. Him he defeated in an engagement, and
wa& himfelf crowned king of Italy at Pavia in 1005 >
but a few years after, a new conteft arofe about the
papal chair, which again required the prefence of the
emperor. Ikfore he arrived, however, one of the
competitors (Benedidf VIII.) had got the better of
his rival, and both Henry and his queen received the
imperial crown from his hands. Before the emperar en-
tered.ihe church, the pope propofedtohim the follow¬
ing queftion: “ Will you'obferve your fidelity to me
and my fucceffors in every thing ?” To which, though
a kind of homage, he fubmitted, and anfwered in the
affirmative. After his coronation, he confirmed the
privileges bellowed on the Roman fee by his prede-
ceflbrs, and added fome others of his own ; Hill, how¬
ever, referving for himfelf the fovereignty and the
power of fending commiffaries to hear the grievances
of the people. Having repelled the incurfions of the
Saracens, reduced fome more rebellions of his fubjedts,
and reduced the greateft part of Apulia and Calabria,
he died in the year 1024.
The death of this emperor was, as ufual, followed
by a competition for the crown. Conrad being chofen
emperor of Germany, was declared king of Italy by
the archbilhop of Milan ; while a party of the nobles
made offer of the crown to Robert king of France,
or his fon Hugh. But this offer being declined, and
likewife another to William duke of Guienne, Conrad
enjoyed the dignity conferred on him by the archbi-
ffiop without moleftation. He was crowned king-*of
Italy at Monza in 1026; and the next year he recei¬
ved the imperial crown from pope John XX in pre¬
fence of Canute the Great, king of England, Den¬
mark, and Norway, and Rodolph III. king of Bur¬
gundy. His reign was limilar to- that of his prede-
ceffors. The Italians revolted, the pope was expelled,
the malecontents were fubdued, and the pope reitored ;
after which the emperor returned to Germany, and
died in 1039.
45 Under Henry III. who fucceeded Conrad, the dif-
def6 in-°r turhances were prodigioully augmented. Pope Syl-
ereafe ndcrvefter I*■ was driven out by Benedict; who in his
Henry 111. turn was expelled by John bilhop of Sabinum, who
affumed the title of Sylvejler III. 1 hree months af¬
ter Benedidl was reftored, and excommunicated his ri¬
vals ; but foon after refigned the pontificate for a fum
of money. In a fhort time he reclaimed it; and thus
there were at once three popes, each of whom was
Supported on a branch of the papal revenue, while all
of them made themfelves odious by the fcandalous lives
they led. At lait a priell called Gratian put an end
to this fingular triumvirate. Paitly by artifice, and
partly by prefents, he perfuaded all the three to
renounce their pretenfions to the papacy ; and the
people of Rome, out of gratitude for fo fignal a fer-
vice to the church, chofe him pope, under the name
of Gregory VI. Henry III. took umbrage at this
eledtion, in which he had not been confulted, and
marched with an army into Italy. He depofed Gre¬
gory, as having been guilty of limony ; and filled the
pap. l chair with his own chancellor Heidiger, bifhop
of Bamberg, who afiumed the name of Clement II.
and afterwards confecrated Henry and the emprefs
Agnes. This ceremony being over, and the Romans
Laving fworn never to eledl a pope without the appro-
4
bation of the reigning emperor, Henry proceeded to
Capua, where he was vifited by Drago, Rainulphus, v~~J
and other Norman adventurers; who leaving their
country at different times, had made themfelves ma¬
ilers of great part of Apulia and Calabria, at the ex- 4(5
pence of the Greeks and Saracens. Henry entered He invefis
into treaty with them ; and not only folemnly irtveiled the Nor¬
thern with thofe territories which they had acquired by
conqueil, but prevailed on the pope to excommuni toWeVh"1*
cate the Beneventines, who had refufed to open their Apulia and
gates to him, and bellowed that city and its depend- Calabria,
ences, as fiefs of the empire, upon the Normans, pro¬
vided they took poffeffion by force of arms. The em¬
peror was fcarce returned to Germany when he re¬
ceived intelligence of the death of Clement II. He
was fucceeded in the apoftolic fee by Damafus II.;
who alfo dying foon after his elevation, Henry nomi¬
nated Bruno biihop of Toul to the vacant chair. This
Bruno, who was the emperor’s relation, immediately
affumed the pontificals; but being a modeft and pious
prelate, he threw them off on his journey, by the per-
fuafion of a monk of Cluny, name Hildebrand, after¬
wards the famous Gregory VII. and went to Rome
as a private man. “ The emperor alone (faid Hilde¬
brand) has no right to create a pope.” He accom¬
panied Bruno to Rome, and fecretly retarded his elec¬
tion, that he might arrogate to himfelf the merit of
obtaining it. The fcheme fucceeded to his wifii:
Bruno, who took the name of Leo IX. believing him¬
felf indebted to Hildebrand for the pontificate, fa¬
voured him with his particular friendfiiip and confi¬
dence; and hence originated the power of this enter-
priling monk, of obfeure birth, but boundlefs ambi¬
tion, who governed Rome fo long, and whofe zeal for
the exaltation of the church occafioned fo many troubles
to Europe.
Leo loon after his elevation waited on the empe¬
ror at Worms, to crave affiftance againff the Norman
princes, wl a, were become the terror of Italy, and
treated their fubjedts- with great feverity. Henry
furnifhed the pope with an army ; at the head of which
he marched againll the Normans, after having excom¬
municated them, accompanied by a great number of
biffiops and other eccldiallics, who were all either
killed or taken prifoners, the Germans and Italians
being totally routed. Leo himi'elf was led captive to
Bencvento, which the Normans were now mailers of,
and which Henry had granted to the pope in exchange
for the fief of Bamberg in Germany ; and the apollo-
lic fee is to this day in poffeffion of Benevento, by
virtue of that donation. The Normans, however, who
had a right to the city by a prior grant, reilored it,
in the mean time, to the princes of Lombardy ; and
Leo was treated with fo much refpedl by the conque¬
rors, that he revoked theientence of excommunication,
and joined his fandlion to the imperial invelliture for
the lands which they held in Apulia and Calabria.
Leo died foon after his relcafe ; and the emperor
about the fame time caufed his infant fon, afterwards pje i^y
the famous Henry IV. to be declared king of the Ro- declared
mans, a title Hill in ufe for the acknowledged heir of king of the
the empire. Gcbehard, a German bifnop, was eiedl- Roinans*
ed pope, under the name of Victor II. and confirmed
by the addrefs of Hildebrand, who waited on the em¬
peror in perfon for that purpofe, though he difdained
Bb 2 to
I T A [ 3S0 ] I T A
to confult lam beforehand. Perhaps Hildebrand would
not have found this talk fo eafy, had not Henry been
involved in a war with the Hungarians, who prefled
him hard, but whom he obliged at laft to pay a large
tribute, and furnifli him annually with a certain number
of fighting men.
As foon as the emperor had finiftied this war and
others to which it gave rife, he marched into Italy
to infpeft the conduft of his After Beatrice, widow
of Boniface marquis of Mantua, and made her pri-
foner. She had married Gozelo, duke of Lorrain,
without the emperor’s confent ; and contrafted her
daughter Matilda, by the marquis of Mantua, to God¬
frey duke of Spoleto and Tufcany, Gozelo’s fon by a
former marriage. This formidable alliance juftly alarm¬
ed Henry; he therefore attempted to diflblve it, by
carrying his After into Germany, where he died foon
after his return, in the 39th year of his age, and the
16th of his reign.
This emperor, in his laft journey to Italy, conclu¬
ded an alliance with Contarini, doge of Venice. That
republic was already rich and powerful, though it had
only been enfranchifed in the year 998, from the tri¬
bute of a mantle of cloth of gold, which it formerly
paid, as a mark of fubjeftion to the emperors of Con-
llantinople. Genoa was the rival of Venice in power
and in commerce, and was already in poflefiion of the
ifland of Corfica which the Genoefe had taken from
the Saracens. Thefe two cities ingrofled at this time
almoft all the trade of Europe. There was no city
in any refpeft equal to them either in France or Ger-
48 many.
Increafe of Henry IV. was only five years old at his father’s
the pope's death. The popes made ufe of the refpite given them
power. jjjg mjnor{ty> to (hake off in a great meafure their
dependence upon the emperors. After a variety of con-
tefts about the pontificate, Nicholas II. a creature of
Hildebrand’s, was elcfted ; who, among others, pafled
the following celebrated decree, viz. Tha'-Tor the fu¬
ture, the cardinals only fhould el eft the por:; and that
the eleftion fhould afterwards be confirmed by the reft
of the clergy and the people, “ faving the honour
(adds he) due to our dear fon Henry, now king; and
who, if it pleafe God, fhall be one day emperor, ac¬
cording to the right which we have already conferred
upon him.” After this he entered into a treaty with
the Norman princes above mentioned; who, though
they had lately fworn to hold their pofleflions from the
emperor, now fwore to hold them from the pope ; and
hence arofe the pope’s claim of fovereignty over the
kingdom of Naples and Sicily.
Thus was the power of the German emperors in
Italy greatly diminifhed, and that of the popes pro¬
portionally exalted ; of which Henry foont had fuffi-
cient evidence. For having affumed the government
into his own hands in the year 1072, being then 22
HU ?onteftyears aSe» was furnmoned by Alexander II. to
with the appear before the tribunal of the holy fee, on account
emperor. 0f his loofe life, and to anfwer the charge of ha¬
ving expofed the inveftiture of bilhops to fale ; at the
fame time that the pope excited his German fubjefts
to rebel againft him. The rebels, however, were de¬
feated, and peace was reftored to Germany: but
foon after, Hildebrand above mentioned being elefted
to the pontificate under the name of Gregory VII.
openly affumed the fuperiority over every earthly mo¬
narch whatever. He began with excommunicating haly.
every ecclefiaftic who fhould receive a benefice from  v-—1
the hands of a layman, and every layman who fhould
take upon him to confer fuch a benefice. Henry, in-
ftead of refenting this infolence, fubmitted, and wrote
a penitential letter to the pope: who, upon this, con-
defeended to take him into favour, after having feverely
reprimanded him for his loofe life ; of which the em¬
peror now confefled himfelf guilty.
The quarrel between the church and the emperor
was, however, foon brought to a crifis by the follow¬
ing accident. Solomon, king of Hungary, being de-
pofed by his brother Geyfa, had fled to Henry for
proteftion, and renewed the homage of Hungary to
the empire. Gregory, who favoured Geyfa, exclaimed
againft this aft of fubmiflion ; and faid in a letter to
Solomon, “ You ought to know that the kingdom of
Hungary belongs to the Roman church; and learn
that you will incur the indignation of the holy fee, if
you do not acknowledge that you hold your domi¬
nions of the pope and not of the emperor.” Henry,
though highly provoked at this declaration, thought
proper to treat it with negleft ; upon which Gregory
refumed the difpute about inveftitures. The prede-
ceflors of Henry had always enjoyed the right of no¬
minating bifhops and abbots, and of giving them in¬
veftiture by the crofs and the ring. This right they
had in common with almoft all princes. The prede-
ceflbrs of Gregory VII. had been accuftomed, on their
part, to fend legates to the emperors, in order to in¬
treat their afliftance, to obtain their confirmation, or
defire them to come and receive the papal fanftion,
but for no other purpofe. Gregory, however, feat
two legates to fummon Henry to appear before him as
a delinquent, becaufe he Hill continued to beftow in¬
veftitures, notwithftanding the apoftolic decree to the
contrary; adding, that if he (hould fail to yield obe¬
dience to the church, he muft expeft to be excommu¬
nicated and dethroned. Incenfed at this arrogant
mefiage from one whom he comfidered as' his vaflal,
Henry difmifled the legates with very little ceremony,
and in 1706 convoked an afiembly of all the princes
and dignified ecclefiaftics at Worms; .where, after ma- The empe-
ture deliberation, they concluded, that Gregory ha- ror depofes
ving ufurped the chair of St Peter by indireft means,thc P°Pe>
infefted the church of God with a great many novel¬
ties and abufes, and deviated from his duty to his fove-
reign in feveral fcandalous attempts, the emperor, by
that fupreme authority derived from his predeceflbrs,
ought to diveft him of his dignity, and appoint ano¬
ther in his place. In confequence of this determina¬
tion, Henry fent an ambaflador to Rome, with a for¬
mal deprivation of Gregory ; who, in his turn, convo¬
ked a council, at which were prefent no bifhops, who
unanimoufly agreed that the pope had juft caufe to
depofe Henry, to diflblve the oath of allegiance which
the princes and ftates had taken in his favour, and to
prohibit them from holding any correfpondence with
him on pain of excommunication ; which was immedi¬
ately fulminated againft the emperor and his adhe- ^nd^he ths.
rents. “ In the name of Almighty God, and by our emperor;
authority (faid Gregory), I prohibit Henry, the fon
of our emperor Henry, from governing the Teutonic
kingdom and Italy: I releafe all Chriftians from their
oath of allegiance to him ; and ftriftly forbid all per-
fons from ferving or attending him asking !” The cir¬
cular
I T A [ 381 ] I T A
Italy, cular letters written by this pontiff breathe the fame
‘—“V ' fpirit with his fentence of depofuion. He there re¬
peats feveral times, that “ bifhops are fuperior to kings,
and made to judge them !” expr.effions alike artful and
prefumptuous, and calculated for bringing in all the
churchmen of the world to his ftandard.
Gregory knew well what confequences would fol¬
low the thunder of the church. The German bifhops
came immediately over to his party, and drew along
with them many of the nobles: the flame of civil war
ftill lay fmothering, and a bull properly directed was
fufficient to fet it in a blaze. The Saxons, Henry’s
old enemies, made ufe of the papal difpleafure as a
pretence for rebelling againfl him. Even Guelfe, to
whom the emperor had given the duchy of Bavaria,
fupported the malecontents with that power which he
owed to his fovereign’s bounty: nay, thofe very princes
and prelates who had alfifted in depofing Gregory,
gave up their monarch to be tried by the pope ; and
his holinefs was folicited to come to Augfburg for that
purpofe.
Willing to prevent this odious trial at Augfburg,
Henry took the unaccountable refolution of fuddenly
paffing the Alps at Tirol, accompanied only by a few
domeftics, to afk abfolution of Pope Gregory his op-
preffor; who was then in Canoza, on the Apennine
54 mountains, a fortrefs belonging to the countefs or
Who is at duchefs Matilda above mentioned. At the gates of
ace the emperor prefented himfelf as an humble
penitent. He alone was admitted without the outer
court; where, being ftripped of his robes, and wrap¬
ped in fack cloth, he was obliged to remain three days,
in the month of January, bare-footed and faffing, be¬
fore he was permitted to kifs the feet of his holinefs ;
who all that time was fhut up with the devout Matilda,
whofe fpiritual director he had long been, and, as fome
fay, her gallant. But be that as it may, her attach¬
ment to Gregory, and her hatred to the Germans, was
fo great, that fhe made over all her eftates to the apo-
ftolic fee ; and this donation is the true caufe of all the
wars which fince that period have raged between the
emperors and the popes. She, poffeffed in her own
right great part of Tufcany, Mantua, Parma, Reggio,
Placentia, Ferrara, Modena, Verona, and almoft the
whole of what is now called the patrimony of St Peter,
from Viterbo to Orvieto ; together with part of Um¬
bria, Spoleto, and the Marche of Ancona.
The emperor was at length permitted to throw him¬
felf ^it the pontiff’s feet ; who condefcended to grant
him abfolution, after he had fworn obedience to him
in all things, and promifed to fubmit to his folemn de-
cifion at Augfburg: fo that Henry got nothing but
difgrace by his journey ; while Gregory, elated by his
triumph; and now looking upon himfelf (not altoge¬
ther without reafon) as the lord and mafter of all the
crowned heads in Chriftendom, faid in feveral of his
letters, that it was his duty “ to pull down the pride
of kings.”
This extraordinary accommodation gave much dif-
guft to the princes of Italy. They never could forgive
the infolence of the pope, nor the abjeft humility of
the emperor. Happily, however, for Henry, their in¬
dignation at Gregory’s arrogance overbalanced their
deteftation of his meannefs. He took advantage of this
temper; and by a change of fortune, hitherto unknown
6
to the German emperors, he found a flrong party in Italy.
Italy, when abandoned in Germany. All Lombardy —y-—J
took up arms againft the pope, while he was raifing all
Germany againff the emperor. Gregory, on the other
hand, made ufe of every art to get another emperor
eledted in Germany; and Henry, on his part, left no¬
thing undone to perfuade the Italians to eledt another ^
pope. The Germans chofe Rodolph, duke of Suabia, Rodolph
who was folemnly crowned at Mentz ; and Gregory, chofen em-
hefitating on this occafion, behaved truly like the fu-P,eror of
preme judge of kings. He had depofed Henry, but0ermany''
ftill it was in his power to pardon that prince: he
therefore affefted to be difpleafed that Rodolph was
confecrated without his order; and declared, that he
would acknowledge as emperor and king of Germany,
him of the two competitors who fhould be moft fubmif-
five to the holy fee.
Henry, however, trufting more to the valour of his
troops than to the generofity of the pope, fet out im¬
mediately for Germany, where he defeated his enemies
in feveral engagements : and Gregory, feeing no hopes
of fubmiffion, thundered out a fecond fentence of ex-
communication againft him, confirming at the fame
time the eleftion of Rodolph, to whom he fent a golden
crown, on which the following well-known verfe, equally
haughty and puerile, was engraved :
Petra dedit Petro, Petrus diadema Rodolpho.
This donation was alfo accompanied with a mofl
enthufiaftic anathema againft Henry. After depriving
him of Jfrength in combat, and condemning him never
to be victorious, it concludes with the following re¬
markable apoftrophe to St Peter and St Paul: “ Make
all men fenfible, that as you can bind and loofe every
thing in heaven, you can alfo upon earth take from or
give to every one, according to his deferts, empires,
kingdoms, principalities—let the kings and the princes
of the age then inftantly feel your power, that they
may not dare to defpife the orders of your church ;
let your juftice be fo fpeedily executed upon Henry,
that nobody may doubt but he falls by your means,,
and not by chance.”
In order to avoid the effe&s of this fecond excom¬
munication, Henry affembled at Brixen, in the county
of Tirol, about 20 German bifhops : who adting alfo
for the bifhops of Lombardy, unanimoufly rdfolved*
that the pope, inftead of having power over the empe¬
ror, owed him obedience and allegiance ; and that Gre¬
gory VII. having rendered himfelf unworthy of the
papal chair by his condudf and rebellion, ought to be
depofed from a dignity he fo little deferved. They ac¬
cordingly degraded Hildebrand; and ele&ed in his
room Guibert, archbifhop of Ravenna, a perfon of un¬
doubted merit, who took the name of Clement HI.
Henry promifed to put the new pope in poffeffion of
Rome : but he was obliged, in the mean time, to em¬
ploy all his forces againft his rival Rodolph, who had
reaffembled a large body of troops in Saxony. The
two armies met near Merfburg, and both fought with Defeated
great fury ; but the fortune of the day feemed inclined and killed*
to Rodolph, when his hand was cut off by the famous
Godfrey of Bouillon, then in the fervice of Henry, and
afterwards renowned for his conqueft of Jerufalem.
Difcouraged by the misfortune of their chief, the re¬
bels immediately gave way ; and Rodolph perceiving
his end approaching, ordered the hand that was cut-
eg
I T A [38
Italy* off to be brought him, and made a fpeech to his offi-
u—■V"'—J cers on the occafion, which could not fail to have an
influence on the emperor’s affairs. “ Behold (faid
he) the hand with which I took the oath of allegi¬
ance to Henry ; and which oath, at the inftigation of
Rome, I have violated, in perfidioufly afpiring at an
honour that was not my due.”
Thus delivered from this formidable antagonift,
Henry foon difperfed the reft of his enemies in Ger¬
many, and fet out for Italy in order to fettle Clement
in the papal chair. But the gates of Rome being fhut
55 againft him, he was obliged to attack it in form. The
Rome fiege continued upwards of two years; Henry during
taken by j-hm time being obliged to quell forae infurreftions in
i enry Iv. Qerrnany q*he city was at length carried by affault,
and with difficulty faved from being pillaged ; but
Gregory was not taken : he retired into the caftle of
St Angelo, and thence defied and excommunicated
the conqueror. The new pope was, however, confe-
crated with the ufual ceremonies ; and expreffed his
gratitude by crowning Henry, with the concurrence
of the Roman fenate and people. Mean while the
fiege of St Angelo was going on ; but the emperor
being called about fome affairs into Lombardy, Robert
Guifcard took advantage of his abfence to releafe Gre¬
gory, who died foon after at Salerno. His laft words,
borrowed from the Scripture, were worthy of the
greateft faint: “ I have loved juftice, and hated ini¬
quity 5 therefore I die in exile !”
Henry, however, did not enjoy all the advantages
which might have been expedfted from the death of
Gregory. The fubfequent popes trod in the paths of
their predeceffor. In 1101, Pafcal II. excited young
Henry to rebel againft his father. The emperor did
all in his power to diffuade him from proceeding to
extremities, but in vain. The young prince perfifted
in his rebellious intentions ; and having by feigned
fubmiffions prevailed on the emperor to difband his
army, he treacheroufly feized and confined him. Hen¬
ry, however, found means to efcape from his con¬
finement, and attempted to engage all the fovereigns
of Euiope in his quarrel; but before any thing effec¬
tual could be done, he died at Liege in the year
56 1106.
Bifpute be- The difpute about inveftitures was not terminated
^e'and ^ t^e depoiition and death of Henry IV. His fon
Henry1^. Henry V. purfued the very fame conduct for which he
had depofed his father. Pafcal oppofed him with vio¬
lence ; upon which Henry gave him an invitation into
Germany, to end the difpute in an amicable manner.
Pafcal did not think proper to accept of this invita¬
tion ; but put hitnfelf under the protection of Philip I.
king of France, who undertook to mediate between
the contending parties. His mediation, however,
proved ineffectual, and Henry was prevented by the
wars in Hungary and Poland from paying any further
attention to the affair of inveftitures. At laft, having
fettled his affairs in Germany, he took a refolution of
going to Rome, in order to fettle the difpute perfo-
nally with the pope. To give his arguments the
greater weight, however, he marched at the head of
an army of 80,000 men. Pafcal received him with
great appearance of friendlhip, but would not renounce
the claim of inveftitures ; and Henry, finding himfelf
deceived in his expectations, ordered the pope to be
a ] I T A
feized. The confiff put the citizens in arms to defend I
the pope, and a battle was fought within the walls ot —*^r~*'4
Rome. The flaughter was fo great, that the waters
of the Tiber were tinged with blood. The Romans
were defeated, and Pafcal was taken prifoner. The
latter renounced his right of inveftiture ; folemnly
fwore never to refume it, and broke his oath as foon
as Henry was gone, by fulminating the fentence of
excommunication againft him. In 1114 died the
countefs Matilda, who had bequeathed all her domi¬
nions to the pope, as we have already obferved ; but
Henry thinking himfelf the only lawful heir, alleged,
that it was not in Matilda’s power to alienate her
eftates, which depended immediately on the empire.
He therefore fet out for Lombardy, and fent ambaffa-
dors to the pope, befeeching him to revoke the fen¬
tence of excommunication abovementioned. Pafcal,
however, would not even favour the ambaffadors with
an audience ; but dreading the approach of Henry
himfelf, he took refuge among the Norman princes in
Apulia. Henry arrived at Rome in 11175 but being
foon after obliged to leave it in order to fettle fome
affairs in Tufcany, the pope returned to Rome, but
died in a few days. On the third day after his de-
ceafe, cardinal Cajetan was eleCted his fucceffor, with¬
out the privity of the emperor, under the name of
Gelafeus II. The new pope was inftantly depofed by
Henry ; who fet up the archbifhop of Prague, under
the name of Gregory VIII. Gelafius,! though lup-
ported by the Norman princes, was obliged to take
refuge in France, where he died; and the archbiftiop
of Vienna was eleCted by the cardinals then prefent
under the name of Calixtus II.
The new pope attempted an accommodation with
Henry ; which not fucceeding, he excommunicated
the emperor, the antipope, and his adherents. He
next fet out for Rome, where he was honourably re¬
ceived; and Gregory VIII. was forced to retire to
Sutri, a ftrong town garrifoned by the emperor’a
troops. Here he was befieged by Calixtus and the
Noman princes. The city was foon taken, and Gre¬
gory thrown into prifon by his competitor ; but at
laft, the ftates of the empire being quite wearied out
with fuch a long quarrel, unanimoufly fupplicated
Henry for peace. He referred himfelf entirely to
their decifion ; and a diet being affembled at Wurtz-
burg, it was decreed that an embaffy Ihould be imme¬
diately fent to the pope, defiling that he would con¬
voke a general council at Rome, by which all difputes
might be determined. This was accordingly done, and Determfna-
the affair of inveftitures at length regulated in the fol- don of the
lowing manner, viz. That the emperor fliould leave the J
communities and chapters at liberty to fill up their v *
own vacancies, without bellowing inveftitures with the
crofs and ring ; that he Ihould reftore all that he had
unjuftly taken from the church; that all eledtions
fliuuld be made in a canonical manner, in prefence
of the emperor or his commiffaries : and whatever dif¬
putes might happen, {hould be referred to the decifion
of the emperor, affifted by the metropolitan and his
fuffragrans ; that the perfon ele&ed {hould receive from
the emperor the inveftiture of the fiefs and fecular
rights, not with the crofs, but with the feeptre ; and
Ihould pay allegiance to him for thefe rights only.
After the death of Henry, the ufual diforders took
place
i t a [ ;
Italy, place in Italy ; during which, Roger duke of Apulia
conquered the ifland of Sicily, and aflumed the right
of creating popes, of whom there were two at that
time, viz. Innocent II. and Anacletus. Roger drove
out the former, and Lothario emperor of Germany
the latter, forcing Roger himfclf at the fame time to
retire into Sicily. The emperor then conducted In¬
nocent back to Rome in triumph; and having fubdued
all Apulia, Calabria, and the reft of Roger’s Italian
dominions, eredted them into a principality, and be-
ftowed it, with the title of duke, upon Renaud a Ger¬
man prince, and one of his own relations.
In the reign of Conrad III. who fucceeded Lotha¬
rio, the celebrated factions called the Guelphs and
• See Gibelines*, arofe, which for many years deluged the
Guelph* and c;tjes Gf Italy with blood. They took their origin
Gibelines. (3ur;ng a C;V{1 war in Germany, in which the enemies
of the emperor were ftyled Guelphs, and his friends
Gilelines; and thefe names were quickly received in
Italy as well as other parts of the emperor’s dominions.
Of this civil war many of the cities in Italy took the
advantage to fet up for themfclves; neither was it in
the power of Conrad, who during his whole reign was
. employed in unfticcefsful crufades, to reduce them ;
Italv in- l5111 *n 1 !58 Frederic Barbaroffa, fucceffur to Con-
vaded hy rad, entered Italy at the head of a very numerous and
•Frederic Well difeiplined army. His army was divided into fe-
BarbaroiTa. verai columns for the conveni.ucy of entering the
country by as many different routes. Having pafftd
the Alps, he reduced the town of Brefcia; where he
made feveral falutary regulations for the prefervation
of good order and military difeipline. Continuing to
advance, he befieged Milan, which furrendered at dif-
cretion. He was crowned king of Lombardy at
Monza; and having made himfelf mailer of all the
other cities of that country, he ordered a minute in¬
quiry to be fet on foot concerning the rights of the
empire, and exacted homage of all thofe who held of
it, without excepting even the bifhops. Grievances
were redreffed ; magiftracies reformed ; the rights of
regality difeuffed and afeertained ; new laws enafted
for the maintenance of public tranquillity and the en¬
couragement of learning, which now began to revive
in the fehool of Bologna ; and, above all, fubvaffals
were not only prohibited from alienating their lands,
but alfo compelled, in their oath to their lords para¬
mount, to except the emperor nominally, when they
ftvore to ferve and affift them again!! all their enemies.
The pope took umbrage at this behaviour towards the
efcilefiallies : but Frederic juftified what he had done,
telling his deputies it was but reafonable they (hould
do homage for the fiefs they poffeffed ; as Jefus Chrift
himfelf, though the lord of all the foverrigns upon
earth, had deigned to pay for himfelf and St Peter the
tribute which was due to Caefar.
Frederic having fent commiffaries to-fuperiatend the
eledlion of new magiftrates at Milan, the inhabitants
were fo much provoked at this i. •! • nent of their
old privileges, that they infulted the irnperialifts, re¬
volted, and refuted to appear before the emperor’s tri¬
bunal. This he highly rtfented, and refolved to chaf-
tife them feverely: for which purpofe he fent for a
reinforcement from Germany, i ich loon after arrived
with the emprefs, while he himfelf ravaged Liguria,
13 I I T A
declared the Milanefe rebels to the empire, and plun- Ifaty-
dered and burnt the city of Crema which was in al- V“,“J
liance with that of Milan.
In the mean time, pope Adrian IV. dying, two
oppoiite fa&ions eledled two perfons known by the
names of Vitlor II. and Alexander III. The empe¬
ror’s allies neceffarily acknowledged the pope chofen
by him ; and thofe princes who were jealous of the
emperor, acknowledged the other. Vidor II. Frede¬
ric’s pope, had Germany, Bohemia, and one half of
Italy, on his fide p while the reft fubmitted to Alex-
ander III. The emperor took a fevere revenge on his He take*
enemies ; Milan was razed from the foundation, and aud de-
falt ftreyved on its ruins; Brefcia and Placentia were
difmantled ; and the other cities which had taken part ’
with them were deprived of their privileges. Alexan¬
der III. however, who had excited the revolt, returned
to Rome after the death of his rival; and at his re¬
turn the civil war was renewed. The emperor caufed
another pope, and after his death a third, to be elec¬
ted. Alexander then fled to France, the common a-
fylum of every pope who was oppreffed by the empe¬
rors ; but the flames of civil difeord which he had rai-
fed continued daily to fpread. In 1168, the cities
of Italy, fupported by the Greek emperor and the
king of Sicily, entered into an affociation for the de¬
fence of their liberties ; and the pope’s party at leno-th
prevailed. In 1 176, the imperial army, worn out by
fatigues and difeafes, was defeated by the confederates,
and Frederic himfelf narrowly efcaped. About the
fame time, h ■ was defeated at fea by the Venetians';
and his eldeft fon Henry,, who commanded his fleet,
fell into the hands of the enemy. The pope, in ho¬
nour of this victory, failed out into the open fea, ac¬
companied by the whole fenate ; and after having pro¬
nounced a thoufand benedictions on that element, threw
into it a ring .as a mark of his gratitude and affeftion.
Hence the origin of that ceremony which is annually
performed by rhe Venetians, under the notion of efpou-
fing the Adriatic. Thefe misfortunes difpofed the
emperor towards a reconciliation with the pope : but,
reckoning it below his dignity to make an advance, he
rallied his troops, and exerted himfelf with fo much.
vigour in repairing his lofs, that the confederates were
defeated in a battle ; after which he made propofals of
peace, which were, now joyfully accepted, and Venice 60
was the place appointed for a reconciliation. The em- Submits
P-ror, the pope, and a great many princes and cardi-t0 theP0Pe«
rials, attended; and there the emperor, in 1177, Put
an end to the difpute, by acknowledging the pope,
killing his feet, and holding his ftirrup while he mount¬
ed his mule. This reconciliation was attended with
the fubmiffion of all the towns of Italy wjiich had en¬
tered into an affociation for their mutual defence.
They obtained a general pardon, and were left at li¬
berty to ufe their own laws and forms of government, .
but were obliged to take the oath of allegiance to the
emperor as their fuperior lord. Calixtus, the anti¬
pope, finding himfdf abandoned by the emperor in
confequence of rhis treaty, made alfo his fubmilfion to •
Alexander, who received him with great humanity 5
and in order to prevent for the future thofe diitur-
bances which bad fo often attended the eleitions of
the popes, he called a general council, in which it was
decreed, ,
61
Frederic
fucceeded
ry VlT
His per-
tfi ly and
cruelty.
I T A [ 384 ] 1 T A
decreed, that no pope ftiould be deemed duly elec¬
ted without having two-thirds of the votes in his fa¬
vour.
The affairs of Italy being thus fettled, Barbarofla
returned to Germany ; and having quieted fome dif-
turbances which had arifen during his abfence in Ita¬
ly, at la ft. undertook an expedition into the Holy
Land ; where having performed great exploits, he was
drowned as he was fwimming in the river Cydnus, in
the year 1190- He was fucceeded by his fon Hen¬
ry VI. who at the fame time became heir to the domi¬
nions of Sicily by the right of his wife, daughter of
William king of that country. After fettling the af¬
fairs of Germany, the new emperor marched with an
army into Italy, in order to be crowned by the pope,
and to recover the fuccdfion of Sicily, which was
ufurped by Tancred his wife’s natural brother. For
this purpofe, he endeavoured to conciliate the affec¬
tions of the Lombards, by enlarging the privileges of
Genoa, Pifa and other cities, in his way to Rome;
where the ceremony of the coronation was performed
by Celeftin III. on the day after Eafter in the year
1191. The pope, then in the 86th year of his age,
bad no fooner placed the crown upon Henry’s head
than he kicked it off again, as a teftimony of the power
re Tiding in the fovereign pontiff to make and unmake
emperors at his pleafure.
The coronation being over, Henry prepared for the
conqueft of Naples and Sicily ; but in this he was op-
pofed by the pope: for though Celeftin confidered
Tancred as an ufurper, and defired to fee him deprived
of the crown of Sicily, which he claimed as a fief of
the fee, yet he was much more averfe to the emperor’s
being put in poffefiion of it, as that would render him
too powerful in Italy for the intereft of the church.
Henry, however, without paying any regard to the
threats and remonftranees of his holinefs, took almoft
all the towns of Campania, Calabria, and Apulia ;
invefted the city of Naples ; and fent for the Genoefe
fleet, which he had before engaged, to come and form
the blockade by fea : but before its arrival, 'he was
obliged to raife the fiege, in confequence of a dread¬
ful mortality among his troops: and all future attempts
upon Sicily were ineffe&ual during the life of Tan-
The whole reign of Henry from this time feems to
have been a continued train of the moft abominable
perfidies and cruelties. Having treacheroufly feized
and impriloned Richard I. of England, in the manner
related under that article, n° iz8—130. he had no
fooner received the ranfom paid for his royal captive,
than he made new preparations for the conqueft of Si¬
cily. As Tancred died about this time, the emperor,
with the affiftance of the Genoefe, accomplifhed his
purpofe. The queen-dowager furrendered Salerno,
and her right to the crown, on condition that her fon
William (hould poffefs the principality of Taremum ;
but Henry no fooner found himfelf mafter of the place,
than he ordered the infant king to,- be caftrated, to
have his eyes put out, and to be confined in a dun¬
geon. The royal treafure was tranfported to Ger¬
many, and the queen and her daughter confined in a
convent.
In the mean time, the emprefs, though near the age
,<jf 30, was delivered of a fon, named Frederic; and
Mo ijo.
Henry foon after aflembled a diet of the princes of Raty*
Germany, to whom he explained his intentions of ren- —v-"""'*
dering the imperial crown hereditary, in order to pre¬
vent thofe difturbances which ufually attended the elec¬
tion of emperors. A decree paffed for this purpofe ;
and Frederic, yet in his cradle, was declared king of
the Romans. Soon after, the emperor being folicited
to undertake a crufade, obeyed the injun&ions of the
pope, but in fuch a manner as to make it turn out to
his own advantage. He convoked a general diet at
Worms, where he folemnly declared his refolution of
employing his whole power, and even of hazarding
his life, for the accomplifhment of fo holy an enter-
prife ; and he expatiated upon the fubjeft with fo
much eloquence, that almoft the whole affembly took
the crofs. Nay, fuch multitudes from all the provin¬
ces of the empire enlifted themfelves, that Henry di¬
vided them into three large armies ; one of which, un¬
der the command of the biffrop of Mentz, took the
route of Hungary, where it was joined by Margaret,
queen of that country, who entered herfelf in this pi¬
ous expedition, and aftually ended her days in Pale-
ftine : the fecond was affembled in Lower Saxony, and
embarked in a fleet furnilhed by the inhabitants of Lu-
bec, Hamburg, Holfteih, and Friezland: and the
emperor in perfon conduced the third into Italy, in
order to take vengeance on the Normans in Naples and
Sicily who had rifen againft his government.
The rebels were humbled; and their chiefs were
condemned to perifh by the moft excruciating tor¬
tures. One Jornandi, of the houfe of the Norman
princes, was tied naked on a chair of red hot iron, and
crowned with a circle of the fame burning metal, which
was nailed to his head. The emprefs, (hocked at fuch
cruelty, renounced her faith to her hulband, and en¬
couraged her countrymen to recover their liberties.
Refolution fprung from defpair. The inhabitants be¬
took themfelves to arms ; the emprefs Conftantia head¬
ed them ; and Henry, having difmiffed his troops, no
longer thought neceffary to his bloody purpofes, and
fent them to purfue their expedition to the Holy Land,
was obliged to fubmit to his wife, and to the condi¬
tions which (he was pleafed to impofe on him in fa¬
vour of the Sicilians. He died at Meffina in 1 rgy,
foon after this treaty ; and, as was fuppofed, of poi-
for adminiftered by the emprefs.
The emperor’s fon Frederic had already been de- Diflurban-
clared king of the Romans, and confequently became ces in the
emperor on the death of his father ; but as Frederic 11.
was yet a minor, the adminiftration was committed to re; ni 0f
his uncle the duke of Suabia, both by the will of Frederic II.
Henry and by an affembly of the German princes. Ci¬
ther princes, however, incenfed to fee an ele&ive em¬
pire become hereditary, held a new diet at Cologne,
and chofe Otho duke of Brunfwick, fon of Henry the
Lion. Frederic’s title was confirmed in a third affem¬
bly, at Arnfburg; and his uncle, Philip duke of Sua¬
bia, was elected king of the Romans, in order to give
greater weight to his adminiftration. Thefe two elec¬
tions divided the empire into two powerful fa&ions,
and involved all Germany in ruin and defolation. In¬
nocent HI. who had fucceeded Celeftin in the papal
chair, threw himfelf into the fcale of Otho, and ex¬
communicated Philip and all his adherents. This able
and ambitious pontiff was a fworn enemy of the houfe
of
I T A [ 38J I I T A
Italy. of Suabia; not from any perfonal animofity, but out
of a principle of policy. That houfe had long been
terrible to the popes, by its continual poffeffion of the
imperial crown ; and the acceflion of the kingdom of
Naples and Sicily made it ftill more to be dreaded:
Innocent, therefore, gladly feized the prefent favour¬
able opportunity for diverting it of the empire, by
fuppordng the eleftion of Otho, and fowing divifions
among the Suabian party. Otho was alfo patronifed
by his uncle, the king of England ; which naturally
inclined the king of France to the fide of his rival.
Faftion clafhed with faftion ; fiiendfhip with intereft;
caprice, ambition, or refentment, gave the fway ; and
nothing was beheld on all hands but the horrors and
the miferies of civil wars.
Meanwhile, the emprefs Conftantia remained in Si¬
cily, where all was peace, as regent and guardian for
her infant fon Frederic II. who had been crowned
king of that ifland, with the confent of pope Cele-
ftin III. But Ihe alfo had her troubles. A new in-
veftiture from the holy fee being neceflary, on the
death of Celeftin, Innocent III. his fucceffor, took
advantage of the critical fituation of affairs for aggran¬
dizing the papacy, at the expence of the kings of Si¬
cily. They poffcffed, as has been already obferved,
the privilege of filling up vacant benefices, and of
judging all ecclefiaftical caufes in the laft appeal: they
were really popes in their own ifland, though vaflals of
his holinefs. Innocent pretended that thefe powers
had been furreptitiouflyfobtained; and demanded, that
Conftantia fhould renounce them in the name of her
fon, and do liege, pure and Ample homage for Sicily.
But before any thing was fettled relative to this affair,
the emprefs died, leaving the regency of the kingdom
to the pope ; fo that he was enabled to prefcribe what
conditions he thought proper to young Frederic. The
troubles of Germany ftill continued ; and the pope re¬
doubled his efforts, to detach the princes and prelates
from the caufe of Philip, notwithftanding the remon-
ftrances of the king of France, to whom he proudly
replied, “ Either Philip mutt lofe the empire, or I
the papacy.” But all thefe diffentions and troubles in
Europe did not prevent the formation of another cru-
fade, or expedition into Afia, for the recovery of the
Holy Land. Thofe who took the crofs were princi¬
pally French and Germans : Baldwin, count of Flan¬
ders, was their commander ; and the Venetians, as
greedy of wealth and power as the ancient Carthagi¬
nians, furnifhed them with fhips, for which they took
care to be amply paid both in money and territory.
The Chriftian city of Zara, in Dalmatia, had with¬
drawn itfelf from the government of the republic : the
army of the crofs undertook to reduce it to obedience ;
and it was btfieged and taken, notwithftanding the
threats and excommunications of the pope.
While the crufaders were fpreading defolation
through the eaft, Philip and Otho were in like manner
defolating the weft. At length Philip prevailed ; and
Otho, obliged to abandon Germany, took refuge in
England. Philip, elated with fuccefs, confirmed his
ele&ion by a fecond coronation, and propofed an ac¬
commodation with the pope, as the means of finally
eftablilhing his throne ; bur. before it could be brought
about, he fell a facrifice to private revenge, being afiaf-
Ilnated by the count Palatine of Bavaria, whofe daugh-
Vol. IX. Part I.
ter he i.ad promifed to marry, and afterwards reje&ed. Italy.
Otho returned to Germany on the death of Philip; '
married that prince’s daughter ; and was crowned at
Rome by pope Innocent III. after yielding to the holy
fee the long difputed inheritance of the countefs Ma¬
tilda, and confirming the rights and privileges of the
Italian cities. But thefe conceffions, as far at leaft as
regarded the pope, were only a facrifice to prefent po¬
licy : Otho, therefore, no fooner found himfelf in a
condition to aft offenfively, than he refumed his grant;
and in 1210 not only recovered the pofleffions of the
empire, but made hoftile incurfions into Apulia, ra-
vaging the dominions of young Frederic king of Na¬
ples and Sicily, who was under the proteftion of the
holy fee. For this reafon he was excommunicated by
Innocent; and Frederic, now 17 years of age, was
eltfted emperor by a diet of the German princes. O-
tho, however, on his return to Germany, finding his
party ftill confiderable, and not doubting but he flrould
be able to humble his rival by means of his fuperior
force, entered into an alliance with his uncle John
king of England, againft Philip Auguftus king of
France, A. D. 1213. The unfortunate battle of Bou-
vines, where the confederates were defeated, completed
the fate of Otho. He attempted to retreat into Ger¬
many, but was prevented by young Frederic ; who
had marched into the empire at the head of a power¬
ful army, and was every where received with open
arms. Thus abandoned by all the princes of Germa¬
ny, and altogether without recourfe, Otho retired to
Brunfwick, where he lived four years as a private man,
dedicating his time to the duties of religion.
Frederic II. being now univerfally acknowledged
emperor, was crowned at Aix la-Chapelle in 1215,
with great magnificence ; when, in order to preferve
the favour of the pope, he added to the other folemni-
ties of his coronation a vow to go in perfon to the
Holy Land.
The bad fuccefs of this expedition hath been already
taken notice of under the article Croisade. The em¬
peror had, on various pretences, refufed to go into the
eaft.; and in 1225, the pope, incenfed at the lofs of ^
Damietta, wrote a fevere letter to him, taxing him His quarrel
with having facrificed the interefts of Chriftianity by with the
delaying fo long the performance of his vow, and t °Pe*
threatening him with immediate excommunication if he
did not inftantly depart with an army into Afia. Frede¬
ric, exafperated at thefe reproaches, renounced all cor-
refpondence with the court of Rome ; renewed his ec¬
clefiaftical jurifdiftion in Sicily; filled up vacant fees
and benefices ; and expelled fome bifhops, who were
creatures of the pope, on pretence of their being con¬
cerned in praftices againft the ftate.
The pope at firft threatened the emperor with the
thunder of the church, for prefuming to lift up his
hand againft the fanftuary ; but finding Frederic not
to be intimidated, he became feniible of his own im¬
prudence in wantonly incurring the refentment of fo
powerful a prince, and thought proper to foothe him
by fubmiflive apologies and gentle exhortations. They
were accordingly reconciled, and conferred together at
Veroli in 1226; where the emperor, as a proof of his
fincere attachment to the church, publiflied fome very
fevere edifts againft herefy, which feem to have autho-
rifed the tribunal of the inquifition. A folemn atfembly
3 C was
Italy.
His expe¬
dition to
the Holy
Land.
I T A [ 386 1 I T A
■was afterwards held at Ferentinb, where both the pope
and the emperor were prefent, together with John de
Brienne, titular king of Jerufalem, who was come to
Europe to demand fuccours againft the foldan of E-
gypt. John had an only daughter named Tolanda,
whom he propofed as a wife to the emperor, with the
kingdom of Jerufalem as her dower, on condition that
Frederic ihould within two years perform the vow
he had made to lead an army into the Holy Land. Fre¬
deric married her on-thefe terms, becaufe he chofe to
pleafe the pope; and fince that time the kings of Sicily
have taken the title o{ king of 'Jerufalem. But the em¬
peror was in no hurry to go and. conquer his wife’s por¬
tion, having bufinefs of more importance on his hands at
home. The chief cities of Lombardy had entered
into a fecret league, with a view to renounce his au¬
thority. He convoked a diet at Cremona, where all
the German and Italian noblemen were fummoned to
attend. A variety of fubje&s were there difcuffed;
but nothing of confequence was fettled. An accom¬
modation, however, was foon after brought about by
the mediation of the pope ; who, as umpire of the
difpute, decreed, that the emperor fhould lay afide his
refentment againft the confederate towns, and that the
towns ftioutd furnifhand maintain 400 knights for the
relief of the Holy Land.
Peace being thus concluded, Honorius reminded
the emperor of his vow ; Frederic promifed compli¬
ance : but his holinefs died before he could fee the exe¬
cution of a projeft which he feemed to have fo much
at heart. He was fucceeded in the papal chair by
Gregory IX. brother of Innocent III. ; who, pur-
fuing the fame line of policy, urged the departure of
Frederic for the holy land ; and finding the emperor
Hill backward, declared him incapable of the imperial
dignity, as having incurred the fentence of excommu¬
nication. Frederic, incenfedat fuch infolence, ravaged
the patrimony of St Peter; and was adftually excom¬
municated. The animofity between the Guelphs and
Ghibellines revived ; the pope was obliged to quit
Rome ; and Italy became a fcene of war and defolation,
or rather of an hundred civil wars; which, by inflaming
the minds and exciting the refentment of the Italian
princes, accuftomed them but too much to the horrid
pratiices of poifoning and aflaffination.
During thefe tranfaflions, Frederic, in order to re¬
move the caufe of all thefe troubles, and gratify the
prejudices of a fuperftitious age, by the advice of his
friends refolved to perform his vow : and he accord¬
ingly embarked for the Holy Land, leaving the affairs of
Italy to the management of Renaldo duke of Spoleto.
The pope prohibited his departure before he Ihould be
abfolved from the cenfures of the church ; but Frederic
went in contempt of the church, and fucceeded better
than any perfon who had gone before him. He did
not indeed defolate Afia, and gratify the barbarous
zeal of the times by fpilling the blood of infidels; but
he concluded a treaty with Mhiden, foldan of Egypt
and matter of Syria; by which the end of his expedi¬
tion feemed fully anfwered. The foldan ceded to him
Jerufalem and its territory as far as Joppa ; Beth¬
lehem, Nazareth, and all the country between Jerufa¬
lem and Ptolemais; Tyre, Sidon, and the neighbour¬
ing territories: in return for which, the emperor grant¬
ed the Saracens a truce of ten years; and in 1Z30
prudently returned to Italy, where his prefence was Italy-
much wanted.  
Frederic’s reign, after his return from the call, was
one continued quarrel with the popes. The cities of
Lombardy had revolted during his abfence, at the in-
ftigation of Gregory IX.; and before they could be
reduced, the fame pontiff excited the emperor’s fon
Henry, who had been eledted king of the ftomans, to
rebel againft his father. The rebellion was fuppreffed,
the prince was confined, and the emperor obtained a
complete viftory over the affociated towns. But his
troubles were not yet ended. The pope excommunica¬
ted him anew, and fent a bull, filled with the moft
abfurd and ridiculous language, into Germany, in order
to fow divifion between Frederic and the princes of the
empire.
Frederic retorted in the fame ftrain, in his apology
to the princes of Germany, calling Gregory the Great
Dragon, the Antichrifl, &c. The emperor’s apology
was fuftained -in Germany ; and finding he had no¬
thing to fear from that quarter, he refolved to take
ample vengeance on jhe pope and his aflbeiates For
that purpofe he marched to Rome, where he thought
his party was ftrong enough to procure him admiffion ;
but this favourite fcheme was defeated by the adtivity
of Gregory, who ordered a crufade to be preached
againft the emperor, as an enemy of the Chriftian faith;
a ftep which incenfed Frederic fo much, that he or¬
dered all his prifoners who wore the crofs to be ex-
pofed to the moft cruel tortures. The two fa&ions of
the Guelphs and Ghibellines continued to rage with
greater violence than ever, involving cities, diftri&s,
and even private families, in troubles, divifions, and
civil butchery; no quarter being given on either fide.
Meanwhile Gregory IX. died, and was fucceeded in
the fee of Rome by Celeftin IV. and afterwards by
Innocent IV. formerly cardinal Fiefque, who had al¬
ways expreffed the greateft regard for the emperor and
his intereft. Frederic was accordingly congratulated
upon this occafion : but having more penetration than
thofe about him, he fagely replied, “ I fee little rea-
fon to rejoice; the cardinal was my friend, but the
pope will be my enemy.” Innocent foon proved the
juftice of this conjetfture. He attempted to negotiate ^
a peace for Italy ; but not being able to obtain from Is
Frederic his exorbitant demands, and in fear for the by the
fafety of his own perfon, he fled into France, affem-pope.
bled a general council at Lyons, and in 1245 depo-
fed the emperor.
Conrad, the emperor’s fecond fon, had already been
declared king of the Romans, on the death of his bro¬
ther Henry, which foon followed his confinement: but
the empire being now declared vacant by the pope, the
German biihops (for none of the princes were pre¬
fent), at the in (ligation of his holinefs, proceeded to
the ele&ion of a new emperor; and they chofe Henry
landgrave of Thuringia, who was flyled in dcrifion,
The king of priejls. Innocent now renewed the cru¬
fade againft Frederic. It was proclaimed by the preach¬
ing friars, fince called Dominicans, and the minor friars,
known by the name of Cordeliers or Francifcans. The
pope, however, did not confine himfelf to thefe mea-
fures only, but engaged in confpiracies againft; the life
of an emperor who had dared to refift the decree of a
coun d, and oppofe the whole body of the monks and
5 zealots.
67
Decline of
the power
©f the Ger-
68
Expedition
■cf Henry
Vil. into
Italy.
I T A [ 387 ] I T A
zealots. Frederic’s life was feveral times in danger of Savoy and Flanders, and other noblemen, together Italy.
J from plots, poifonings, and affaflinations; which induced with the militia of all the imperial towns. Italy was '"“"v ■ ■Jl
him, it is laid, to make choice of Mahometan guards, ftill divided by the factions of the Guelphs and Ghibe-
who, he was certain, would not be under the influence lines, who butchered one another without humanity or
of the prevailing fuperftition. remorfe. But their conteft was no longer the fame: it
About this time the landgrave of Thuringia dying, was not now a ftruggle between the empire and the
the fame prelates who had taken the liberty of creating priellhood, but between fadion and fa&ion, inflamed
one emperor made another; namely, William count by mutual jealoufies and animofities. Pope Clement V.
of Holland, a young nobleman of 20 years of age, had been obliged to leave Rome, which was in the
who bore the fame contemptuous title with his prede- anarchy of popular government. The Colonnas, the
ceflbr. Fortune, which had hitherto favoured Fre- Urfini, and the Roman barons, divided the city; and
deric, feemed now to defert him. He was defeated this divifion was the caufe of a long abode of the popes
before Parma, which he had long befieged ; and to in France, fo that Rome feemed equally loll to the -
complete his misfortune, he foon after learned, that popes and the emperors. Sicily was in the pofleflion
his natural fon Entius, whom he had made king of of the houfe of Arragon, in confequence of the famous
Sardinia, was worfted and taken prifoner by the Bo- maflacre called the Sicilian vefpers, which delivered that
lognefe. ifland from the tyranny of the French *. Carobert, , See ^
In this extremity Frederic retired to his kingdom of king of Hungary, difputed the kingdom of Naples
Naples, in order to recruit his army ; and there died with his uncle Robert, fon of Charles il. of the houfe
of a fever in the year 1250. After his death, the of Anjou. The houfe of Elie had eftabliflied itfelf at
affairs of Germany fell into the utmoft confufion, and Ferrara; and the Venetians wanted to make them-
Italy continued long in the fame diftra&ed flate in felves mafters of that country. The old league of the
which he had left it. The clergy took arms againil the Italian cities no longer fubfifled. It had been formed
laity ; the weak were opprefled by the flrong ; and all with no other view than to oppofe the emperors ; and
laws divine and human were difregarded. After the fince they had neglefted Italy, the cities were wholly
death of Frederic’s fon Conrad who had affumed the employed in aggrandizing themfelves, at the expehce
imperial dignity as fucceflbr to his father, and the death of each other. The Florentines and the Genoefe made
of his competitor William of Holland, a variety of war upon the republic of Pifa. Every city was alfo
candidates appeared for the empire, and feveral were divided into faftions within itfelf. In the midft of
elefted by different fa&ions ; among whom was thefe troubles Henry VII. appeared in Italy in the
Richard earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry II. king of year 1311, and caufed himfelf to be crowned king of
England : but no emperor was properly acknowledged Lombardy at Milan. But the Guelphs had con-
till the year 1273, when Rodolph, count of Hapfburg, cealed the old iron crown of the Lombard kings, as
was unanimoufly raifed to the vacant throne. During if the right of reigning were attached to a fmall cir-
the interregnum which preceded the ele&ion of Ro- clet of metal. Henry ordered a new crown to be
dolph, Denmark, Holland, and Hungary, entirely made, with which the ceremony of inauguration was
freed themfelves from the homage they were wont to performed.
pay to the empire ; and much about the fame time fe- Cremona was the firft place that ventured to oppofe
veral German cities ere&ed a municipal form of go- the emperor. He reduced it by force, and laid it un-
vernment, which flill continues. Lubec, Cologne, der heavy contributions. Parma, Vicenza, and Pla-
Brunfwic, and Dantzic, united for their mutual de- centia, made peace with him on reafonable conditions,
fence againft the encroachments of the great lords, by Padua paid 100,000 crowns, and received an imperial
a famous affociation, called the Hanfeatic league; and officer as governor. The Venetians prefented Henry
thefe towns were afterwards joined by 80 others, be- with a large fum of money, an imperial crown of
longing to different ftates, which formed a kind of gold enriched with diamonds, and a chain of very cu-
commercial republic. Italy alfo, during this period, rious worlynanfhip. Brefcia made a defperate refifl-
affumed a new plan of government. That freedom for ance, and fuftained a very fevere fiege ; in the courfe
which the cities of Lombardy had fo long ftruggled, of which the emperor’s brother was flain, and his
was confirmed to them fora fum of money : they were army diminifhed to fuch a degree, that the inhabitants
emancipated by the fruits of their induftry. Sicily like- marched out under the command of their preledl
wife changed its government and its prince ; of which Thibault de Druflati, and gave him battle : but they
revolution a particular account is given under the article were repulfed with great lofs, after an obllinate en-
Sicily. gagement ; and at laft obliged to fubmit, and their
From the time of Frederic II. we may date the ruin city was difmantled. From Brefcia Henrv marched
of the German power in Italy. The Florentines, the to Genoa, where he was received with expreffions of
Pifans, the Genoefe, the Luccans, &c. became inde- joy, and fplendidly entertained. He next proceeded
pendent, and could not again be reduced. The power to Rome ; where, after much bloodfhed, he received
of the emperor, in fliort, was in a manner annihilated, the imperial crown from the hands of the cardinals,
when Henry VII. undertook to reftore it in the be- Clement V. who had originally invited Henry into
ginning of the 14th century. For this purpofe a diet Italy, growing jealous of his i'uccefs, had leagued with
was held at Francfort, where proper fupplies being Robert king of Naples and the Urfini fa&ion, to op-
granted for the emperor’s journey, well known by the pofe his entrance into Rome. He entered, it in fpite
name of the Roman expedition, he fet out for Italy, ac- of them by the affiftance of the Colonnas. Now ma-
companied by the dukes of Auftria and Bavaria, the fter of that ancient city, Henry appointed it a govern
archbilhop of Triers, the bilhop of Liege, the counts nor ; and ordered, that ail the cities and Hates of I-
3^2 taly
I T A [ 388 ] I T A
Italy, taly ftiould pay him an annual tribute. In this order he
‘-’""‘v—"-' comprehended the kingdom of Naples, to which he was
going to make good his claim of fuperiority by arms,
■when he died at Benevento in 1313, as is commonly
fuppofed, of poifon given him by a Dominican friar,
in the confecrated wine of the facrament.
State of The efforts of Henry VII. were unable to reftore the
Italy fince ;mper;al power in Italy. From this time the authority
ut time. tj(e emperor ;n that country confided in a great mea-
fure in the conveniency which the Ghibelines found in
oppofing their enemies under the fandion of his name.
The power of the pope was much of the fame nature.
He was lefs regarded in Italy than in any other coun¬
try in Chriftendom. There was indeed a great party
who called themfelves Guelphs ; but they affetded this
diftin&ion only to keep themfelves independent of the
imperialifts ; and the dates and princes who called
themfelves Guelphs paid little more acknowledgment to
his holinefs than dickering themfelves under his name
and authority. The mod defperate wars were carried
on by the different cities againd each other ; and in
thefe wars Cadruccio Cadraccani, and Sir John Hawk-
wood an Englifhman, are celebrated as heroes. A
detail of thefe tranfa&ions would furnifh materials for
many volumes; and after all feems to be but of little
importance, fince nothing material was effe&ed by the
utmod efforts of valour, and the belligerent dates were
commonly obliged to make peace without any advan¬
tage on either fide. By degrees, however, this martial
fpirit fubfided; and in the year 1492, the Italians
were fo little capable of redding an enemy, that
Charles VIII. of France conquered the whole king¬
dom of Naples in fix weeks, and might eadly have fub-
dued the whole country had it not been for his own im¬
prudence. Another attempt on Italy was made by
Louis XII. and a third by Francis I. as related un¬
der the article France. In the reigns of LouisXIII.
and XIV. an obdinate war was carried on between the
French and Spaniards, in which the Italian dates bore
a very confiderable {hare. The war concluded in 1660,
with very little advantage to the French, who have been
always unfuccefsful in their Italian wars. The like
bad fuccefs attended them in that part of the world, in
the war which commenced between Britain and Spain
in the year 1740. But the particulars of thefe wars,
with regard to the different dates of Italy, naturally
fall to be confidered under the hidory of thofe dates
into which the country is now divided ; viz. Sardinia,
Milan or the Milanefe, Genoa, Venice, Tufcany or
Florence, Lucca, St Marino, Parma, Mantua, Mode¬
na, Rome, and Naples.
70 The air of Italy is very different, according to the
Italy C' °f different fituations of the feveral countries contained in
y it. In thofe on the north of the Apennines it is more
temperate, but on the fouth it is generally very warm.
The air of the Campania of Rome, and of the Ferra-
refe, is faid to be unhealthful; which is owing to the
lands not being duly cultivated, nor the marlhes drain¬
ed. That of the other parts is generally pure, dry,
and healthy. In fummer, the heat is very great in the
kingdom of Naples ; and would be almod intolerable,
if it was not fomewhat alleviated by the fea-breezes.
The foil of Italy in general is very fertile, being wa¬
tered by a great number of rivers. It produces a great
variety of wines, and the bed oil in Europe; excellent hair,
filk in abundance ; corn of all forts, but not in fuch Itcfl-
plenty as in fome other countries ; oranges, lemons, ci-
trons, pomegranates, almonds, raifins, fugar, mul¬
berry-trees without number, figs, peaches, ne&arines,
apricots, pears, apples, filberts, chefnuts, &c. Molt
of thefe fruits were at firlt imported by the Romans,
from Alia Minor, Greece, Africa, and Syria, and
were not the natural products of the foil. The tender
plants are covered in winter on the north fide of the
Apennines, but on the fouth fide they have no need of
it. This country alfo yields good pafture ; and abounds
with cattle, ffieep, goats, buffaloes, wild boars, mules,
and horfes. The forefts are well ftored with game ;
and the mountains yield not only mines of iron, lead;
alum, fulphur, marble of all forts, alabafter, jafper,
porphyry, &c. but alfo gold and illver ; with a great
variety of aromatic herbs, trees, (hrubs, and evergreens,
as thyme, lavender, laurel, and bays, wild olive-trees,
tamarinds, juniper, oaks, and pines.
A very extenfive trade is carried on in many places
in Italy, paiticularly at Leghorn, Genoa, Bologna,
Venice, and Naples; the country having a great va¬
riety of commodities and manufactures for exportation,
efpecially wine, oil, perfumes, fruits, and filks. Tra¬
vellers alfo bring large fums of money into Italy, be-
fides what they lay out in pictures, curiofities, relics,
antiquities, &c.
The Italians are generally well proportioned, though Dref^dif-!
their complexions are none of the belt. As to drefs, pofnion,
they follow the falhions of the countries on which they &c- of the
border, or to which they are fubjett; namely, thofe Qf inhabitants-
France, Spain, and Germany. With refpeCt to their
genius and tafle in architecture, painting, carving, and
mufic, they are thought to excel greatly, and to leave
the other nations of Europe far behind them ; but
their mufic feems too foft and effeminate to deferve all
the praife bellowed on it; and their houfes are far in¬
ferior to thofe of England in refptd of convenience.
No country hath produced better politicians, hifto-
rians, poets, painters, and fculptors; we mean fince the
revival of the arts and fciences, t..clufive of thofe of
ancient times. The Italians are very affable, courte¬
ous, ingenious, fober, and ready-witted; but extreme¬
ly jealous, vindidive, lafcivious, ceremoniou?, and fu-
perftitious. In refpeCt to jealoufy, indeed, we are
told, that a very extraordinary change has lately taken
place ; and that the Italians are now no lefs indulgent
and complaifant to their wives than the molt polite
hufbands in France itfelf. In their tempers, the Ita¬
lians feem to be a good medium between the French
and Spaniards; neither fo gay and volatile as the
one, nor fo grave and folemn as the other. Boiled
fnails, ferved up with oil and pepper, or fried in oil,
and the hinder parts of frogs, are reckoned dainty
dilhes. Kites, jackdaws, hawks, and magpies, are al¬
fo eaten not only by the common people but by the
better fort. Wine is drank here both in fummer and
winter cooled by ice or fuow. The women affed
yellow hair, as the Roman ladies and courtezans for¬
merly did. They alfo ufe paint and walhes, both for
their hands and faces. The day here is reckoned^
from fun-fet to fun-fet, as the Athenians did of old.
ITCH, a cutaneous difeafe, appearing in fmall
*• watery.
I T E r 389 1 I T z
Itch, watery puftules on the fkin; commonly of a mild na-
Itea* ture, though fbmetimes attended with obftinate and
dangerous fymptoms. See MEDiciNE-/«iA.x:.
IrcH-Infea. See Acarus.
In fpeaking of the manner of finding thefe infefts
in the itch, Fabricius obferves, that the failure of many
who have fought for them has been owing to their
having expedted to meet with them ip the larger ve-
ficles that contain a yellowilh fluid like pus ; in thefe,
however, he tells us, he has never found them, but in
thofe puftuies only which are recent, and contain only
a watery fluid. We muft. therefore, he obferves, not
expect to find them in the fame proportionate number
in patients who for many months have been afflifted
with the difeafe, as in thofe in whom its appearance is
recent, and where it is confined to the fingers or wrifts.
The caufe of this difference with refpedt to the pulluies,
he conjectures, may be owing to the death of the in-
fedt after it has depoiited its eggs:
A fmall tranfparent veficle being found, a very mi¬
nute white point, diftinCt from the furrounding fluid,
may be difeovered, and very often even without the
affiftance of a glafs ; this is the infect, which may be
eafily taken out on the point of a needle or penknife,
and when placed on. a green cloth may be feen much
more diflinCtly, and obferved to move.
The author remarks, that even before fuch a tranf-
pareht veficle is formed, we may often difcover traces
of the infeft on the fingers or hands, in a reddifh ftreak
or furrow, which is occafioned by the acarus 5 and he
adds, that it is even more ufual to find it in thefe fur¬
rows than in the puilules themfelves. He tells us,
that a friend of his at Hanover (who had the itch in a
flight degree, and to whofe accurate inquiries with an
excellent microfcope he acknowledges himfelf much
indebted) found feveral infedts in fuch furrows. Two
of the longeft of the furrows were about an inch in
extent. They feemed to be thoroughly dry, but ex¬
hibited here and there very minute Alining and tranf¬
parent fpots. Thefe fpots, however, were not at all
elevated above the furface of the fkin ; and although
feveral of them were opened and examined, no infeft
was found in them. Thefe furrows he has obferved
only on the hands and fingers, having in vain fought
for them on the legs and other parts of the body, in
his children, who had the itch in a high degree.
ITEA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The petals are long, and in-
ferted into the calyx ; the capfule unilocular and bi-
valved. There is but one fpecies, a native of North
America. It grows by the fides of rivers, and in
other parts where the ground is moift. It rifes to the
height of eight or ten feet, fending out many branches
garnifhed with fpear-fhaped leaves placed alternately,
and flightly fawed on their edges, of a light green co¬
lour. At the extremity of the branches are produced
fine fpikes of white flowers three or four inches long,
Handing eretf. When thefe fhrubu-are in vigour, they
will be entirely covered with flowers, fo that they make
a beautiful appearance during the flowering feafon,
which is in July. They are propagated by layers,
and are not injured by the cold of this climate ; but
ite apt to die. in fummer, if they are planted on a dry
gravelly foil. The fhoots (hould be laid down in au- Ithaca
tumn, and will be rooted in one year. 11
ITHACA (anc. geog.), an ifland in the Ionian 1
fea, on the coaft of Epirus; the country of Ulyffes, v
near Dulichium, with a town and port fituated at the
foot of mount Neius. According to Pliny it is about
25 miles in compafs; according to Artemidorus only
10 ; and is now found to be only eight miles round.
It is now uninhabited, and called jatkaco-
ITINERARY. Itinerarium; a journal or an ac¬
count of the diltances of places. The moil remarkable
is that which goes under the names of Antoninus and
JEthicus ; or, as Barthius found in his copy, Antoninus
AUthicus ; a Chriliian writer, porteriar to the times of
Conllantine. Another, called Hierofolymitanum, from
Bourdeaux to Jerufalern, and from Heraclea through
Aulona and Rome to Milan, under Conftantine. 
Itinerarium denotes a day’s march.
THUS portus (anc. geog.), the crux geographo-
rum, fuch being the difficulty of afcertaining its poii-
tion. It would be endlefs to recite the feveral opi¬
nions concerning it, with the feveral reafons advanced
in fupport of them. Three ports are mentioned by
Caefar; two without any particular name, viz. the
Higher and. the Lower, with refpedl to xiwe Portus
Itius. Calais, Boulogne^ St Omer, and Whitfand,
have each in their turn had their ftveral advocates.
Caefar gives two diltindlive chara&ers or marks which
feem to agree equally to Boulogne, and Whitfand,
namely, the fhortnefs of the paflage, and the fitua-
tion between two other ports; therefore.nothing can
with certainty be determined about the fituation of
the Portus Itius.
ITTIGIUS (Thomas), a learned profefibr of di¬
vinity at Leipfic, and fon of John Ittigius, profeffor
of phylic in the fame univerfity. He firft publiihed
A Treatife upon Burning Mountains ; after which he
became a minifter, and exercifed that fundion in va¬
rious churches there. He furnifhed feveral papers in
the Leipfic adts, befides publifhing fome hillorical works
and difl'ertations. He died in 1710.
Iff YS (fab. hill.), a fon of Tereus king of Thrace,,
by Procne daughter of Pandion king of Athens. He
was killed by his mother when lie was about fix years
old, andferved up before his father. He was changed
into a pheafant, his mother into a fwallow, and his fa¬
ther into an owl.
ITZECUINTEPOTZOTLI, or HuucH-BACKEDPlate
Dog, a Mexican quadruped fimilar to a dog. It isCCXLIX, .
as large as a Maltelan dog, the Hein of which is varied
with white, tawny, and black. Its head is fmall in
proportion to its body, and appears to be joined di¬
rectly to it on account of the Ihortnefs and greatnefs
of its neck ; its eyes are pleafing, its ears loofe, its nofe
has a confiderable prominence in the middle, and its
tail fo fmall, that it hardly reaches half way down its
leg ; but the charadteriltic of it is a great hunch which
it bears from its neck to its rump. 'The place where
this quadruped molt abounds is the kingdom of Mi-
chuacan, where it is called Ahora.
1TZEHOA, an ancient and handfome town of.
Germany, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and duchy,
of Holttein. It belongs to the king of Denmark,,
and is feated on the river Stoer, in E. Long. 9.. 25.
N. Lat 54. 8.
iwv.
J U A [ 39° ] J U 13
IVA, In botany: A genus of the pentandrla order,
belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants; and in
the natural method ranking under the 49th order,
Compofita. The male calyx is common and triphyl-
lous ; the florets of the difc monopetalous aad quin-
quefid ; the receptacle divided by fmall hairs. There
is no female calyx nor corolla ; but five florets in the
radius ; two long ftyles ; and one naked and obtufe
feed.
IV-AHAH is the name of one of the canoes or
boats ufed by the iflanders of the South fea for fhort
excurfions to fea: it is wall-fided and flat-bottomed.
Thefe boats are of different fixes, their length being
from 72 feet to 10: but their breadth is by no means
in proportion ; for thofe of ten feet are about a foot
wide, and thofe of more than 70 are fcarcely two. The
fighting ivahah is the longeft, with its head and Hern
confiderably raifed above the body in a femicircular
form: the ftern is fometimes 17 or 18 feet high.
When they go to fea, they are fattened together fide
by fide, at the diftance of about three feet, by ftrong
poles of wood laid acrofs and lafhed to the gun-whales.
On thefe, in the fore-part, a ftage or platform is rai¬
fed, about 10 or 12 feet long, fomewhat wider than
the boats, and fupported by pillars about fix feet high:
on this ftage are ranged the fighting men, whofe
mifiile weapons are flings and fpears; and below the
ftage the rowers fit. The fifhing ivahahs are from 40
feet long to 10 ; thofe of 25 feet and upwards occa-
fionally carry fail. The travelling ivahah is always
double, and furniflied with a fmall neat houfe about
five or fix feet broad, and fix or feven feet long.
JUAN (St) de la Frontera, a town of South-
America, in Chili, in the province of Chiquito, near
the lake Guanacho. The territory of this town is in¬
habited by 20,000 native Americans, who are tribu¬
tary to Spain. It contains mines of gold, and pro¬
duces a kind of almonds that are very delicate. It is
feated at the foot of the Andes, in W. Long. 66. 35.
S. Lat. 23. 25.
Jvan de Porlo Riccoy an ifland of America, and one
of the Caribbees, being 100 miles in length-and 50
in breadth. It belongs to the Spaniards ; and is full
of very high mountains, and extremely fertile valleys,
interfperfed with woods, and well watered with fprings
and rivulets. It produces fugar, rum, ginger, corn,
and fruits; partly proper to the climate, and partly
introduced from Spain. Befides, there are fo many
cattle, that they often kill them for the fake of the
Ikins alone. Here are a great number of uncommon
trees, and there is a little gold in the north part of the
ifland. It is commonly faid that the air is healthy ;
and yet the earl of Cumberland, when he had taken
this ifland, loft moft of his men by ficknefs ; and for
that reafon was forced to abandon it. This happened
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. It is fubjeft to
ftorms and hurricanes, like the reft of thefe iflands. It
lies to the eaft ofHifpaniola, at the diftance of yomiles.
Juan de Porto Ricco, the capital town of the ifland
of Porto Ricco, with a good harbour defended by fe-
veral forts, and a bifhop’s fee. It is feated on the
north coaft of the ifland, in W. Long. 65. 35. N. Lat.
18. 30.
Juan Fernandez, an ifland in the great South Sea,
in S. Lat. 33. 40. and W. Long. 78. 30. from Lon¬
don. It was formerly a place of refort for the bucca- Juan,
neers who annoyed the weftern coaft of the Spanilh Juba-
continent. They were led to refort hither from the '
multitude of goats which it nouriflred; to deprive their
enemies of which advantage, the Spaniards tranfported
a confiderable number of dogs, which increafing great¬
ly, have almoft extirpated the goats, who now only
find fecurity among the fteep mountains in the norther*
parts, which are inacceffible to their purfuers. There
are inftances of two men living, at different times,
alone on this ifland for many years ; the one a Muf-
quito Indian; the other Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch¬
man, who was, after five years, taken on board an
Engliftt fliip, which touched here in about 1710, and
brought back to Europe. From the hiftory of thia
reclufe, Daniel de Foy is faid to have conceived the
idea of writing the adventures of Robinfon Crufoe.
This ifland was very propitious to the remains of com¬
modore Anfon’s fquadron in 1741, after having been
buffeted with tempefts, and debilitated by an invete¬
rate fcurvy, during a three months paffage round Cape
Horn : they continued here three months; during
which time the dying crews, who on their arrival could
fcarctly with one united effort heave the anchor, were
reftored to perfeA health. Captain Carteret, in the
Swallow, in 1767, having met with many difficulties
and impediments in his paffage into the South Sea,
by the Straits of Magelhaens, attempted to make this
ifland in order to recruit the health of his men ; but
he found it fortified by the Spaniards, and therefore
chofe rather to proceed to the ifl nd of Mafafuero.
But M. de Bougainville that fame year is faid to have
touched here for refreftiments, although in the narra¬
tive of the voyage the fad is cautioufly fuppreffed.
This ifland is not quite 15 miles long and about fix
broad ; its only fafe harbour is on the north fide. It
is faid to have plenty of excellent water, and to abound
with a great variety of efculent vegetables highly anti-
fcorbutic ; befides which, commodore Anfon lowed a
variety of garden-feeds, and planted the ftones of
plums, apricots, and peaches, which he was many years
afterwards informed had thriven greatly ; and now
doubtlefs furnifti a very valuable addition to the natu¬
ral produ&ions of this fpot. Vaft ffioals of fifh of
various kinds frequent this coaft, particularly cod of
a prodigious fize ; and it is faid in not lefs abundance
than on the banks of Newfoundland. There are but
few birds here, and thofe few are of fpecies well known
and common.
Juan Blanco. See Platina.
JUBA, a king of Numidia and Mauritania. He
had fucceeded his father Hiempfal, and he favoured the
caufe of Pompey againft Julius Casfar. He defeated
Curio whom Ctefar had fent to Africa, and after the
battle of Pharfalia he joined his forces to thofe of Sci-
pio. He was conquered in a battle at Thapfus, and
totally abandoned by his fubjedts. He killed himfelf
with Petreiuf who had ffiared his good fortune and
his adverfity, in the year of Rome 707. His king¬
dom became a Roman province, of which Salluft was
the firft governor.
Juba II. fon of the former, was led among the cap¬
tives to Rome to adorn the triumph of Caefar. His
captivity was the fource of the greateft honours, and
his application to ftudy procured him more glory than
he
J U B [ 39‘1 JUG
Jubilee, he would have obtained from the inheritance of a king- as well as their being liable to perpetual flavery. By Jubilee
—v  dom. He gained the heart of the Romans by the this means a kind of equality was preferved through J;,catan
courteoufnefs of his manners, and Auguftus rewarded all the families of Ifrael, and the diltin&ion of tribes
his fidelity by giving him in marriage Cleopatra the was alfo preferved, that they might be able, when there
daughter ofAntony, and conferring upon him the title of was occafion, on the jubilee-year, to prove their right
king* and making him mafter of all the territories which to the inheritance of their anceftors. It ferved alfo,
his father once poffeffed, in the year of Rome 723. His like the Olympiads'of the Greeks, and the Luftra of
popularity was fo great, that the Mauritanians reward- the Romans, for the readier computation of time. The
ed his benevolence by making him one of their gods, jubilee has alfo been fuppofed to be typical of the gof-
The Athenians raifed him a ftatue, and the uEthio- pel date and difpenfation, deferibed by Ifaiah, Ixi. ver.
pians worfhipped him as a deity. Juba wrote an hiftory
of Rome in Greek, which is often quoted and com¬
mended by the ancients. Of it only few fragments re¬
main. He alfo wrote on the hillory of Arabia, and
the antiquities of Affyria, chiefly colledled from Be-
rofus. Befides thefe he compofed fome treatifes upon
the drama, Roman antiquities, the nature of animals,
painting, grammar, &c. now loft.
JUBILEE, among the Jews, denotes every fiftieth
year; being that following the revolution of feven weeks
of years ; at which time all the Haves were made free,
and all lands reverted to their ancient owners. The ju¬
bilees were not regarded after the Babylonilh captivity.
—The word, according to fome authors, comes from
the Hebrew, jobel, which lignifies^j ; but this muft
be a miftake, for the Hebrew 'jar jobel does not fig-
nify fifty ; neither do its letters, taken as cyphers, or
according to their numerical power, make that num¬
ber ; being 10, 6, 2, and 30, that is 48. Others
fay, that jobel fignifies a ram, and that the jubilee was
thus called, becaufe proclaimed with a ram’s horn, in
memory of the ram that appeared to Abraham in the
thicket. Mafius choofes to derive the word from Ju-
lal, the firft inventor of mufical inftruments, which,
for that reafon, were called by his name ; whence the
words jobel and jubilee came to fignify the year of deli¬
verance and remiffion, becaufe proclaimed with the
found of one of thofe inftruments which at firft was no
more than the horn of a ram. Others derive jobel from
?ns jalal, in hiphil Van, hobil, which fignifies to recal
or return ; becaufe this year reftored all Haves to their
liberty, &c. The inftitution of this feftival is in Lev.
xxv. 8, 17.
The learned are divided about the year of jubilee ;
fome maintaining that it was every forty ninth, and
others that it was every fiftieth, year. The ground of
the former opinion is chiefly this, that the forty-ninth
year being of courfe a fabbatical year, if the jubilee had
been kept on the fiftieth, the land muft have had two
fabbaths, or have lain fallow two years, which, without
a miracle, would have produced a dearth. On the o-
ther hand, it is alleged, that the Scripture exprefsiy
declares for the fiftieth year, Lev. xxv. jo, 11. And
befides, if the jubilee and fabbatical year had been the
fame, there would have been no need of a prohibition
to fow, reap, &c. becaufe this kind of labour was pro¬
hibited by the law of the fabbatical year, Lev. xxv. 4. 5.
The authors of the Univerfal Hiftory, book i. chap. 7.
note R, endeavour to teconcile thefe opinKins, by ob-
ferving, that as the jubilee began in the firft month of
the civil year, which was the feventh of the ecclefiaftical,
it might be faid to be either the forty-ninth or fiftieth,
according as one or other of thefe computations were
followed. The political defign of the law of the jubi¬
lee was to prevent the too great oppreffions of the poor,
1, 2. in reference to this period, as the “acceptable
year of the Lord.”
Jubilee, in a more modern fenfe, denotes a grand
church folemnity or ceremony, celebrated at Rome,
wherein the pope grants a plenary indulgence to all fin-
ners; at leaft to as many as vilit the churches of St
Peter and St Paul at Rome.
The jubilee was firft eftabliflied by Boniface VII. in
1300, in favour of thofe who Ihould go ad limina apo-
Jiolorum; and it was only to return every hundred
years. But the firft celebration brought in fuch ftore
of wealth to Rome, that the Germans called this the
golden year; which occafioned Clement VI. in 1343*
to reduce the period of the jubilee to fifty years. Ur¬
ban VI. in 1389, appointed it to be held every thirty-
five years, that being the age of our Saviour; and
Paul II. and Sixtus IV. in 1475, brought it down to
every twenty-five, that every perfon might have the
benefit of it once in his life. Boniface IX. granted
the privilege of holding jubilees to feveral princes and
monafteries ; for inftance, to the monks of Canterbury,
who had a jubilee every fifty years ; when people
flocked from all parts to vifit the tomb of Thomas a
Becket. Jubilees are now become more frequent, and
the pope grants them as often as the church or himfelf
have occafion for them. There is ufually one at the
inauguration of a new pope. To be intitled to the pri¬
vileges of the jubilee, the bull enjoins fallings, alms,
and prayers. It gives the priefts a full power to abfolve
in all cafes even thofe otherwife referved to the pope ;
to make commutations of vows, &c. in which it dif¬
fers from a plenary indulgence. ■ During the time of ju¬
bilee, all other indulgences are fufpended.
One of our kings, viz. Edward III. caufed his
birth-day to be obferved in manner of a jubilee, when
he became fifty years of age, in 1362, but never before
or after. This he did by releafing prifoners, pardon¬
ing all offences except treafon, making good laand
granting many privileges to the people.
There are particular jubilees in certain cities,
when feveral of their feafts fall on the fame day ; at
Puey en Velay, for inftance, when the feaft of the
Annunciation happens on Good-Friday and at Lyons
when the feaft of St John Baptift concurs with the
feaft of Corpus Chrifti.
In 1640, the Jefuits celebrated a folemn jubilee at
Rome ; that being the centennary or hundredth year
from their inftitution, and the fame ceremony was ob¬
ferved in all their houfes throughout the world.
JUCATAN, or Yucatan, a large province of
North-America in New Spain, which is a peninfula.
It is over againlt the ifland of Cuba, and contains a
large quantity of timber, proper for building (hips j,
as alfo fugar, caffia, and Indian corn. The original;
inhabitants are few, they having been very ill ufed by
the:
J U D C 392 ] T u D
the Spaniards. Merida is the capital town. It is a
flat level country ; and is very unhealthy, which may
be owing to the frequent inundations^
JUDAH, the fourth fon of Jacob, and father of
the chief of the tribes of the Jews, diftinguifhed by
his name, and honoured by giving birth to the Meffiah,
died 1636 B. C.
jfvoAH Halkadojh, or the Saint, a rabbi celebrated
for his. learning and riches, lived in the time of the
emperor Antoninus, and was the friend and preceptor
of that prince. Leo of Modena, a rabbi of Venice,
tells us, that rabbi Judah, who was very rich, colle&ed
about 26 years after the deftruction of the temple, in
a book which he called the Mifnta, the conflitutiens
.and traditions of the Jewifh magiitrates who preceded
•him. But as this book was fhort and obfcure, two
Babylonilh rabbis, Rabbina and Afe, colle&ed all the
.interpretations, difputes, and additions, that had been
'made until their time upon the Mifnia, and formed the
•book called the Babylonijh Talmud or Gemara; which
• is preferable to the Jerufalem Talmud, compofed fome
years before by rabbi Jochanan of Jerufalem. The
Mifnia is the text of the Talmud ; of which we have a
.good edition in Hebrew and Latin by Surenhufius,
with notes, in 3 vols folio. It were to be wiflied the
fame had been done to the Gemara.
The Kingdom of Judah was of fmall extent compa¬
red with that of the kingdom of Ifrael; confifting on¬
ly of two tribes, Benjamin and Judah : its ealt boun¬
dary, the Jordan ; the Mediterranean its weft, in com¬
mon with the Danites, if we except fome places reco¬
vered by the Philiftines, and others taken by the kings
of Ifrael; on the fouth, its limits feem to have been
contrafted under Hadad of the royal progeny of Edom,
( 1 Kings xi. 14. )
Tribe of Judah, one of the 12 divifions of Paleftine
by tribes (Joftr. xv.), having Idumea on the fouth,
from the extremity of the Lacus Afphaltites, alfo the
Wildernefs of Zin, Cadefbarnea, and the brook or ri¬
ver of Egypt; on the eaft, the faid lake ; on the weft,
the Mediterranean ; and on the north, the mouth of
the faid lake ; where it receives the Jordan, Bethfemes,
Thimna, quite te Ekron on the fea.
JUDAISM, the religious doftrines and rites of the
Je*s. Judaifm was but a temporary difpenfation, and
was to give way, at leaft the ceremonial part of it, at
the coming of the Meflias. For a complete fyftem of
Judaifm, fee the books of Mofes. Judaifm was an¬
ciently divided into feveral fe&s ; the principal whereof
were the Pharifees, Sadducees, and Eflenians.
At prefent there are two fefts among the Jews, viz.
the Caraites, who admit of no rule of religion but the
law written by Mofes ; and the Rabbinifts, who add
to the law the traditions of the Talmud.
JUDAS Maccabeus, a celebratad general of the
Jews, renowned for his many vi&ories over his ene
mies, at laft (lain in battle, 261 B. C. See [Hijlory
of the) Jews, 13.
JuDAs-Tree. See Cercis.
JUDE (St), brother of St James the younger, and
fon of Jofeph (Mat. xiii.55.). He preached in Mefo-
potamia, Arabia, Syria, idumea; and died in Berytus
for the confeEion of Chrift. He wrote that epiftle which
goes under his name, and after the death of molt of
N 170.
the apoftles. He was cruelly put to death for repro- Jude
ving the fuperftition of the Magi. ||
Jude, or the General Epiflle of Jude, a canonical Ju^Ses-
book of the New Teftament, written againft the here- ’
•tics, who, by their diforderly lives and impious doc¬
trines, corrupted the faith and good morals of the Chri-
ftians. St Jude draws them in lively colours, as men
given up to their paffions, full of vanity, conducting
themfelves by worldly wifdom, and not by the fpirit of
God.
JUDEA (anc. geog.), taken largely, either de¬
notes all Paleftine, or the greater part of it; and thus
it is generally taken in the Roman hiftory : Ptolemy,
Rutilinus, Jerome, Origen, and Eufebius, take it for
the whole of Paleftine. Here we confider it as the third
part of it on this fide the Jordan, and that the fouth-
ern part is diftinft from Samaria and Galilee ; under
which notion it is often taken, not only in Jofephus,
but alfo in the New Teftament. It contained four
tribes ; Judah, Benjamin, Dan, and Simeon, toge¬
ther with Philiftia and Idumea ; fo as to be compri-
fed between Samaria on the north, Arabia Petraea on
the fouth, and to be bounded by the Mediterranean
on the w'eft, and by the Lacus Afphaltites, with part
of Jordan, on the eaft. Jofephus divides it into i 1 to-
parchies; Pliny into 10; by which it has a greater
extent than that juft mentioned. See Palestine.
JUDENBURG, a handfome and confiderable town
of Germany, in the circle of Auftria, and capital of
Upper Styria, with a handfome caftle; the public
buildings with the fquare are very magnificent. It is
feated on the river Meur. E. Long. 15. 20. N, Lat.
47. 20.
JUDEX (Matthew), one of the principal writers
of the Centuries of Magdeburg, was born at Tipplef-
wolde in Mifnia, in 1528. He taught theology with
great reputation ; but met with many difquiets in the
exercife of his miniftry from party-feuds. He wrote
feveral works, and died in 1564.
JUDGE, a chief magiftrate of the law, appointed
to hear caufes, to explain the laws, and to pafs fen-
tence.
Judges, in Jewilh antiquity, certain fupreme ma-
giftrates who governed the Ifraelites from the time of
Jothua till the reign of Saul. Thefe judges refembled
the Athenian archons or Roman dictators. The dig¬
nity of judge was for life, but not always in uninter¬
rupted fucceffion. God himfelf, by fome exprefs de¬
claration of his will, regularly appointed the judges:
But the Ifraelites did not always wait for his appoint¬
ment, but fometimes chofe themfelves a judge in times
of danger. The power of the judges extended to af¬
fairs of peace and war. They were proteftors of the
laws, defenders of religion, avengers of all crimes ;
but they could make no laws, nor impofe any new bur¬
dens upon the people. They lived without pomp or re¬
tinue, unlefs their own fortunes enabled them to do it;
for the revenues of their office confifted in voluntary
prefents from the people. They continued from the
death of Jofhua till the beginning of the reign of Saul,
being a fpace of about 339 years.
Judges, for ordinary affairs, civil and religious,
were appointed by Mofes in every city to terminate
differences j in affairs of greater confequence, the dif-
, ference#
j u d r
. larges, ferences were referred to the priefts of Aaron’s family,
Judgment. and the judge of the people or prince at that time efta-
bl;(hed. Mofe's likewife fet up two courts in all the ci¬
ties, one confifting of priefts and Levites, to determine
points concerning the law and religion ; the other con-
lifting of heads of families, to decide in civil matters.
Book of Judges, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment, fo called from its relating the ftate of the If-
raelites under the adminiftration of many illuftrious
perfons who were calledjudges, from being both the ci¬
vil and military governors of the people, and who were
raifed up by God upon fpecial occafions, after the death
of Jofhua, till the time of their making a king. In jthe
time of this peculiar polity, there were feveral remark-,
able occurrences, which are recorded in this bodk. It
acquaints us with the grofs impiety of a new genera¬
tion which fprung up after the death of Joihua ; and
gives us a ihort view of the difpenfations of heaven to¬
wards this people, fometimes relieving and delivering
them, and at others feverely chaftifing them by the
hands of their enemies.
Select Judges, [Judices feleSi), in antiquity, were
ifummoned by the prretor to give their yerdift
inal matters in the Roman courts, as juries do
No perfon could be regularly admitted into
nber till he was 25 years of age. The Sortitio
1, or impannelling the jury, was the office of
lex Quejlionis, and was performed after both
vere come into court, for each had a right to
• challenge whom they pleafed, others being
:ed in their room. The number of the Judices
ried, according to the nature of the charge,
the proper number appeared, they were fworn,
eir places in the fulfellia, and heard the trial.
GMENT, among logicians, a faculty or rather
he human foul, whereby it compares its ideas,
selves their agreement or difagreement. See
hvsics ; and Logic, Part II.
ment, in law, is the fentence pronounced by
rt upon the matter contained in the record,
nts are of four forts. Firft, where the fa&s are
// confeffed by the parties, and the law determined by
the court; as in cafe of judgment upon demurrer ; fe-
condly, where the law is admitted by the parties, and
the fa&s difputed ; as in the cafe of judgment on ver-
did: thirdly, where both the fad and the law arifing
thereon are admitted by the defendant; which is the
cafe of judgments by eonfcjjion or default; or, laftly,
where the plaintiff is convinced that either fad, or
law, or both, are infufficient to fupport his adion,
and therefore abandons or withdraws his profecution ;
which is the cafe in judgments upon a nonfuit or re¬
traxit.
The judgment, though pronounced or awarded by
the judges, is not their determination or fentence, but
the determination and fentence of the la<w. It is the
conclufion that naturally and regularly follows from
the premiffes of law and fad, which Hands thus: A-
gainft him who hath rode over my corn, I may recover
damages by law ; but A hath rode over my corn ;
therefore I fhall recover damages againft A. If the
major propofition be denied, this is a demurrer in law:
if the minor, it is then an iffue of fad : but if both be
confeffed or determined to be right, the conclufion
or judgment of the court cannot but follow. Which
Vol. IX. Part I.
393 3
J U D
judgment or conclufion depends not therefore oh the Judgment.
arbitrary caprice of the judge, but on the fettled and  
invariable principles of juftice. The judgment, in
ffiort, is the remedy prefcribed by law for the redrefs
of injuries; and the fuit or adion is the vehicle or
means of adminiftering it. What that remedy may be,
is indeed the refult of deliberation and ftudy to point
out; and therefore the ftyle of the judgment is, not
that it is decreed or refolved by the court, for then the
judgment might appear to Ire their own ; but, “ it is
confidered,” confideratum ejlper curiam, that the plain-,
tiff do recover his damages, his debt, his poffeffion,
and the like : which implies that the judgment is none
of their own ; but the ad of law, pronounced and de¬
clared by the court, after due deliberation and inquiry.
See Blackjl. Comment, iii. 396.
Judgment, in criminal cafes, is the next ftage of
profecution, after trial and conviction are paft, in
fuch crimes and mifdemeanors as are either too high
or too low to be included within the benefit of clergy.
For when, upon a capital charge, the jury have
brought in their verdict guilty in the prefence of the
prifoner ; he is either immediately, or at a convenient
time foon after, aiked by the court, if he has any
thing to offer why judgment fhould not be awarded a-
gainft him. And in cafe the defendant be found guil¬
ty of a mifdemeanor (the trial of which may, and
does ufually, happen in his abfence, after he has once
appeared), a capias is awarded and iffued, to bring
him in to receive his judgment; and if he abfconds, he
may be profecuted even to outlawry. But whenever he
appears in perfon, upon either a capital or inferior con-
viftion, he may at this period, as well as at his arraign¬
ment, offer any exceptions to the indi&ment, in arrejl
or ft ay of judgment: as for want of fufficient certainty
in fetting forth either the perfon, the time, the place,
or the offence. And if the obje&ions be v alid, the
whole proceedings ftaall be fet afide ; but the party may
be indi&ed again. And we may take notice, 1. That
none of the ftatutes of jeofails, for amendment of er¬
rors, extend to indiAments or proceedings in criminal
cafes ; and therefore a defe&ive indidment is not aided
by a verdid, as defedive pleadings in civil cafes are.
2. That, in favour of life, great ftridnefs has at all Blarfji.
times been obferved, in every point of an indidment.
Sir Matthew Hale indeed complains, “ that this ftrid¬
nefs is grown to be a blemiih and inconvenience in the
law, and the adminiftration thereof: for that more of¬
fenders efcape by the over ealy ear given to excep¬
tions in indidments, than by their own innocence;
and many times grofs murders, burglaries, robberies,
and other heinous and crying offences, remain un-
punifhed by thefe unfeemly niceties: to the reproach
of the law, to the ftiame of the government, to the
encouragement of villainy, and to the difhonour of
God.” And yet, notwithftanding this laudable zeal.
no man was more tender of life than this truly excel¬
lent judge.
A pardon alfo may be pleaded in arreft of judg¬
ment : and it has the fame advantage when pleaded
here as when pleaded upon arraignment; viz. the
faving the attainder, and, of courfe, the corrup¬
tion of blood: which nothing can reftore but parlia¬
ment, when a pardon is not pleaded till after fentence.
And certainly, upon all accounts, when a man hath
3 D obtained
T U D [ 394 l ] V D
Judgment, obtained a pardon, he is in the right to plead it as foon
as poffible. See Pardon.
Praying the benefit of clergy may alfobe ranked a-
mong the motions in arreft of judgment. See Benefit
ef Clergy.
If all thefe refources fail, the court muft pronounce
that judgment which the law hath annexed to the
crime. Of thefe fome are capital, which extend to the
life of the offender, and confift generally in being hang¬
ed by the neck till dead ; though in very atrocious
crimes other circumftances of terror, pain, or difgrace,
are fuperadded : as, in treafons of all kinds, being
drawn or dragged to the place of execution ; in high
treafon affefting the king’s perfon or government, em-
bowelling alive, beheading, and quartering ; and in
murder, a public diffe&ion. And in cafe of any
treafon committed by a female, the judgment is to be
burned alive. But the humanity of the Englifh nation
has authorifed, by a tacit confent, an almofl general
mitigation of fuch parts of thefe judgments as favour
of torture or cruelty : a fledge or hurdle being ufually
allowed to fuch traitors as are condemned to be drawn;
and there being very few inftances (and thofe acciden¬
tal or by negligence) of any perfons being embowel-
led or burned, till previoufly deprived of fenfation by
ftrangling. Some punifhments confift in exile or ba-
nifhment, by abjuration of the realm, or tranfporta-
tion to the American colonies: others, in lofs of li¬
berty, by perpetual or temporary imprifonment. Some
extend to confifcation, by forfeiture of lands, or move
ables, or both, or of the profits of lands for life: others
induce a difability of holding offices or employments,
being heirs, executors, and the like. Some, though
rarely, occafion a mutilation or difmembering, by cut¬
ting off the hand or ears : others fix a lading ftigma
on the offender, by flitting the noftrils or branding in
the hand or face. Some are merely pecuniary, by da¬
ted or difcretionary fines: and, laftly, there are others
that confift principally in their ignominy, though moft
of them are mixed with fome degree of corporeal
pain ; and thefe are inflidied chiefly for fuch crimes
as either arife from indigence, or render even opu¬
lence difgraceful. Such as whipping, hard labour in
the houfe of correftion, the pillory, the ftocks, and the
ducking-ftool.
Difgufting as this catalogue may feem, it will afford
pleafure to a Britifh reader, and do honour to the Bri-
tifh laws, to compare it with that {hocking apparatus of
death and torment to be met with in the criminal codes
of almoft every other nation in Europe. And it is
moreover one of the glories of our law, that the na¬
ture, though not always the quantity or degree, of
punifhment is afcertained for every offence ; and that
it is not left in the breaft of any judge, nor even of a
jury, to alter that judgment which the law has be¬
forehand ordained for every fubjeft alike, without re-
fpeff of perfons. For, if judgments were to be the
private opinions of the judge, men would then be
llaves to their magiftrates : and would live in fociety,
■without knowing exaftly the conditions and obliga¬
tions which it lays them under. And, befides, as
this prevents oppreffion on the one hand; fo. on
the other, it ftiftes all hopes of impunity or mitiga¬
tion, with which an offender might flatter himfdf if
his punifhment depended on the humour or diferetion
of the court. Whereas, where an eftabliflied penalty Judgment
is annexed to crimes, the criminal may read their (1
certain confequence in that law, which ought to be 4veach» -
the unvaried rule, as it is the inflexible judge, of his V*"~J
aftions..
Judgment of God. Sec Judicium Dei.
JUDICATURE, the quality or profeffion of thofe
who adminifter juftice.
Judicature is alfo ufed to fignify the extent of the
jurifdi&ion of the judge, and the court wherein he
fits to render juftice.
JUDICIA centumviralia, in Roman antiquity,
were trials before the Centumviri, to whom the prator-
committed the decifion of certain matters of inferior
nature, like our juftices of peace at the quarter fef-
fions. During the judicia centumviralia, a fpear was
ftuck up in the forum to fignify that the court was fit¬
ting.
JUDICIUM calumnije, was an a&ion brought
againft the plaintiff for falCe accufation. The punifti-
ment, upon conviftion, was inujlio frontjs, or branding
in the forehead. See Inusiio.
Judicium Dei, Judgment of God, was a term anci¬
ently applied to all extraordinary trials of fecret crimes ;,
as thofe by arms, and fingle combat, and the ordeals ;,
or thofe by fire, or red-hot plough-fhares ; by plung¬
ing the arm in boiling’water, or the whole body in cold
water ; in hopes God would work a miracle, rather
than fuffer truth and innocence to perifli. Si fuper de¬
fender e non pojjit, judicio Dei, fed. aqua vel ferro,Jieret ds
eo juflitia.—Thefe cuftoms were a long time kept up
even among Chriftians ; and they are ftill in ufe in fome
nations. See Battel, Ordeal, &c.—Trials of this
fort were ufually held in churches in prefence of the
bifhops, priefts, and fecular judges ; after three days
faffing, conftffion, communion, and many adjurations
and ceremonies deferibed at large by Du Cange.
Judicium Barium denotes a trial by a man’s equals,.
i. e. of peers by peers, and of commoners by com¬
moners. In magna charta it is more than once infilled
on as the principal bulwark of our liberties, but efpe-
cially by chap. 29. that no freeman fliall be hurt in
either his perfon or property, mfi per legale judicium pa-
rium fuorum vel per legem terra. And this was ever
efteemed in all countries a privilege of the higheft
and moft beneficial nature.
Judicium Falfi, was an aft ton which lay againft the
judges for corruption or unjuft proceedings.
Judicium Pravaricationis, was an action brought a-
gainft the profecutor, after the criminal was acquitted
for fuppreffing the evidence of, or extenuating his guilt,
rather than urging it home, and bringing it to light.
JUDOIGNE, a town of the Aullrian Netherlands,.
in Brabant. Near this town the duke of Marlborough
gained that fignal vitftory over the French in 1706,
called the battle of Ramillies. It is feated on the river
Gete, 13 miles fouth-eaft of Louvain, and 16 north
of Namur.
IVEACH, the name of two baronies of Ireland,
in the county of Down, and province of Ulfter. They
are diftinguiflred into Upper and Lower Iveach, and the
former is by much the largeft barony in that county.
The name of Iveach, or Hy Beach, is faid to be
taken from Bchaius, in Irilh called Eachach, grand¬
father to king Coalbpaig, as much as to fay “ the
territory
u G L 39J ] JUG
‘luernus territory of Eachach for I.y, in tlie Iriili language,
II is a common adjective, denoting not only the head#
.. Ju?an(l founders of families, but alfo the territories pol-
*“ fcfled by them. Iveach (including both baronies) was
otherwife Called the Magtnnifes country, and in queen
Elizabeth’s time was governed by Sir Hugh Magennis,
efteemed to have been one of the molt polite of all the
natives in thofe parts. Through part of this barony
runs a chain of mountains confiderably high, known
by the name of Iveach mountains.
IUERNUS (anc. geog.), a tow"n in the fouth-wetl
of Ireland. Now Dunkeram, (Camden) ; called Done-
kyne by the natives, fituated on the river Maire, in the
province of Munller.
Iuermus, ox lernus ; Ptolemy ; a river in the fouth
weft of Ireland. Now called the Maire, or Kenmare,
running from eafl to weft, in the province of Munfter.
IVI'.S, or Yves (St), a celebrated bifhop of Char¬
tres, born in the territory of Beauvais in the nth
century. His merit procured his election to the fee
of Chartres in 1092, or .IC93, under the pontificate
of Urban II. who had depofed Geoffrey his predecef-
for for fundry accufations againft him. Ives particu¬
larly fignalized himftlf by his zeal againft Philip I.
who had put away his wife Bertha of Holland, and
had taken Bertrade of Montford, wife of Fouques
count of Anjou. Afterward he devoted himfelf whol¬
ly to the fundlions of his miniitry ; made feveral reli¬
gious foundations ; and died in 1115. Pope Pius V.
permitted the monks of the congregation of Lateran
to celebrate the feftivalof St Ives on the 20th of May.
We have a colleftion of decrees of his compiling, Ex-
ceptiones ecclejiajlicarum regularum, a Chronicon, and 22
fermons ; all very valuable pieces, which were collecled
and publifhed in one volume folio in 1647, by John
Baptift Souciet, canon of Chartres.
Ives (St), a fea port town of Cornwall, in England,
feated on a bay of the fame name; which being un-
fafe, it is chiefly frequented by fifhermen, for the tak¬
ing of pilchards. By this trade, however, and that of
Cornifh flates, it has thriven greatly, and 20 or 30
fail of ftiips belongs to its harbour. It is a corpora¬
tion, governed by a mayor, 12 capital and 24 inferior
burgeffes, with a recorder, town clerk, &c. and it fends
two members to parliament. Here is a handfome fpa-
cious church, which is often buffeted by the waves of
the fea; but the mother church is at Unilalant There
is a grammar-fehool here, which was founded by
Charles I. It has two markets in the week, and an
annual fair.
Ives (St), is alfo the name of a town in Hunting-
dpnfhire, 64 miles from London. It has a fine ftone
bridge over the Oufe, had in the ninth century a mint,
and was noted for its medicinal waters. Great part
of it was burnt down fome years ago, but it was re¬
built. Here is a very good market on Monday for
fatted cattle brought from the north; and there are two
fairs in the year. Here Oliver Cromwell rented a farm
before he was chofen a burgefs for Cambridge.
JUGERUM, in Roman antiquity, a fquare of 120
ilaman feet ; its proportion to the Engiilh acre being
as 10.00c to 16.097.
JUGLANS, in botany : A genus of the moncecia
order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 50th order,
Amentacea. The male calyx is monophyllous, and
fquamiform ; the corolla divided into fix parts ; there
are 18 filaments: the female calyx is quadrifid, fupe-
rior; the corolla quadripartite; there ate twp ftyles,
and the fruit a plumb with a furrowed kernel. There
are five fpecies, the moft remarkable of which is the
regia or common walnut. This rifes 50 feet high or
more, with a large upright .trunk, branching into a
very large fpreading head, with large* pinnated leaves,
of two or three pair of oval, fmooth, fomewhat fer-
rated lobes, terminated by an odd one ; and monoe¬
cious flowers, fucceeded by clufters of large green
fruit, inclofing furrowed nuts of different fhapes and
fizes in the varieties, ripening in September and Octo¬
ber. Other two fpecies, called the nigra and alba, or
black and white Virginian walnut, are alfo cultivated
in this country, though they are lefs proper for fruit,
having very fmall kernels.
Culture. All the forts are propagated by planting
then- nuts, which will grow in any common foil The
nuts being procured in the proper feafon, in their
outer covers or hulks if poffible, they fliould be pre¬
ferred in dry fand'until February, and then planted.
After two years growth in the feed bed, they are to
be taken out, and planted in the nurfery, where they
muff remain till grown five or fix feet high, when they
mult be tranfplanted where they are finally to remain ;
but if intended for timber as well as fruit trees, they
ought to be finally tranfplanted when they have attain¬
ed the height of three or four feet.
UJes. The fruit is ufed at two different ftages of
growth ; when green to pickle, and when ripe to
eat raw. As a pickle, the nuts may be ufed when
about half or three-fourths grown, before the outer
coat or {hell becomes hard; fuch nuts ftiould be chofen
as are moft free from fpecks, and for this purpofe they
muft be gathered by hand. Walnuts are ready for
pickling in July and Auguft. They are fully ripe in
September and Odfober ; and are then commonly beat
down with long poles, efpecially on large trees 5 for
as the walnuts grow moftly at the extremities of the
branches, it would be troublefome and tedious to ga¬
ther them by hand. As foon as gathered, lay them in
heaps a few days to heat and fweat, to caufe theif
outer hufles, which adhere clofely, to feparate from the
{hell of the nuts ; then clean them from the rubbilh,
and depofit them in fome dry room for ufe, covering
them over clofe with dry ftraw half a foot thick, and
they will keep three or four months. They are always
readily fold at market, efpecially in London ; where,
at their firll coming in, they are fold with the hulks
on, by the fack or buftiel; but afterwards are bought
clean, and fold both by meafure and by the thoufand.
The wood of the walnut-tree is alfo very valuable ;
not indeed where ftrength is neceffary, it being of a
very brittle nature ; but the cabinet-makers and joiners
efteem it highly for feveral forts of houfehold furniture
and other light works ; for being beautifully veined,
it takes a fine polifh, and the more knotty it is, the
more it is valued for particular purpofes, Walnut-
trees are alfo well adapted for planting round the bor¬
ders of orchards,, where, by their large fpreading
heads, they will alfo guard the leffer fruit-trees from
3^2 boifterous
Juglan*.
j u I [ 396 ] J U 1
jugora bolfterous winds. The kernels of the nuts are fimilar
, IJ in quality to almonds; but are not like them ufed in
medicine.
JUGORA, a confiderable province of Mufcovy,
depending on the government of. Archangel. It has
the title of a duchy ; and is inhabited by a kind of
Tartars, who are very favage, and much of the fame
difpofition with the Samoiedes.
JUGULAR, among anatomifts, is applied to cer¬
tain veins and glands of the neck. See Anatomy.
JUGUL ARES, in the Linnaean fyftem, is the name
of an order or divifion of fifh, the general chara&er
of which is, that they have ventral fins before the pec¬
toral fins. See Zoology.
. JUGUM, an humiliating mode of punifhment in-
fiifted by the vi&orious Romans upon their vanquilhed
enemies. It was thus : They fet up two fpears, and
laying a third acrofs, in the form of a gallows, they
ordered thofe who had furrendered themfeives to pafs
under this ignominious ereftion, without arms or belts.
None fuffered the difgrace of paffing^/i jugo but fuch
as had been obliged to furrender.
JUGURTHA, the illegitimate fon of Manaftabal
the brother of Micipfa. Micipfa and Manaftabal were
the firms of Mafinifla, king of Numidia. Micipfa, who
had inherited his father’s kingdom, educated his ne¬
phew with his two fons Adherbal and Hiempfal; but
as he faw that the former was of an afpiring difpofi¬
tion, he fent him with a body of troops to the afiif-
tance of Scipio, who was befieging Numantia, hoping
to lofe a youth whofe ambition feemed to threaten the
tranquillity of his children. His hopes were fruftrated;
Jugurtha fhow’ed himfelf brave and aftive, and he en¬
deared himfelf to the Roman general. Micipfa ap¬
pointed him fucceffor to his kingdom with his two
fons, but the kindnefs of the father proved fatal to the
children. Jugartha deftroyed Hiempfal, and ftripped
Adhetbal of his pofleffions, and obliged him to fly tq
Rome for fafety. The Romans liftened to the well-
grounded complaints of Adherbal; but Jugurtha’s
gold prevailed among the fenators, and the fuppliant
monarch, forfaken in his diftrefs, periftied by the fnares
of his enemy. Caecilius Metellus w'as at laft fent a-
gainft Jugurtha ; and his firmnefs and fuccefs foon re¬
duced the crafty Numidian, obliging him to fly among
bis favage neighbours for fupport. Marius and Sylla
lucceeded Metellus, and fought with equal fuccefs.
Jugurtha was at laft betrayed by his father-in-law Boc-
chus, from whom he claimed affiftance ; and he was
delivered into the hands of Sylla 106 years before the
Chriftian era. He was expofed to the view of the
Roman people, and dragged in chains to adorn the
triumph of Marius. He was afterwards put in a pri-
fon, where he died fix days after of hunger.
1VICA, or Yvica, the name of an ifland in the
Mediterranean. See Yvica.
JUICE, denotes the fap of vegetables, or the li¬
quors of animals. See Anatomy, Blood, Plants,
Sap, See. *
The juices of feveral plants are expreffed to obtain
their effential falts, and for feveral medicinal purpofes,
with intention either to be ufed without further prepa¬
ration, or to be made into fyrups and extrafts. The
general method o^cxtra&ing thefe juices is, by pound¬
ing the plant in a marble mortar, and then by putting Juice,
it into a prefs. Thus is obtained a muddy and green —--y—“■
liquor, which generally requires to be clarified, as we
<hall foon obferve. The juices of all plants are not
extracted with equal eafe. Some plants, even when
frefti, contain fo little juice, that water mull be added
while they are pounded, otherwife fcarcely any juice
would be obtained by exprdfion. Other plants which
contain a confiderable quantity of juice, furniftr by
exprefiion but a fmall quantity of it, becaufe they con¬
tain alfo much mucilage, which renders the juice fo
vifeid that it cannot flow. Water muft alfo be added
to thefe plants to obtain their juice. The juices thus
obtained from .vegetables by a mechanical method, are
not, properly fpeaking, one of their principles, but
rather a colledlion of all the proximate principles of
plants which are foluble in water; fuch as the fapona-
ceous extractive matter, the mucilage, the odoriferous
principle, all the faline and faccharine fubftances; all
which are diflolved in the water of the vegetation of
the plants. Befides all thefe matters, the juice con¬
tains fome part of the refinous fubftance, and the green
colouring matter, which in almoft all vegetables is of
a refinous nature. Thefe two latter fubftances, not
being foluble in water, are only interpofed between the
parts of the other principles which are diflblved in the
juice, and confequently difturbs its tranfparency.
They neverthelefs adhere together in a certain degree,
and fo ftrongly in moft juices, that they cannot be fe-
parated by filtration alone. When therefore thefe juices
are to be clarified, fome previous preparations muft;
be ufed by which the filtration may be facilitated.
Juices which are acid, and not very mucilaginous, are
fpontaneoufly clarified by reft and gentle beat. The
juices of moft antifcorbutic plants abounding in faline
volatile principles, may be difpofed to filtration mere¬
ly by immerfion in boiling water; and as they may be
contained in clofed bottles, while they are thus heated
in a water bath, their faline volatile part, in which
their medicinal qualities chiefly confift, may thus be
preferved. Fermentation is alfo an effe&ual method of
clarifying juices which are fufceptible of it; for all li¬
quors which have fermented, clarify fpontaneoufly af¬
ter fermentation. But this method is not ufed to cla¬
rify juices, becaufe many of them are fufceptible of on¬
ly an imperfeft fermentation, and becaufe the qualities
of moft of them are injured by that procefs. The me¬
thod of clarification moft generally ufed, and indifpen-
fably neceffary for thofe juices which contain much
mucilage, is boiling with the white of an egg. This
matter, which has the property of coagulating in
boiling water, and of uniting with mucilage, does ac¬
cordingly, when added to the juice of plants, unite
with, and coagulate their mucilage, and feparates it
from the juice in form of feum, together with the
greateft part of the refinous and earthy matters which
difturb its tranfparency. And as any of thefe refin-
ous matters which may remain in the liquor, after this
boiling with the whites of eggs, are no longer retain¬
ed by the mucilage, they may eafily be feparated by
filtration. See Filtration.
The juices, efpecially before they are clarifh d, con¬
tain almoft all the fame principles as the plant itfelf;
becaufe in the operation by which they are extradted,
no
J u I
Jalce- no decompofxtion happens, but every thing remains, as
V—— to its nature, in the fame ftate as in the plant. The
principles contained in the juice are only feparated from
the groffer oily, earthy, and refmous parts, which
compofe the folid matter that remains under the prefs.
Thefe juices, when well prepared, have therefore the
fame medicinal qualities as the plants from which they
are obtained. They mull evidently differ from each
other as to the nature and proportions of the princi¬
ples with which they are impregnated, as much as the
plants from which they are extracted differ from each
other in thofe refpefts.
Moll vegetable juices coagulate when they are ex-
pofed to the air, whether they are drawn out of the
plant by Wounds, or naturally run out; though what
is called naturally running out, is generally the effeft of
a wound in the plant, from a fort of canker, or fome
other internal caufe. Different parts of the fame plant
yield different juices. The fame veins in their courfe
through the different parts of the plant yield juices of
a different appearance. Thus the juice in the root of
the cow parfnep is of a brimflone colour; but in the
ftalk it is white.
Among thofe juices of vegetables which are clammy
and readily coagulate, there are fome which readily
break with a whey. The great wild lettuce, with the
fmell of opium, yields the greateft plenty of milky juice
of any known Britifh plant. When the ftalk is wound¬
ed with a knife, the juice flows readily out like a thick
cream, and is white and ropy; but if thefe wounds
are made at the top of the ftalks, the juice that flows
out of them is dafhed w'ith a purple tinge, as if cream
had been fpfinkled over it with a few drops of red wine.
Some little time after letting this out, it becomes much
more purple, and thickens; and finally, the thicker
art of it feparates, and the thin whey fwims at top.
’he whey or thin part of this feparated matter is
eafily prefled out from the curd by fqueezing between
the fingers, and the curd will then remain white ; and
on waffling with water, it becomes like rags. The
purple whey (for in this is contained all the colour)
loon dries into a purple cake, and may be crumbled
between the fingers into a powder of the fame colour.
The white curd being dried and kept for fome time,
becomes hard and brittle. It breaks with a fhining
furface like refin, and is inflammable ; taking fire at a
candle, and burning all away with a ftrong flame. The
fame thick part being held over a gentle heat, will
draw out into tough long threads, melting like wax.
The purple cake made from the whey is quite different
from this; and when held to a candle fcarce flames at
all, but burns to a black coal. The whole virtue of
the plant feems alfo to confift in this thin part of its
juice : for the coagulum or curd, though looking like
wax or refin, has no tafte at all; whereas the purple
cake made from the ferum is extremely bitter, and of
a tafte fomewhat refembling that of opium.
Of the fame kind with the wild lettuce are the
throatwort, fpurge, and many other plants. Thefe
are all replete with a milky juice which feparates into
curds and whey like that already defcribed. But this,
though a common law of nature, is not univerfal; for
there are many plants which yield the like milky
juices without any feparation enfuing upon their ex-
travafation. The white juice of the fonchus never fe«
3
J TJ I
parates, but dries into an uniform cake : the common
red wild poppy bleeds freely with a milky juice ; and
the heads or capfules of feed bleed not lefs freely than
the reft of the plant, even after the flower is fallen.
This juice, on being received into a fhell or other fmall
veflel, foon changes its white to a deep yellow colour,
and dries it into a cake which feems refinous and oily,
but no whey feparates from it. The tragopogon, or
goat’s-beard, when wounded, bleeds freely a milky
juice; it is at firft white, but becomes immediately
yellow, and then more and more red, till at length it
is wholly of a dulky red. It never feparates, but
dries together into one cake ; and is oily and refinous, „
but of an infipid tafte. The great bindweed alfo bleeds
freely a white juice ; the flowers, as well as the ftalks
and leaves, affording this liquor. It is of a (harp
tafte ; and as many of the purging plants are of this
clafs, it would be worth trying whether this milk is
not purgative.
Thefe juices, as well as the generality of others
which bleed from plants, are white like milk; but
there are fome of other colours. The juice of the
great celandine is of a fine yellow colour ; it flows
from the plant of the thicknefs of cream, and foon
dries into a hard cake, without any whey feparating
from it. Another yellow juice is yielded by the feed-
vefiels of the yellow centaury in the month of July*
when the feeds are full grown. This is very clammy ;
it foon hardens altogether into a cake without any
whey feparating from it. It fticks to the fingers like
birdlime, is of the colour of pale amber, and will ne¬
ver become harder than, foft wax if dried in the ftiade;
but if laid in the fun, it immediately becomes hard like
refin. Thefe cakes burn like wax, and emit a very
pleafant fmell. The great angelica alfo yields a yel-
lowifti juice on being wounded ; and this will not har¬
den at all, but if kept feveral years will ftill be foft
and clammy, drawing out into threads or half melted
refin.
Another kind of juices very different from all thefe,
are thofe of a gummy nature. Some of thefe remain
liquid a long time, and are not to be dried without
the afliftance of heat ; the others very quickly harden
of themfelves, and are not inflammable. The gum of
the juice of rhubard-leaves foon hardens; and is after¬
wards foluble in common water, and fparkles when put
into the flame of a candle. The clufters of the com¬
mon honeyfuckle are full of a liquid gum. This they
frequently throw out, and it falls upon the leaves,
where it retains its own form. The red hairs of the
ros folis are all terminated by large bladders of a thin
watery fluid. This is alfo a liquid gum ; it fticks to
the fingers, draws out into long threads, and (lands the
force of the fun all day. In the centre of each of thefe
dew-drops there is a fmall red bladder, which (lands
immediately on the fummit of the red hair, and con¬
tains a purple juice which may be fqueezed out of it.
The pinguicula, or butter-wort, has alfo a gummy
matter on its leaves in much greater quantity than the
ros folis.
Some plants yield juices which are manifeftly of an
oily nature. Thefe, when rubbed, are not at all of a
clammy nature, but make the fingers glib and flippery,
and do not all harden on being expofed to the air.
If the ftalk of elecampane be wounded, there flows»
©ui:
[ 397 1
Juics.
J tr r
r 398 i
J U L
Juice out an oily juice fwimming upon a watery one. The vert them by his carefles, and by temporal advantages Julias.
Julian of the hemlock alfo afford a fimilar oily liquor and mortifications covered, over by artful pretences:  
fwimmincr upon the other; and in like manner the but he forbad Chriffians to plead before courts of
white mullein, the berries of ivy, the bay, juniper, juft ice, or to enjoy any public employments. He even
dog-berry tree, and the fruit of the olive, when wound- prohibited their teaching polite literature; well know-
ed, ftiow their oil floating on the watery juice. Some log the great advantages they drew from profane au-
pf thefe oily juices, however, harden into a kind of thors in their attacks upon Paganifm and irreligion.
refin. Our ivy yields fuch a juice very abundantly ; Though he on all occafions Ihowed a foverehrn con-
and the juice of the fmall purple-berried juniper is of tempt for the Chriftians, whom he always called Gali~
the fame kind, being hard and fat, and not very gum- leans, yet he was fenfible of the advantage they ob-
sny. If the bark of the common ivy is wounded in tained by their virtue and the purity of their manners;
March, there will ooze out a tough and greafy matter and therefore inceflantly propofed their CKample to the
of a yellowiih colour, which, taken up between the Pagan priefts. At laft, however, when he found that
fingers, feels not at all gummy or flicking, but melts all other methods failed, he gave public employments
in handling into a fort of oil, which in procefs of to the molt cruel enemies of the Chriftians, when the
time hardens and crufts upon the wounds, and looks cities in moft of the provinces were filled with tumults
like brown fu^ar. It burns with a lafting flame, and and feditions, and many of them were put to death;
, fmells very ftrong. The tops of the wild lettuce, and Though it has been pleaded by Julian’s apologifts that
the leaves growing near the tops, if examined with a the behaviour of the Chriftians furnifhtd fufficxent pre¬
magnifying glafs, fliow a great number of fmall blad- tence for moft of his proceedings againft them, and
ders or drops of an oily juice of a brownifh colour, the animofities among themfelves furniflied him with
hardening into a kind of refin ; they are eafily wiped the means; that they were continually prone to fedt-
off when of any fize, and are truly an oily juice a tion, and made a merit of infulting the public worfhip;
little hardened, it is probable alfo, that the fine blue and, finally, that they made no fcruple of declaring,
flour or powder, called the bloom, upon the furface of that want of numbers alone prevented them from enga-
our common plums, is no other than fuch an oily ging in an open rebellion. Hiftorians mention, that
juice exfiidating from their pores in fmall particles, and Julian attempted to prove the falfehood of our Lord’s
hardening into a fort of refin. prediftion with refpect to the temple of Jerufalem ;
'JUJUBES, in the materia medica, the name of a and refolved to have that edifice rebuilt by the Jews,
•fruit of the pulpy kind, produced on a tree which Lin- about 300 years after its deftruftion by Titus : but
nteus makes a fpecies of rhamnus. See Rhamnus. all their endeavours ferved only the more perfe&ly to
The jujubes have been made a general ingredient in verify what had been foretold by Jefus Chrift; for the
peftoral decoftions; but they are now feldom ufed on Jews, who had aflembled from all parts to Jei ufalem,
thefe occafions, and are fcarce at all heard of in pre- digging the foundations, flames of fire burft forth and
fcription, or to be met with in our fhops. confumed the workmen *. However, the Jews, who ■ gPe «*>.
JUL, or Jol, a Gothic word fignifying a “ fump- were obllinately bent on accomplifhing that work,n//«/«s»,
tuous treat ;” and particularly applied to a religious made feveral attempts ; but it is faid, that all who en-
feftival firft among the heathens and afterwards among deavoured to lay the foundations perifhed by thefe
Chriftians. By the latter it was given to Christmas; flames, which at laft obliged them entirely to abandon
which is Hill known under the name of Jul, or Tool, the work. Julian being mortally wounded in a battle
in Denmark, Norway, Iceland, and Sweden; nay, even with the Perfians, it is faid, that he then catched in
in the north of Britain, and whence the month of Ja- his hand fome of the blood which flowed from his
nuariusby the Saxons was ftyled i. e. “ the Fef- wound; and throwing it towards heaven, cried, “Thou
tival.” As this feaft had originally been dedicated by Galilean haft conquered.” But notwithflanding this
our heathen anceftors to the fun, their fupreme deity ; popular report, Theodoret relates, that Julian difco-
fo the Chriftians, forthe purpofe of engaging the minds vered a different difpofition; and employed his la'.t mo-
of their Ethnic (gentile) brethren, ordered it fhould ments in converfing with Maximus the philofopher,
be celebrated in memory of the birth of Chrift : and on the dignity of the foul. He died the following
thus it has been through ages a feaft of joy and en- night, aged 32. For a particular account of his reign
tertainment. We are indebted to Procopius for the and exploits, feeo/^ Constantinople, n° 7.
firft account of this feaft. 33—66
JULEP, in pharmacy, a medicine compofed of No prince was ever more differently reprefented by
fome proper liquor and a fyrup or fugar, of extempo- different authors; on which account it is difficult to
raucous preparation, without decoftion. See Phar- form a true judgment of his real charafter It muft,
macy. however, be acknowledged', that he was learned, li-
JULIAN, the famous Roman emperor, ftyled the beral, temperate, brave, vigilant, and a lover of ju-
Apojlate, becaufe he profefled the Chriftian religion ftiee: but, on the other hand, he had apoftatifed to
before he alcended the throne, but afterwards openly Paganifm ; was an enemy to the Chrittian religion ;
-embraced Paganifm, and endeavoured to abolifh Chri- and was, in fa<ft, a perfecutor, though not of the molt
flianity. He made no ufe of violence, however, for fanguinary clafs. We have feveral of his difcourfes or
this purpofe ; for he knew that violent meafures had orations; fome of his letters; a treatife intitled M't*
always rendered it more flouriffiing : he therefore be- fopogon, which is a fatire on the inhabitants of An-
ffiaved with a politic mildnefs to the Chriftians; recall- tioch ; and fome other pieces, all written in an ele-
ifid all who had been banifhed on account of religion gant ityle. They were publiffied in Greek and La¬
dder, the reign of Conftantius ; and undertook to per- tin by father Petau in 1630 in quarto; and of which
j Span-
r u L e 399 1 J U L
Julian Spanheimlus gave a fine edition in folio in 1696. His
l!. moft famous work was that compofed againft the
Julio. Chrirtians, of which there are fome fragments in Cy-
ril’s refutation of it.
Julian Period, in chronology, a period fo called, as
being adapted to the Julian year.
It is made to commence before the creation of the
world. Its principal advantage lies here, that the.
fame years of the cycles of the fun, moon, and indic¬
tion, of which three cycles it was made to confift by
Jufeph Scaliger in 1580, belonging to any year of this
period, will never fall together again till after the ex¬
piration of 7980 years. There is taken for the firft
year of this period that which hath the firft of the
cycle of the fun, the firft of the cycle of the moon,
and the firft of the, indidlion cycle, and fo reckon¬
ing on.
The firft year of the Chriftian era is always, in our
fyftems of chronology, the 4714th of the Julian
period.
To find what year of the Julian period any given
year of Chrift anfwers to : To the given year of Chrift
add 47>3> becaufe fo many years pf the Julian period
were expired A. D. I; and the fum gives the year of
the Julian period fought.
On the contrary, having the year of the Julian pe¬
riod given, to find what year of Chrift anfwers thereto :
From the year of the Julian period given fubtrad.
.4713, and the remainder will be the year fought.
Julian (St), a harbour on the fouth of Patagonia,
in South America, where fhips ufually touch that are
bound to the fouth feas. S. La;. 48. 15.
JULIERS, a duchy in the circle of Weftphalia, in
Germany, feated between the rivers Maefe and Rhine,
and bounded by Puiffian Guelderland on the north,
by the eledorate of Triers on the fouth, by the elec¬
torate of Cologne on the eaft, and by the Nether¬
lands on the weft. It is about 60 miles long, and 30
broad ; and is a very plentiful country, abounding in
cattle, corn, and fine meadows, and is well fupplied
with wood ; but it is moft remarkable for a fine breed
of horfes, and woad for dying, which is gathered here
in abundance. The chief towns are Juliers, Aix-la-
Chapelle, Duren, Munfter-Eifel, Bedbur, Wefin-
burgh, and Lafteren. It is fubjed to the eledor Pa¬
latine, with the confent of the kings of Prufiia and
Poland.
Juliers, a city, capital of the duchy of Juliers in
Weftphalia ; fome think this city was founded by Ju¬
lius Caefar or Julia Agrippina; but this is much que-
ftioned by others, becaufe it is not mentioned before
Antoninus’s Itinerary and Theodofms’s Tables. The
town is fmall but well fortified, and neatly built; the
houfes are of brick, and the ftreets broad and regular.
The citadel is large and very ftrong, containing a
palace of the ancient dukes, and a fpacious piazza.
In the fuburbs there is a monaftery of Caithufians,
nobly endowed by feveral dukes of Juliers. The town
is but poorly inhabited, though they have a fine wool¬
len manufadory in this country, and likewife another
of linen. It was taken by prince Maurice of Naffau
in 1610, and by the Spaniards in 1622. It is feated
on the river Roer, in E. Long. 6. 35. N. Lat. 50. 55.
JULIO romano. See Romano.
2
JULIUS cassar. See CjesAr. Juliua
Julius II. (Julian de la Rovere), pope, remarkable 'I
for his warlike difpofition, and his political negocia- ^ ^ _
tions: by the latter, he engaged the principal powers
of Europe to league with him againft the republic
of Venice, called the league of C.ambray, fignified in
1508. The Venetians having purchafed peace by the
cefiion of part of Romania, Julius turned his arms
againft Louis XII. king of France, and appeared in
perfon, armed cap a-pee, at the fiege of Mirandola;
which place he took by afiault in 1511. But proceed¬
ing to excommunicate Louis, the king wifely turned
his own weapons againft him, by calling a general
council at Pifa : at which the pope refufing to appear,
was declared to be fufpended from the holy fee ; and
Louis, in his turn, excommunicated the pope, who
died foon after in 1512. He built the famous church of
St Peter at Rome, and was a patron of the polite arts.
Julius Ficus (anc. get;,-), a town of the Ne-
metts in Gallia Belgica ; fituated between the Tres
Tabernae and Noviomagus. Now Germerjheim, a
town of the Lower Palatinate, on the weft fide of the
Rhine. E. Long. 8. 15. Lat. 49. 12.
Jul 'us Pollux. See Pollux.
IULUS, a fon of Afcanius, born in Lavinium. In
the fuccefiion to the kingdom of Alba, iEneas Sylvius,
the fon of iEneas and Lavinia, was preferred to him.
He was, however, made chief prieft.
Iulus, in zoology ; a genus of infe&s of the or¬
der aptera. The feet are very numerous, being Plate
on each fide twice as many as the fegments of the CCI-E!^
body: the antennae are moniliform ; there are two
articulated palpi; and the body is of a femicylindrical
form. 1. The terreftris is a fmall fpecies, having on
each fide 100 very fhoit clofely fet feet. The body is
cylindrieally round, confiding of fifty fegments, each
of which gives rife to two pair of feet; by whicli
means the feet ftand two and two by the fide of each
other, fo that between every two there is a little more
fpace. Its colour is blackifh, and the animal is very
fmooth. It is met with under ftones, and in the
earth. 2. The labulofus is of an aftien colour, fmooth,
and fometimes has two longitudinal bands of a dun-
colour upon its back. The body is compofed of
about fixty fegments, which appear double ; one part
of the fegment being quite fmooth, the other charged
with longitudinal ftrise very clofe-fet together, which
caufes the cylindric body of the infeft to appear inter¬
fered alternately with fmooth and ftriated fegments.
Each fegment gives rife to two pair of feet, which
makes 240, or 120 feet on each fide. Thefe feet are
{lender, fhort, and white. The antennae are very fhort,
and confift of five rings. The infed, when touched,
rolls itfelf up into a fpiral; fo that its feet are inwards,
but yet turned towards the ground. It is found to¬
gether with the preceding one, to which it bears a rc-
lemblance, though it is much larger. There are other
fpecies.-
JULY, the feventh month of the year; during
which the fun enters the fign Leo. The word is de¬
rived from the Latin Jidius, the furname of C. Caefar
the di&ator, who was born in it. Mark Antony firft _
gave this month the name July, which before was call¬
ed Quintilius, as being the fifth, month of the year in
J U N t .
v Ju’y the old Roman kalendar eftabliflied by Romulus, which
tl began in the month of March. For the fame reafon,
. JU1KUS‘ , Auguft was called Sextilis; and September, Oftober,
November, and December, ftill retain the name of their
'firft rank.
Qua feqmtur, numero turha mtatafuo. Ovid. Fail,
On the 19th day of this month the dog-days are
commonly fuppofed to begin; when, according to
■Hippocrates and Pliny, the fea boils, wine turns four,
dogs go mad, the bile is increafed and irritated, and
all animals decline and languifh.
. July-Flowers. See Dianthus.
JUMIEGE, a town of Normandy in France, and
in the territory of Caux, with a celebrated Benedic¬
tine abbey. It is feated on the river Seine, in E.
Long. o. 55. N. Lat. 49. 25.
JUNCI lapidei, in natural hillory, the name given
by authors to a fpecies of foflile coral, of the tubula-
ria kind, and compofed of a congeries of fmall tubules,
which are ufully round and ftriated within. See
Plate CC.
JUNCTURE, any joint or doling of two bodies.
See Joint.
Juncture, in rratory, is a part of compofition, par¬
ticularly recommended by Quintilian, and denotes
fuch an attention to the nature of the vowels, confo-
nants, and fyllables, in the connexion of words, with
regard to ttyeir found, as will render the pronunciation
moft eafy and pleafant, and bed promote the harmony
of the fentence. Thus the coalition of two vowels,
occafioning an hollow and. obfcure found, and like-
wife of fome confonants, rendering it harlh and rough,
Ihould be avoided: nor Ihould the fame fyliable be
repeated at the beginning and end of words, becaufe
the found becomes hereby harfh and unpleafant.
The following verfe in Virgil’s iEneid is an example of
jun&ure.
j4rma virumque cano, Troja qui primus al oris.
JUNCUS, the rush, in botany : A genus of the
monogynia order belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
5th order, Tripelatoidea. The calyx is hexaphyllous ;
there is no corolla ; the capfule is unilocular. There
are many fpecies which are univerfally known, be¬
ing very troublefome weeds, and difficult to be eradi¬
cated. The pith of two kinds, called the conglomera-
tus and ejfufus, or round-headed and foft rulhes, are
® See R«Jh- ufed for wicks to lamps and rulh-lights*. The conglo-
i&igbts. meratus, and aculus or marine rulh, are planted with
great care on the banks of the fea in Holland, in order
to prevent the water from walhing away the earth;
•which would otherwife be removed every tide, if it
were not for the roots of thofe rulhes, which fallen
very deep in the ground, and mat themfelves near
the furface in fuch a manner as to hold the earth
clofcly together. Therefore, whenever the inhabitants
peiceive that the roots of thefe rulhes are deftroyed,
<hey are very afiiduous in repairing them. In the
fummer time when the rulhes are fully grown, they
are cut and tied up in bundles, which are dried, and
afterwards carried into the larger towns and cities,
where they are wrought into balkets, and feveral other
ufeful things, which are frequently fent into England.
Thefe forts do not grow fo ftrong in this country as on
N°J70.
0 J j u N
the Maefe, where they ibmetimes arrive at the height Juna
of four feet and upwards. ||
A fpecies of rulh termed jmcus odor at us, “ fweet Jun*Pefu**
rulh, ®r camel’s hay,” is fometimes brought to us
from Turkey and Arabia, tied up in bundles about a
foot long. The llalk, in lhape and colour, fomewhat
refembles a barley-ftraw; it is full of fungous pith
like that of our common rulhes : the leaves are like
thofe of wheat, and furround the llalk with feveral
coats, as in the reed. The flowers are of a carnation
colour, llriped with a lighter purple. The whole
plant, when in perfedlion, has a hot, bitterilh, not
unpleafant, arortiatic tafte, and a very fragrant fmell;
by long keeping it lofes greatly its aromatic fla¬
vour. Dillilled with water, it yields a confiderable
quantity of an efiential oil. It was formerly of¬
ten ufed in medicine as an aromatic, and in obftruc-
tions of the vifcera, &c. but is very little employed at
prefent.
JUNE, the fixth month of the year, during which
the fun enters the fign of Cancer. The word comes
from the Latin Junius, which fome derive a Junonc.
Ovid, in the 6th of his Fajli, makes the goddefs fay,
Junius a nojlro nomine nomen habet.
Others rather derive it ajunioribus, this being for young
people as the month of May was for old ones.
Junius ejl juvenum; qui fuit antefenum.
In this month is the fummer folltice.
JUNGERMANNIA, in botany : A genus of the
natural order of algae, belonging to the cryptogamia
ckfs of plants. The male flower is pedunculated, and
naked ; the anthera quadrivalved: the female flower
is felfile, naked, with roundilh feeds. There afe 29
fpecies, all natives of Britain, growing in woods, fhady
places, by the fides of ditches, &c. Many of them are
beautiful obje&s for the microfcope.
JUNGIA, in botany : A genus of the polygamia
fegregatae order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants ; the common receptacle is chaffy; the perian-
thium three-flowered ; the florets tubular, two-lipped ;
the exterior lip ligulate ; the interior one bipartite.
JUNIPERUS, the juniper tree: A genus of
the monodelphia order, belonging to the moncecia claf*
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 51ft order, Conifer a. The male amentum is a ca¬
lyx of fcales ; there is no corolla ; three ftamina : the
female calyx tripartite ; there are three petals; and as
many ftyles; the berry is trifpermous, and equal by
means of three tubercles of the indurated calyx adhe¬
ring to it.
Species. I. The communis, or common juniper,
grows naturally in many parts of Britain upon dry
barren commons, where it feldom rifes above the height
of a low fhrub. Mr Evelyn aflures us, that “ the
juniper, though naturally of the growth of England, is
very little known in many parts of the country : for it
grows naturally only in dry, chalky, or fandy land; and,
where the foil is oppofite to this, the plant is rarely
found. Thofe who have been ufed to fee it in its wild
ftate, on fandy barren commons, &c. will have little
inducement to plant it; as there they will fee it pro¬
cumbent, feldom fliowing a tendency to afpire : but
when planted in a good foil, it will rife to the height
of 15 or 16 feet, and produce numerous biaaches from
J U N
Juniperthe bottom to the top, forming a well-looking bufhy
v——' plant. Thefe branches are exceeding tough, and co¬
vered with a fmooth bark of a reddilh colour, having
a tinge of purple. The leaves are narrow and fharp-
[ 4°i ]
J U N
ing crowded, the ftem-leaves threefold, the branch- Juniper.;#,
leaves fourfold. * ^
Culture. The propagation of all the junipers is by
feed, and of the favins by layers and cuttings; but
pointed, growing by threes on the branches : their thefe laft may alfo be raifed from the berries, if they
upper furface has a greyiih ftreak down the middle; — ' J 'T', L- r J L J- ^
but their under furface is of a fine green colour, and
they garnifh the ihrub in great plenty. The flowers
are fmall, and of a yellowifli colour. They are fuc-
can be procured. They may all be fowed in beds of
common light earth ; except the cedar of Bermudas,
which muft be fowed in pots, to have flicker in win¬
ter. When the hardy kinds have had two or three
ceeded by the berries, which are of a bluifli colour years growth in the feed-bed, they may be planted out
when ripe.” Of this fpecies there is a variety called in autumn or in fpring, in nurfery-rows two feet afun-
Svuedi/h juniper, which grows xo or 12 feet high, very
branchy the whole length, with the branches growing
more ereft, and leaves, flowers, and fruit, like the
former. But Mr Miller affirms the Swedifli juniper
to be a diftind; fpecies. A proftrate and very dwarfifli
der, there to remain till of due fize for final tranfplan-
tation into the flirubbery. The Bermudas cedar muft
be flieltered under a frame for the firtl year or two ;
when they muft be feparated into fmall pots, to be
flieltered alfo in winter for three or four years, till they
variety is mentioned by Mr Lightfoot, tinder the name have acquired fome fize and ftrength ; then turned out
of dwarf Alpine jumper. It is frequently found in the into pots in the full ground, where they are to remain
mountains in the Highlands of Scotland, and has in a warm fituation ; though a flicker of mats for the
broader and thicker leaves than the former ; the ber¬
ries are alfo larger, or more oval than fpherical. 2. The
firft winter or two during hard frofts will be of great
fervice. The feafon for tranfplanting all the forts is
oxycedrus, or Spanifh juniper, rifes from 10 to 15 feet either in autumn, Qdober, or November, or in March,
high, clofely branched from bottom to top ; having and early in April.
fliort, awl-fliaped, fpreading leaves by threes, and fmall
dioecious flowers, fucceeded by large reddifli-brown
berries. 3. leht thuri/era, or blue-berried Spanifli ju¬
niper, grows 20 feet high or more, branching in a
conic form, with acute imbricated leaves growing by
Ufes, &c. Juniper-berries have a ftrong, not difa-
greeable fmell; and a warm, pungent, fweet tafte;
which, if they are long chewed, or previoufly well
bruifed, is followed by a bitterifli one. The pungency
feems to refide in the hark ; the fweet in the juice;
fours, and fmall dioecious flowers, fucceeded by Targe the aromatic flavour in oily veficles fpread through the
blue flowers. 4. The Virginiana, or Virginia cedar,
grows 30 or 40 feet high, branching from bottom to
top in a conic manner, fmall leaves by threes adhering
at their bafe ; the younger ones imbricated, and the
old ones fpreading; with dioecious flowers, fucceeded
by fmall blue berries 5. The Lycia, Lycian cedar,
or olibanum tree, grows 20 feet high, branching ere£I;
garniflied with fmall obtufe oval leaves, every-where
imbricated ; having dioecious flowers, fucceeded by
large oval brown berries. It is a native of Spain and
Italy. 6. The Phoenicia, or Phenician cedar, grows
about 20 feet high, branching pyramidally ; adorned
with ternate and imbricated obtufe leaves; and dioe¬
cious flowers, fucceeded by fmall yellowilh berries. It
is a native of Portugal. 7. The Bermudiana, or Ber¬
mudian cedar, grows 20 or 30 feet high, has fmall
acute leaves by threes below, the upper ones awl-
fliaped, acute, and decurrent, by pairs or fours, fpread¬
ing outward, and dioecious flowers, fucceeded by pur-
plifh berries. It is a native of Bermudas. 8. The
Sabina, or favin tree ; of which there are the follow¬
ing varieties, viz. fpreading, upright, and variegated
favin. - The firft grows three or four feet high, with
horizontal and very fpreading branches; with ftxjrt,
pointed, decurrent, eredt, oppofite leaves; and dioe¬
cious flowers, fucceeded by bluilh berries, but very
rarely producing either flowers or fruit. The fecond
grows eight or ten feet high, with upright branches,
dark-green leaves like the former, and dioecious flowers,
fucceeded by plenty of berries. The third has the
ends of many of the ftioots and young branches varie¬
gated with white, and the leaves finely ftriped ; fo that
it makes a beautiful appearance. There are two other
fpecies; the Barbadaifis, with leaves all imbricated four-
ways, the younger ones ovate, the elder acute :
fubftance of the pulp, and diftinguifliable even by the
eye ; and the bitter in the feeds. The frefti berries
yield, on expreffion, a rich, fweet, honey-like aroma¬
tic juice; if previoufly pounded fo as to break the
feeds, the juice proves tart and bitter.—Thefe berries
are ufeful carminatives and ftomachics : for thefe pur-
pofes a fpirituous water and effential oil are prepared
from them, and they are alfo ingredients in various
medicines. The liquor remaining after the diftillation
of the oil pafled through a ftrainer, and gently exhaled
to the confiftence of a rob, proves likewife a medicine
of great utility, and in many cafes is perhaps prefe¬
rable to the oil or the berry itfelf. Hoffman is exprefsly
of this opinion, and recommends the rob of juniper in
debility of the ftomach and inteftines; and fays it is
particularly ferviceable to old people who are fubjeA to
thefe diforders, or labour under a difficulty with re¬
gard to the urinary fecretion. This rob is of a dark
brownilh-yellow colour, a balfamic fweet tafte, with a
little of the bitter, more or lefs according as the feeds
in the berry have been more or lefs bruifed. But per¬
haps one of the beft forms under which they can be
ufed is that of a Ample watery infufion. This, either
by itfelf or with the addition of a fmall quantity of
gin, is a very ufeful drink for hydropic patients. An
infufion of the tops has alfo been advantageoufly em¬
ployed in the fame manner. The Swedes prepare an
extrack from the berries, probably of the nature of the
rob above mentioned, which fome eat for breakfaft. In
Germany the berries are bruifed and put injto the fauce
made ufe of for a wild boar ; and are frequently alfo
eaten with other pork, to give it a wild-boar flavour.
In Carniola, and fome other diftri&s, the inhabitants
make a kind of wine of them fteeped in water ; but
ft is difficult to prevent this liquor from growing four.
the Chinenfis, with leaves decurrent imbricate-expand- The Laplanders, as we are told by Linnseus, drink
Voi. IX. Tart II.
3 E
infufions
TUN [ 402 ] TUN
Junius. jn£Qfl0ng 0f the juniper berries as we do tea and coffee.
Thnifhes and grous feed on the berries, and diffetni-
nate the feed in their dung. It is remarkable that the
berries of the juniper are two years in ripening. They
fonietimes appear in an uncommon form ; the leaves of
the cup grow double the ufua'l fize, approaching, but
not clofmg ; and the three petals fit exa&ly clofe, fo
as to keep the air from the tipuhe juniperi which inhabit
them.—The whole plant has a ftrong aromatic fmell.
The wood when burnt emits a fragrant odour like in-
cenfe. It is of a reddilh colour, very hard and du¬
rable ; and when large enough, is ufed in marquetry
and veneering, and in making cups, cabinets, &c.
Grafs will not grow beneath juniper, but this tree
itfelf is faid to be deftroyed by the meadow-oat. The
oil of juniper mixed with that of nuts makes an excel¬
lent varnifh for pi&ures, wood work, and preferving
iron from ruffing. Th.e refin powdered and rubbed
into paper prevents the ink from finking through it,
for which it is frequently ufed under the name of
Pounce.—The charcoal made from this wood endures
longer than any other, infomuch that live embers are
faid to have been found in the allies after being a year
covered.—For the properties of fome other fpecies,
fee the articles San dak ach (Gum), and Oliba-
num.
JUNIUS (Adrian), one of the moff learned men
of the age in which he lived, was born at Horn in
Holland in 1511. He travelled into all parts df Eu¬
rope, and pra&ifed phyfic with reputation in England;
where, among other works, he compofed a Greek
and Latin Lexicon, to which he added above 6500
words ; an Epithalamium on the marriage of queen
Mary with king Philip of Spain ; and Animadverfa &
de Coma C-ommcntarius, which is the moft applauded of
all his works. He died in 1575.
Junius (Francis), profeffor of divinity at Leyden,
was born at Bourges in 1545, of a noble family, and
ftudied fome time at Lyons. Bartholomew Aneau,
who was principal of the college in that city, gave him
excellent inftruftions with regard to the right method
of ftudying. He was remarkable for being proof a-
gainft all temptations to lewdnefs; but a libertine fo
far overpowered him by his fophiftry, that he made
him an atheift: however, he foon returned to his firft
faith ; and, averfe as he was to unlawful love, he had
no averfion to matrimony, but was married no lefs
than four times. He was employed in public affairs
by Henry IV.; and at laft was invited to Leyden to
be profeffor of divinity, which employment he dif-
charged with honour, till he was fnatched away by the
plague in 1602. Du Pin fays, he was a learned and
judicious critic. He wrote, in conjun&ion with Em¬
manuel Tremellius, a Latin verfion of the Hebrew text
of the Bible. He alfo publifhed Commentaries on a
great part .of the Holy Scriptures; and many other
works, all in Latin.
Junius (Francis), or Francis du Jon, the fon of
the preceding, was born at Heidelberg in 1^89. He
at firft defigned to devote himfelf to a military life ;
but after the truce concluded in 1609, he applied him¬
felf entirely to ftudy. He came to England in 1620,
and lived 30 years in the earl of Arundel’s family. He
was greatly efteemed not only for his profound erudi¬
tion, but alfo for the purity of his manners ; and was
fo paffionately fond of the ftudy of the northern lan-' Junk,
guages, that, being informed there were fome villages Ja°o<
in Friefland where the ancient language of the Saxons
was preferved, he went and lived two years in that
country. He returned to England in 1675 ; and after
fpending a year at Oxford, retired toWindfor, in or¬
der to vifit Voffius, at whofe houfe he died in 1677.
The univerfity of Oxford, to which he bequeathed hia
manufcripts, erefted a very handfome. monument to his
memory. He wrote, 't. De FlBura Veterum, which is
admired by all the learned ; the beft edition of it is that
of Rotterdam in 1694. He publifhed the fame vvotk
at London in Englilh. 2. An explication of the old
Gothic manufcript, called the Silver one, becaufe the
four Gofpels are there written in filver Gothic letters j.
this was publifhed with notes by Thomas Marefchal,
or Marfhal. 3. A large Commentary on the Har¬
mony of the four Gofpels by Tatian, which is ftill in
manufcript. 4. A Gloffary in five languages, in which
he explains the origin of the Northern languages; pub¬
lifhed at Oxford in 1745, in folio, by Mr Edward
Lee.
JUNK, in fea-language, a natne given to any rem¬
nants or pieces of old cable, which is ufually cut into
fmall portions, for the pui pofe of making points, matts,
gafkets, fennit; &c.
JUNO, in pagan worfhip, was the fifter and wife
of Jupiter, and the goddefs of kingdoms and riches ;
and alfo ftyled the queen of heaven: fhe prefided over
marriage and child-birth, and was reprefented as the
daughter of Saturn and Rhea. She married Jupiter;
but was not the moft complaifant wife : for, according
to Homer, that god was fometimes obliged to make
ufe of all his authority to keep her in due fubjeftion j
and the fame author obferves, that on her entering in¬
to a confpiracy againft him, he punifhed her by fufpend-
ing her in the air with two anvils faftened to her feet,
and golden manacles on her hands, which all the other
deities looked on without a poffibility of helping her.
However, her jealoufy made her frequently find oppor¬
tunities of interrupting her hufband in the courfe of his
amours ; and prompted her to punifh with unrelenting
fury Europa, Semele, lo, Latona, and the reft of his
miftreffes. Jupiter himfelf having conceived without
any commerce witlf a female, Juno, in revenge, con¬
ceived Vulcan by the wind, Mars by touching a flower
pointed out to her by the goddefs Flora, and Hebe by
eating greedily of lettuces.
Juno, as the queen of heaven, preferved great ftate :
her ufual attendants were Terror and Boldnefs, Caftor,
Pollux, and 14 nymphs; but her moft faithful atten¬
dant was the beautiful Iris, or the rainbow. Homer
defcribes her in a chariot adorned with precious ftones,
the wheels of which were of ebony, and which was
drawn by hqrfes with reins of gold. But (lie is more
commonly painted drawn by peacoclcs. She was repre¬
fented in her temple at Corinth, feated on a throne,
with a crown on her head, a pomegranate in one hand,
and in the other a fceptre with a cuckoo on its top.
This ftatue was of gold and ivory.
Some mythologifts fuppofe that Juno fignifies the
air: others, that ftie was the Egyptian Ifis ; who
being reprefented under various figures, was by the
Greeks and Romans reprefented as fo many diftin&
deities.’
j u p r 4<
Junonal;a ^ JUNONALIA, a fcftival obfcrved by the Romans
Tuniter ‘n honour of Juno. It was inftituted -on account of
i - - ’ • certain prodigies that happened in Italy, and was cele-
’ brated by matrons. In the foiemnity two white cows
were led from the temple of Apollo into the city thro’
the gate called Carmentalis, and two images of Juno,
made of cyprefs, were born in proceffion. Then march¬
ed 27 girls, habited in long robes, finging an hymn
to the goddefs; then came the Decemviri, crowned
with laurel, in veftments edged with purple. This
pompous company, going through the Vitus Jugarius,
had a dance in the great field of Rome ; from thence
they proceeded through the Forum Boarium to the
temple of Juno, where the viftims were lacrificed by
the Decemviri, and the cyprefs images were left hand¬
ing. This feRival is not mentioned in the fajli of O-
vid, but is fully deferibed by Livy, lib. 7. dec. 3. The
hymn ufed upon the occafion wascompofed by Livius
the poet.
JUNTO, in matters of government, denotes a feleft
council for taking cognizance of affairs of great confe-
quence, which require fecrecy.
In Spain and Portugal, it fignifies much the fame
with'convention, affembly, or board among us: .thus
we meet with the junto of the three elfates, of com¬
merce, of tobacco, &c. See Board, &c.
IVORY, in natural hiflory, &c. a hard, folid, and
firm fubftance, of a white colour, and capable of a very
See Ele good poliih. It is the tulle of the elephant * ; and is
hollow from the bafe to a certain height, the cavity
being filled up with a compadt medullary fubltance,
feeming to have a great number of glands in it. It
is oblerved, that the Ceylon ivory, and that of the
illand of Achem, do not become yellow in the wearing,
as all other ivory does ; for this reafon the teeth of thefe
places bear alargerpricethan thofeof the coaftlof Guinea.
Hardening, Softening, and Staining, of Ivory. See
Bones and Horns.
JUPITER, the fupreme god of the ancient pa¬
gans. The theologifts, according to Cicero, reckon¬
ed up three Jupiters; the firil and fecond of whom
were born in Arcadia ; of thefe two, the one fprang
. from iEther, the other from Ccelus. The third Ju¬
piter was the fon of Saturn, and born in Crete,
where they pretended to Ihow his fepulchre. Cicero
in other places fpeaks of feveral Jupiters who reigned
in different countries. The Jupiter, by whom the
poets and divines underftand the fupreme god, was
the fon of Saturn king of Crete. He would have
been devoured by his father as foon as born, had not
his mother Rhea fubftituted a ftone inftead of the child,
which Saturn immediately fwaliowed. Saturn took
this method to deftroy all his male children, becaufe
it had been foretold by Coelus and Terra, that one of
his fons fliould deprive him of his kingdom. Jupiter,
being thus faved from his father’s jaws, was brought
up by the Curetesin a den on mount Ida. Virgil tells
us, that he was fed by the "bees ; out of gratitude for
which, he changed them from an iron to a golden co¬
lour. Some fay, that his nurfes were Amalthsea and
Meliffa, who gave him goats milk and honey ; and
others, that Amalthaea was the name of the goat which
nouriflied him, and which, as a reward for her great
fei vices, was changed into a conftellation. According
to others, he was fed by wild pigeons, who brought
>3. 1 J U P
him ambrofia from Oceanus ; and by an eagle, who
carried neftar in his beak from a deep rock : for
which he rewarded the former, by making them the
foretellers of winter and fummer ; and the laft by gi-
* ving him immortality, and making him his thunder-
bearer. When grown up, he drove his father out of
heaven, and divided the empire of the world with his
brothers. For himfelf, he had heaven and earth.
Neptune had the fea and waters ; and Pluto hell. The
Titans undertook to deftroy Jupiter, as he had done
his father. Thefe Titans were giants, the fons of
Titan and the Earth. They declared war againft Ju¬
piter, and heaped mountains upon mountains, in or¬
der to fcale heaven : but their efforts were unfuccefs-
ful. Jupiter overthrew them with his thunder, and
fhut them up under the waters and mountains, from
which they were not able to get out.
Jupiter had feveral wives: the firft of whom, named
Metis, he is faid to have devoured when big with child,
by which he himfelf became pregnant ; and Minerva
iftued out of his head, completely armed and fully
grown. His fecond was Themis ; the name of his
third is not known ; his fourth was the celebrated Ju¬
no, whom he deceived under the form of a cuckoo,
which to ftiun the violence of a ftorm fled for flicker to
her lap. He was the father of the Mufes and Graces*
and had a prodigious number of children by his nrif-
treffes. He metamorphofed himfelf into a fatyr to
enjoy Antiope ; into a bull, to carry off Europa ; into
a fwan, to abufe Leda ; into a ftiower of gold, to cor¬
rupt Danae; and into feveral other forms to gratify
his paffions. He had Bacchus by Semele, Diana and
Apollo by Latona, and was the father of Mercury
and the other gods.
The heathens in general belieted that there was but
one fupreme God : but when they confidered this one
great being as influencing the affairs of the world,
they gave him as many different names ; and hence
proceeded their variety of nominal gods. When he
thundered or lightned, they called him Jupiter ; when
he calmed the fea, Neptune; when he guided their
councils, Minerva ; and when he gave them ftrength
in battle, Mars. In procefs of time they ufed differ¬
ent reprefentations of this Jupiter, &c and confidered
them, vulgarly at leaft, as fo many different perfons.
They afterward regarded each of them in different
views : e g. The Jupiter that fliowered down bleflings,
was called the Kind Jupiter ; and when punifliing, the
Terrible Jupiter. There was alfo one Jupiter for'Eu¬
rope, and another for Africa ; and in Europe, there
was one great Jupiter who was the particular friend of
the Athenians, and another who was the fpecial pro¬
testor of the Romans : nay, there was fcarce a town
or hamlet perhaps, in Italy, that had not a Jupiter of
its own ; and the Jupiter of Terracina or Jupiter
Anxur, reprefented in medals as young and beardlefs,
with rays round his head, more refembkd Apollo than
the great Jupiter at the Capitol. In this way Jupiter
at length had temples and different chara&ers almoft
every where : at Carthage, he was called Ammon; in
Egypt* Serapis; at Athens, the great Jupiter was
the Olympian Jupiter ; and at Rome the greateft Ju¬
piter was the Capitoline Jupiter, who was the guar¬
dian and benefador of the Romans, and whom they
called the “ belt and greateft Jupiter j” Jupiter optimus '
3 E 2 maximus.
J U P
maxtmus. The figure of this Jupiter was reprefented
in his chief temple on the Capitoline hill, as fitting on
a curule chair, with the fulmen or thunder, or rather
lightning, in one hand, and a fceptre in the other.
This fulmen in the figures of the old artills was al¬
ways adapted to the charadler under which they were
to reprefent Jupiter. If his appearance was to be
mild and calm, they gave him the conic fulmen or
bundle of flames wreathed clofe together, held down
in his hand : When punifhing, he holds up the fame
figure, with two tranfverfe darts of lightning, fome-
times with wings added to each fide of it, to denote
its fwiftnefs; this was called by the poets the three¬
forked bolt of Jove : and when he was going to do
fome exemplary execution, they put in his hand a
handful of flames, all let loofe in their utmott fury ;
and fometimes filled both his hands with flames. The
fuperiority of Jupiter was principally manifefted in that
air of majefty which the ancient artifts endeavoured to
exprefs in his countenance; particular attention was
paid to the head of hair, the eye brows, and the beard.
There are feveral heads of the mild Jupiter on ancient
feals; where his face has a mixture of dignity and eafe
in it, admirably defcribed by Virgil, iEn. i. v. 256.
The ftatues of the Terrible Jupiter were generally of
black marble, as thofe of the former were of white:
the one fitting.with an air of tranquillity ; the other
Handing, more or lefs difturbed. The face of the one
is pacific and ferene ; of the other angry or clouded.
On the heads of the one the hair is regular and com-
pofed; in the other it is fo difcompofed, that it falls
half-way down the forehead. The face of the Jupiter
Tonans reiembles that of the Terrible Jupiter ; he is
reprefented on gems and medals as holding up the
triple bolt in his right hand, and Handing in a chariot,
which feems to be whirled on impetuoufly by four
horfes. Thus he is alfo defcribed by the poets. Ovid.
Deian. Here. v. 28. Horace lib i. od. 4. v. 8. Ju¬
piter, as the intelligencejprefiding over a Angle planet, is
reprefented only in a chariot and pair : on all other occa-
fions, if reprefented in a chariot, he is always drawn
by four horfes. Jupiter is well known as the chief ruler
of the air, whofe particular province was to dired the
rains, the thunders, and the lightnings. As the dif-
penfer of rain, he was called Jupiter Pluvius: under
which charadter he is exhibited feated in the clouds,
holding up his right hand, or extending his arms al-
mofi in a Hraight line each w^y, and pouring a Hream
of hail and rain from his right hand upon the earth ;
whilH the fulmen is held down in his left. The wings
that are given him relate to his chara&er of prefiding
over the air ; his hair and beard in the Antonine pil¬
lar are all fpread down by the rain, which defeends in
a Iheet from him, and falls for the refrefhment of the
Romans; whilH their enemies are reprefented as Hruck
with the lightnings, add lying dead at their feet.
Some confider a great part of the fable of Jupiter to
include the hiftory of Noah hnd his three fons; and
that Saturn is Noah, who faw all mankind perilh in
the waters of the deluge; and who, in fome fort, fwal-
lowed them up, by not receiving them into the ark. Ju¬
piter is Ham ; Neptune Japheth ; and Shem, Pluto.
The Titans, it is thought, reprefent the old giants,
who built the tower of Babel, and whofe pride an
J u R
prefumption God had confounded, by changing their Jupiter,
language, and pouring out the fpirit of difeord and
divifion among them. The name of Jupiter, or Jovis *'
Pater, is thought to be derived from Jehovah, pro¬
nounced with the Latin termination Jams inftead.of Ja¬
va ; and in medals we meet with Jovis in the nomina¬
tive, as well as oblique cafes: for example Jovis cuf-
tos, Jovis propugnator, Jovis Jlator. To the name Jo¬
vis was added pater; and afterwards inftead of “ Jo-
vis pater”, Jupiter was ufed by abbreviation.
The name Jupiter was not known to the Hebrews
till the reign of Alexander the Great, and the kings
his fucceffors. Antiochus Epiphanes commanded the
idol of Jupiter Olympius to be placed in the temple at
Jerufalem ; and that of Jupiter the defender of firan-
gers in the temple on mount Gerizim. 2 Macc. vi. 2.
While St Paul and St Barnabas were at Lyftra, they
were taken for gods, becaufe they cured one who had
been lame from his birth, and that by an exprdfion
only : St Paul was taken for Mercury, by reafon of
his eloquence ; and St Barnabas for Jupiter (A&s xiv.
11, 12.), on account probably of his good mein.
Jupiter, If, in aftronomy, one of the fuperior
planets, remarkable for its brightnefs ; and which by
its proper motion feems to revolve round the earth in
^bout twelve years. See Astronomy-/;«/«c.
JURA, one of the Hebrides, or Weftern Iflands
of Scotland, lying oppofite to Knapdale in Argylefhire,
is fuppofed to be about 34 miles long and 10 broad.
It is the moll rugged of all the Hebrides; and is com-
pofed chiefly of vaft mountains, naked, and without a
poffibility of cultivation. Some of the fouth and wefi-
ern fides only are improveable, and in good feafons as
much bear and oats are raifed as will maintain the in¬
habitants ; though by the diftillation, as Mr Pennant
fuppofes, of their grain, they fometimes want. Bear
produces four or five fold, and oats three fold. Sloes are
the only fruits of the ifland. An acid for punch is here
made from the berries of the mountain-alh ; and a kind
of fpirit is alfo difiilled from them. Nectffity hath in-
firu&ed the inhabitants in the ufe of native dyes.
Thus the juice of the tops of heath boiled fupplies
them with a yellow; the roots of the white water-lily
with a dark-brown ; thofe of the yellow water iris
with a black ; and the galium verum, ru of the illanders,
with a very fine red, not inferior to madder. On the
hills is fome pallure for cattle ; and the produce, when
Mr Pennant vifited the ifland. amounted to about 300
or 400 head of black cattle, fold annually at 3I. each
to graziers who come for them ; about 100 horfes alfo
fold annually ; a few Iheep with fleeces of a moH ex¬
cellent quality, and great numbers of goats. The o-
ther animals of Jura are about 100 flags ; though thiefe
mull formerly have been much more numerous, as the
original name of the ifland was Deir-ay, or the i/le of
deer, fo called by the Norwegians on account of the
abundance of deer found in it. Here alfo Mr Pennant
had fome obfeure account of a worm that, in a lefs per¬
nicious degree, refembles the Fvria iafernalis of Lin¬
naeus. The jillan, a little worm of Jura, fmall as a
thread, and not an inch in length, infinuates itfelf un¬
der the fkin, caufes a rednefs and great pain, flies fwift-
ly from place to place ; but is cured by a poultice of
cheefe and honey. Of the mountains of Jura, thofe
from
[ 1
J u R [ 405 1 J u R
Jura, from their fhape called the paps, are the moft remark-
—v-— ' able. There are only three very large ones; the biggelt,
called Beinn-an-oir, or the mountain of gold, lies fartheft
to the north ; the fecond is called Belnn-Jheunta, or the
hallowed mountain j and the third, Beinn-a-chaolois, or
the mountain of the found, is the leaft of the three. Mr
Pennant afcended the firft with great labour and diffi¬
culty. It is coinpofed of vaft Hones, covered with
moffes near the bafe ; but all above bare and uncon-
nefted with each other. The whole, he fays, feems a
cairn, the work of.the fons of Saturn. The grandeur
of the profpeft from the top abundantly made amends
for the fatigue of afcending the mountain. Jura itfelf
afforded a ftupendous fcene of rock, varied with innu¬
merable little lakes. From the weft fide of the hill ran
a narrow ftripe of rock terminating in the fea, and cal¬
led the Jlide of the old hag. To the fouth appeared Hay
extended like a map beneath his feet ; and beyond that
the north of Ireland ; to the eaft two other iflands,
Cantyre, Arran, and the frith of Clyde bounded by
Ayrffiire ; an amazing tra& of mountains to the north-
eafl as far as Ben-lomond; Sharba finifhed the northern
view ; and over the weftern ocean wete fcattered Co-
lonfay and Oranfay, Mull, Iona, and its neighbouring
ifies; and Hill further, the long extents of Tirey and
Col, juft apparent. The other paps are feen very di-
ftin&ly, but all of them inferior in height. Mr Banks
and his friends mounted that to the fouth, and found
the height to be 2359 feet; but this is far overtop¬
ped by Beinn-an-oir. The ftones of this mountain are
white, a few red, quartzy, and compofed of fmall
grains ; but fome are breciated or filled with cryftal-
line kernels of an amethyftine colour. The other ftones
of the ifland are, a cinereous date, veined with red, and
ufed here as a white-ftone; a micaceous fand-ftone;
and between the fmall ifles and Arfin, a micaceous
quartzy rock-ftone. On the weft fide of the ifland
there is an anchorihg-place called Whitfarlan / towards
the north end is a bay called Da’lyauh, and on the
fame coaft is formed another riding-place for vefiels
among feveral fmall iflands. Between the north end of
Jura and the fmall ifle of Skarba, there is a famous
whirlpool, called Cery-Frevfan, from Brecan, fon to a
king of Denmark, who perilhed in this gulph. His
body being caft afhore on the north fide of Jura, was
buried in a cave, and his grave is ftill diftinguiftied
by a tombftone and altar. In this vortex, which ex¬
tends about a mile in breadth, the fea begins to boil
and ferment with the tide of flood, increafing gradually
to a number of whirlpools, which, in the form of py¬
ramids, fpout up the water with a great noife, as high
as the mail of a fmall veffel, agitated into fuch a foam
as makes the fea appear white even at the diftance of
two leagues. About half flood the violence begins tp
decreafe, and continues to do fo till about half an hour
after high-water : then it boils as before, till within
an hour of low-water, when the fmalleft fifhing boat
may crofs it without danger.
Jura is furniffied with many rivulets and fprings of
excellent water, and the air is remarkably healthy ; its
falubrity being increafed by the high fituation, perpe¬
tually fanned by breezes. It is, however, but ill-peo¬
pled ; and did not contain above 700 or 800 inhabi¬
tants at the time it was vifited by Mr Pennant. The
women are prolific, and very often bear twins. The
4
inhabitants live to a great age, and are liable to few Jura»
diftempers. Men of 90 can work ; and there was then , Jurat-<'-
living a woman of 80, who could run down a fheep. /—
The inhabitants are all Proteftants, but addifted to
fome fuperftitions. The parilh is fuppofed to be the
largeft in Great Britain, and the duty the moft dan¬
gerous and troublefome : it confifts of Jura, Oranfay,
Colonfay, Skarba, and feveral little ifles divided by
narrow and dangerous founds ; forming a length of
not lefs than 60 miles ; fupplied by only one minifter
and an afliftant.
The very old clans of Jura are the Mac-ilvuys and
the Mac-raines : but it feems to have changed mafters
more than once. In 1549, Donald of Cantyte, Mac-
guillayne of Do ward, Mac-guillayne of Kinloch-buy,
and Mac-duffie of Colonfay, were the proprietors :
Mac lean of Mull had alfo a (hare in 1586. At pre-
fent it belongs to the duke of Argyle, Mr Macneil of
Colonfay, and Mr Campbell of Shawfield.
Jura is alfo the name of a chain of mountains in
Switzerland, beginning in the canton of Zurich, ex¬
tending from thence along the Rhine into the canton
and bifhopric of Bafle, ftretching into the canton of
Soleura and theprincipalityof Neuchatel,andbranching
out towards the Pays de Vaud ; feparating that coun¬
ty from Frenche Comte and Burgundy, and continued
beyond the Genevan territories as far as the Rhone.
Many elevated valleys are formed by different parts of
this chain in the country of the Paysde Vaud; among
which one of the moft remarkable is the valley of the
lake of Joux, on the top of that part of the chain
named Mount Joux. It contains fevetal populous vil¬
lages, and is beautifully diverfified with wood, arable
land, and pafture.- It is watered by two lakes; the lar¬
geft of which is that of Joux already mentioned. This
has one fhore of a high rock covered with wood ; the
oppofite banks forming a gentle afcent, fertile and
well cultivated; behind which is a ridge covered with
pines, beech, and oak wood. The fmaller lake, named
Brenet, is bordered with fine corn-fields and villages;
and the dream which iffues from it is loft in a gulf
named Entonnoir, or the Funnel, where the people have
placed feveral mills which are turned by the force of
the falling current. The river Orbe iffues from the
other fide of the mountain, about two miles from this
place; and probably owes its origin to the fubterrane-
ous ftream juft mentioned. The largeft lake is fupplied
by a rivulet which iffues from the bottom of a rock,
and lofes itfelf in it. The valley contains about 300a
inhabitants, remarkable' for their induftry. f&me are
watch-makers; but thegreateft number employ them-
felves in poliffiing cryftals, granites, and marcafites.
The country is much infefted with bears and wolves;
In afcending to this place there is a very extenfive pro-
fpe& of great part of the Pays de Vaud, the lake of
Geneva, and that of Neuchatel, which from that high
point of view appear to be naarly on a level; though
M. de Luc found the latter to be 159 feet above the
level of the lake of Geneva.
JURATS, Jurati, magiftrates in the nature of
Aldermen, for the government of feveral corpora¬
tions. Thus we meet with the mayor and jurats of
Maid done, Rye, Winchelfea, &c.—So alfo Jerfey has
a bailiff and ^twelve jurats, or fworn afiiftants, to go¬
vern the iflaiyj.
IVREA*
J U R
t 4o6 1
IVREA, au ancient and ftrong town of Italy, in
Piedmont, and capital of Canavez, with a ftrong fort,
a bidiop’s fee, the title of a marquifate, and an ancient
^ caftle. It is fubjeft to the king of Sardinia, and feat-
ed on the river Doria between two hills, in E. Long.
7. 48. N. Lat. 45. 12.
JURIEU (Peter), an eminent French Proteftant
divine, called ironically by the papifts the Goliath of the
Proteftants, was born in 1637. He was educated in
England under his maternal uncle Peter du Moulin,
and took orders in the Englifh church ; but returning
to fucceed his father as paftor of a reformed congre¬
gation at Mer in the diocefe of Blois, he was made
profeffor of divinity and Hebrew at Sedan, where he
acquired great reputation. This univeriity being taken
from the Proteftants, a profeffo.rftiip of divinity was
founded for him at Rotterdam-; and he was alfo ap¬
pointed minifter of the Walloon church in the fame
town. Being now in a place of liberty, he gave full
fcope to an imagination naturally warm, and applied
himfelf to ftudy the book of Revelation, of which he
fancied he had by a kind of infpiration difcovered the
true meaning ; a notion that led him to many enthuii-
aftical conjeftures. He was moreover fo unfortunate
as to quarrel with his beft friends for oppofing his vi-
iionary opinions, which produced violent difputes be¬
tween him and Meflrs Bayle and de Beauval. Pie died
in 1713; and left a great number of efteemed works
behind him.
JURIN (Dr James), a diftinguiihed perfon, who
cultivated medicine and mathematics with equal fuc-
eHs. He was fecretary of the Royal Society in Lon¬
don, as well as prefident of the College of Phyftcians
there. He had great difputes with Michelloti upon
the moment of running-waters, with Robins upon di-
ftinft vifion, and with the partisans of Leibnitz upon
moving bodies A treatife of his “ upon Vifion” is
printed in Smith’s “ Optics.” He died in 1750*
JURISCONSULTUS (ICtus,) among the Ro¬
mans, was a perfon learned in the law ; a mafter of
the Roman jurifprudence ; who was confulted on the
interpretation of the laws and cuftoms, and on the
difficult points in law-fuits. The fifteen books of the
Digefts were compiled wholly from the anfwers ot re¬
ports of the ancient jurifconfulti. Tribonianus, in
deftroying the 2000 volumes from whence the code
and Digeft were taken, has deprived the public of a
world of things which would have given them light
into the aricient office of the jurifconfulti. We
ffiould fcarce have known any thing beyond their bare
names, had not Pomponius, who lived in the fecond
century, taken care to preferve fome circumtlances of
their office.
The Roman jurifconfulti feem to have been the fami
with our chamber-counfellors, who arrived at the ho¬
nour of being confulted through age and experience,
but never pleaded at the bar. Their pleading advo¬
cates or lawyers never became jurifconfuhi. See Ad¬
vocate. • ' . ' '
In the times of the commonwealth, the advocati had
by much the more honourable employment, as being
in the ready way to attain the higheft preferments.
They then defpifed the jurifconfulti, calling them in
derifion formulatii and legulei, as having invented cer¬
tain forms and monofyllables, in order to give their
J U s
Jus
anfwers the greater appearance of gravity and myftery’, JurlfHAion
But in procefs of time they became fo much efteemed, "
that they were called prudentes and Japientes, and the ^
emperors- appointed the judges to follow their advice.
Auguftus advanced them to be public officers of the
empire ; fo that they were no longer confined to the
petty counfels of private perfons.—Bern. Rutilius has
written the lives of the moft famous jurifconfulti who
have lived within thefe 2000 years.
JURISDICTION, a power or authority, which
a man has to do juftice in cafes of complaint made be¬
fore him. There are two kinds of jurifdi&ion, the *
one ecclejiajlical, the other fecular.
Secular Jurisdiction, belongs to the king and his
juftices or delegates. The courts and judges at Weft-
minfter have jiirifdi&ion all over England, and are not
reftrained to any county or place ; but all other courts
are confined to their particular jurifdiAiohs, which if
they exceed* whatever they do is erroneous. There
are three forts of inferior jurifdiftions ; the firft \stene~
repiacita, to, hold pleas, and the plaintiff may fue either
there or in the king’s courts. Another is the conu-
fance of pleas, where a right is invefted in the lord of
the franchife to hold pleas : and he is the only perfoa
that can take advantage of it, by claiming his fran¬
chife. The third fort is an exempt jurifdiftion, as
where the king grants to fome city, that the inhabi¬
tants ft)all be fued within their city and not elfewhere ;
though there is no jurifdiftion that can withftand n cer¬
tiorari to the fuperior courts.
Ecclejiajlical Jurisdiction belongs to bilhops and
their deputies.
Biftiops, &c. have two kinds of jurifdi&ion ; the
one internal, which Is exercifed over the confcience in
things purely fpiritual; and this they are fuppofed to
hold immediately of God.
The other is contentious, which is a privilege fome
princes have given them in terminating difputes be¬
tween ecckfiaftics and laymen.
JURISPRUDENCE, the fcience of what is juft
or unjuft; or the knowlege of laws, rights, cuftoms,
ftatuces, &c. neceffary for the adminiftration of juftice.
See Law.
JUROR, Jurator, in a legal fenfe, is one of
thofe twenty four or twelve men who are fworn to
deliver truth upon fuch evidence as fhall be given them
touching any matter in queftion. The puniftiment of
petty jurors attainted of giving a veididt contrary to
evidence, willingly, is very fevere.
JURY, a certain number of men fworn to enquire
into and try a matter of fa&, and to declare the truth
upon fuch evidence as (hall appear before them.
Juries are, in thefe kingdoms, the fupreme judges
in all courts and in all caufes in which either the life,
property, or reputation, of any man is concerned : this*
is the diftinguilhing privilege of every Briton, and one
of the moft glorious ■ advantages of our conftitution ;
for as every one is tried by his peers, the meanell fub-
jedt is as fafe and as free as the greateft. See the ar¬
ticle Trial.
Jury Majl, whatever is fet up in room of a maft
that has been loft in a ftorm or an engagement, and
to which a leffer yard, ropes, and fails, are affixed.
JUS coronae. See Hereditary Right, and Suc¬
cession-
Jus
US [ 407 ] JUS
Jus- Deliberandi, in Scots law, that tight which an
htir baa by law of deliberating for a certain time ,
whether he will reprefent his predeceflbr.
Jus Dcvolutum, in Scots law, the right of the church,
of prefenting a minifter to a vacant pariih, in cafe the
patron fhall negleft to ufe that right within the time
limited by law.
Jus Manti, in Scots law, the right the hulband ac¬
quires to his wife’s moveable ellate, in virtue of the
marriage.
Jus ReliBte, in Scots law, the right the wife has in
the goods in communion, in cafe of the previous de*
ceal'e of the huiband.
Jus Preventioms, in Scots law, the preferable right
of jurifdidtion acquired by a court, in any caufe to
which other courts are equally competent, by having
csercifed the firlt a£t of jurifdi&ion.
Jus Civile, among 11 the Romans, fignified no more
than the interpretation given by the learned, of the
.laws of the twelve tables, though the phrafe now ex¬
tends to the whole fyftem of the Roman laws.
Jus Civil alls, fignities freedom of the city of Rome,
which intitled thofe perfons who had obtained it to
moll of the privileges of Roman citizens—yet it differs
from Jus Shi tritium, which extended to all the advan¬
tages which a free native of Rome was intitled to—
the difference is much the fame as betwixt denriation
and naturalriatlon with us.
Jus Honorarium, was a name given to thofe Roman
laws which were made up of edidl* of the fupreme
magiftrates, particularly the praetors.
Jus Imaginis, was the right of ufing pi&ures and
ftatues among!! the Romans, and had fome refemblance
to the right of bearing a coat-of arms among!! us.
This honour was allowed to none but thofe whofe an-
ceilors or themfelves had borne fome curule office, that
is, had been Curule JEdile, Cenfor, Pnetor, or ConfuL
The ufe of flatues, &c. which the Jus Imaginis
gave, was the exhibiting them in funeral proceffions,&c.
See I«age.
Jus Papirianum, was the laws of Romulus, Numa,
and other kings of Rome, colk&ed into a body by
Sextus Papirius, who lived in the time of Tarquin the
Proud, which accounts for the name.
Jus Trium Liberorum was a privilege granted to
fuch perfons in the city of Rome as had three children,
by which they were exempted from all troublefome
offices. The fame exemption was granted to any per¬
fons who lived in other parts of Italy, having four
children; and thofe that lived in the provinces, pro¬
vided they had five (or as fome fay feven) children,
were intitled to the fame immunities. This was good
policy, and tended to the population of the empire.
1'or a further account of thefe privileges, See Chil-
Pren.
JUSSICA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 17th or¬
der, Calycanthemee. The calyx is quadripartite or
quinquepartite fuperior j there are four or five petals ;
thecapfule quadrilocularorquinquelocular,oblong, open¬
ing at the angles; the feeds are numerous and fmall.
JUST, a fportive kind of combat on borfeback, man
again!! man, armed with lances. The word is by
fome derived from the French joujle, of the Latinjuxta, Juftel,
_becaufe the combatants fought near one another. Sal- Jul>lC<v
malius derives it from the modern Greek zoujlra, or v L
rather TJvrf-i which is ufed in this fenfe by Nicepho-
rus Gregorius. Others derive it from jujla, which in
the corrupt age of the Latin tongue was ufed for this
exercife, by reafon it was fuppofed a more juft and
equal combat than the tournament.
The difference between jufts and tournaments con-
fifts in this, that the latter is the genus, of which the
former is only a fpecies. Tournaments included all
kinds of military fports and engagements made out
of gallantry and diverfion : Jufts were thofe particu¬
lar combats where the parties were near each other,
and engaged with lance and fword. Add, that the
tournament was frequently performed by a number of
cavaliers, who fought in a body : The juft was a fingle
combat of one man againft another.—Though the jutls
were ufually made in tournaments after a general ren¬
counter of all the cavaliers, yet they were fometime^
fingly, and independent of any tournament. See Tour¬
nament.
He who appeared for the firft time at a juft, forfeit¬
ed his helm or cafque unlefs he had forfeited before at
a tournament.
JUSTEL (Chriltopher), a learned counfellor, and
fecretary to the French king, was born at Paris in
1580, and applied bimfelf to the tfudy of ecclefiaftical
hiftory. He maintained a correfpondence with the
moll learned men of his time, as archbifiiop U/her,
Sir Henry Spelmen, Blondel, &c. till his death, which
happened in 1649. He wrote, 1. The code of the
canons of the church univerfal, and the councils of
Africa, with notes. 2. A genealogical hiftory of the
houfe of Auvergne. And, 3. Colle&ions of Greek,
and Latin canons, from feveral manuferipts, which
formed the Bibliotheca juris canmici veteris, publifti-
ed in 2 vols folio, by William Voet and our author’s
fern.
Justel (Henry), fon of the foregoing, was born at
Paris in 1620. He became fecretary and counfellor
to the king ; and was as diftinguiftied for his own learn¬
ing as remarkable for encouraging it in others. He
came to London in j68i, on the perfecution of the
Prote Hants ; and was made keeper of the royal library
at St James’s: which offief he held till his death in
1693, when he was fucceeded by the famous Dr Bent¬
ley. He wrote feveral books, the titles of which may
be feen in the catalogue of the Bodleian library.
JUSTICE, in a moral fenfe, is one of the four car¬
dinal virtues, which gives every perfon his due.
Civilians diftinguifti juftice into two kinds ; commu¬
nicative and dijlributivc. The former ellablifties fair
dealing in the mutual commerce between man and man ;
and includes fincerity in our difeourfe, and integrity in
our dealings. The efftdf of fincerity is mutual confi¬
dence, fo neceffary among the members of the fame
community ; and this mutual confidence is fuitained
and preferved by the integrity of our condudl.
Difiributive]v\{Yict is that by which the differences
of mankind are decided, according to the rules of e-
quity. The former is the juftice of private individuals ;
the latter of princes and magiftrates.
Fidelity and truth are the foundation of juftice. As
to
4
Juftice.
JUS [ 408 ] J TJ s
to be perfectly juft is an attribute of tbe Divine Na¬
ture, to be fo to the utmoft of our ability is the glory
of man.
The following examples of this virtue are extra&ed
from various authors.
1. Among the feveral virtues of Ariftides, that for
which he was moft renowned was juftice; becaufe this
virtue is of moft general ufe, its benefits extending
to a greater number of perfons, as it is the foundation,
and in a manner the foul, of every public office and
employment. Hence it was that Ariftides, though in
low circumftances, and of mean extraftion, obtained
the glorious furname of the JuJi; a title, fays Plu¬
tarch, truly royal, or rather truly divine : but of which
princes are feldom ambitious, becaufe generally igno¬
rant of its beauty and excellency. They choofe ra¬
ther to be called the conquerors of cities and the
thunderbolts of war, preferring the vain honour of
pompous titles, which convey no other idea than vio¬
lence and ilaughter, to the folid glory of thofe expref-
five of goodnefs and virtue. How much Ariftides de-
ferved the title given him, will appear in the following
inftances ; though it ought to be obferved, that he ac¬
quired it not by one or two particular adlions, but by
the whole tenor of his conduft.
Themiftocles having conceived the defign of fup-
planting the Lacedemonians, and of taking the go¬
vernment of Greece out of their hands, in order to
put it into thofe of the Athenians, kept his eye and
his thoughts continually fixed upon that great projeft ;
and as he was not very nice or fcrupulous in the choice
of his meafures, whatever tended towards the accom-
pliffiing of the end he had in view he looked upon as
juft and lawful.
On a certain day then he declared in a full afiembly
of the people, that he had a very important defign to
propofe ; but that he could not communicate it to the
people, becaufe its fuccefs required it ffiould be carried
on with the greateft fecrecy : he therefore defired they
would appoint a perfon to whom he might explain
himfelf upon the matter in queftion. Ariftides was
unanimoufly fixed upon by the whole affembly, who
referred themfelves entirely to his opinion of the affair ;
fo great a confidence had they both in his probity and
prudence. Themiftocles, therefore, having taken him
afide, told him that the deffign he had conceived was
to burn the fleet belonging to the reft of the Grecian
ftates, which then lay in a neighbouring port ; and by
this means Athens would certainly become miftrefs of
all Greece. Ariftides hereupon returned to the affem¬
bly, and only declared to them that indeed nothing
could be more advantageous to the commonwealth than
Themiftocles’s projeft, but that at the fame time no¬
thing in the world could be more unjuft. All the peo¬
ple unanimoufly ordained that Themiftocles fhould en¬
tirely defift from his projeft.
There is not perhaps in all hiftory a fa& more wor¬
thy of admiration than this. It is not a company of
philofophers (to whom it cofts nothing to eftablifh fine
maxims and fublime notions of morality in the fchool)
who determine on this occafion that the confideration
of profit and advantage ought never to prevail in pre¬
ference to what is honeft and juft ; but the whole peo¬
ple who are highly interefted in the propofal made to
N° 171.
them, that are convinced it is of the greateft import¬
ance to the welfare of the ftate, and who, however, re-
je& it with unanimous confent, and without a mo¬
ment’s hefitation ; and for this only reafon, that it is
contrary to juftice. How black and perfidious, on the
other hand, was the defign which Themiftocles pro-
pofed to them, of burning the fleet of their Grecian con¬
federates at a time of entire peace, folely to aggrandize
the power of the Athenians! Had he an hundred times
the merit afcribed to him, this Angle action would be
fufficient to fully all his glory ; for it is the heart, that
is to fay, integrity and probity, which conftitutes and
diftinguifties true merit.
2. The government of Greece having paffed from
Sparta to the Athenians, it was thought proper under
this new government to lodge in the ifland of Delo*
the common treafure of Greece; to fix new regula¬
tions with regard to the public money; and to lay
fuch a tax as might be regulated according to the re-,
venue of each city and ftate, in order that the ex-*
pences being equally borne by the feveral individuals
who compofed the body of the allies, no one might
have reafon to murmur. The difficulty was to find a
perfon of fo honeft and incorrupt a mind, as to dif-
charge faithfully an employment of fo delicate and
dangerous a kind, the due adminiftration of which fo
nearly concerned the public welfare. All the allies
call their eyes on Ariftides ; accordingly they invefted
him with full powers, and appointed him to levy a tax
on each of them, relying entirely on his wifdom and
juftice. The citizens had no caufe to repent their
choice. He prefided over the treafury with the fideli¬
ty and difintereftednefs of a man who looks upon it as
a capital crime to embezzle the fmalleft portion of an¬
other’s poffeffions, with the care and aftivity of a fa¬
ther of a family in the management of his own eftate,
and with the caution and integrity of a perfon who
confiders the public moneys as facred. In fine, he fuc-
ceeded in what is equally difficult and extraordinary,
viz to acquire the love of all in an office in which he
who efcapes the public odium gains a great point.
Such is the glorious charafter which Seneca gives of a
perfon charged with an employment of almoft the fame
kind, and the nobleft eulogium that can be given to
fuch as adminifter public revenues. It is the exaft
pifture of Ariftides. He difcovered fo much probity
and wifdom in the exercife of this office, that no man
complained ; and thofe times were confidered ever af¬
ter as the golden age ; that is, the period in which
Greece had attained its higheft pitch of virtue and
happinefs.
While he was treafurer-general of the republic, he
made it appear that his predecefforp in that office had
cheated the ftate of- vaft fums of money, and among
the reft Themiftocles in particular ; for this great man,
with all his merit, was not irreproachable on that head;
for which reafon, when Ariftides came to pafs his ac¬
count, Themiftocles railed a mighty fa&iori againft
him, accufed him of having embezzled the public
treafure, and prevailed fo far as to have him condemned
and fined. But the principal inhabitants, and the
moft virtuous part of the citizens, rifing up againft fo
unjuft-a fentence, not only the judgment was reverfed
and the fine remitted, but he was tle&ed treafurer a-
gain
Jaftice,
JUS [ 409 ] JUS
gain for the year enfuing. He then feeitied to repent
of his former adminiftration ; and by fhowing himfelf
more tra&able and indulgent towards others, he found
out the fecret of pleafing all that plundered the com¬
monwealth : for as he neither reproved them nor
narrowly infpe&ed their accounts, all thefe plunderers,
grown fat with fpoil and rapine, now extolled Arifti-
des to the Ikies. It would have been eafy for him, as
we perceive, to have enriched himfclf in a poll of that
nature, which feems, as it were, to fnvite a man to it
by the many favourable opportunities it lays in his
way ; efpecially as he had to do with officers, who for
their part were intent upon nothing but robbing the
public, and would have been ready to conceal the
frauds of the treafurer their matter upon condi¬
tion he did them the fame favour. Thefe very offi¬
cers now made intereft with the people to have him
continued a third year in the fame employment: but
when the time of eleftion was come, juft as they were
on the point of eledling Ariftides unanimoufly, he
rofe up, and warmly reproved the Athenian people :
“ What (fays he), when I managed your treafure
with all the fidelity and diligence an honeft man is ca¬
pable of, I met with the moft cruel treatment, and the
mott mortifying returns; and now that I have aban¬
doned it to the mercy of thefe robbers of the repub¬
lic, 1 am an admirable man and the beft of citizens ! I
cannot help declaring to you, that I am more afhamed
of the honour you do me this day, than I was of the
condemnation you patted againft me this time twelve-
month ; and with grief I find that it is more glorious
with us to be complaifant to knaves than to fave the
treafures of the republic.” By this declaration he
filenced the public plunderers and gained the efteem of
all good men.
3. In the Univerfal Hiftory we meet with the fol¬
lowing remarkable inftance of a fcrupulous regard to
juftice in a Perfian king named Noufchirvan. Having
been out a-hunting> and defirous of eating fome of the
venifon in the field, feveral of his attendants went to a
neighbouring village and took away a quantity of fait
to feafon it. The king fufpefting how they had afted,
ordered that they fhould immediately go and pay for
it. Then turning to his attendants, he faid, “ This is
a fmall matter in itfelf, but a great one as it regards
me : for a king ought ever to be juft, becaufe he is an
example to his fubje&s; and if he fwerves in trifles,
they will become diffolute. If I cannot make all my
people juft in the fmalleft things, I can at leaft (how
them it is poffible to be fo.”
Thefe examples, to which many more might be
added, are highly pleafing to a fagacious and virtuous
mind; but the fenfual and .^brutal part of mankind,
who regard only the prefent moment, who fee no ob¬
jects but thofe which fall under the cognizance of the
corporeal eye, and eftimate the merit of every a&ion
by the gain which it produces, have always confidered
juftice and utility as independent of each other. They
put utility in the balance againft honefty every day ;
and never fail to incline the beam in favour of the for¬
mer, if the fuppofed advantage is thought to be con-
fiderable. They have no regard to juftice but as they
reckon to gain by it, or at leaft not to lofe ; and are
always ready to defert it when it expofes them to any
danger or threatens them with any lofs. From this
Von. IX. Part II.
difpofition of mind proceeds that avidity of wealth
and that habitual. fraud which perpetually embroil
civil fociety : from this fatal fource arifes that deluge
of iniquity which has overflowed the world ; from this
preference of intereft to honefty proceed every unjuft
litigation and every ad of violence. And yet nothing
is more certain than that “ Whatever is unjuft muft,
upon the whole, be difadvantageouswhich might
be proved thus:
Nothing is advantageous or lifeful but that which
has a tendency to render us happy : the higheft advan¬
tage, or abfolute utility, is complete happinefs ; and
to this happinefs, whatever is advantageous or ufeful
is relative as to an ultimate end ; and nothing that is.
not thus relative to happinefs can properly be faid to
be advantageous or ufeful. But whatever is unjuft, fo
far from tending to promote, that it deftroys our hap¬
pinefs ; for whatever is unjuft is contrary to the Divine
will : but it is not poffible that we fliould become hap¬
py by refilling that will; becaufe of this will our hap¬
pinefs is the immediate objed. God is not a tyrant,
proud of incontroulable power, who impofes capricious
laws only as tefts of our obedience, and to make us
feel the weight of his yoke ; all his precepts are Jettons
which teach us how to be happy. But it is the will
of God that we Ihould be juft ; from whence it fol¬
lows, that no true happinefs can be acquired by thofe
who are unjuft. An adion, therefore, which is con¬
trary to the will of God, muft be inconfiftent with
our true intereft ; and confequently, fo far from being
ufeful or expedient, it muft inevitably produce ruin
and mifery. Injuftice fometimes meets with the pu-
nilhment it4deferves in this world ; but if it Ihould efcape
here, it does not follow that it will for ever efcape. It
proves, on the contrary, that there is another world
in which the fates of mankind will be impartially de¬
cided.
But to prevent the dreadful confufion which the
miftaken notion of intereft had introduced among man¬
kind, it became neceffary to have recourfe to the in¬
nate principles of juftice ; to fufpend the balance and
difplay the fword, for the determination of differences
and the punifhment of guilt. This is the reafon and
origin of diftributive juftice, which became the necef¬
fary appendage of fovereignty. Accordingly in an¬
cient times, princes adminiftered juftice in perfon and
without delay ; but at length being embarraffed and
oppreffed by the multiplicity of bufinefs which in-
creafed with their dominions, or diverted from their
attention to civil government by the command of
armies, certain laws were eftabliffied with great folem-
nity to adjuft and determine the differences which might
arife among the members of the fame community, and
to reprefs the infolence of thofe who dared to violate
the public peace, by poffeffing them with the dread
either of corporeal puniftiment or infamy. The exe¬
cution of thefe laws was put into the hands of fubor-
dinate judges. Thefe delegates of the fovereign power
were called magiftrates; and thefe are the perfons by
whom juftice is at this time adminiftered, except in
particular cafes, in which the fovereign himfelf inter¬
feres. But by whomfoever this kind of juftice is ad¬
miniftered, it ought to be done fpeedily, impartially,
and without expence to the parties.
4. Ariftides being judge between two private per-
3 F fons#
Juftice.
jus r 410 ] jus
Juftice. fon9, one of them declared, that his adverfary had
» greatly injured Ariftides. “ Relate rather, good
friend (faid he, interrupting him), what wrong he
hath done thee; for it is thy caufe, not mine, that I
now fit judge of.'’—Again: Being defired by Simo¬
nides, a poet of Chios, who had a caufe to try before
him, to llretch a point in his favour, he replied, “ As
you would not be a good poet if your lines ran con¬
trary to the juft meafures and rules of your art; fo I
fhould neither be a good judge nor an honeft man if
I decided aught in oppofition to law and juftice.”
5. Artabarzanes, an officer of Artaxerxes king of
Perfia, begged his majefty to confer a favour upon him;
which if complied with would be an adt of injuftice.
The king being informed that the promife of a confi-
derable fum of money was the only motive that in¬
duced the officer to make fo unreafonable a requeft,
ordered his treafurer to give him thirty thoufand da-
riufes, being a prefent of equal value with that which
he was to have received. Giving him the order for
the money, “Here, take (fays the king) this to¬
ken of my friendffiip for you : a gift of this nature
cannot make me poor; but complying with your re¬
queft would make me poor indeed, for it would make
me unjuft.”
6. Cambyfes king of Perfia was remarkable for
the feverity of his government and his inexorable re-
k gard to juftice. This prince hn i a particular favour¬
ite whom he made a judge ; and this judge reckoned
himfelf fo fecure in the credit he had with his mafter,
that without any more ado caufes were bought and
fold in the courts of judicature as openly as provifions
in the market. But when Cambyfes was informed of
thefe proceedings, enraged to find his friendftiip fo
ungratefully abufed, the honour of his government
proftituted, and the liberty and property of his fub-
je&s facrificed to the avarice of his wretched minion,
he ordered him to be feized and publicly degraded ;
after which he commanded his fkin to be ftripped over
his ears, and the feat of judgment to be covered with
it as a warning to others. At the fame time, to con¬
vince the world that this feverity proceeded only from
the love of juftice, be permitted the fon to fucceed his
father in the honours and office of prime minifter.
7. When Charles duke of Burgundy, furnamed the
Bold, reigned over fpacious dominions, now fwallow-
ed up by the power of France, he heaped many fa¬
vours and honours upon Claudius Rynfault, a Ger¬
man, who had ferved him in his wars againft the in-
fults of his neighbours. The prince himfelf was a
perfon of fingular humanity and juftice ; and being
prepoflefled in favour of Rynfault, upon the deceafeof
. the governor of the chief town of Zealand gave him that
command. He was not long feated on that govern¬
ment before he caft his eyes upon Sapphira, a woman
of exquilite beauty, the wife of Paul Danvelt, a
wealthy merchant of the city, under his proteftion
and government. Rynfault was a man of a warm
eonftituuon, and violent inclination to women. He
knew what it was to enjoy the fatisfaftions which are
reaped from the poffeffion of beauty ; but was an ut¬
ter ftranger to the decencies, honours, and delicacies,
that attend the paffion toward them .in elegant minds.
He could with his tongue utter a paffion with which
his heart was wholly untouched. In Ihort, he was
one of thofe brutal minds which can be gratified with Juftice.
the violation of innocence and beauty, without the  a
leaft pity, paffion, or love for that with which they are
fo much delighted.
Rynfault being refolved to accomplifh his will on
the wife of Danvelt, left no aits Untried to get into
a familiarity at her houfe ; but (he knew his character
and difpofition too well not to (him all occafions that
might enfnare her into his converfation. The gover¬
nor, defpairing of fuccefs by ordinary means, appre¬
hended and imprifoned her hulband, under pretence of
an information that he was guilty of a correfpondence
with the enemies of the duke to betray the town into
their pofleffion. This defign had its defired efteft;
and the wife of the unfortunate Danvelt, the day be¬
fore that which was appointed for his execution, pre-
fented herfelf in the hall of the governor’s houfe, and
as he paffed through the apartment threw herfelf at
his feet, and holding his knees, befeeched his mercy.
Rynfault beheld her with a diflembled fatisfa&ion ;
and afluming an air of thought and authority, he bid
her rife, and told her (he muft follow him to his clo-
fet; and alking her whether (he knew the hand of the
letter he pulled out of his pocket ? went from her,
leaving this admonition aloud : “ If you would fave
your hu(band, you muft give me an account of all you
know, without prevarication ; for every body is fa-
tisfied that he is too fond of you to be able to hide
from you the names of the reft of the confpirators,
or any other particulars whatfoever.” He went to
his clofet, and foon after the lady was fent for to an
audience. The fervant knew his diftance when mat¬
ters of date were to be debated ; and the gover¬
nor, laying afide the air with which he had appeared
in public, began to be the fupplicant, and to rally an
affliction which it was in her power eafily to remove.
She eafily perceived his intention ; and, bathed in
tears, began to deprecate fo wicked a defign. Luft,
like ambition, takes all the faculties of the mind and
body into its fervice and fubjeCtion. Her becoming
tears her honeft anguilh, the wringing of her hands,
and the many changes of her pofture and figure in the
vehemence of fpeaking, were but fo many attitudes in
which he beheld her beauty, and farther incentives of
his defire. All humanity was loft in that one appetite ;
and he fignified to her in fo many plain terms, that he
was unhappy till he poffefled her, and nothing lefs
(hould be the price of her hulband’s life ; and (lie
muft, before the following noon, pronounce the
death or enlargement of Danvelt. After this notifi¬
cation, when he faw Sapphira enough diftrafted to
make the fubjeft of their difeourfe to common eyes
appear different from what it was, he called his fer-
vants to condu& her to the gate. Loaded with in-
fupportable affliction, (he immediately repairs to her
hulband, and having fignified to the gaolers that (he
had a propofal to make to her huftaand from the go¬
vernor, (he was left alone with him, revealed to him
all that had paffed, and reprefented the endlefs con¬
flict (he was in between love to his perfon and fidelity
to his bed. It is eafy to imagine the (harp affliction
this honeft pair was in upon fuch an incident, in lives
not ufed to any but ordinary occurrences. The man
was bridled by ftiame from fpeaking what his fear
prompted upon fo near an approach of death ; but let
JUS [4
JutHce. fall words that lignified to her, he fhould not think
-—v— her polluted, though fhe had not confeffed to him
that the governor had violated her perfon, fince he
knew her will had no part in the aftion. She parted
from him with this oblique permiffion, to fave a life
he had not refolution enough to rcfigti for the fafety
of his honour.
The next morning the unhappy Sapphira attended
the governor, and being led into a remote apartment,
fubmitted to his defires. Rynfault commended her
charms; claimed a familiarity after what had pafled
between them ; and with an air of gaiety, in the
language of a gallant, bid her return and take her
hufband out of prifon : but, continued he, my fair
one muft not be offended that 1 have taken care he
fhould not be an interruption to our future aflignations.
Thefe laft words foreboded what fhe found when fhe
Came to the gaol, her hufband executed by the order
of Rynfault.
It was remarkable, that the woman, who was full
of tears and lamentations during the whole courfe of
her affli&ion, uttered neither iigh nor complaint, but
■flood fixed with grief at this confummation of her
misfortunes. She betook herfelf to her abode ; and,
after having in folitude paid her devotions to Him who
is the avenger of innocence, fhe repaired privately to
court. Her perfon, and a certain grandeur of forrow
negligent of forms, gained her paffage into the prefence
of the duke her fovu cign. As i'oon as fhe came into the
prefence, fhe broke forth into the following words:
“ Behold, O mighty Charles, a wretch weary of life,
though it has always been fpent with innocence and
virtue. It is not in your power to redrefs my injuries,
but it is to avenge them ; and if the protection of the
diftreffed, and the punifhment of oppreffors, is a talk
worthy of a prince, I bring the duke of Burgundy
ample matter for doing honour to his own great name,
and of wiping infamy off mine.” When (he had fpo-
ken this, fhe delivered to the duke a paper reciting her
ftory. He read it with all the emotion that indigna¬
tion and pity could raife in a prince jealous of his ho¬
nour in the behaviour of his officers and the profperhy
of his fubjtCts.
Upon an appointed day Rynfault was fent for to
court, and in the prefence of a few of the council
confronted by Sapphira. The prince afking,. “ Do
you know that lady ?” Rynfault, as foon as he could
recover his furprife, told the duke he would marry
her, if his highnefs would pleafe to think that'a repa-
ratiom The duke feemed contented with this an-
fwer, and flood by during the immediate folemniza-
tion of the ceremony. At the conclufion of it he
told Rynfault, “ Thus far you have done as conftrain-
ed by my authority : I (hall not be fatxsfied of your
kind ufage of her, without you fign a gift of your
whole eftate to her after your deceafe.” To the per¬
formance of this alio the duke was a witnefs. When
thefe two aCts were executed, the duke turning to
the lady, told her, “It now remains for me to put
you in quiet pofleffion of what your hufband has fo
bountifully beftowed on you and ordered the imme¬
diate execution of Rynfault.
8. One of the greatefl of the Turkifh princes was
Mamood, or Mahmud, the Gaznevide. His name is
Rill venerable in the eait; and of the noble parts of his
-1 1 JUS
character, a regard tojuftice was not the leaft. Of Juffice.
this the following example is related by Mr Gibbon in  v
his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.—As he fat
in the divan, an unhappy fubjeCt bowed before the
throne to accufe the infolenceof a Turkiih foldier who
had driven him from his houfe and bed. “ Sufpend
your clamours (faid Mahmud) ; inform me of his next
vilit, and ourfelf in perfon will judge and punifh the
offender.” The fultan followed his guide ; invefted
the houfe with his guards; and extinguifhing the
torches, pronounced the death of the criminal, who
had been feized in the aCt of rapine and adultery. Af¬
ter the execution of his fentence, the lights were re¬
kindled, and Mahmud fell proftrate in prayer; then
riling from the ground, he demanded fome homely
fare, which he devoured with the voracioufhefs of hun¬
ger. The poor man, whofe injury he had avenged,
was unable to fupprefs his aflonilhment and curiofity ;
and the courteous monarch condefcended to explain
the motives of this Angular behaviour. “ I had reafon
to fufpeCt that none except one of my fons could
dare to perpetrate fuch an outrage ; and I extinguifhed
the lights, that my juftice might be blind and inexo¬
rable. My prayer was a thankfgxving on the dif-
covery of the offender; and fo painful was my anxiety,
that I had paffed three days without food fince the
firft moment of your complaint.”
o. In Bourgoane’s Travels in Spain, vol. iii. the
following anecdote is given of Peter III. of Caflile.
A canon of the cathedral of Seville, affeCted in his
drefs, and particularly in bis fhoes, could not find a
workman to his liking. An unfortunate fhoemaker,
to whom he applied after quitting many others, ha¬
ving brought him a pair of fhoes not made to pleafe
his tafte, the canon became furious, and feizing one
of the tools of the fhoemaker, gave him with it fo many
blows upon the head as laid him dead upon the floor.
The unhappy man left a widow, four daughters, and
a fon 14 years of age, the eldelt of the indigent family.
They made their complaints to the chapter : the ca¬
non was profecuted and condemned not to appear in
the choir for a year. The young fhoemaker having
attained to man’s eftate, was fcarcely able to get a
livelihood; and overwhelmed with wretchednefs, fat
down on the day of a proceffion at the door of the
cathedral of Seville in the moment the proceffion paf¬
fed by. Amongit the other canons he perceived the
murderer of his father. At the fight of this man, filial
afte&ion, rage, and defpair, got fo far the better of
his reafon, tlxat he fell furioufly upon the prieft, and
ftabbed him to the heart. The young man was feized,
convicted of the crime, and immediately condemned
to be quartered alive. Peter, whom we call the Cruel,
and whom the Spaniards, with more reafon, call the
lover ofjujlice, was then at Seville. The affair came to
his knowledge; and after learning the particulars, he
determined to be himfelf the judge of the young fhoe¬
maker. When he proceeded to give judgment, he
firlt annulled the fentence juft pronounced by the clergy;
and after alking the young man what profeffion he
was, “ 1 forbid you (faid he) to make fhoes for a
year to come.”
10. In Gladwin’s Pliftory of Indoftan, a Angular
fa£l is related of the emperor Jehangir, under whofe
father Akber the Mogul empire iu Hindoftan firft ob-
3F 2 tained
JUS [ 4*2 ] JUS
Juftice. tained any regular form. Jehangir fucceeded him at
v Agra on the 2 2d of October 1605 ; and the firft or¬
der which he iffued on his acceffion to the throne was
for the conftruftion of the golden chain ofjujlice. It
was made of pure gold, and meafured 30 yards, con¬
fiding of 60 links, weighing four maunds of Hindo-
ftan (about 400 pounds avoirdupois). One end of the
chain was fulpended from the royal baftion of the for-
trefs of Agra, and the other faftened in the ground
near the fide of the river. The intention of this ex¬
traordinary invention was, that if the officers of the
courts of law were partial in their decifions, or dilatory
in the adminiftration of juftice, the injured parties
might come themfelves to this chain; and making a
noife by fhaking the links of it, give notice that they
were waiting to reprefent their grievances to his ma-
jefty.”
Justice is alfo an appellation given to a perfon,de¬
puted by the king to adminifter juftice to his fubjefts,
whofe authority arifes from his deputation, and not
by right of magiftracy.
Of thefe jufticesthere are various kinds in England;
Chief Justice of the King’s Bench, is the capital juf¬
tice of Great Britain, and is a lord by his office. His
bufinefs is chiefly to hear and determine all pleas of
the crown ; that is, fuch as concern offences againft
the crown, dignity, and peace of the king; as trea-
fons, felonies, &c. This officer was formerly not only
chief juftice, but alfo chief baron for the exchequer,
and mailer of the court of wards. He ufually fat in
the king’s palace, and there executed that office, for¬
merly performed per comitem palatii; he determined in
that place all the differences happening between the
barons and other great men. He had the prerogative
of being viceregent of the kingdom whenever the king
went beyond fea, and was ufually chofen to that of¬
fice out of the prime nobility ; but his power was re¬
duced by king Richard I. and king Edward I. His
office is now divided, and his title changed from capi-
talis Anglitt jujlitiarius, to capitalis 'jujlitiarius adplacita,
coram rege tenenda, or capitalis jujlitiarius band regii.
Chief Justice of the Common Pleas, he who with his
affiflants hears and determines all caufes at the com¬
mon law; that is to fay, all civil caufes between com¬
mon perfons, as well perfonal as real; and he is alfo a
lord by his office.
Justice of the Forejl, is a lord by his office, who has
power and authority to determine offences committed
in the king’s forefts, &c. which are not to be deter¬
mined by any other court of juftice. Of thefe there
are two ; whereof one has jurifdiftion over all the fo¬
refts on this fide Trent, and the other beyond it.
By many ancient records, it appears to be a place
of great honour and authority, and is never beftowed
but on fome perfon of great diftin&ion. The court
where this juftice fits is called l\\t jufice feat of the fo¬
rejl. held once every three years, for hearing, and de¬
termining all trefpaffes within the foreft, and all claims
of franchifes, liberties, and privileges, and all pleas and
caufes whatfoever therein arifing. This court may fine
and imprifon for offences within the foreft, it being a
court of record'; and therefore a writ of error lies from
hence to the court of king’s bench. The laft court
ef jullice feat of any note was that held in the reign
of Charles I. before the earl of Holland. After the Juftlce.
reftoration another was held for form fake before the v—
earl of Oxford ; but fioce the revolution in 1688, the
foreft laws have fallen into total difufe, to the great
advantage of the fubjedf.
This is the only juftice who may appoint a deputy:
he is alfo called jujlice in eyre of the forejl.
Justices of Afife, were fuch as were wont by fpe-
cial commiffion to be fent into this or that county
to take affifes, for the eafe of the fubjedts: For,
whereas thefe actions pafs always by jury, fo many
men might not without great damage and charge be
brought up to London ; and therefore juftices, for this
purpofe, by commiffions particularly authorifed, were
fent down to them. Thefe continue to pafs the cir¬
cuit by; two and two twice every year through all
England, except the four northern counties, where
they go only once, difpatching their feveral bufineffes by
feveral commiffions; for they have one commiffion to
take affifes, another to deliver gaols, and another of
oyer and terminer. In London and Middlefex a court
of general gaol-delivery is held eight, times in the year.
All the juftices of peace of any county wherein the
affifes are held, are bound by law to attend them, or
elfe are liable to a fine ; in order to return recognb
zances, &c, and to affift the judges in fuch matters as
lie within their knowledge and jurifdidtion, and ia
which fome of them have been probably concerned,
by way of previous examination. See Assises and
Jury.
Justices in Eyre (jujliciaru itinerantes, or errantes),
were thofe who were anciently fent with commiffion
into divers counties to hear fuch caufes efpecially as
were termed pleas of the crown ; and that for the eafe
of the fubjedt, who mult elfe have been hurried to the
courts of Weftminfter, if the caufe were too high for
the county-courts.
According to fome, thefe juftices were fent once in
feven years ; but others will have them to have been-
fent oftener. Camden fays, they weie inftituted in
the reign of king Henry II. A D. 1184; ^ut t^iey ap*
pear to be of an older date.
They were fomewhat like our juftices ofaffife at this
day; though for authority and manner of proceeding
very different.
Justices of Gaol-Delivery, thofe commiffioned to
hear and determine caufes appertaining to fuch as for
any offence are caft into prifon. Juftices of gaol-de¬
livery are impowered by the common law to proceed
upon indiftments of felony, trefpafs, &c. and to order
execution or reprieve ; and they have power to dif-
charge fuch prifoners as upon their trials lhall be ac¬
quitted ; alfo all fuch againft whom, on proclamation
made, ho evidence appears to indift; which juftices
of oyer and terminer, &c. may not do. 2. Hawk. 24,
25. But thefe juftices have nothing to do with any
perfon not in the cuftody of the prifon except in fome
fpecial cafes ; as if fome of the accomplices to a fe¬
lony may be is fuch prifon and fome of them out of
it, the juftices may receive an appeal againft thofe who
are out of the prifon as well as thofe who are in it ;
which appeal, after the trial of fuch prifoners, ftiali be
removed into B. R. and procefs iffue from them againft
the reft. But if thofe out of prifon be omitted in the
appeal, they can never be put into any othp; becaufe
there
p
JUS [41
Juftice. there can be but one appeal for one felony. In this
v—y— way t^e gaol8 are cleared, and all offenders tried, pu-
nifhed, or delivered, in every year.—Their commiffion
is now turned over to the juilices of affife.
Justices of Nifi Prius are now the fame with juf-
tices of iiffife. It is a common adjournment of a caufe
in the common pleas to put it off to fuch a day, Niji
fritis jujliiiarii venerint ad eas partes ad capiendas ajftfas :
from which claufe of adjournment they are czlkdju/ikes
of nifi prius-, as well as jujlices of qflife, on account of the
writ and actions they have to deal in.
Justices of Oyer and Terminer, were juflices deputed
on fome fpecial occafions to hear and determine parti¬
cular caufes.—The commiffion of oyer and terminer
is direfted to certain perfons upon any infurredtion,
heinous demeanour, or trefpafs committed, who muft
firft enquire, by means of the grand jury or inqueft,
before they are empowered to hear and determine by
the help of the petit jury. It was formerly held, that
no judge or other lawyer could adt in the commiffion
of oyer and terminer, or in that of gaol-delivery, with¬
in the county where he was born Or inhabited ; but it
was thought proper by 12 Geo. II. cap, 27. to allow
any man to be a juftice of oyer and terminer and gene-
4^1 gaol-delivery within any county of England.
Justices of the Peace are perfons of intereft and cre¬
dit, appointed by the king’s commiffion to keep the
peace of the county where they live.
Of thefe fome for fpecial refpecf are made of the
quorum, fo as no bufinefs of importance may be dif-
patched without the prefence or aflent of them or
one of them. However, everj1 juftice of peace hath a
feparate power, and his office is to call before him,
examine, iffue warrants for apprehending, and commit
to prifon, all thieves, murderers, wandering rogues;
thofe that hold confpiracies, riots, and almoft all de¬
linquents which may occafion the breach of the peace
and quiet of the fubjedf; to commit to prifon fuch as
cannot find baik and to fee them brought forth in due
time to trial; and bind over the profecutors to the af-
fifes. And if they negleft to certify examinations and
informations to the next gaol-delivery, or do not bind
ever profecutors, they (hall be fined. A juftice may
commit a perfon that doth a felony in his own view,
without warrant; but if on the information of ano¬
ther, he muft make a warrant under hand and feal for
that purpofe. If complaint and oath be made before
a juftice of goods ftolen, and the informer, fufpedfing
that they are in a particular houfe, fliows the caufe of
his fufpicion, the juftice may grant a warrant to the
conftable. See. to fearch in the place fufpedted, to
feize the goods and perfon in whofe cuftpdy they are
found, and bring them before him or fome other juf¬
tice. The fearch on thefe warrants ought to be in
the day-time, and doprs may be broke open by con-
ftables to take the goods. Juftipes of peace may make
and perfuade an agreement in petty quarrels and
breaches of the peace, where the king is not intitled to a
fine, though they may not compound offences or take
money for making agreements. A juftice. hath a dif-
cretiohary power of binding to the good behaviour; and
may require a recognizance, with a great penalty of one,
for his keeping of the peace, where the party bound is
a dangerous perfon, and likely to break the peace,
and do much mifehief; and for default of fureties he
may be committed to gaol. But a man giving fecu-
3.J . jus
rity for keeping the peace in the king’s bench or chan- Juftfce.
eery, may have a fuperfedeas to the juftices in the conn- *'■—■v'"*
ty not to take fecurity 5 and alfo by giving furety of
the peace to any other juftice. If one make an afiault
upon a juftice of peace, he may apprehend the offend¬
er, and commit him to gaol til) he finds fureties for
the peace ; and a juftice may record a forcible entry
on his own poffeffion : in other , cafes be cannot judge
in his own caufe. Contempts againft jufticcs are pu-
niihable by indi&ment and fine at the feffi ms. Juf¬
tices (hall not be regularly punifhed for any thing done
by them in feffions as judges ; and if a juftice be tried
for any thing done in his office, he may plead the ge¬
neral iffue, and give the fpecial matter in evidence ;
and if a verdict is given for him, or the plaintiff be
nonfuit, he (hall have double cofts; and fuch adtion
fhall only be laid in the county where the offence was
committed. 7. Jac. cap. 5. 21 Jac. cap. 12. But if
they are guilty of any mifdemeanour in office, infor¬
mation lies againft them in the king’s bench, where
they (hall be punifhed by fine and imprifonment ; and
all perfons who recover a verdidt againft a juftice for
any wilful or •malicious injury, are intitled to double
cofts. By 24. Geo. II. cap. 44. no writ lhall be fued
out againft any juftice of peace, for any thing done
by him in the execution of his office, until notice in
writing fhall be delivered to him one month before the
fuing out of the fame, containing the caufe of adion.
Sec. within which month he may tender amends; and
if the tender be found fufficient, he fhall have a verdidl,
&c. Nor fhall any adfion be brought againft a juf¬
tice for any thing done in the execution of his office,
unlefs commenced within fix months after the adt com¬
mitted.
A juftice is to exercife his authority only within the
county where he is appointed by his commiffion, not
in any city which is a county of itfelf or town corpo¬
rate, having their proper juftices, Sec. but in other
towns and liberties he may. The power and office of
juftices terminate in fix months after the demife of the
crown, by an exprefs writ of difeharge under the great
feal, by writ of fuperfedeas, by a new commiffion, and
by acceffion of the office of fheriff or coroner.
The original of juftices of the peace is referred to
the fourth year of Edward III. They were hrft called
confervators, or wardens of the peace, eledted by the
county, upon a writ directed to the fheriff ; but the
power of appointing them was transferred by ftatutes
from the people to the king ; and under this appella¬
tion appointed by 1 Edw. III., cap: 16. Afterwards
the ftatute 34 Edw. III. cap. j. gave them the power
of trying felonies, and then they acquired the appella¬
tion of juftices. They are appointed by the king’s
fpecial commiffion under the great feal, the form of
which was fettled by all the judges, A. D. 1590; and
the king may appoint as many as he fhall think fit in
every county in England and Wales, though they are
generally made at the diferetion of the lord chancellor,
by the king’s leave. At firft the number of juftices
was not above two or three in a county. 18 Edw. III.
cap. 2. Then it was provided by 34 Edw. III. cap. r.
that one lord, and three or four of the moft worthy
men in the county, with fome learned in the law, fhould
be madejullices in every county. The number was
afterwards reftrained firft to fix, and then to eight, in
every county, by 12 Ric.^IJ. cap. 10. and 14 Rid. Ill x
i- caps-
JUS [ 4*4 1 JUS
Juftice. cap. II. But their number has greatly increafed iince
their firft inftitution. As to their qualifications, the
ftacutes juft cited direft them to be of the belt repu¬
tation and molt worthy men in the county ; and the
flatute 13 Ric. II. cap. 7. orders them to be of the
molt fufficient knights, efquires, and gentlemen of the
law; and by 2 Hen. V. ftat. 1. cap. 4. and ftat. 2.
cap. 1. they mull be refident in their feveral coun¬
ties. And by 18 Hen. VI. cap. 11. no juftice was to
be put in commiffion, if he had not lands to the value
of 20 \. per annum. It is now enadted by 5 Geo. II.
cap. 11. that every jullice lhall have 1001.an/za/n,
clear of all deductions; of which he mult make oath
fcy 18 Geo. II. cap. 20. And if he adts without fuch
qualification, he ftiall forfeit 100I. It is alfo provided
by 5 Geo. II. that no pradtiling attorney, folicitor, or
prodlor, lhall be capable of adling as a juftice of the
peace.
Justices of Peace nubbin Liberties, are juftices of the
peace who have the fame authority in cities or other
corporate towns as the others have in counties ; and
their power is the fame ; only that thefe have the aflize
of ale and beer, wood and victuals, &c. Juftices of
cities and corporations are not within the qualification
adt, 5 Geo. II. cap. t8.
Fountain of Justice, one of the characters or attri¬
butes of the king. See Prerogative.
By the fountain of juftice the law does not mean the
■author or original, but only the dlfributqr. Juitice is
not derived from the king, as from his free gift; but
he is the fteward of the public, to difpenfe it to whom
it is due. He is not the fpring, but the refervoir ;
from whence right and equity are condudted, by a
thoufand channels, to every individual. The original
power of judicature, by the fundamental principles of
fociety, is lodged in the fociety at large : but as it
would be impracticable to render complete juftice to
every individual, by the people in their collective ca¬
pacity, therefore every nation has committed that
power to certain feledt magiftrates, who with more eafe
and expedition can hear and determine complaints;
and in England this authority has immemorially been
exercifed by the king or his fubftitutes. He therefore
has alone the right of eredting courts of judicature :
for though the con.ftitution of the kingdom hath en-
trufted him with the whole executive power of the
laws, it is impofiible, as well as improper, that he
Ihould perfonaily carry into execution this great and
extenfive trull: it is confequently neceffary that courts
Ihouid be ereCted, to affift him in executing this power ;
and equally neceffary, that, if ereCted, they fhould be
ereCted by his authority. And hence it is, that all
jurifdiCtions of courts are either mediately or imme¬
diately derived from the crown, their proceedings run
generally in the king’s name, they pafs under his feal,
and are executed by his officers.
It is probable, and almoll certain, that in very ear¬
ly times, before our conftitution arrived at its full per¬
fection, our kings in perfon often heard and deter¬
mined caufes between party and party. But at pre-
fent, by the long and uniform uiage of many ages,
our kings have delegated their whole judicial power to
the judges of their feveral courts ; which are the grand
depofitory of the fundamental laws oi the kingdom,
and have gained a known and floated jurifdiCtion, re¬
gulated by certain and eftablifhed rules, which the
crown itfelf cannot now alter but by aft of parliament. JulHre.
And in order to maintain both the dignity and inde- y—”^
pendence of the judges in the fuperior courts, it is en-
aCted by the ftatute 13 W. III. c. 2. that their com-
miffions ftiall be made (not, as formerly, durante bene-
placito, but) qttamdiu bene fe gefferint, and their fa-
laries afcertained and eftablilhed ; but that it may be
lawful to remove them on the addrefs of both houfes of
parliament. And now, by the noble improvements of
that law in the ftatute of 1 Geo. III. c. 23. enaCted
at the earneft recommendation of the king himfelf from
the throne, the judges are continued in their offices
during their good behaviour, notwithftanding any de-
mife of the crown (which was formerly held immedi¬
ately to vacate their feats), and their full falaries are
abfolutely fecured to them during the continuance of
their.commilfions; his majefty having been pleafed to
declare, that “ he looked upon the independence and
uprightnefs of the judges, as effential to the impartial
adminiftration of juitice ; as one of the bell fecurities
of the rights and liberties of his fubjeCts ; and as molt
conducive to the honour of the crown.”
In criminal proceedings or profecutions for offen¬
ces, it would ft ill be a higher abfurdity, if the king
perfonaily fat in judgment ; becaufe in regard to thefe
he appears in another capacity, that ofprofecutor. All
offences are either againft the king’s peace or his
crown and dignity; and are fo laid in every indidt-
ment. For though in their confequences they gene¬
rally feem (except in the cafe of treafon and a very few
others) to be rather offences againft the kingdom than
the king; yet, as th£ public, which is an invifible bo¬
dy, has delegated all its power and rights, with regard
to the execution of the laws, to one vifible magiftrate,
all affronts to that power, and breaches of thofe rights,
are immediately offences againft him, to whom they
are fo delegated by the public. He is therefore the
proper perfon to profecute for all public offences and
breaches of the peace, being the perfon injured in the
eye of the law. And this notion was carried fo far in
the old Gothic conftitution (wherein the king was
bound by his coronation oath to conferve the peace),
that in cafe of any forcible injury offered to the perfon
of a fellow-fubjett, the offender was accufed of a kind
of perjury, in having violated the king’s coronation
oath ; dicebacur fregiffe juramentum regis juratum. And
hence alfo arifes another branch of the prerogative,
that oi pardoning offences ; for it is reafonable, that he
only who is injured ftiould have the power of forgiving.
See Pardon.
In this diftin£t and feparate exiftence of the judicial
power, in a peculiar body of men, nominated indeed,
but not removeable at pleafure, by the crown, confifts
one main prefervative of the public liberty,; which
cannot fubfift long in any ftate, unlefs the adminiftra¬
tion of common juftice be in fome degree feparated
both from the legiflative and alfo fn».n the executive
power. Were it joined with the legiflative, the life,
liberty, and property, of the fubjebt would be in the
hands of arbitrary judges, whole decifions would be
then regulated only by their own opinions, and not
by any fundamental principles of law ; which, though
legiflators may depart from, yet judges are bound to
obferve. Were it joined with the executive, this union
might foon be an over-balance for the legiflative. For
which reafon, by the ftatute of 16 Car. I. c. 10. which
5 aboli (hed
JUS [ 415 ]• JUS
abolifhed the court of ftar-chamber, efFe&ual care is layers and cuttings, and requiie the fame treatment Juflkhr
taken to remove all judicial power out of the hands of with other tender exotics.
the king’s privy-council ; who, as then was evident JUSTICIAR, in the old Engifh laws, an officer •'u 'n* j
from recent inftances, might foon be inclined to pro- inftituted by William the Conqueror, as the chief of-
nounce that for law which was mod agreeable to the ficer of date, who principally determined in all cafes
prince or his officers. Nothing therefore is more to civil and criminal. He was called in Latin Capitalis
be avoided in a free ccnditution, than uniting the pro- Jufticiarius totms Anglht. For Justiciar in Scotland,
vinces of a judge and a minirterof date. And indeed,. See Law, n° clvi. 10—12.
that the abfolute power, claimed and exercifed in a Justiciary, or Court o/- Jusncunr, in Scotland,
neighbouring nation, is more tolerable than that of See Law, n° clvi. 10—12.
the eallern empires, is in a great meafure owing to their JUSTIFICATION, in law, fignifies a maintaining
having veded the judicial power in their parliaments; or fliowing a diffident reafon in court why the de-
a body fepaiate and didind from both the legiflative fendant did what he is called to anfwer. Pleas in
and executive: and if ever that^nation recovers its judification mud fet forth fome fpecial matter: thus,
former liberty, it will owe it to the efforts of thofe af- on being died for a trefpafs, a perfon may judify it by
femblies. In Turkey, where every thing is centered in proving, that the land is his own freehold; that he
the fultan or his miniders, defpotic power is in its me- entered a houfe in order to apprehend a felon ; or by
ridian, and wears a more dreadful afped. virtue of a warrant, to levy a forfeiture, or in order to
A condquence of this prerogative is the legal uhi- take a didrefs; and in an affault, that he did it out of
quity of the king. His majedy, in the eye of the law, neceffity.
is always prefent in all his courts, though he cannot Justification, in theology, that ad of grace which
perfonally didribute judice. His judges are the mir- renders a man jud in the fight of God, and worthy of
ror by which the king’s image is refleded. It is the eternal happinefs. See Theology.
regal office, and not the royal perfon, that is always The Romanids and Reformed are extremely divided
prefent in court, always ready to undertake profecu- about the dodrine of judification ; the latter contend-
tions or pronounce judgment, for the benefit and ing for judification by faith alone, apd the former by
protedion of the fubjed. And from this ubiquity it good works.
follows, that the king can never be nonfuit; for a JUSTIN, a celebrated hidorian, lived, according,
nonfuit is the defertion of the fuit or adion by the non- to the mod probable opinion, in the fecond century,
appearance of the plaintive in court. For the fame under the reign of Antoninus Pius. He wrote, in
reafon alfo, in the forms of legal proceedings, the elegant Latin, an abridgment of the hidory of Tre¬
king is not faid to appear by his attorney, as other gus Pompeius; comprehending the adions of almod:
men do; for he always appears, in contemplation of all nations, from Ninus the founder of the Aflyrian
law, in his own proper perfon. empire to the emperor Augudus. The original
From the fame original, ©f the king’s being the work, to the regret of the learned, is lod : this a-
fountain of judice, we may alfo deduce the prerogative bridgment, being written in a polite and elegant
of iffuing proclamations, which is veded in the king dyle, was probably the reafon why that age negleded
alone. See Proclamation. the original. The bed editions of Judin are, aJ ufum
JusTiCR-Seat. Sue Forest Courts. Delphini, in 410;. and cum not is variorum et Gronovii
JUSTICIA, malabar-nut: A genus of the mo- in 8vo.
nogynia order,belonging to the diandria clafs of plants; Justin (St), commonly called JuJlin Martyr, one
and in the natural method ranking under the 40th of the eariied and mod learned writers of the eadera
order, Perforata. The corolla is ringent; the capfule church, was born at Neapolis, the ancient Seehem of
bilocular, parting with an elailic fpring at the heel; Paledine. His father Prifcus, a Gentile Greek, brought
the damina have only one anlhera. There are 1 9 him up in his own religion, and had him educated in
fpecies, all of them natives of the Ead Indies, grow- all the Grecian learning. To complete his dudies he
ing many feet high; fome adorned with fine large travelled to Egypt; and followed the. fed: of Plato*
leaves, others with fmall narrow ones, and all of with whole intclledual notions he was much pleafed,
them with monopetalous ringent flowers. Only two But one day walking by the fea-fide, wrapt in con-
fpecies are cultivated in our gardens, viz. the adha- templation, he was met by a grave ancient perfou
toda or common Malabar-nut, and the hyfibpifolia of a venerable afped ; who, falling into difeourfe with
or fnap-tree. The fird grows ten or twelve feet him, turned the converfation by degrees from the ex-
high, with a drong woody dem, branching out wide- cellence of Platonifm to the fuperior perfedion of
ly all around ; having large, lanceolate, oval leaves, Chridianity ; and reafoned fo well, as to raife in him
placed oppofite; and from the ends of the branches an ardent curiofity to inquire into .the merits of that
fliort fpikes of white dowers, with dark fpots, having religion ; in confequence of which inquiry, he was
the helmet of the corolla concave. The fecond hath converted about the year 132. On his embracing
a Ihrubby dem branching from the bottom pyramidal- that religion, he quitted neither the profeffion nor the
ly three or four feet high; fpear-fiiaped, narrow, habit of a philofopher: but a perfecution breaking
entire leaves, growing oppofite ; and white flowers, out under Antoninus, he compofed An Apology for the
commonly by threes, from the fides of the branches; Chriftians ; and afterwards prefented another to the
fucceeded by capfules, which burfl open with eladic emperor Marcus Aurelius, in which he vindicated the
force for the difeharge of the feeds ; whence the name innocence andholinefs of the Chridian religion againft
of fnap-tree. Both fpecies flower here in dimmer, but Crefcens a Cynic philofopher, and other calumnia-
uever produce any fruit. They are propagated by tors. He did honour to Chridianity by his learning
and
JUS [ 416 ] J XT V
futlinian, and the purity of his manners; and fuffered martyr- Justikiani (Auguftin), bifhop of Nebo, one of Juftiniani
litimani. jn Befides his two Apologies, there are
””v~ ’ {HU extant his Dialogue with Tryhpo, a Jew; two
treatifes addreffed to the Gentiles, and another on the
unity of God. Other works are alfo afcribed to him.
The beft editions of St Juttin are thofe of Robert
Stephens, in 1551 and 1571, in Greek and Latin:
that of Morel, in Greek and Latin, in 1656 ; and that
of Don Prudentius Marandus, a learned Benedi&ine,
in 1742 in folio. His ftyle is plain, and void of all
ornament.
JUSTINIAN I. fon of Juftin the elder, was made
Gtefar and Auguftus in 527, and foon after emperor.
He conquered the Perfians by Belifaritis his general,
and exterminated the Vandals; regained Africa ; fub-
dued the Goths in Italy ; defeated the Moors; and
reftored the Roman empire to its primitive glory. See
Hiftory of) Constantinople, n° 93 97. and
taly, n° 12, &c.
The empire being now in the full enjoyment of a
profound peace and tranquillity, Juftinian made the
beft ufe of it, by colledting the immenfe variety and
number of the Roman laws into one body. To this
end, he felefted ten of the moft able lawyers in the
empire ; who, revifing the Gregorian, Theodofian,
and Hermogenian codes, compiled one body, called
Codex JuJiinianus. This may be called the Jlatute
law, as confifting of the refcripts of the emperors.
But the reduftion of the other part was a much more
difficult talk : it was made up of the decifions of the
judges and other magiftrates, together with the au¬
thoritative opinions of the moft. eminent lawyers ; all
which lay fcattered, without any order, in no lefs than
200a volumes and upwards. Thefe were reduced to
the number of 50 ; but ten years were fpent in the re-
du&ion. However, the defign was completed in the
year 553, and the name of Digejls or PandeQs given
to it. Befides thefe, for the ufe chiefly of young
Undents in the law to facilitate that ftudy, Juftinian
ordered four books of inftitutes to be drawn up,
containing an abfttaA or abridgement of the text
of all the laws : and, laftly, the laws of modern date,
pofterior to that of the former, were thrown into one
volume in the year 541, called the Novella, or New
Code.
This emperor died in the year 565, aged 83, in
the 39th of his reign, after having built a great num¬
ber of churches 5 particularly the famous Sandla So¬
phia at Conftantinople, which is efteemed a mafter-
piece of architecture.
JUSTINIAN! (St Laurence), the firft patriarch
of Venice, was born there of a noble family in 1381.
He was a very pious prelate, and died in 1485 ; he
left feveral pieces of piety, which were printed toge¬
ther at Lyons in 1368, in one volume folio, with his
life prefixed by his nephew. Clement VII. beatified
him in 1524, and he was canonized by Alexander VIII.
, in 1690.
Justinian 1 (Bernard), was born at Venice in
1408. He obtained the fenator’s robe at the age of
19, ferved the republic in feveral embaffies, and was
elected procurator of St Mark in 1474. He was a
learned man, and wrote the Hijlory of Venice, with
fome other works of confiderable merit; and died
in 1498.
N°i7‘-
the moft learned men of his time, was defcended from "
a branch of the fame noble family with the two fore- Juvetu
going ; and was born at Genoa in 1480. He affifted
at the fifth council of Lateran, where he oppofed fome
articles of the concordat between France and the
court of Rome. Francis I. of France made him his
telmoner; and he was for five years regius profeflbr of
Hebrew at Paris. He returned to Genoa in 1522,
where he difcharged all the duties of a good prelate ;
and learning and piety flouriftied in his diocefe. He
perifhed at fea in his paflage from Genoa to Nebbio,
in 1536. He compofed feveral pieces ; the moft con¬
fiderable of which is, Pfalterium Hebraum, Gracum,
Arabicum, et Chcddaum, cum tribus Latinis interpreta-
tionibus et glojfts. This was the firft pfalter 0f the kind
printed; and there is alfo afcribed to the fame prelate
a tranflation of Maimonides’s Moore Nevochim-
JUSTNESS, the exadfnefs or regularity of any
thing.
Juftnefs is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of thought, lan¬
guage, and fentiments. The juftnefs of a thought
confifts in a certain precifion or accuracy, by which
every part of it is perfedtly true, and pertinent to the
fubjeft. Juftnefs of language confifts in ufing proper
and well chofen terms ; in not faying either too much
or too little. M. de Mere, who has written on juft¬
nefs of mind, diftinguifties two kinds of juftnefs ; the
one arifing from tafte and genius, the other from good
fenfe or right reafon. There are no certain rules to
be laid down for the former, -dzz. to (how the beauty
and exadtnefs in the turn or choice of a thought; the
latter confifts in the juft relation which things have to
one another.
JUTES, the ancient inhabitants of Jutland in Den¬
mark.
JUTLAND, a large peninfula, which makes the
principal part of- the kingdom of Denmark. It ia
bounded on the fouth-eaft by the duchy of Holftein,
and is furrounded on the other fides by the German
ocean and the Baltic fea. It is about 180 miles in
length from north to fouth, and 50 in breadth from
eaft to weft. The air is very cold but wholefome ;
-and the foil is fertile in corn and paftures, which feed
a great number of beeves, that are fent to Germany,
Holland, and elfewhere. This was anciently called
the Cimbrian Cherfonefus, and is fuppofed to be the
country from whence the Saxons came into England.
It is divided into two parts, called North and South
Jutland: the latter is the duchy of Slefwick, and lies
between North Jutland and the duchy of Holftein;
and the duke of that name is in pofleffion of part of
it, whofe capital town is Gottorp, for which reafon
the fovereign is called the duke of Holjlein Gottorp.
JUVENAL (Decius Junius), the celebrated Ro¬
man fatyrift, was born about the beginning of the
emperor Claudian’s reign, at Aquinum in Campania.
His father was probably a freed-man, who, being rich,
gave him a liberal education, and, agreeably to the
tafte of the times, bred him up to eloquence; in which
he made a great progrefs, firft under Frontothe gram¬
marian, and afterwards, as is generally conje&ured,
under Quintilian ; after which he attended the bar,
and made a diftinguifhed figure there for many years
by his eloquence. In the practice of this profdfion
he
j u x r 417 1 1 x 1
Juflke he had improved his fortune and interefl at Rome be-
H fore he turned his thoughts to poetry, the very ftyle
■Ju*on‘ of which, in his fatires, (peaks a long habit of decla¬
mation ; fubaSum redolent declamatorem, fay the critics.
It is faid he was above 40 years of age when he re¬
cited h’r firll efiay to a fmall audience of his friends ;
but bei encouraged by their applaufe, he ventured
a great oublication : which reaching the ears of
Raris, I ' " ' ravourite at that time, though but
a panto.. ..r, whom our fatyrift had feverely
infulted, that minion made his complaint to the em¬
peror ; who fent him thereupon into baniftrment, un¬
der pretence of giving him the command of a cohort
in the army, which wras quartered at Pentapolis, a city
upon the frontiers of Egypt and Libya.
After Domitian’s death, our fatyrift returned to
Rome, fufficiently cautioned not only againft attack¬
ing the charafters of thofe in power, under arbitrary
princes, but againft all perfonal refleflions upon the
great men then living; and therefore he thus wifely
concludes the debate he is fuppofed to have maintain¬
ed for a while with a friend on this head, in the firft
fatire, which feems to be the firft that he wrote after
his banifhment:
Experiar quid conccdatur in illos
Quorum Flaminia tegitur cinis atque Latina.
“ I will try what liberties I may be allowed with
thofe whofe allies lie under the Flaminian and Latin
ways,” along each fide of which the Romans of the
firft quality ufed to be buried.—It is believed that he
lived till the reign of Adrian in 128. There are ftill
extant 16 of his fatires, in which he difcovers great
wit, ftrength, and keennefs, in his language : but his
ftyle is not perfeftly natural; and the obfcenities with
which thefe fatires were filled render the reading of
them dangerous to youth.
JUVENCUS (Caius Ve&icus Aquilinus), one of
the firft of the Chriftian poets, was born of an illuftri-
ous family in Spain. About the year 320 he put
tne life of Jefus Chrift into Latin verfe, of which he
compofed four books. In this work he followed al-
moft word for word the text of the four evangelifts :
but his verfes are written in a bad tafte, and his La¬
tin is not pure.
JUVENTAS, in mythology, the goddefs who pre-
fided over youth among the Romans. This goddefs
w as long honoured in the Capitol, where Servius Tul¬
lius eredfed her ftatue. Near the chapel of Minerva
there was the altar of Juventas, and upon this altar a
pi&ure of Proferpine. The Greeks called the god¬
defs of youth Hebe; but it has been generally fup¬
pofed that this was not the fame with the Roman Ju-
vcntas.
JUXON (Dr William), born at Chichefter in 1682,
was bred at Merchant Taylor’s fchool, and from thence
eledfed into St John’s college Oxford, of which he be¬
came prefident. King Charles I. made him bilhop of
London ; and in 1635 promoted him to the poft of
lord high treafurer of England. The whole nation,
and efpecially the nobility, were greatly offended at
this high office being given to a clergyman; but he
behaved fo well in the adminiftration, as foon put a
flop to all the clamour raifed againft him. This place
he held no longer than the 17th of May 1641, when
Vou IX. Part II.
he prudently refigned the ftaff, to avoid the ftortn Juxtapofi-
which then threatened the court and the clergy. In ‘j.00
the following February, an adt paffed depriving the bi-
(hops of their votes in parliament, and incapacitating > t * *
them from any temporal jurifdidtion. In thefe lead¬
ing fteps, as well as the total abolition of the epifcopal
order which followed, he was involved with his bre¬
thren ; but neither as bilhop nor as treafurer was a
Angle accufation brought againft him in the long par¬
liament. During the civil wars, he refided at his pa¬
lace at Fulham, where his meek, inoffenfive, and gen¬
teel behaviour, notwithftanding his remaining fteady
in his loyalty to the king, procured him the vifits of
the principal perfons of the oppofite party, and refpedt
from all. In 1648, he attended on his majefty at the
treaty in the ille of Wight; and by his particular de-
fire, waited upon him at Cotton-houfe, Weftminfter,
the day after the commencement of his trial; during
which he frequently vifited him in the office of a fpi-
ritual father ; and his majefty declared he was the
greateft comfort to him in that afflidtive ftuation.
He likewife attended his majefty on the fcaffold, where
the king taking off his cloak and George, gave him
the latter : after the execution, our pious bilhop took
care of the body, which he accompanied to the royal
chapel at Windfor, and ftood ready with the common-
prayer book in his hands to perform the laft cere¬
mony for the king ; but was prevented by Colonel
Whichcot, governor of the caftle.—He continued in
the quiet poffeffion of Fulham-palace till the enfuing
year 1649, when he was deprived, having been fpared
longer than any of his brethren. He then retired to
his own eftate in Gloucefterlhire, where he lived ia
privacy till the reftoration, when he was prefented to
the fee of Canterbury ; and in the little time he en¬
joyed it, expended in buildings and reparations at
Lambeth-palace and Croyden-houfe near 15,000!. He
died in 1663 ; having bequeathed 7000I. to St John’s
college, and to other charitable ufes near 50001. H?
publilhed a Sermon on Luke xviii. 31. and Some Con-
fiderations upon the Aft of Uniformity.
JUXTAPOSITION, is ufed by philofophers to
denote that fpecies of growth which is performed by
the appofition of new matter to the furface or outfide
of old. In which fenfe it ftands oppofed to intuf-
fufeeption; where the growth of a body is performed
by the reception of a juice within it diffufed through
its canals.
IVY, in botany. See Hedera.
IXIA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia or¬
der, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 6th order, En~
fata. The corolla is hexapetalous, patent, and equal ;
there are three ttigmata a little upright and petalous.
There are feveral fpecies, confifting of herbaceous,
tuberous, and bulbous-rooted flowery perennials, from
one to two feet high, terminated by hexapetalous
flowers of different colours. They are propagated by
off-fets, which Ihould be taken off in fummer at the
decay of the leaves: but as all the plants of this genus
are natives of warm climates, few of them can bear
the open air of this country in winter.
IXION, in fabulous hiftory, king of the Lapithse,
married Dia the daughter of Deionius, to whom he
3 G refufed
Jxora,
lynx.
Plate.
CCL1X.
Y N [ 418 1 T Y N
refufed to give the cuftomary nuptial prefents. Deio-
nius in revenge took from him his horfes: when Ixion,
diflembling his refentment, invited his father-in-law to
a feaft, and made him fall through a trap-door into a
burning furnace, in which he was immediately con-
fumed. Ixion being afterwards (lung with remorfe
for. his cruelty, ran* mad ; on which Jupiter, in com¬
panion, not only forgave him, but took him up into
heaven, where jie had the impiety to endeavour to
eorrupt Juno. Jupiter, to be the better affured of
his guilt, formed a cloud in the refemblance of the
goddefs, upon which Txion begat the centaurs: but
boafting of his happinefs, Jove huried him down to
Tartarus, where he lies fixed on a wheel-encompaifed
with ferpents, which turns without ceafing.
IXORA, in botany: A genus of the monOgynia
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 47th order,
Stellat/e. The corolla is monopetalous, funnel-lhaped,
and long, fuperior; the ftamina above the throat; the
berry tetrafpermous. _
JYNX, in ornithology, a genus of birds belonging
to the order of pica^; the characters of which are,
that the bill is flender, round, and pointed; the no-
flrils are concave and naked ; the tongue is very long,
very flender, cylindric, and terminated by a hard point;
and the feet are formed for climbing. There is only
one fpecies, vi%. the torquilla. The colours of this
bird are elegantly pencilled, though its plumage is
marked with the plainefl kinds: a lift of black and
ferruginous ftrokes divides the top of the head and
back ; the fidts of the head and neck are afti-coloured,
beautifully traverfed with fine lines of black and red-
difh-brown ; the quill-feathers are dufky, but each web
is marked with ruft-coloured fpots; the chin and Jxn*'
breaft are of a light ytHowifti-brown, adorned with 1
lharp-pointed bars of black; the tail confifts of ten
feathers, broad at their ends and weak, of a pale afh-
colour, powdered with black and red, and marked
with four equidiftant bars of black : the irides are of
a yellowifli colour.—The wry-neck, Mr Pennant ap¬
prehends, is a bird of paffage, appearing with us in the
fpring before the cuckoo. Its note is like that of the
keftril, a quick-repeated fqueak ; its eggs are white,
with a very thin (hell; it builds in the hollows of trees,
making its neft of dry grafs. It has a very whimfical
way of turning and twifting its neck about, and bring¬
ing its head over its ftioulders, whence it had its Latin
name torquilla, and its Englifh one of wry neck : it has
alfd the faculty of ere&ing the feathers of the head
like thofe of the jay. It feeds on ants, which it very
dexteroufly transfixes with the bony and fharp end of
its tongue, and then,draws them into its mouth ; and
while the female is fitting, the male has been obferved
to carry thefe iniefts to her.—We find this, bird men¬
tioned as an inhabitant throughout Europe, and of
many parts of the old Continent. It is in Ruflia,
Sweden, Lapland, Greece, Italy, Babylon, and Ben¬
gal ; authorities for which Buffon mentions, and fays,
that at the end of fummer this bird grows very fat,
when it becomes excellent eating; for which reafon
fome have named it the Ortolan. The young ones,
while in the neft, will hifs like io many Lakes ; info-
much that many have been prevented plundering the.
old ones of their offspring, on fuppofttion that they
were advancing their hands on the brood of this loath-
fome reptile.
K.
Kthe tenth letter; and feventh confonant, of our
’ alphabet; being formed by the voice, by a gut¬
tural expreffion of the breath through the mouth, to¬
gether with a depreflion of the lower jaw and opening
of the teeth.
Its found is much the fame with that of the hard c,
or qu : and it is ufed, for the moft part, only before e,
i, and «, in the beginning of words ; as ken, kill, knowj
&c. It ufed formerly to be always joined with c at
the end of words, but is at prefent very properly omit¬
ted, at leaft in words derived from the Latin : . thus,
iorpublick, mvfick, &c. we fay, public, mitfic. See. How¬
ever, in monofyllables, it is ftill retained, as jack, block,
mock, See.
K is borrowed from the Greek kappa; and was but
little ufed among the Latins: Prifcian looked on it as
a fuperfluous letter ; and fays, it was never to be ufed
except in words borrowed from the Greek. Dauf-
quius, after Saliuft, obferves, that it was unknown to
the ancient Romans.—Indeed we feldom find it in
any Latin authors, excepting in the word kalende,
■where it fometimes ftands in lieu of a c.—Carthage,
however, is frequently fpelt on medals with a K:
SAnvis aug;et caes.f£l. kart.and fometimes the let¬
ter A” alone flood for Carthage. —M. Berger hasobferved,
that a capital Kt on the reverfe of the medals of the
emperors of Conftantinople, fignified Konjlantinus;.
and on the Greek medals he will have it to iignify.
KOI An STPiA, “Coelefyria.”
Quintilian tells us, that in his time fome people had .
a mittaken notion, that wherever the letter c and a oc¬
curred at the beginning of a word, k ought to be ufed
inftead of the c. See C.
Liplius obferves, that K. was a ftigma anciently-
marked on the foreheads- of criminals with a red-
hot iron.
The letter K. has various fignifications in old char¬
ters and diplomas; for inltance, KR. flood for cho¬
rus, K R. C. for cara civil as, KRM. for carmen, KR.
AM. N. carus amicus mjler, K.S. chaos, KT. caplte ton-
fus. See.
The Frehch never ufe the letter k excepting in a
few terms of art and proper names borrowed from
other countries. Ablancourt, in his dialogue of the
letters, brings in i complaining, that he has been often
in a fair way to be banifhed out of the French alpha¬
bet, and confined to the countries of the north.
K is alfo a numeral letter; fignifying 250,according
to the verfe ;
K quoque ducentos & quinquaginta tenebit.
When it had a ftroke at top, k, it flood for 250,00c.
K A L [ 41
Kab* AT on the French coinage denotes money coined at
II Bourdeaux.
Kalendar. KABA. See Mecca.
w—v -' KADESH, Kadesh-barnea, or En-mishpat
(anc. geog.), a city celebrated for feveral events. At
Kadelh, Miriam the filter of Mofes died (Numb. xx.
1.). Here it was that Mofes and Aaron, rtiowing a
diftruft in God’s power when they fmote the rock at
the waters of ftrife, were condemned to die, without
the confolation of entering the promifed land (Numb,
xxvii. 14.). The king of Kadefh was one of the
princes killed by Jofhua (xii. 22.). This city was
given to the tribe of Judah, and was lituated about
eight leagues from Hebron to the fouth.
Mr Wells is of opinion, that this Kadefh, which
was fituated in the wildernefs of Zin, was a different
place from Kadefh-barnea in the wildernefs of Pa-
ran.
KADMQNJEI, or Cadmon-ei (anc. geog.), a
ople of Paleftine, faid to dwell at the foot of mount
ermon ; which lies eaft, and is the reafon of the ap¬
pellation, with refpect to Libanus, Phoenicia, and the
north parts of Paleftine. Called alfo Hevtti (Mofes).
KiEMPERIA, zedoary, in botany: A genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the monandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 8th order, Scitamine*. The corolla is fexpaVtite,
with three of the fegments larger than the reft, patu¬
lous ; and one only bipartite.
Species. 1. The galanga, common galangal, or long
zedoary, has tuberous, thick, oblong, fiefhy .roots;
crowned with oval, clofe-lkting leaves, by pairs, four
or five inches long, without footftalks; and between
them clofe-fitting white flowers, with purple bottoms,
growing fingly. 2. The rotunda, or round zedoary,
has thick, fiefhy, fwelling, roundifh, cluftering roots,
fending up fpear-fhaped leaves, fix or eight inches
long, near half as broad, on upright footftalks; and
between them, immediately from the roots, rife whitifh
flowers, tinged with green, red, yellow, and purple,
centres. Both thefe are perennial in root; but the
leaves rife annually in fpring, and decay in. winter.
They flower in fummer : each flower is of one petal,
tubulous below, but plain above, and divided into fix
parts ; they continue three or four weeks in beauty,
but are never fucceeded by feeds in this country.
Culture. Both thefe plants muft be potted in light
rich mould, and always kept in the hot-houfe, giving
in plenty of water in iummer, but more fparingly in
winter. They are propagated by parting the roots
in the fpring, juft before they begin to pufh forth new
leaves.
Ufes. This plant is cultivated with great care by
the inhabitants of Siam for the fake of its root ; the
ufe of which, fays Kempfer, is to remove obftru&ions
of the hypochondria, to warm the ftomach, difeufs fla¬
tulencies, and to ftrengthen the bowels and the whole
nervous fyftem. The root was formerly ufed in this
country in bitter infufions; but is now laid afide, on
account of its flavour being difagreeable.
KALENDAR, a diftribution of time, accommo¬
dated to the ufes of life ; or a table or almanac, con¬
taining the order of days, weeks, months, feafts, &c.
happening throughout the year. See Time, Month,
Year, &c.
9 3 K A L
It is called kalenclar, from the word kaletida, ancient- Kaletidaf.
ly wrote in large chara&ers at the head of each month.-v—^
See Kalends.
The days in kalendars were originally divided into
ottoades, or eights ; but afterwards, in imitation of the
Jews, into hebdomades, or fevens ; which cuftom, Scali-
ger obferves, was not introduced among the Romans
till after the time of Theodofius.
There are divers kalendars, according to the diffe¬
rent forms df the year and diftributions of time efta*
blifhed in different countries. Hence the Roman, the
Jewiih, the Perfian, the Julian, the Gregorian, &c. ka¬
lendars.
The ancient Roman kalendar is given by Ricciolus,
Struvius, Danet, and others; by which we fee the order
and number of the Roman holidays and work-days.
The three Chriftian kalendars are given by Wolfius
in his Elements of Chronology.
The Jewifh kalendar was fixed by rabbi Hillel about
the year 360, from which time the days of their year
may be reduced to thdfe of the Julian kalendar.
The Roman Kalendar owed its origin to Romu¬
lus ; but it has undergone various reformations fince
his time. That legifiatbr diftributed time into feveral
periods, for the ufe of the people under his com¬
mand : but as he was much better verfed in matters of
war than of aftronomy, he only divided the year into
ten months, making it begin in the fpring, on the
firft of March ; imagining the fun made his courfe
through all the feafons in 304 days.
Romulus’s kalendar was reformed by Numa, who
added two months more, January and February ; pla¬
cing them before March : fo that his year confifted of
355 days, and began on the firft of January. Hechofe,
however, in imitation of the Greeks, to make an in¬
tercalation of 45 days, which he divided into two parts;
intercalating a month of 22 days at the end of each
two years; and at the end of each two years more
another of 23 days; which month, thus interpo-
fed, he called Marcedonius, or the intercalary Fe¬
bruary.
But thefe intercalations being ill obferved by the
pontiffs, to whom Numa committed the care of them,
occafioned great diforders in the conftitution of the
year; which Csefar, as fovereign pontiff, endeavour¬
ed to remedy. To this end, he made choice of Sofi-
genes, a celebrated aftrpnomer of thofe times; who
found, that the difpenfation of time in the kalendar
could never be fettled on any fure footing without ha¬
ving regard to the annual.courfe of the fun. Accord¬
ingly, as the fun’s yearly courfe is performed in 365
days fix hours, he reduced the year to the fame num¬
ber of days: the year of this correction of the kalen¬
dar was a year of confufion ; they being obliged, in
order to fwallow up the 65 days that had been im¬
prudently added, and which occafioned the confufion,
to add two months befides the Marcedonius, which
chanced to fall out that year ; fo that this year con¬
fifted of 15 months, or 445 days. This reformation
was made in the year of Rome 708, 42 or 43 years be¬
fore Chrift.
The Roman kalendar, called aMo Julian kalendar, from
i tsreformer Julius, is difpofed into quadriennial periods;
whereof the firft three years, which he called communes,
confift of 365 days ; and the fourth, bijextile, of 366 ;
3 G 2 by
K A L [ 420 ] K A L
Kwlendar. by reafon of the fix hours, which in four years make
k-J" '• a day or fomewhat lefs, for in 134 years an interca¬
lary day is to be retrenched. On this account it was,
that pope Gregory XIII. with the advice ofClavius and
Ciaconius, appointed, that the hundredth year of each
century Ihould have no biifextile, excepting in each
fourth century : that is, a fubtra&ion is made of three
biffextile days in the fpace of four centuries ; by reafon
of the 11 minutes wanting in the fix hours whereof the
biflextile confifts.
The reformation of the kalendar, or the new Jiyle,
as we call it, commence^on the 4th of O&ober
1582, when ten days were thrown out at once, fo many
having been introduced into the computation fince the
time of the council of Nice in 325, by the defeft of
11 minutes.
Julian Chriflian Kalendar, is that wherein the
days of the week are determined by the letters A, B,
C, D, E, F, G, by means of the folar cycle ; and the
new and full moons, efpecblly the pafchal full moon,
with the feaft of Eafter, and the other moveable feafts
depending thereon, by means of golden numbers,
rightly difpofed through the Julian year. See Cycle,
and Golden Number.
In this kalendar, the vernal equinox is fuppofed to
be fixed to the 21ft day of March ; and the cycle of 19
years, or the golden numbers, conflantly to indicate
the place^of the new and full moons } yet both are er¬
roneous. And hence arofea very great irregularity in
the time of Ealler. To (how this enor the more ap¬
parently, let us apply it to the year 1715. In this
year, then, the vernal equinox falls on the 10th of
March ; and therefore comes too early by 11 days. The
pafchal full moon falls on the 7th of April; and there¬
fore too late, with regard to the cycle, by three days.
Eafter, therefore, which fhould have been on the loth
of April, was that year on the 17th. The.error here
lies only in the metemptofis, or poftpofition of the
moon, through the defe61 of the lunar cycle. If the
full moon had fallen on the 11 th of March, Eafter would
have fallen on the 13th of March ; and therefore the er¬
ror arifing from the anticipation of the equinox would
have exceedingly augmented that atifing from the
poftpofition. Thefe errors, in courfe of time, were fo
multiplied, that the kalendar no longer exhibited any
regular Eafter. Pope Gregory XIII. therefore, by the
advice of Aloyfius Lilius, in 1582, threv, 10 days out
of the month of Oftober, to reftore the eq 'inox to its
place, viz. the 21ft of March ; and thus introduced the
form of the Gregorian year, with fuch a provifion, as
that the equinox (hould be conftantly kept to the 21ft
of March. The new moons and full moons, by advice
of the fame Lilius, were not to be indicated by golden
numbers, but by epa&s. The kalendar, however, was
ftill retained in Britain without this correftion:
whence there was a difference of 11 days between our
time and that of our neighbours. But by 24 Geo. II.
c. 23. the Gregorian computation is eftablilhed here,
and accordingly took place in 1752.
Gregorian Kalendar, is that which, by means of
epa&s, rightly difpofed through the feveral months, de¬
termines the new and full moons, and the time of Ea¬
fter, with the moveable feafts depending thereon, in
the Gregorian year.
The Gregorian kalendar, therefore, differs from the
Julian, both in the form of the year, and in that epa£ts
are fubftituted in lieu of golden numbers: for the ufe Kalendar*
and difpofition whereof, fee Epact. » 1
Though the Gregorian kalendar be preferable to
the Julian, yet it is not without its defefts (perhaps,
as Tycho Brahe and Caffini imagine, it is impoffible
ever to bring the thing to a perfeft juftnefs). For, firft,
the Gregorian intercalation does not hinder, but that
the equinox fometimes fucceeds the 21ft of March as
far as the 23d j and fometimes anticipates it, falling on
the 19th ; and the full moon, which falls on the 20th of
March, is fometimes the pafchal; yet not fo account¬
ed by the Gregorians. On the other hand, the Gre-
gorians account the full moon of the 2 2d of March the
pafchal; which yet, falling before the equinox, is not
pafchal. In the firft cafe, therefore, Eafter is celebra¬
ted in an irregular month ; in the latter, there are two
Eafters in the fame ecclefiafticalyear. In like manner,
the cyclical computation being founded on mean full-
moons, which yet may precede or follow the true ones
by fome hours, the pafchal full-moon may fall on Sa*
turday, which is yet referred by the cycle to Sunday *
whence, in the firft cafe, Eafter is celebrated eight
days later than it ihould be; in the other, it is celebra¬
ted on the very day of the full-moon, with the Jews
and Quartodeciman heretics ; contrary to the decree
of the council of Nice. Scaliger and Calvifius fhow
other faults in the Gregorian kalendar, arifing from the
negligence and inadvertency of the authors ; yet is this
kalendar adhered to by the Romanifts throughout Eu¬
rope, &c. and ufed wherever the Roman breviary is ufed.
Refot eel, or ^ CorrcEled Kalendar, is that which,
fetting afide all apparatus of golden numbers, epafts,
and dominical letters, determines the equinox, with the
pafchal full-moon, and the moveable feafts depending
thereon, by aftronomical computation, according to the
Rudolphine Tables.
This kalendar was introduced among the Proteftant
ftates of Germany in the year 1700, when 11 days were
at once thrown out of the month of February ; fothat
in 1700 February had but 18 days: by this means,
the correfted ftyle agrees with the Gregorian. This
alteration in the form of the year they admitted for a
time ; in expeftation that, the real quantity of the
tropical year being at length more accurately deter¬
mined by obfervafcion, the Romanifts would agree with
them on fome more convenient intercalation.
ConftruBion of a Kalendar, or Almanac. 1. Com¬
pute the fun’s and moon’s place for each day of the
year; or take them from ephemerides. 2. Find the
dominical letter, and by means thereof diftribute the
kalendar into weeks. 3. Compute the time of Ea¬
fter, and thence fix the other moveable feafts. 4. Add
the immoveable feafts, with the names of the martyrs,
5. To every day add the fun’s and moon’s place, with
the rifing and fetting of each luminary ; the length of
day and night; the crepufcula, and the afpefts of the
planets. 6. Add in the proper places the chief phafes
of the moon, and the fun’s entrance into the cardinal-
points; i. e. the folfticts and equinoxes; together with
the rifing and the fetting, efprcially heliacal, of the
planets and chief fixed flats. See Astronomy.
The duration of the crepufcula, or the end of the
evening and beginning of the morning twilight, to¬
gether with the fun s rifing and fetting, and the length
of days, may be transferred from the ^calendars of one
year into thofe of another; the differences in the fe¬
veral
K A 1 [ 421 .] , K A L
alendar. veral years being too fmall to be of any confideration declination, riithg, fetting, amplitude, &c. to a greater Kalendar
‘ in civil life.
Hence it appears, that the conftruftion of a kalen¬
dar has nothing in it of myftery or difficulty, if tables
of the heavenly motions be at hand.
Some divide kalendars or almanacs into public and
private, perfedt and imperfedt; others into Heathen
and Chriftian.
^Public almanacs are thofe of a larger fize, ufually
exadtnefs than our common globes will (how.
Kalekdar of Prifoners. See Calendar. _
Kalendar Brothers, a fort of devout fraternities,
compofed of eccldiaftics as weH as laymen ;*whofe chief
bufinefs was to procure mafles to be faid, and alms dif-
tributed, for the fouls of fuch members as were de-
ceafed. They were alfo denominated kaknd brothers,
becaufe they ufually met on the kalends of each month.
hung up' for common or family ufe ; private are thofe though in fome places only once a quarter,
of a fmaller kind, to be carried about either in the #KALENDARIUM festum. The Chriftians re¬
hand, infcribed on a ftaff, or in the pocket; perfedf, tained much of the ceremony and wantonnefs of the
thofe which have the dominical letters as well as primes kalends of January, which for many ages was held a
and feafts infcribed on them ; imperfedt, thofe which feaft, and celebrated by the clergy with great indecen-
have only the primes and immoveable feafts. Till about cies, under the names fejlum lalendarum, or hypodiaco-
the fourth century, they all carry the marks of heathen- norum, or Jlultorum, that is, “ the feaft of foolsfome-
ifm ; from that age to the feventh, they are generally times alfo lilerlas decembrica. The people met mafleed
divided between heathenifm and Chriftianity. in the church ; and in a ludicrous way proceeded to
Almanacs are of fomewhat different compofition, the eledtion of a mock pope, or bifhop, who exercifed
fome containing more points, others fewer. The effen- a jurifdidlion over them fuitable to the feftivity of the
tial part is the kalendar of months and days, with the pccafion. Fathers, councils, and popes, long labour-
rifing and fetting of the fun, age of the moon, &c. ed to reftrain this licence to little purpofe. We find
To thefe are added various parerga, aftronemical, a- the feaft of the kalends in ufe as low as the clofe of the
Urological, meteorological, chronological, and even po- 15 th century.
iitical, rural, medical, &c. as calculations, and accounts KALENDERS. See Calenders.
of eclipfes, folar ingreffes, afpdfts, and configurations KALENDS, or Calends, in the Roman chrono-
of the heavenly bodies, lunations, heliocentrical and logy, the firft day of every month.—The word is formed
geocentrical motions' of the planets, prognoftics of from 1 call or proclaim ; becaufe, before the publi-
the weather, and predi&ions of other events, tables of cation of the Roman fafti, it was one of the offices
the planetary motions, the tides, terms^intereft, twi- of the pontifices to watch the appearance of the new
light, equation, kings, &c. moon, and give notice thereof to the rex facrificulus;
Gelalean, or Jellahtan Kalendar, is a correct ion upon which a facrifice being offered, the pontiff fum-
of the Perfian kalendar, made by order of fultan Ge- moned the people together in the Capitol, and there
laleddan, in the 467th year of the Hegira; of Chrift with a loud voice proclaimed the number of kalends,
1089. or the day whereon the nones would be ; which he did
Kalendar, is alfo applied to divers other compofi- by repeating this formula as often as there were days
tions refpe&ing the 12 months of the year. of kalends^ Calo Juno Novella. Whence the name
In this fenfe, Spencer has given the fhepherd’s ka- calenda was given thereto, from calo, calare. This is
lendar; Evelyn and Miller the gardener’s kalendar, &c. the account given by Varro. Others derive the appel-
Kalendar, is ufed for the catalogue or fafti an- lation hence, That the people being convened on this
ciently kept in each church of the faints both univer- day, the pontifex called or proclaimed the feveral
fal and'thofe particularly honoured in each church ; feafts or holidays in the month ; a cuflom which con-
with their bifttops, martyrs, &c. Kalendars are not to tinued no longer than the year of Rome 450, when
be confounded with martyrologies ; for each church C. Flavius, the curule aedile, ordered the faiti or ka-
had its peculiar kalendar, whereas the martyrologies lendar to be fet up in public places, that every body
regarded the whole church in generaH containing the might know the difference of times, and the return of
martyrs and confeffors of all the churches. From all the feftivals.
the feveral kalendars were formed one martyrology : fo The kalends were reckoned backwards, or in a re-
tbat martyrologies are pofterior to kalendars. trograde order. Thus, v. g. the firft of May being
Kalendar, is alfo extended to an orderly table or the kalends of May ; the laft or the 30th of April was
enumeration of perfons or things. the pridie kalendarum, or fecond of the kalends of May ;
Lord Bacon wilhes for a kalendar of doubts. A late the 29th of April, the third of the kalends, or before
writer has given a kalendar of the perfons who may the kalends: and fo back to the 13th, where the ides
inherit eftates in fee-fimple. commence ; which are likewife, numbered inveftedly
Kalendar, Kalendarium, originally denoted, among to the fifth, where the nones begin ; which are num-
the Romans, a book containing an account of moneys bered after the fame manner to the firft day of the
at intereft, which become due on the kalends of Janu- month, which is the kalends of April. See Ides, and
ary, the ufual time when the Roman ufurers let out Nones.
their money. * The rules of computation by kalends are included
Kalendar Months, the folar months, as they ftand in the following verfes :
* L  - • T _ _ _ 1 „ °
in the kalendar, viz. January 31 days, &c.
Aftronomical Kalendar, an inftrument engraved upon
copper-plates, printed on paper, and palled on board,
with a brafs Aider which carries a hair, and Ihows by
icfpedlion the fun’s meridian altitude, right afcenfion,
Prima dies menfs cujufqve ejl did a kalendse :
Sex Maius nonas, O&ober, ‘Julius, & Mars i
§>uatuor at reliqui : habet idus quilibet 0Q0.
Inde dies reliquos omnes die ejfe kalendas ;
Spuas retro numerous dices a menfe fequente.
K A L
[ 422 1
K A L
■Ka'end* To find the day of the kalends atifwerrng to any day
Ktlmia °^t^e month we are in ; fee how many days there are
1 ‘ , yet remaining of the month, and to that number add
two : for example, fuppofe it the 22d day of April;
it is then the 10th of the kalends of May. For April
contains 30 days : and 22 taken from 30, there remains
parts, and difcharge their fmall dull like feeds. This :
plant is a native of Carolina, Virginia, and other parts J
of the northern continent of America; yet are not "
common, but are found only in particular places : they
grow on rocks hanging over rivulets and running
itreams, and on the lides of barren hills. They blof-
8; to which two being added, the firm is 10. The reafon fom in May, and continue in flower the greateft part
~Qf the fummer. The noxious qualities of this elegant
plant leffen that elleem which its beauty claims: for
although deer feed on its green leaves with impunity,
yet when cattle and fheep, by fevere winters deprived
of better food, feed on the leaves of thefe plants, a
great many of them die annually.
2. The anguflifolia, rifes to the height of about
16 feet, producing ever-green leaves in fhape like the
lauro-cerafus, but i'mall, and of a fhining dark green.
The flowers grow in cluflers, the buds of which ap¬
pear in autumn wrapped up in a conic fcaly perianthi-
um, on which is lodged a vifcous matter, which pro-
te&s them from the fevere cold, in winter. Thefe
buds dilating in the following fpring, break forth into
twenty or more monopetalous flowers divided into five
fegments, and fet fingly on pedicles half an inch long.
Thefe flowers, when blown, appear white; but on a near
view are of a faint bluilh-colour, which as the flower
decays grow paler. One of the five petals is longer
and more concave than the reft, and is blended with
purple, green, and yellow fpecks, being a vifcous
matter on the extremities or very fine hairs. The
convex fide of the fame petal is alfo fpeckled with yel-
lowifh green. The pointal rifes from the centre of the
flower, and has its head adorned with fcarlet, and fur-
rounded by 10 ftamina, whereof three are long and
feven ihort, whofe farina iflues out at a fmall round
hole at its top. This elegant tree adorns the weftern
Kalish, a town of Lower Poland, and capital of and remote parts of, PennfyIvania, always growing in
of adding two is, becaufe the laft day of the month is
called fecundo kakndas, the laft but one tertio kalendas,
&c.
The Roman writers themfelves are at a lofs for the
reafon of this abfurd and whimfical manner of compu¬
ting the days of the month : yet it is ftill kept up in
the Roman chancery ; and by fome authors, out of a
vain affe&ation of learning, preferred to the common,
more.natural, and eafy manner.
Kalends, are alfo ufed in church-hiftory to denote
cortferences anciently held by the clergy of each dean-
ry, on the firft day of every month, concerning their
duty and conduct, efpecially in what related to the
impofition of penance.
Kalends of January, in Roman antiquity, was a
folemn feftival confeerated to Juno and Janus ; where¬
in the Romans offered vows and facrifices to thofe
deities, and exchanged prefents among themfelves as
• a token of friendftiip.
It was only a melancholy day to debtors, who were
then obliged to pay their interefts, &c. Hence Ho¬
race calls it trijles kalenda ; Lib. i. Serm. Sat. 3.
KALI, in botany. See Salsola.
KALISH, a province of Lower Poland, with the
title of a palatinate. It is bounded on the weft by
the palatinate of Bofnia, on the eaft by that of Syrad,
on the north by Regal Pruffia, and on the fouth by
Silefia. Kalifh is the capital town.
a palatinate of the fame name, where the Jefuits have
a magnificent college. It is feated on the river Prof-
na, in a morafs, which renders it difficult of accefs.
E. Long. 18. o. N. Lat. 52. 20.
KALMIA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 18th order,
Bicornes. The calyx is quinquepartite; the corolla falver-
ihaped, formed with five ne&ariferous horns on the un¬
der or outer fide ; the capfule quinquelocular.
this genus there are two fpecies, viz.
1. The latifolia, a moft beautiful fhrub, which rifes
the moft fterile foil, or on the rocky declivities of hills
and river-banks, in fljady moift places.
KALMUCS, a tribe of Tartars, called alfo Eluths,
inhabiting the larger half of what the Europeans call
Wejlern Tartary. Their territory extends from the
Cafpian fea, and the river Talk or Ural, in 72 degrees
of longitude from Ferro, to mount Altay, in 110 de¬
grees, and from the 40th to the 52d degree of north
latitude ; whence it may be computed about 1930
Of miles in length from weft to eaft, and in breadth from
north to fouth about 650 miles where broadeft. It is
bounded on the north by Ruffia and Siberia, from
ufually to the height of five or fix feet, and fometimes which it is feparated by a chain of mountains ; on the
twice that height in its native places. The ftems of fome
are as big as the fmall of a man’s leg, though generally
they are fmaller, and covered with a brown rough bark.
The wood is very clofe grained, heavy, and hard like
box. The limbs in general are crooked, and grow irre-
eaft by mount Altay ; on the fouth by the countries
of Karazm and the two Bukharias, from which it is
alfo feparated partly by a chain of mountains and
partly by fome rivers. See Tartary.
Of the Kalmuc Tartars the following curious an¬
gular ; but are thick-clothed with ftiff fmooth leaves of count is given by profeffor Pallas. They are in gene-
" ' • 'T'L-* fl"——■   u-—u-  ral, fays he, of a middle fize, and it is even rare to fee
among them a perfon that is tall; the women efpecial¬
ly are of low ftature, and have very agreeable features.
Their limbs are neatly turned, and very few have any-
defe&s contracted in infancy. Their education being
left foleiy.to nature, procures for them a well formed
body and found conftitution. The only defect which
is common among them is their having the thighs and
legs fomewhat bent. A fat perfon is hardly ever to be
met with ; the richeft and moft difting.uiftied, though
they lead a life fulficiently indolent, and enjoy abun¬
dance
a fhining bright green. The flowers grow in bunches on
the tops of the branches to foot-ftalks of three inches
long : they are white, ftained with purplifh red, con-
fifting of one leaf in form of a cup divided at the verge
into five fe&ions: in the middle is a ftylus and 12 fta¬
mina ; which, when the flower firft opens, appear ly¬
ing clofe to the fides of the cup at equal diftances,
thei, apices being lodged in ten little hollow cells,
which being prominent on the outfide, appear as fo
many little .tubercles. The flowers are fucceeded by
fmall round capfules ; which when ripe open in five
4
K A L
[ 423 1
K A L
dance of every thing they defire, arc never excefiively give them a great fuperiority over the wandering Tar- Kalmucs.
corpulent. Their Ikin is pretty fair, efpecially wlien tars. A certain natural fagacity, a focial difpofition, ' 
ymim. ; but it is the cuftom of the lower fort to allow hofpitality, eageruefs to oblige, fidelity to their chiefs,
thei/*male children to go quite naked both in the heat much curiofity, and a certain vivacity accompanied
pf the fun and in the fmoky atmofphere of their felt with good humour, which hardly ever foriakes even
huts; the men too fleep naked, covered only with their the mofi wretched among them, form the fair fide of
drawers ; and from thefe circumftances they acquire their chara&er. On the other hand, they are carelefs,
that yello.vilh brown colour which chara&enfes’hem- fuperficial, and want true cbuiage ; befides, they are
The women, pn the contrary, have a very delicate remarkable for credulity, diftruft, and a natural incli-
eomplexion ; among thofe of a certain rank are found nation authorifed by cuftom for drunkennefs and de-
fome with the moft beautiful faces, the whitenefs of bauchery, but efpecially for a great degree of cun-
which is fet off by the fine black of their hair; and in ning, which they too often pra&ife. The difpofition
this as well as in their features they perfe&ly re- to indolence is common and natuial, efpecially among
femble tke figures in Chinefe paintings. the men, to all Afiatic nation?, who lead a kind of
' The phyfiognomy which diftinguifhes the Kalmucs life exempt from fubje&ion and devoid of aftivity ;
is pretty generally known. Strangers are made to be- but this is lefs to be perceived among the Kalmucs, on
Heve that it is frightfully deformed ; and though in- account of their natural vivacity, and does not pre¬
deed there are very ugly men to be found, yet in gene- vent their endeavours to oblige. Thofe among them
ral their countenance has an openftefs in it that be- who exercife any little trade, or who are reduced by
fpeaks a mild, a frank, and focial difpofition. In
many it is of a roundiih fhape, and exceedingly agree¬
able ; among the women fome would be thought beau¬
ties even in thofe European cities where the tafte is
moft fcrupulous. The charaCteriftic features of a Kal-
muc or Mongul countenance are the following: The
poverty to hire themfelves to the Ruffians either for
labour or for fifhing, are very affiduous and indefati¬
gable. They fleep but little, going to roll late and
rifing with the fun.. To fltep through the day, unlefs
a peifon is drunk, is confidered by them asdifhonour-
able. But their extieme dirtinefs can neither.be dif-
interior angle of the eye is placed obliquely downwards guifed nor juitified, and proceeds much more front ■
towards the nofe, and is acute and flefhy; the eye-brows their education, from the flovenlinefs attached to the
are black, narrow, and much arched; the nofe is of a profeffion of a herdfrrian, and from levity, than from
ftru&ure quite Angular, being generally flat and broken lazinefs ; for the Kalmuc women are indefatigable in
towards the forehead ; the cheek bone is high, the head whatever concerns domeftic matters : and it is for this
and face very round ; the eye is dark, the lips thick and reafon, as well as on the fcore of fenfuality, that the
flefhy,the chin fhort, and the teeth exceeding white, con- Kirgifiens are eager to ftize and carry them off when-
tinuing fo to old age ; the ears are of an enormous fize, ever.an opportunity prefents itfelf.
franding out from the head. Thefe chara&ers are more With regard to the intelle&ual faculties of the Kal-
Or lefs vifibld in each individual; but the. perfon that mucs, notwithftanding their want of inftruftion and.
poffeffes them all in the higheft degree is confidered as information, they poffefs good natural parts, an ex-
the moft beautifully formed. . celffnt memory, and a ftrong define to learn. They
Among all the Mmfgul nations, the men have much acquire the Ruffian language with great facility, and
lefs beard than in our European countries, and among pronounce it well; in which laft article they very much
1 ‘ ’ ’ • rr" t”" ’ * r. ..r„ m.- r. ... 1 1 1 A / . ...
the Tartars it appears much later. The Kalmucs have
moft of it; and yet even with them the beard is very
fcanty and thin, and few have much hair on any other
part of the body.
People that lead a paftoral life enjoy the bodily fen-
furpafs the Chinefe. It would be very eafy tiAuvilize
them, if their petulance and manner of life "did not ren-.
der it imprafticable.
Although the Kalmucs are generally of a fanguine
and choleric temperament, they live more amicably
fes in the greateft perfe&ion.* The Kalmucs find the together than one could expeft in a people that lead
fubtiltyof their fenfe of fmell very ufeful in their military fo independent a life. They feldom come to blows
expeditions, for by it they perceive at a diftance the even over their cups> and their quarrels are hardly ever
fmoke of a fire or the fmell of a camp. There are many of blbody. A murder very rarely happens, though their
them who can tell by applying the nofe to the hole of a anger has fomething in it exceedingly fierce. It would
fox or any other quadruped if the animal be within or feem that the morality of their religion, thoucrh ex-
not. They hear at a great diftance the trampling of tremely idolatrous, has been able to moderate their
horfes, the node of an enemy, of a flock of ftieep,. or natural difpofition in this r-fpeft; for in confeqcence
even of ftrayed cattle ; they have only to ftretch them- of their dogmas, with regard to the tranfmigration of
felves on the ground, and to apply their ear clofe to fouls, every wanton murder either qf men or beafts is
the turf. But nothing is more afioniihing than the thought a deadly fin.
acutenefs of fight in moft of the Kalmucs, and the ex- The Kalmucs are exceedingly affable; and of fo fo-
traorduiary diftance at which they often perceive very cial a difpofition, that it is rare for a traveller to per-
minute objeas, fuch as the duft raifed by cattle or hor- ceive another even at the dillance of feveral miles
fes, and this from places very, little elevated ; in im- without going to falute him, and to inquire into the ■
menfe level defarts, though the particular inequalities obje'.a of his journey. When a troop of Kalmucs
of the furface and the vanonrs which in fine weaiKer .. _ j:a  • n
of the furface and the vapours which in fine weather
feen to undulate over the . foil in great heats, confider-
perceive any perfon at a diftance, it is cuftomary for
them to detach one of their number to the next emi- -
ably increafe the difficultyi They are alfo accuftomed to nence, from whence he makes a fignal with his cap for ;
trace the print of a foot in thefe defarts b/ the fight the perfon to draw near. If this fignal is not obeyed,
a,0"f the perfon is confidered as an enemy or a robber, and is
Thefe people poffefs many good qualities, which often purfued as fuch. They enter willingly into friend-
K A L [ 424 ] K. A L
KaTmucs. fhi'ps: but thtfe connexions are not quite dlfintereft- that are mofl addiAed to thefe practices ; while the Kalmticsj
w-y—w e(j . for togive and to receive prefents are with them common people, fatisfied with the pleafures of the pa- ~
A mere trifle, however, is fufficient ftoral life, fpend their days in innocent fimplicity.
effential articles. . . t r 
5 induce them to do you all manner of fervice ; and and never attack the property of another till forced
they are never ungrateful as far as they are able. Ad-
verfity cannot deprive them of courage nor alter their
good humour. A Kalmuc will never beg if he were
by neceffity, or led by their fuperiors who (how them
the example.
The Kalmucs are very faithful to their lawful prince;
the extremeft. mifery, but rather endeavour to ac- they endure every fort of oppreffion, and yet are with
quire a fubfiftence by cheating ; and when no other difficulty induced to revolt; but if they belong to a
way remains, he will hire himfelf to fome rich indi- prince who has not become fo by right of fucceffion.
vidual of his nation, or to fome Ruffian, either
herdfman, a fiffierman, or for any other fort of la¬
bour. Very few of the rich value themfelves much
Upon their wealth : but thofe who do, (how no con¬
tempt for the poor of their own nation ; though the
meaner fort pay their court very obfequioufly to the
rich, who are always fuvrounded with a fwarm of idle
dependants.
Nothing can be more, prudent than that exercife of
hofpitality pradlifed by wandering nations: it .is of the
< greatell advantage to thofe among them who travel a-
crofs their defarts ; and each individual who pradtifes
it, may rely on reaping the benefit of it wherever
he goes., A Kalmuc provided with a horf*, with
arms and equipage, may ramble from one place to an¬
other for three months together, without taking with
him either money or provifions. Wherever he comes
they very eafily rebel. They honour old age. When
young men travel with fuch as are older than them-
felves, they take upon them the whole care of the
cattle as well as of the feaft. They are exceedingly
prudent in matters that relate to their fovereign or
their nation, or which are recommended to their di-
redlion by the priefts, to whom they yield an unrefer*
ved obedience.
The moveable habitations of the Kalmucs are thofs
felt huts with a conical roof in ufe among all the
roaming Afiatics. The truly ingenious invention of
thefe tents was undoubtedly conceived in the eaftern
parts of Afia, and moft probably by the Mongul na¬
tions. As they can be entirely taken to pieces and
folded in a fmall compafs, they are very ufeful, and
perfedlly agree with the migratory life of thefe people,
who are ftill ignorant of the ufe of carriages. The
he finds either diftant relations or ftiends, to whom he frame of thefe huts, and the felt they are covered with,
is attached by the ties of hofpitality, from whom he though made asj light as poffible, yet are a fuffi-
meets with the kindeft reception, and is entertained in cient load for a camel or two oxen. But the capacity
the beft manner their circumftances afford. Perhaps he of thefe huts, their warmth in winter, their ftrength in
lodges in the firft unknown cottage he finds upon his refitting tempefts and excluding rain, abundantly corn-
road ; andjfcarcely has he entered it, but his wants are penfate for this inconvenience. The wood endures
fupplied with the moft affe&ionate cordiality. Every many years ; and though the felt begins to break into
ftranger, of whatfoever nation, never fails to be well
received by a Kalmuc; and he may depend upon ha¬
ving his effe&s in the greateft fecurity the moment he
has put himfelf under the protection of his hoft : for
to rob a gueft is confidered by the Kalmucs as the moft
abomi^ible of all crimes.
holes in the fecond year, the common people, who do
not confider it as difgraceful to have them mended and
patched, make them ferve a good deal longer. The
huts are in general ufe from the prince down to the
meaneft Kalmuc, differing only in fize and in the em-
belliffiments within. In winter, they are warm even
Wifen the matter of the houfe fits down to meat in when heated with the dried excrements of their cattle,
company with others of inferior rank, he begins in- to which they arc often obliged to have recourfe for
■deed by ferving himfelf and his family, but whatever want of other combuftibles in many places of the de¬
remains is diftributed among the affiftants. When farts which are deftitute of wood. In fummer they re-
When farts which
they fmoke tobacco, the pipe circulates inceffantly move the felt to enjoy the freffi air.
from one to another. When any one receives a pre-
fent either of meat or drink, he divides it faithfully
with his companions, even though of inferior rank.
But they are much more niggardly of their other ef-
fefts, and efpecially of their cattle, and do not wil-
The matter of the tent has his bed placed oppofite
to the door behind the fire-place. The bedfteads are
low and made of wood. The rich adorn their beds
with curtains, and fpread carpets of felt upon the
ground. When a Kalmuc poffeffes an idol, he places
lingly give thefe away except when they hope to re- it near the head of his bed, and fets before it feveral
ceive a fuitable return : or if any relation has acciden- fmall confecrated cups full of water, milk, or other food,
tally fuffered the lofs of his flocks, he is fure to be moft Before this fort of altar he fixes in the ground the
willingly affifted. Perhaps too it may be related as trunk of a tree, on which he places a large iron bafin
an article of their hofpitality, that they abandon their deftined to receive the libations of all the drink he
wives to their friends with the greateft facility, and in makes ufe of in a day. On feftivals the idol is deco¬
general they ate very little inclined to jealoufy. rated, the lamps are lighted, and perfumes burnt be-
Their robberies are never committed upon their fore it.
equals, and even the greater part of the rapine exer- The riches of the Kalmucs, and their whole means
cifed on other tribes is founded on hatred or national
quarrels; neither do they willingly attempt this by
open force, but prefer the machinations of cunning,
which are fo natural to them. It mutt alfo be con-
feffed, that it is only thofe that live with princes, and
in camps where thefe hold their courts, or their priefts,
171.
of fubfiftence, depend on their flocks, which many of
them reckon by hundreds and even by tho. ands. A
man is thought capable of living on his poffeffions when
he is matter of ten cows with a bull, eight mares with
a ftallion. The animals they have in greateft abundance
are horfes, horned cattle, and (heep. Camels, which
% A L [ ] K A L
-Kalmucs. require time and pains to rear, cannot multiply much
. with them : they are befides too delicate; and it is
only the rich or the priefts who poflefs any of them.
Their horfes are but fmall, too weak for the draught,
and too wild ; but they do not yield to any in i'wift-
jirfs, and fupport with -cafe the weight of a man.
They may be made to gallop for feveral hours fuccef*
lively without injury ; and when neceflity requires it,
they can pafs twice 24 hours without drinking. They
have a little hoof, but very hard; and they may be
ufed at all times without being Ihod. In this country
the horfes live and perpetuate tbemfelves without any
affi'lance from man. The Kalmucs caftrate the greater
part of their male foals, and at the fame time flit their
noftrils, that they may breathe more freely when they
run. The ftallions are never feparated from the mares,
that there may always be plenty of milk. The ftallions
are leaders of the herd, and often wander at a diftance
into the defarts at the head of their females, defending
them from the wolves with the greateft intrepidity.
The Kalmucs have the art of breaking a young horfe
without ufing a bridle. They feize him before he is
two years old "by means of a noofe fixed to the end of
a long pole ; an inftrument they life in taking their
riding horfes which feed in the midft of the herd.
They put no faddle at firft on the colt they mean to
break, but tie a ftrait gii.th round his body; by the
help of which the herfeman can keep himfelf firm.
When he is mounted, the horfe is abandoned to his
fury ; they allow him to run and agitate himfelf as
much as he pleafes on the open plain till he is fatigued.
The horfeman is folieitous only to keep himfelf faft;
and when the horfe begins to abate of his impetuofity,
he urges him again with the whip till his ftrength isal-
-rpoft gone : he is then faddled and bridled, and made
to go for fame time at a moderate pace; after which
he is entirely tamed.
The horned cattle of the Kalmucs are of a beautiful
fhape. They keep more bulls than are necefiary. for
the cows, and employ a great number of them asbeafts
of burden for carrying their houfes and their other
furniture from place to place. They think a bull e-
qual to ,50 cows. Thefe and the mares give milk only
while they fuckle their calves or their foals, which are
accordingly kept clofe to the tents during the day, and
only fuffered to fuck freely during the night; a prac¬
tice which the Kalmucs pretend makes their cattle
flronger and more durable. They generally milk their
mares three or four times a day, and f ’•.retimes every
two hours when the hetbage is abundant. The cows
•are milked but twice a day.
The Kalmuc fheep are of the fame fpecies with thofe
found in all Great Tartary, having large tails like a
bag, exceedingly fat, and which furnifir a fuel as foft
as butter. They have alfo large pendant ears, and their
head is much arched. Their wool is coarfe, and the ewes
feldom have horns. One ram is fufficient for an hun¬
dred ewes. Little ufe is made of the milk. The wool
is fit for nothing but to make felt for the tents. A
great many ftreep die during winter, and a greater num¬
ber ftill of the early lambs; the Ikins of which are
wrought into thofe fine furs fo much dceemed in Raf¬
fia and foreign parts.
Camels belong only to the rich ; for they are very
dear, multiply very flowly, and are fubjeft to many
Vot. IX. Part II.
difeafes. The defarts of the Wolga, and almoft all Kalmues.
thofe of the fouthern parts of Great Tartary, fumifti ~{
excellent pafture for thefe animals; but they require not
only much attention in winter, but they muft be con¬
tinually under the eye of the herdfmen ; for notwith-
ftanding the advantage of their ftature, they are of
all animals leaft able to defend themfelves againft the
wolf. They are guarded with much care againft the
violence of the cold and the winds of winter; never-
thelefs many of them die of a confumption accompanied
with a diarrhoea, occafioned moft probably by the moif-
ture of their pafture and of the feafon. This difeafe,
for which no remedy has been found, makes them lan-
guifti for fix months or more. They are in general fo
delicate, that a flight wound or blow often prove fatal
to them. Befides, no animal is fo much tormented with
infedts; and they often die in fummer of thofe they
fwallow in eating the leaves of the oak and of the birch.
The me!ceprafearabteas, which covers all the plants in
many of thofe places where they feed, is generally fa¬
tal to them. In fpring, when they call their hair, and
which falls at once from every part of their body, they
are expofed to the bite of the fpider feorpion, an ani¬
mal very common in fouthern countries. The wound
inftifted by this infedl on the fkin thus naked is fo
venomous, that the camel dies of it in lefs than eight
days, fometimes in three. In winter, and efpecial-
ly after rutting time, which happens at the end of
March, the camels become lean and weak ; the bunch
upon their back grows flabby, and. hangs down up¬
on the fide, nor does it recover its plumpnefs till fum-
Camels milk is thick, un&uous, and of a faltifh
tafte, efpecially when the animals frequent paftures a-
bounding with faline plants ; and this laft property
makes the Kalmucs fond of it to tea. They make ufe
of the hair for fluffing cuftiions, and for making ropes,
packthread, and felt. It may be wrought into the
moft beautiful camlets, or into the fined and fofttft
cloths. The camels with two bunches are a very un-
eafy feat to the perfon who mounts them; their trot is
fo heavy, and even their walk fo rude, that he receives
the moft violent fhocksat every ftep.
When a Kalmuc Horde intends to remove in fearch
of frefli pafture, which in fummer neceftarily happens
every four, fix, or eight days, people are in the firft
place difpatched. to reconnoitre the heft place for the
khan or prince, for the lama, and for the huts con¬
taining the idols. Thefe begin the march, and are fol¬
lowed by the whole troop, each choofing for himfelf
the place he thinks moft convenient. The camel that
is. loaded with the mofl precious furniture is decorated
with little bells, the reft march in a firing one behind
another, and the bulls with burdens are driven on be¬
fore. .On thefe days the women and girls drefs them-
felves in their beft clothes, and lay on abundance cf
paint. . They have the charge, together with the boys,
of leading the flocks and the beads of burden ; and on
the road they beguile the tedioufnefs of the journey
with their fongs.
The -Kalmucs are fupplied by their flocks with milk,
cheefe, butter, and flefli, which are the principal ar¬
ticles of their food. With regard to the laft, they are
fo little fqueamifh, that-they not only eat the flefh of
thdr own difeafed cattle, but that of almoft every fort
3 H 0f.
K A L
L 426 1
K A M
Kalmucs. 0f wlldbeaft, and the poor will even feed upon canon. ' cife of riding. Simple food, the free air which they Kamakura
They eat, however, the roots and ftalks of many plants;
fuch as the bulbous-rooted chervil add dandelion, &c.
which they'life both boiled and raw.
Their ordinary drink is the milk of mares or cows ;
but the former is for feveral reafons preferred. This,
when frefh, has indeed a very difagreeable tafte of gar¬
lic : but befides that it is much thinner than cow-milk,
it takes as it grows four a very agreeable vinous flavour;
it yields neither cream nor curd, but furnifhes a very
wholefome refrefhing beverage, which fenfibly ine-
conftantly breathe, a hardy vigorous conftitution, con- II
tinual exercife without fevere labour, and a mind free u am in*
from care, are the natural caufes of their health and
longevity.
It is very remarkable, that a migratory people, whofe
manner of life feems fo congruous to the natural liberty
of mankind, fhould have been fubje&ed from time im¬
memorial to the unlimited authority of an abfolute fove-
reign. The Mongols of Afia afford the only inftance
of it; for neither written records nor ancient tradition
briates when taken to excefs. They never make ufe have prefefved the fmailefl trace of their ever having
of new milk, and ftiil lefs of milk or of water that enjoyed a ftate of independence. On the contrary,
have not been boiled. Their milk is boiled' as foon as they acknowledge that they have at all times been fub-
it is taken from the animal; when it is cold it is pour- je6t to khans and princes, whofe authority has been
ed into a large leathern bag, in which there remains tranfmitted to them by fucceflion, and is confidered as
as much of the old milk as is fufficient to turn the new
quantity four, for they never think of cleanfing thofe
bags; and as the infide is lined with a cruft depoiited
right perfe&ly eftablifhed, facred, and divine.
KAMAKURA, a famous ifland of Japan, about
three miles in circumference, lying on the fouth coaft
by the cafeous part of the milk and other impurities, of Niphon, It is here they confine their great
it is eafy to imagine that a naufeous fmell muft exhale
from them. But this is precifely the circumftance in
which the fecret confifts of communicating to the milk
a vinous fermentation.
In fummer, and as often as the Kalmucs procure
much milk from their flocks, they never fail to intoxi¬
cate themfelves continually with the fpirituous liquor
which they know how to diftil from it. Mares milk is
the moft fpirituous; and the quantity meant to be di-
ililled remains twenty-four hours in fummer, and three
or four days in winter, in thofe corrupted bags we
mentioned, to prepare it for the operation. The cream
is left, but the butter which forms at top is taken
off and referved for other purpofes. Cows-milk yields
one-thirtieth part, and mares milk one-fifteenth part,
when they have committed any faulfc The coaft of
this ifland is fo fteep, that they are forced to be lifted
up by cranes.
KAMEEL, Kamel, or Carh^l, a machine for lift¬
ing Ihips. See Camel.
KAMINIECK, a very ftrong town of Poland, and
capital of Podolia, with two caftles and a bifliop’a
fee. It was taken by the Turks in 1672, who gave
it back in 1690, after the treaty of Carlowitz. It is
feated on a craggy rock, in E. Long. 27. 30. N. Lat.
48. 58.
KAMSIN, the name of a hot foutherly wind com¬
mon in Egypt, of which we find the following defcrip*
tion in Mr Volney’s Travels.—Thefe winds, fays he,
are known in Egypt by the general name of winds of
of fpirit. This liquor is limpid and very watery, and 50 days; not that they laft 50 days without intermif-
confeqUently does not take fire, but is capable of being
long kept in glafs-bottle.v The rich Kalmucs increafe
its ftrength by a fecond diftillation.
Thefe people are exceedingly fond of tea and tobac-
fion, but becaufe they prevail more frequently in the
50 days preceding and following the equinox. Tra¬
vellers have mentioned them under the denomination
of poifonous winds, or, more correflly, hot winds cf the
The former is fo dear, as it comes to them from defart. Such in fa<£t is their quality ; and their heat
China by the way of Ruffia, that the poor people is fometimes fo exceffive, that it is difficult to form
fupply its place with various wild plants; fuch as a
fpecies of liquorice, the feed of the fnarp-leaved dock,
the roots of wild angelica, and the feed of the Tarta¬
rian maple.
The Kalmucs are excellent horfemen. Their arms
are lances, bows, and arrows, poignards, and crooked
fabrcs, though the rich have fire-arms. They wear,
when at war, coats of mail, which coft 50 horfes, and
their helmets are guilded at top. They are fond of fal¬
conry, and hunting of all forts is their principal amufe-
ment. Their paffion for play, efpecially with thofe
who play cards, is carried to as great excefs among
them as in any other nation.
The greater part of their time is fpent in diverfions;
and however miferable their manner of life may feem to
us, they are perfedly happy-with it. They cannot en¬
dure for any time the air of a clofe room ; and think
our cuftom of living in houfes infupportable. The
any idea of its violence without having experienced it;
but it may be compared to the heat of a large oven at
the moment of drawing out the bread. When thefe
winds begin to blow, the atmofpbere affumes an alarm¬
ing afpeft. The Iky, at other times fo clear in this
climate, becomes dark and heavy ; the fun lofes his
fplendor, and appears of a violet colour; the air is
ntTt cloudy,’ but grey and thick, and is in fad filled
with an extremely fubtile duft, which penetrates every
where. This wind, always light and rapid, is not at
firft remarkably hot, but it increafes in heat in propor¬
tion as it continues. All animated bodies foon dif-
cover it by the change it produces in them. The
lungs, which a too rarefied air no longer expands, are
contra&ed, and become painful. Refpiration is Ihort
and difficult; the Ikin parched and dry, and the body
confirmed by an internal heat. Jn vain is recourfe had
to large draughts of water ; nothing can reftore perfpi-
greateft part of them, notwithftanding of the apparent nation. In vain is coelnefs fought for ; all bodies in
unhealthinefs of their way of life, arrive at a vigorous which it is ufual to find it deceive the hand that touch-
old age ; their difeafes are neither frequent nor dange- es them. Marble, iron, water, notwithftanding the
rous. Men of 80 or 10c years old are not uncommon; fun no longer appears, are hot. The ftreets are defert-
and at that age they can ftill very well endure the exer- ed, and the dead filence of night reigns every where.
The
K. A M t 427 ] K A M
Kamfin, The inhabitants of towns and villages (hut themfelves of the river Kovyma or Kolyma, lying in the frozen o-Kamtcha;-
Kamtchat- Up ;n their houfes, and thofe of the defart in their cean in about 720 north latitude, and I75°er 174°ead ka-
ka' tents or in wells dug in the earth, where they wait longitude from Ferro, in order to penetrate into the
the termination of this deftrudlive heat. It ufually
lalls three days, but if it exceeds that time it becomes
infupportable. Wo to the traveller whom this wind
furprifes remote from (belter ; he mud fuffer all its
horrible effects, which fometimes are mortal. The
danger is mod imminent when it blows in fqualls; for
then the rapidity of the wind increafes the heat to inch
a degree as to caufe fudden death. This death is a
real fuffocation ; the lungs being empty are convulfed.
eaftern ocean. Four of thefe were*never more heard
of; the remaining three were commanded by Simon
DefhnefF, Gerafim Ankudino(F, two chiefs of the Cof-
facs, and Feodotoff Alexeeff, head of the Promyflile-
nics or wandering Ruffians, who occafionally vifited
Siberia. Each veffel was probably manned wu'th a-
bout 30 perfons. They met with no cbftru&ions
from the ice ; but Ankudinoff’s veffel was wrecked
on the promontory above mentioned, and the crew
the circulation is difordered, .and the whole mafs of v?ere diftributed on board the two remaining veffels.
blood driven by the heart towards the head and bread;
whence the haemorrhage at the nofe and mouth which
happens after death. This wind is efpecially deftruc-
tive to perfons of a plethoric habit, and thofe in whom
fatigue has defiroyed the tone of the mufcles and the
veffels. The corpfe remains a long time warm, fwells,
turns blue, and foon becomes putrid. Thefe accidents
are to be avoided by dopping the nofe and; mouth
with handkerchiefs; an efficacious method likewife '
Thefe two foon after lod fight of each other, and
never afterwards rejoined. E>e(hneff was driven about
by tempeduous winds till O&ober, when he was fnip-
wrecked on the northern part of Kamtchatka. Here
he was informed by a woman of Yakutfie, that Feo¬
dotoff and Gerafim had died of the fcurvy ; that part
of the crew had been (lain ; and that a few had e-
fcaped in fmall veffels, who had never afterwards been
heard of; and thefe were probably the people who, i
that pra&ifed by the camels. On this occafion thefe ani- we have already mentioned, fettled among the Kamt-
mals bury their nofes in the fand, and keep them there chatkans.
till the fquall is over. Another quality of this wind
is its ex;reme aridity; which is fuch, that water
fprinkled on the floor evaporates in a few minutes.
By this extreme drynefs it withers and drips all the
plants; and by exhaling too fuddenly the emanations
As the inhabitants of this country were neither nu- ^diied t>)£
merous nor warlike, it required no great force to fub-them*
due them; and in 1711 the whole peninfula was fi¬
nally reduced under the dominion of the Ruffians 
For fome years this acquifition was of very little con-
from animal bodies, crifps the (kin, clofes the pores, fequence to the crown, excepting the fmall tribute of
and caufes that feverilh heat which is the condant ef- furs exa&ed from the inhabitants. The Ruffians in-
feft of fuppreffed perfpiration. deed occafionally hunted, in this peninfula, foxes,
KAMTCHATKA, Kamschatka, or Kamchat- wolves, ermines, fables, and other animals, whofe
ka ; a large peninfula on the north-eadern part of A- (bins form an extenfive article of commerce among the
fia, lying between 51* and 62° of north latitude, and eadern nations. But the fur-trade carried on from
between 1730 and 182° of ead longitude from the ifle thence was very inconfiderable, until the feries of
of Ferro. It is bounded on the ead and fouth by the iflands mentioned in the next article 'were difcovered •
fea of Kamtchatka, on the wed by the feas of’Ochotlk fince which time the quantities of furs brought from
and Penlhinlk, and on the north by the country of the thefe iflands have greatly increafed the trade of Karat-
1 Koriacs.
This peninfula was not discovered by the Ruffians
the Rut before the end of the lad century. It is probable,
however, that fome of that nation had vilited Kamt¬
chatka before the time above mentioned. For when
chatka, and rendered it an important part of the Ruf¬
fian commerce.
The face of the country throughout the peninfula 3'
is chiefly mountainous. It produces in fome parts
birch, poplars, elders, willows, underwood, and her- 4
Volodomir Atlaffoff entered upon the conqued of ries of different forts. Greens and other vegetables
this peninfula in 1697, he found that the inhabitants are raifed with great facility; fuch as white cabbage,
had already fome knowledge of the Ruffians. A com- turnips, radiffies, beet-root, carrots, and fome cucum-
mon tradition as yet prevails among them, that, lonjg bers. Agriculture is in a very low date, owing
before the expedition of Atlaflbff, one Feodotoff and chiefly to the nature of the foil and the fevere hoa°-
his companions had refided among them, and had in- frofls; for though fome trials have been made with
termarried with the natives ; and they dill (how the refpeid to the cultivation of grain, and oats, barley,
place where the Ruffian habitations dood. None of and rye, have been fown, yet no crop has ever been
the Ruffians remained when Atlaffoff fird vifited procured fufficient in quantity or quality to anfw-er the
Kamtchatka. They are faid to have been held in trouble of raifing it. Hemp, however, has of late
great veneration, and almoft deified by the natives ; years been cultivated with great fuccefs. Every year
a veffel belonging to the crown fails from Ochotlk to
Kamtchatka laden with fait, provifions, corn, and
Ruffian manufactures ; and returns in June or July of
the following year with (kins and furs.
... 0 „ , —;   .... Many traces of volcanoes have been obferved in thisv 4
-Thefe Ruffians were thought to be the remains of peninfula; and there are fome mountains which are Vo'canocSf
a (hip’s crew who had failed quite round the north- in a burning date at prefent. The mod confiderable
of thefe is fituated near the middle of the pcninfula.
In 1762, a great noife was heard iffuing from the in-
fide of that mountain, and flames of fire were feen to
3 H 2 burft
who at fird imagined that no human power could hurt
them, until they quarrelled among themfelves, and
the blood was feen to flow from the wounds which
they gave each other; and foon after, upon a fepara-
tion taking place, they were all killed by the natives.
caftern promontory of Afia called Tfchukutjloi-Nofs,
The account we have of this voyage is as follows 
in 1648, fev€4 kotches or veffels failed from the mouth
K A M [ 42S T K A M
Kamtchat- barft from different parts. Thefe flames were imme-
l _^a~ diately fucceeded by a large flream of melted fnow‘
water, which flowed into the neighbouring valley, and'
drowned two natives who were there on a hunting
party. The afhes and burning matters thrown from
the mountain were fpread over a furface of 300 vends.
In 1767 was another difcharge, but lefs confiderable.
Every night flames of fire were obferved ftreaming
from the mountain; and confiderable damage was done
by the eruption which attended them. Since that year
no flames have been feen; but the mountain emits a
5 conftant fmoke.
■Population, Kamtchatka is divided by the Ruffians into four dr"
^ ftrifts; and the government of the whole is dependent
upon, and fubje£t to, the infpe&ion of the chancery of
©chotfk. The whole Ruffian force flattened in this
peninfula amounts to no more than 300 men. The
prefent population of Kamtcbatka is very fmail, a-
mounting to fcarce 4000 fouls. Formerly the inhabh
tants were more numerous; but in 1768; the fmalU
pox carried off 3368 perfons. There are now only a-
bout 700 males in the whole peninfula who are tribu*
tary, and few more than too in the neighbouring
iflands, called the Kuril I/les, who are fubjeft to Ruffia.
The fixed annual tribute confifts in 279 fables, 464
red foxes, 50 fea-otters with a dam, and 38 cub ot¬
ters. All furs exported from Kamtchatka pay a duty
of 10 per cent, to the crown; the tenth part of the
cargoes bought from the neighbouring iflands is alfo
6 delivered into the cuftoms.
Manner^ 'pjie nat{ve8 ef Kamtchatka are as wild as the coun-
•atives. 6 Some of them have no fixed habitations,
but wander from place to place with their herds of
rein-deer; others have fettled habitations, and refide
upon the banks of the rivers and the fhore of the
Penfchinfka fea, living upon fifh and fea-animals, and
fuch herbs as grow upon the fhore : the former dwell
in huts covered with deer-fkins; the latter in places
dug out of the earth ; both in a very barbarous man¬
ner. Their difpofitions and tempers are rough; and
they are entirely ignorant of letters or religion. The
natives are divided into three different people, namely,
the Kamtchatkans, Koreki, and Kuriles. The Kamt-
chatkans live upon the fouth fide of the promontory
of Kamtehatka : the Koreki inhabit the northern parts
on the coaft of the Penchinfka fea, and round the ealt-
ern ocean almofl to the river Anadir, whofe mouth
lies in that ocean almoft in 68° N. Lat. : the Ku¬
riles inhabit the iflands in that fea, reaching as far
as thofe of Japan. The Kamtchatkans have this par¬
ticular cuftom, that they endeavour to give every thing
a name in their language which may exprefs the pro¬
perty of it; but if they do not underftand the thing
quite well themfelves, then they take a nam^ from
fome foreign language, which perhaps has no relation
to the thing itfelf; as, for example, they call a prieft
loglog, becaufe probably they hear him ufe the word
bogbog, “ God;” bread they call brightatin augjh, that is,
Ruffian root; and thus of feveral other words to which
their language is a ftranger.
It appears probable, that the Kamtchatkans lived
formerly in Mungalia beyond the river Amur, and
made one people with the Mungals; which is farther
confirmed by the following obfervations, fuch as the
Kamtchatkan having feveral words common to the Mun-
2
gal Chinefe language, as their terminations in ong;Kanitchat*- ?
mg', oangj chin, cha, ching, kfii, kfung; it would ka-
be ftilf a greater proof; if we could fhow feveral words v
and fentences.the fame in both languages. The Kamt¬
chatkans and Maiigals alfo-are both of .a middling fta-
ture, are fwarthy, have black hair, a broad face, a
(harp nofe, with the eyes failing in, eye-brows fmall
and thin, a hanging belly, flender legs and arms; they,
are both remarkable for cowardice, boafting, .and fla-
vifhnefs, to people who ufe them hard, and for their
obftinacy and contempt of thofe who treat them with?
gentlenefs.
Although in outward appearance they refemble
the other inhabitants of Siberia, yet the Kamtchat¬
kans differ in this, that their faces are not fo long as
the other Siberians; their cheeks Itaud more out, their
teeth are thick, their mouth large, their ftature mid--
dling, and their IhcMilders broad, particularly thoie
people who inhabit the fea-coalt.
before the Ruffian conqueft, they lived in perfetl
freedom, having no chief, being fubjedt to no law, nor
paying any taxes ; the old men, or thofe who were re¬
markable for their bravery, bearing the principal au*
thority in their villages, though, none had any right to
command or infliit punifhment.
Their manner of living is fiovenly to the laff degree?
they never wafh their hands nor face, nor cut their
nails ; they eat out of the fame difh with the (Jog3»
which they never wafh ; they never comb their heads,
but both men and women plait their hair in two locks, .
binding the ends with finall ropes. When any hair
ftarts out, they few it with threads to make it lie
clofe ; by this means they have fuch a quantity of'
lice, that they can ferape them off by handfuls, and
they are naff-"- »•'''■ . h even to eat them. Thofe that
have not n air fufficient, wear falfe locks, fome-
times as mircl. r 0 pounds, which makes their
heads look like a naycock.
They place their chief luippinefs in idlenefs, and
fatisfying their natural lull and appetites; which in-,
cline them to finging, dancing, and relating of love-fto-
ries; and they think it more eligible to die than to *
lead a difagreeable life ; which opinion often leads them
to felf-imirder. This was fo common after the con->
queft, that the Ruffians had great difficulty to put a kans incli- I
flop to it. They have no notion of riches, fame, ornedto fsllM
honour ; therefore covetoufnefs, ambition, and pride, tnuriler‘‘ f
are unknown among them. On the other hand, they
are carelefs, luftful, and cruel: thefe vices occafion
frequent quarrels and wars among them, fometimes
with their neighbours, not from a defire of increafing
their power, but from fome other caufes; fuch as the
carrying off their provilxons, or rather their girls,
which is frequently praclifed as the moft fummary me¬
thod of procuring a wife. Their trade is almoft en¬
tirely confined to procuring the immediate necefl’aries
and conveniences of life. They fell the Koreki fa¬
bles, fox and white dog-flrins, dried mulhrooms, and
the like, in exchange for cloaths made of deer-fluns
and other hides. Their domeftic trade confifts in dogs,
boats, difhes, troughs, nets, hemp, yarn, and provi-
fions ? and this kind of barter is earned on tinder a
great fhow of friendfhip; for when one wants any
thing that another has, he goes freely to vifit him, and
without any ceremony makes known his wants, al¬
though
K A M
Samtchat- tTaough perhaps' he never had any acquaintance with
him before : the hoft is obliged to behave according to
the cuftom of the country, and give his gueft what he
has occafion for ; but he may afterwards return the
vifit, and muft be received in~the fame manner. They
fill almoft every place in heaven and earth with diffe¬
rent fpirits, and offer them facrifices upon every occa*
firon. Some carry little idols about them, or have them
placed in their dwellings; but with regard to God-
[ 429 1
K A M
they form the roof or ceiling, leaving in the middle a Kamtclnt-
fquare opening which ferves them for a window and ,
chimney ; this they cover with grafs and earth, fo _v
that the outward appearance is like a round hillock ;
but within they are an oblong fquare, with the
fire in one of the long fides of the fquare : be¬
tween the pillars round the walls of their huts they
make benches, upon which each family lies feparately;
but on that fide oppolite to the fire there are no
they not only negleti to worfhip him, but in cafe of benches, it being defigned for their kitchen furniture,
troubles and misfortunes they cuife and blafpheme in which they drefs their vidfuals for themfelves and
dogs. In thofe huts where there are no benches, there
aie balks laid upon the floor, and covered with mats.
They adorn the walls of their huts with mats made of
grafs. They enter their huts by ladders, commonly
placed near the fire-hearth ; fo that, when they are
heating their huts, the fleps of the ladder become fo
hot, and the fmoke fo thick, that it is' almoft impof-
fible for a ftranger to go up or down without being
burnt, and even ftifled to death ; but the natives find
no difficulty in it ; and though they can only fix their
g him.
Cannot It is very diverting to fee them attempt to reckon
number a- 3bove ten : for having reckoned the fingers of both
r, ,r- rw,n. they clafp them together, which fignifies ten ;
then they begin with their toes, and count to twenty ;
after which they are quite confounded, and cry, Met-
cha ? that is, Where ftiall I take more ? They reckon
ten months in the year, fome of which are longer and
fome fhorter ; for they da not divide them by the
changes of the moon, but by the order of particular
occurrences that happen in thofe regions. They com- toes on the fteps of the ladder, they mount like fquir-
monly divide our year into two, fo that winter is one rels ; nor do the women hefitate to go through this
year and fummer another : the fummer year begins
in May, and the winter in November. They do not
diftinguifh the days by any particular appellation, nor
form them into weeks qr months, nor yet know how
many days are in the month or year. They mark
their epochs by fome remarkable thing or other ; fuch
as the arrival of the Ruffians, or the ftrft expedition
to Kamtchatka.
If any one kills another, he is to be killed by the
relations of the perfon (lain. They burn the hands of
people who have been frequently caught in thefc ; but
for the fir ft offtnee the thief muft reftore what he
hath ftolen, and live alone in folitude, without expedt-
ing the affiftance of others. They never have any dif-
putes about their land or their huts, every one having
land and water more than fufficient for his wants.
They think themfelves the happieft people in the world.
fmoke with theirchildren upon their fhoulders, though
there is another opening through which the women are
allowed to pafs ; but if any man pretend to do the
fame, he would be laughed at. The Kamtchatkans
live in thefe huts all the winter, after which they go
into others called balagans : thefe ferve them not only
to live in during the iummerv but alfo for magazines.
They are made in the following manner: nine pillars,
about two fathoms long, or more, are fixed in the
ground, and bound together with balks laid over them,
which they cover with rods, and over all lay grafs,
faftening fpars, and a round (harp roof at top, which
they cover with bramble, and thatch with grafs. They
fallen the lower ends of the fpars to the balks with
ropes and thongs, and have a door on each fide, one
dire&ly oppolite to the other. They make ufe of the
fame kind of huts to keep their filh, &c. till winter
and look upon the Ruffians who are fettled among comes on, when they can more eafily remove it ; and
them with contempt. However, this notion begins to this without any guard, only taking away the ladders,
change : for the old people who are confirmed in their If thefe buildings were not fo high, the wild beads
cuftoms drop off ; and the young ones being converted would undoubtedly plunder them; for notwithftand-
to the Chriftian religion, adopt the culloms of the ing all their precaution, the bears fometimes climb up
Ruffians, atid defpife the barbarity and fuperftition of and force their way into their magazines, efpecially in
 the harveft, when the filh and berries begin to grow
their anceftdrs.
In every oftrog or large village, by order of her
imperial majtfty, is appointed a chief, who is foie
judge in all caufes except thofe of life and death ; and
not only thofe chiefs, but even the common people,
have their chapels for worlhip. Schools are alfo e-
redtedin almoft every village, to which the Kamtchat-
fcarce.
The fouthern Kamtchatkans commonly build their
villages in thick woods and other places which are na¬
turally ftrong, not lefs than 20 verfts from the fea;
and their fummer habitations are near the mouths of
the rivers ; but thofe who live upon the Penfchinika
kans fend their children with great pleafure: by this fea and the eaftern ocean build their villages very
means it is to be hoped that barbarity will be
fhort time rooted out from amongft them.
Under the name of ojlrog, is underftood every ha¬
bitation confifting of one or more huts, all furroundtd
Manner of by an earthen wall or palifado.—The huts are built
building in the following manner : they dig a hole in the earth round ftick ; this they rub in a hole till it takes fire ;fire*
their huts, about five feet deep, the breadth and length propor- and inftead of tinder they ufe dry grafs beat foft.
tioned to the number of people defigned to live in it. Thefe inftruments are held in fuch efteem by the Kamt-
In the middle of this hole they plant four thick woo- chatkans, that they are never without them, and they
den pillars; over thefe they lay balks, upon which - value them more than our fteels and flints; but they
near the (bore. They look upon that river near which •
their village is fituated as the inheritance of their
tribe.
In order to kindle fire, they ufe aboard of dry Method cf
wood with round holes in the fides of it, and a fmall kindling
■R AM r 43° 3 K A M
' Kamtch&t- arc exceifively fond of iron inftruments, fuch as hatch-
, k3‘ ets, knives, or needles : nay, at the firft arrival of the
^ " *’ """ Ruflians, a piece of broken iron was looked upon as a
great prefent; and even now they receive it with
thankfulnefs, finding ufe for the lead: fragment, either
to point their arrows or make darts, which they do
by hammering it out cold between two Hones. As fome
of them delight in war, the Ruffian merchants are for¬
bid to fell them any warlike inftruments: but they are
ingenious enough to make fpears and arrows out of the
iron pots and kettles which they buy ; and they are fo
dexterous, when the eye of a needle breaks, as to make
• a new' eye, which they will repeat until nothing re»
fu mains but the point.
Oonftruo The Kamtchatkans make their boats of poplar-
"t‘on wood ; but the Kuriles not having any wood of their
t eir oatS't)wnj ufe cf what is thrown on Ihore by the fea,
and is fuppofed to come from the coafts of Japan,
China, or America. The northern inhabitants of
Kamtchatka, the fettled Koreki and Tfchukotlkoi,
for want of proper timber and plank, make their boats
• of the fitips of fea-animals. They few the pieces to¬
gether with whales beards, and caulk them with mofs
or nettles beat fmall. Thefe boats hold two perfons;
one of which fits in the prow’, and the other in the
flern. They pufir them againft the ftream with poles,
which is attended with great trouble : when the cur¬
rent is ftrong, they can fcarcely advance two feet in
ten minutes ; notwithftanding which, they will carry
thefe boats, fully loaded fometimes 20 verfts, and
when the ftream is hot very ftrong, even 30 or 40
verfts. The larger boats carry 30 or 40 pood ; when
the goods are not very heavy, they lay them upon a
float or bridge refting upon two boats joined toge¬
ther. They ufe this method in tranfporting their
provifions down the ftream, and alfo to and from the
iflands.
©f their Their cloaths for the moft part are made of the
clothes. flans of deer, dogs, feveral fea and land animals, and
even of the flans of birds, thofe of different animals
being frequently joined in the fame garment. They
make the upper garment after two fafhions; fome¬
times cutting the fkirts all of an equal length, and
fometimes leaving them long behind in form of a train,
with wide fleeves of a length to come down below the
knee, and a hood or caul behind, which in bad wea¬
ther they put over their heads below their caps; the
opening above is only large enough to let their heads
pafs: they few the Ikins of dogs feet round this open¬
ing, with which they cover their faces in cold ftormy
weather ; and round their fleirts and fleeves they put
a border of white dog-flein ; upon their backs they few
the fmall fhreds of fleins of different colours. They
commonly wear two coats; the under coat ?with the
-hair-fide inwards, the other fide being dyed with al¬
der ; and the upper with the hair outwards. For the
upper garment they choofe black, white, or fpeckled
dkins, the hair of which is moft efteemed for the beau¬
ty of its colour.
Men and women without diftimftion ufe the above-
mentioned garments, their drefs only differing in their
under-cloathing and in the covering of their feet and
legs. The women have an under-garment, which they
commonly wear at home in the houfe, confifting of a
breeches and waiftcoat ftwed together. The breeches
are wide like thofe of the Dutch flappers, and tie be-Kamtchat*
low the knee ; the waiftcoat is wide above, and drawn ha.
round with a firing. The fummer habits are made of
dreffed fldns without hair: their winter-garment is
made of deer or ftone-ram fleins with the hair on. The
undrefs or houfehold habit of the men is a girdle
of leather with a bag before, and likewife a leathern
apron to cover them behind ; thefe girdles are fewed
with hair of differeftt colours. The Kamtchatkans ufed
formeriy to go a hunting andfiftiing during the fum¬
mer in this drefs ; but now this fafhion is changed,
and they wear linen Hurts, which they buy from the
Ruffians.
The covering of their feet and legs is made of iking
of different forts: in the fummer-time, during the
rains they wear the flans of feal with the hair out¬
wards ; but their moft common covering is the fldn of
the legs of the rein-deer, and fometimes of the legs
of other beafts, the ihaggieft they can find, to preferve
them againft the cold. But the bufleins which both
the Coffacs and Kamtchatkans ufe in their fineft drefs,
are made in the following manner : the foie is of white
feal fliin, the upper part of white fine leather, the hind
quarters of white dog ikin ; what comes round the
legs is of dreffed leather or dyed feal-fla'n ; the upper
parts are embroidered. Thefe buikins are fo extraor¬
dinary, that if a bachelor is obferved to wear them,
he is immediately concluded to be upon a fcheme of
courtfhip.
They wear the fame fort of caps as the people of
Yakutfld. In fummer they have a fort of hats of birch
bark tied about their head. The Kuriles ufe in the
fummer-time caps made of plaited grafs. The womens
head-drefs is the perukes that we formerly mentioned ;
and thefe were fo dear to them, that when they came
to be Chriftians they were with difficulty prevailed
upon to quit this drefs for one more decent: however,
at prefent, round the Rufs fettlements, all is entirely
changed, the women wearing fhirts, ruffles, waift-
coats, caps, and ribbands ; which change nobody now
complains of except the very old peopk. The women
do all their work in mittins ; they formerly never wafh-
ed their faces, but now they ufe both white and red
paint : for white paint they make ufe of a rotten
wood ; and for red a fea plant, which they boil in
feal’s fat, and rubbing their cheeks with it, make them
very red. They drefs moft in the winter time, efpe-
cially when they either receive or pay vifits.
The common cloaths for a Kamtchatkan and his fa¬
mily will not coft him lefs than too rubbles ; for the
coarfeft worfted ftockings, which coft in Ruffia 20
kopeeks, cannot be bought here for lefs than a ruble ;
and all other things are fold in the fame proportion.
The Kuriles are more able to buy good cloaths than
the Kamtchatkans; for they can purchafe for one fea-
beaver as much as the Kamtchatkans can for twenty
foxes; and one beaver cofts the Kuriles no more trou¬
ble than five foxes do the Kamtchatkans; for he mull
be a good hunter who catches more than ten foxes in
the winter ; and a Kurile thinks himfelf unlucky if he
doth not catch three beavers in the feafon ; befides
which, great numbers are thrown upon the fhore by
ftorms.
The Kamtchatkans divide their fifli into fix parts : Their4 citrti
the fides and tail arc hung up to dry ; the back and
3 thinner
K A M [ 43* 1 K A M
Kamtchat- thinner part of the belly are prepared apart, and ge-
ka nerally dried over the fire ; the head is laid to four in
! * pits, and then they eat it like fait fifh, and efteetn it
much, though the ftink is fuch that a ftranger cannot
bear it; the ribs and the flefh which remain upon them
they hang up and dry, and afterwards pound for ufe;
the larger bones they likewife dry for food for their
dogs: in this manner all thefe different people prepare
the yokola, which is the principal food, or, one may
fay, houfehold bread ; and they eat it for the moft part
dry.
Their fecond favourite food is caviar, or the roes
of fifh, which they prepare three different ways. They
dry the roe whole in the air ; or take it out of the fkin
which invelcpes it, and fpreading it upon a bed of
grafs, dry it before the fire ; or, laftly, make rolls of
it with the leaves of grafs, which they alfo dry. They
never take a journey or go to hunting without dry
caviar ; and if a Kamtchatkan has a pound of this,
he can fubfift without any other proviilon a great
while : for every birch and alder tree furnifhes him
with bark, which with his dried caviar makes him
an agreeable meal; but they cawnot eat either fepa-
rately, for the caviar flicks like glue to the teeth ; and
it is almoft impoflible to fwaliow the bark, chewed
ever fo long by itfelf. There is flill a fourth method,
which both Kamtchatkans and Koreki ufe in prepa¬
ring their caviar: the firft having covered the bottom
of a pit with grafs, they throw the frefli caviar into
it, and leave it there to grow four: the Koreki tie
theirs in bags, and leave it to four j this is efleemed
their moft delicate difh.
There is a third fort of diet, called by the Kamt¬
chatkans chupriki, which is prepared in this manner:
in theirjfhuts, over the fire-place, they make a bridge
of flakes, upon which they lay a heap of fifh, which
remains there until the hut becomes as warm as a bag¬
nio. If there is no great thicknefs of fifh, one fire
ferves to drefs itbut fometimes they are obliged to
make two, thiee, or more fires. Fifh dreffed in this
manner is half roafted, half fmoaked, but has a very
agreeable tafte, and may be reckoned the beft of all
the Kamtchatkan cookery : for the whole juice and fat
is prepared with a gradual heat, and kept in by the
fkin, from which they may when done enough be
eafily feparated ; and as foon as it is thus drefied,
they take out the guts, and fpread the body upon a
mat to dry : this they afterwards break fmall, and put¬
ting it into bags, carry it along with them for previ-
fion, eating it like the yokola.
The Kamtchatkans have a difh which they efteem
very much, called huigul: it is fifh laid to grow four
in pits; and though the fmell of it is intolerable,.
yet the Kamtchatkans efteem it a perfume. This fifh
fometimes rots fo much in the pits, that they cannot
take it out without ladles ; in which cafe indeed they
ufe it for feeding their dogs.
As for the flefh of land and the larger fea animals,
they boll it in their troughs with feveral different
herbs and roots; the broth they drink out of ladles
and bowls, and the meat they take out upon boards,
and eat in their hands. The whale and fea-horfe fat
they alfo boil with roots.
There is a principal difli at all their feafts and en¬
tertainments, called felaga, which they make by pound-Kamtciat- -
ing all forts of different roots and berries, with the ad- ka‘
dition of caviar, and whale and feal’s fat. *
Before the conquefl, they feldom ufed any thing
for drink but plain water, unlefs when they made
merry ; then they drank water which had flood fome
time upon mufhrooms. At prefent they drink fpirits
as fail as the Ruffians. After dinner they drink wa¬
ter ; and when they go to bed at night, fet a veffcl of
water by them, with the addition of fnow or ice to
keep it cold, and always drink it up before morning.
In the winter-time, they amui'e themfelves frequently
by throwing handfuls of fnow into their mouths i and
the bridegrooms, who work with the fathers of then-
future brides, find it their hardeft talk to provide fnow
for the family in fummer-time ; for they muft bring it
from the higheft hills be the weather what it will,
otherwife they would never be forgiven. ‘ IS
The Kamtchatkans commonly travel in fledges Method o£7~
drawn by dogs. The animals ufed for this purpofetnivellinS
differ very little from the common houfe-dogs ; tliey w‘th<loiiV
are of a middling fize, of various colours, though there
feem to be more white, black, and grey, than of any
other. In travelling, they make ufe of thofe that are
caftrated, and generally yoke four to a fledge. They
drive and diredt their dogs with a crooked flick about
four feet long, which they fometimes adorn with dif¬
ferent coloured thongs ; this is looked upon as a great
piece of finery. They drive their fledge fitting upon
their right fide, with their feet hanging down ; for it.
would be looked upon as a difgrace for a man to fit
down at the bottom of the fledge, or to make ufe of
any perfon to drive him, nobody doing this but the
women. It is very difficult to travel in thefe fledges;
for unlefs a man keeps the exadleft balance, he is
liable every moment from the height and narrownefs
of them to be overturned : in a rugged road this
would be very dangerous, as the dogs never flop till
they come to fome houfe,' or are entangled by fome-
thing upon the road; efpecially in going down fteep
hills, when they run with all their force, and are
fcarcely to be kept in ; for which reafon, in defeend-
ing any great declivity, they unyoke all the dogs ex¬
cept one, and lead them foftly down. They likewife
walk up hills; for it is as much as the clogs can do to
drag up the fledge empty. After a deep fnow, be¬
fore it has been hardened by a froft, there is no tra¬
velling with dogs till a road be made, which is effec¬
ted by a man going before upon fnow fhoes, whom
they call brodovjkika. The fnow-fhoes are made of
two thin boards, feparated in the middle, bound.to¬
gether at the ends, and with the fore part bent a
little upwards. . The brodovfhika, having one of thefe
ihoes upon each foot, leaves the dogs and fledge, and
going on clears the road for fome way; then return¬
ing, leads forward the dogs and fledge fo far as the
road is made ; a method which he muft continue till
he comes to fome dwelling-houfe. This is very labo¬
rious ; and it happens fo often, that no driver ever fets
out without his fnow-fhoes. When a ftorm of driven
fnow furprifes them, they are obliged with all hafte to -
feek the flicker of fome wood, and flay there as long
as the tempeft lafts, which fometimes is a whole week.
If they are a large company, they dig a place for
tliemfelves
K-anitchat
16
rCopfcr
.in3rd de¬
scribed.
K A M
[ 43
tliemfelves under the fnow, and cover the entry with
wood or brambles. Sometimes they hide themfelves
in caves or holes of the earth, wrapping themfelves up
in their furs ; and when thus covered, they move or
turn themfelves with the greateft caution left they
fhould throw off the fnow, for under that they lie as
warm as in their common huts : they only require a
breathing place ; but their cloaths muft not be tight
or hard girt about them, for then the cold is infuffer-
able. Another danger attending travellers is, that in
the fevereft froft feveral rivers are not quite frozqn
over ; and as the roads for the moft part lie clofe upon
the rivers, the banks being very fteep, fcarce a year
paffes without many being drowned. A difagree^ble
circumftance alfo to thofe who travel in thefe parts,
is their fonletimes being obliged to pafs through cop-
fes, where they run the nfk of having their eyes
fcratched out or their limbs broken; for the dogs
always run moft violently in the worft roads, and, to
free themfelves, very often overturn their driver. The
' beft travelling is in the month of March or April,
when the fncw is turned hard or frozen a little at
- top ; however, there is ftill this inconvenience attend¬
ing it, that fometimes travellers are obliged to lodge
two or threemights in defert places; and it is difficult
to prevaiLupon the Kamtchatkans to make a fire ei¬
ther for warming themfelves or dreffing viftuals, as
they and their dogs eat dried fiffi, and find themfelves fo
. warm wrapped in their furs, that they want no other
■ iieat; nay, all the people of this climate bear cold fo
well, that they deep in the open air as found as others
in a warm bed, and awake next morning perfectly re-
frefhed and alert. This feems to be fo natural to all
hete, that fome of them have been feen to lie down
with their backs uncovered againft a fire, and notwith-
flanding the fire has been burnt out long before morn¬
ing, they continued to fleep on very comfortably, and
-without any inconvenience.
Ijlands in the Sea of Kamtchjtka. So many of
■ thefe have been difcovered by the Ruffians, that the
cxiftence of almoft a continued chain of iflands between
■the continents of Afia and America is now rendered
, extremely probable. Many further difcoveries of great
■importance to fcience, however, remain yet to be made.
The principaHflands already known are the Kuril ifles,
which ftretch fouthweft towards the coafts of China or
•Japan, and are almoft; uninhabited ; thofe called Beer-
hig’s, and Copper ijlands, the Aleutian ifles, and Fox-
iflands, or Lyffie OJlrova, lie almoft direftly eaft, ftretch-
ing nearly to 230° of longitude eaft from Ferro. The
firft projeft of making difcoveries in that tenrpeftuous
Tea which lies between Kamtchatka and America was
fet on foot by Peter the Great of Ruffia. Captains
.Beering and Tfchirikoff were employed in the under¬
taking ; the former of whom was fliipwrecked and died
on the ifland which is ftill called by his name. As this
lies at no great diftance from Kamtchatka, the inhabi¬
tants of the latter foon ventured over to it, as the fea-
otters and other animals of that kind were accuftomed
to refort thither in great numbers.
Mednoi Oftroff, or Copper-ifland, which lies in full
fight of Beering’s ifland, was next vifited. This ifland
has its name from the great quantity of copper with
which the north-eaft coaft of it abounds, the only fid,e
FT0 *7J.
2 ] -K A M
which is known to the Ruffians. It is waffied up by the KamtcMe- ,
fea, and covers the fhores in fuch abundance that many
fhips might be loaded with it. Perhaps an India tra¬
der might make a profitable voyage from thence to
China, where this metal is in high demand. This cop¬
per is moftly in a metallic or malleable ftate, and many
pieces feem as if they had formerly been in fufion.
The ifland is not high ; but has many hillocks, each
of which has the appearance of having formerly been
a volcano. With tin's kind of hillocks all the iflands
in the fea of Kamtchatka abound, infomuch that n'ot
■eTingle ifland,-though «ver fo fmall, was found with¬
out one; and many of them eonfifted of nothing elfe.
In flrort, all the chain of iflands above mentioned may
without any ftretch of imagination be confidered as
thrown up by fome late volcanoes. Tlie apparent no¬
velty of every thing feems tojuftify this conjecture
nor can any objection be derived from the vegetable
productions with which thefe iflands abound ; for the
fummer after the lower diftriCt of Zutphen in Holland
was gained from tfye fea, it was covered over with wild
muftard.—All thefe iflands are fuhjeCt to frequent
and violent earthquakes, and abound in fulphur. .We
are not infoVmed whether any lava is found upon
them ; but a p:?:Ay-coloured ftone as heavy as iron,
probably a lava, js mentioned as being found there.
From this account it is by no means improbable that
the copper above mentioned has been melted in fome
eruption. try
Beering’s ifland is fituated due eaft from Kamtchat-Seerin^’®
ka, in the 185th degree of longitude; and Copper-ifland
about one degree more to the eaft ward, and in the la - tian ifles*
titude of 540 north. The former is from 70 to 80
verfts long, and ftretches from north-weft to fouth-eaft
in the fame direction as Copper-ifland. The latter is
about 50 verfts in length. About 300 verfts eaft-by-
fouth of Copper-ifland lie the Aleutian ifles ; of which
Attak is the neareft : it is rather larger than Beering’s
ifland, and ftretches from weft to fouth-eaft. From
thence about 20 verfts eaftwards is fituated Serr.itfhi,
extending from weft to eaft ; and near its extremity is
another fmall rfland. To the fouth of the ftrait which
feparates the two latter iflar.ds, and at the diftance of
40 verfts from both of them, lies Shimiya in a fimilar
pofition, and not above 25 verfts in length. All thefe
iflands lie between 54 and 55 degrees of north lati¬
tude. jg
The Fox iflands are fituated eaft-north-eaft from the Fox iflandsi
Aleutians : the neareft of thefe, Atchak, is about 800
verfts diftant; it lies in 56° north latitude, and ex¬
tends from weft-fouth weft, towards eaft-north-eaft.
It greatly refembles Copper-ifland, and is provided
with a commodious harbour on the north. From thence
all the other iflands of this chain ftretch in a direction
towards north-eaft by eaft. The next to Atchak is
Amlak, and about 15 verfts diftant : it is nearly of the
fame fize, and has an harbour on its fouth fide. Next
follows Saugagamak, at about the fame diftance, but
fomewhat fmaller; from thence is 50 verfts to Amuch-
ta, a fmall rocky ifland ; and the latter to Yunakfan,
another fmall ifland. About 20 verfts from Yunakfan
there i a clufter of five fmall iflands, or rather moun¬
tains, Kigalgift, Kagamila, Tfigulac, Ulaga, and Ta¬
na Unok ; and which are therefore called by the Ruf-
fiaaa
K A M C 433 1 K A M
Kami chat Hans Pat Soph, or the Five Mountains. Of thefe
ha. Tana-Uuok lies moft to the north-eaft, towards which
the weftern point of Umnak advances within the di*
ftance of 20 verfts.
Umnak ftretches from fouth-weft to north-eaft; it
is 150 verfts in length, and has a very confiderable bay
on the weft end of the northern coaft, in which there
Is a fmall ifland, or rock, called Adugak ; and on the
fouth fide Shemalga, another rock. The weftern point
of Aghunalaftika, or Unalalhka, is feparated from
the eaft end of Umnak by a ftrait near 20 verfts in
breadth. The pofition of thefe two iflands is fimi-
lar; but Aghunalaftika is much the largeft, and is a-
bove 200 verfts long. It is divided towards the north-
eaft into three promontories, one of which runs out in
a wefterly dire&ion, forming one fide of a large bay
on the north coaft of the iftand : the fecond ftretches
out north-eaft, ends in three points, and is connefted
with the ifland by a fmall neck of land. The third, or
moft foutherly one, is feparated from the laft-mentioned
promontory by a deep bay. Near Unalaftika towards
the eaft lies another fmall ifland called Shirkin. About
20 verfts from the north-eaft promontory of Aghuna¬
laftika lie four iflands: the firft, Akutan, is about
half as big as Umnak; a verft further is the fmall
ifland Akun ; .a little beyond is Akunok ; and llftly,
Kigalga, which is the fmalleft of thefe four; and
ftretches with Akun and Akunok almoft from north to
fouth. Kigalga is fituated about the 61 ft degree
of latitude. About too verfts from thence lies an
ifland called Unimak, upon which a Ruffian navigator
(Captain Krenitzin) wintered ; and beyond it the in¬
habitants faid there was a large traft of country call¬
ed Alajhka, of which they did not know the boun¬
daries.
The Fox-iflands are in general very rocky, without
containing any remarkably high mountains : they are
deftitute of wood ; but abound in rivulets and lakes,
which are moftly without fifli. The winter is much
milder than in Siberia; the fnow feldom falls before
the beginning of January, and continues on the ground
till the end of March. There is a volcano in Amuch-
ta, and fulphur is produced on another ifland ; in fome
others are fprings hot enough to boil provifions. Sul¬
phureous flames alfo are fometimes feen at night upon
the mountains of Unalaftika and Akutan.
19 The Fox-iflands are tolerably populous in proportion
£tc "oTthe to t^e‘r *'ize‘ ^ie inhabitants are entirely free, and
inhabitants. Pa7 tribute to no one ; they are of a middle ftature,
and live, both in fummer and winter, in holes dug in
the earth. No figns of religion were found among
them. Several perfons indeed pafs for forcerers, pre¬
tending to know things paft and to come; and are
accordingly held in high efteem, but without receiving
any emolument. Filial duty and refpeft towards the
aged are not held in eftimation by thefe iflanders.
They are not, however, deficient in fidelity towards
each other; they are of a lively and cheerful temper,
though rather impetuous, and naturally prone to an¬
ger. In general, they do not obferve any rules of de¬
cency ; but follow all the calls of nature publicly and
without the leaft referve. Their principal food con-
fifts in fifh, and other fea-animals, fmall ftiell-fifh, and
fea-plants; their greateft delicacies are wild lilies and
Vol. IX. Part II.
other roots, together with different kinds of berries. Kamtchat-
When they have laid in a ftore of provifions, they eat^
at any time of the day without diftin&ion ; but in ’ /~“J.
cafe of neceffity, they are capable of falling feveral
days together. They feldom heat their dwellings : But
when they are defirous of warming themfelves, they
light a bundle of hay, and ftand over it; or elfe they
fee fire to train-oil, which they pour into a hollow
ftone. They feed their children when very young with
the coarfeft flelh, and for the moft part raw. If an in¬
fant cries, the mother immediately carries it to the
fea-fide, and, be it fummer or winter, holds it na¬
ked in the water until it is quiet. This cuftom,
it is faid, is fo far from doing the children any
barm, that it hardens them againft the cold ; and
accordingly they go barefooted through the winter
without the leaft inconvenience. They are alfo trained
to bathe frequently in the fea; and it is an opinion
generally received among the iflanders, that by thefe
means they are rendered bold and fortunate in filhing.
The men wear Ihirts made of the /kins of cormo¬
rants, fea divers, and gulls; and in order to keep out
the rain, they have upper garments of the bladders and
other inteftines of fea lions, fea-ealves, and whales,
blown up and dried. They cut their hair in a circular
form quite clofe to their ears; and (have alfo a round
place on the top. The women, on the contrary, let
the hair defeend over the forehead as low as the eye¬
brows, and tie the remaining part in a knot upon the
top of the head. They pierce the ears, and hang in
them bits of coral, which they get from the Ruffians.
Both fexes make holes in the griftles of their nofe.s,
and in the under-lips, in which they thruft pieces of
bone, and are very fond of fuch kind of ornaments.
They mark alfo and colour their faces with different
figures. They barter among one another fea-otters,
fea-bears, clothes made of birds (kins and of dried in¬
teftines, (kins of fea-lions and fea-calves for the cover¬
ings of their canoes, wooden malks, darts, thread made
of finews and hair of reindeer.
Their houfehold utenfils are fquare pitchers and
large troughs, which they make out of the wood dri¬
ven afliore by the fea. Their weapons are bows and
arrows pointed with flint, and javelins of two yards in
length, which they throw from a fmall board." Inftead
of hatchets, they ufe crooked knives of flint or bone.
Some iron knives, hatchets, and lances, were obferved
among them, which they had probably got by plun¬
dering the Ruffians.
According to the reports of the oldeft inhabitants of
Umnak and Unalaftika, they have never been enga¬
ged in any war, either amongft themfelves or with
their neighbours, except with the people of Alaflika,
the occafion of which was as follows. The fon of the
toigon or chief of Umnak had a maimed hand; and
fome inhabitants of Alaflika, who came to vifit upon
that ifland, faftened to his arm a drum, out of mock-
kery, and invited him to dance. The parents and re¬
lations of the bry were offended at this infult: hence a
quarrel enfued ; and from that time the people have
lived in continual enmity, attacking and plundering each
other by turns. According to the reports of the ifian-
ders, there are mountains upon Alaflika, and woods of
great extent at fome diftance from the coaft. The na-
3 ^ tives
K A M r 434 1 KAO
Kamtchat- tives wear clothes made of the Ikins of reindeer, wolves,
, ka* and foxes; and are not tributary to any of their neigh-
T_”"' hours. The inhabitants of the Fox-iflands fetrn to
have no knowledge of any country beyond Alafhka,
which is one of the moft eaile'rly iflands yet difcovered
in thefe feas, and is probably not far diftant from the
Continent of America.
Feafts are very common among thefe iflanders; and
more particularly when the inhabitants.of one ifland are
viiited by thofe of the others. The men of the village
meet their guefts, beating drums, and preceded by the
women who fing and dance. At the conclufion of the
dance, the hofts invite them to partake of the feads;
after which ceremony, the former return firft to their
dwellings, place mats in order, and ferve up their beft
provifron. The guefts next enter, take their places,
and, after they are fatisfied, the diverftons begin. Firft,
the children dance and caper, at the fame time making
a noife with their fmall drums, while the owners of the
huts of both fexes frng. Next, the men dance almoft
naked, tripping after one another, and beating drums
of a larger ftze : when thefe are weary, they are re¬
lieved by the women, who dance in their clothes, the
men continuing in the mean time to fing and beat their
drums. At laft the fire is put out which had been
kindled for the ceremony. The manner of obtaining
fire is by rubbing two pieces of dry wood againft each
other, or moft commonly by ftriking two flints toge¬
ther,and letting the fparks fall upon fome fea-otter’s hair
mixed with fulphur. If any forcerer is prefent, it is then
his turn to play his trieks in the dark ; if not, the
guefts immediately retire to their huts, which are made,
on that occafion, of their canoes and mats. The na¬
tives who have feveral wives do not with-hold them
from their guefts; but where the owner of the hut
has himfelf but one wife, he then makes the offer of a
female fervant.
Their hunting feafon is principally from the end of
O&ober to the beginning of December; during which
time they kill great numbers of young fea-bears for
their clothing. They pafs all December in feaftings
and diverfions fimilar to thofe above mentioned : with
this difference, however, that the men dance in wooden-
mafks, reprefenung various fea-animals, and painted
red, green, or black, with coarfe-coloured earths found
upon thefe iflands.
Daring thefe feftivals, they vifit each other from
village to village, and from ifland to ifland. The feafts
concluded, mafks and drums are broken to pieces, or
depofited in caverns among the rocks, and never after¬
wards made ufe of. In fpring, they go out to kill old
fea-bears, fea-lions, and whales. During fummer, and
even in winter when it is <3dm, they row out to fea,
and catch cod and other fifh. Their hooks are of
bone ; and for lines they make ufe of a firing made of
a long tenacious fea-weed, which is fomecimes found
in tbofe feas, near 160 yards in length.
Whenever they are wounded in any encounter, or
bruifed by any accident, they apply a fort of yellow
root to the wound, and faft for fome time. When their
head aches, they open a vein in that part with a ftone-
lancet. When they want to glue the points of their
arrows to the (hafts, they ftrike their nofe till it bleeds,
and ufe the blood as glue.
Murder is not punilhed among them ; for they have
5
no judge. The following ceremonies are ufed in the Ka«
burial of the dead. The bodies of poor people are t!
wrapped up in their own clothes, or in mats; theft Ka°ftn*
laid in a grave, and covered over with earth. The bo-
dies of the rich are put, together with their clothes
and arms, in a fmall boat made of the wood driven
afhore by the fea : this boat is hung Upon poles placed
crofswife ; and the body is thus left to rot iri the open
air.
The cuftoms and manners of the inhabitants of the
Aleutian ifles are nearly fimilar to thofe of the inhabi¬
tants of the Fox-iflands. The former indeed are ren¬
dered tributary and entirely fubjeft to Ruflia; and aloft,
of them have a flight acquaintance with the Ruffian lan-
uage, which they have learned from the crews of the
ifferent veflels who have landed there.
KAN, or Khan, the name of an officer in Perfia,
anfwering to that of governor in Europe.—There are
kans of provinces, countries, and cities, who have diffe¬
rent additions to diftinguifli them.
KANGUROO. See Didelphis.
K AN! SC A, a very ftrong town of Lower Hun¬
gary, capital of the county of Selawar. It was taken by
the Imperialifts in 1690. It is feated on the river
Drave, in E, Long. 17. 37. N. Lat. 46. 23.
KAN-TCH EOU-FOIJ, aflourifhing town of Chi¬
na, in the province of Kiang-fi. Its rivers, port, riches,
and population, all contribute to attraA (Dangers. A
day’s journey from this city is a very rapid current, ai¬
med 20 leagues in length, which flows with great im-
petuofity over a number of fcattered rocks that are level
with the water. Travellers here are in great danger
of being loft, unlefs they take care to be conduced by
one of the pilots of the country; after this paffage,
the river becomes twice as large as the Seine at Rouen;
it is continually covered with loaded barks and other
veffels under fail.—Near the walls of the city is a very
long bridge, compofed of 130 boats joined together by
ftrong iron chains. The cuftom-houfe is upon this
bridge, where a receiver conftantly refides to vifit all
barks, and examine if they have paid the duties impo-
fed on the commodities with which they are loaded..
Two or three moveable boats are fo placed, that by
their means the bridge can be opened or (hut, to give
or refufe a paflage ; and no barks are ever permitted
to pafs until they have been examined. In the territory
belonging to this city, a great number of thofe valu¬
able trees grow, from which varnifli diftils. Itsdiftrift
is extenfive, and contains 12 cities of the third clafs.
KAOLIN, the name of an earth which is ufed aa
one of the two ingredients in oriental porcelain. Some
of this earth was brought from China, and examined
by Mr Reaumur. He found that it was perfectly in-
fufible by fire, and believed that it is a talky earth ;
but Mr Macquer obferves, that it is more probably
of an argillaceous nature, from its forming a tenacious-
pafte with the other ingredient called petuntfe, which
has no tenacity. Mr Bomare fays, that by analyfing
fome Chinefe kaolin, he found it was a compound
earth confiding of clay, to which it owed its tenacity ;
of calcareous earth, which gave it a meally appearance;
of fparkling cryftals of mica ; and of fmall gravel, or
particles of quartx-cryftals. He fays, that he has found
a fimilar earth upon a (Datum of granite, and conjec¬
tures that it may be a decompofed granite. This con-
jedlure
li A R [ 435 1 K A T
Kaoat* jeflure is the more probable, as kaolins are frequently utmoft exaggeration, but without any mention of the
chouk found in the neighbourhood of granites. See I'orce- 100,000 rupees. The baron, however, having got
Kare k intelligence of this proceeding, ufed fuch diligence that
s'a''cc KAOUTCHOUK. See Caoutchouc. he got back to Batavia in the very (hip which carried
KARAITES. See Caraites. the letter. Being thus prefent on the fpot to an-
IvARAT. See Caract. fwer the charges brought againft him, he acquitted
K A RECK, an ifland in the Perfian Gulf, lately himfelf fo well that his fcheme was inftantly approved
fubjeft to the Dutch. It was vifited by Mr Ives in of, and he was feut back with two Ihips and 50 men
1758. He found the fouth part of the ifland well to take poflefilon of Kareck, whofe inhabitants at that
cultivated, with agreeable fields of corn, and produ- time amounted to no more than 100 poor filhermen.
cing plenty of efculent vegetables. In the middle are Confiderable difficulties now occurred in the eftablilh-
very high hills abounding with a variety of fhells. Some ment of the new colony ; for he had but very few ma-
fragments torn from their fides afforded an opportunity terials with him, and the government of Batavia was
of obferving an immenfe quantity of oyfters, fcallop, very flow in fending him the fuccours they had pro¬
cockle, and other (hells. The common tree here is mifed. He was therefore obliged to fend for work-
the banian, but without thofe luxuriant {boots, which men from Perfia and Arabia, with whofe affiftance he
in fome other places go downward and take root in built a fmall compaA fort, ftrcng enough to defend
the ground. The lavender-cotton is alfo found here ; itlelf againll: any of the country powers and any (hips
and the ifland abounds with fowl of various kinds, ufually failing to India, excepting thofe of our Eaft
Pearl oyfters are alfo found here, but lie at confiderable India company. Nor was he content with putting
depths. Mr Ives mentions one pearl of confiderable himfelf in a pofture of defence, but even commenced
fi/.e, which had upon it a natural reprefentation of hoftilities againft the Turks; and by detaining two
the face of a human fetus in the early months of preg- vcfiels very richly laden, which happened to touch at
nancy. ~ the ifland, he at laft obliged the governor of Baflbra
This fettlement was founded by Baron Kniphaufen, to pay back the too,000 rupees he had extorted,
brother to one of that name fome time ago ambaflador 30,000 of which he reftored to his fucceflfor in office
at the court of London. Having left the Pruffian at Baflbra, and 20,000 to the banian. When Mr
fervice on fome difguft, he entered into that of Ives vifited him, he informs us, that furprifing
France. He afterwards went to the Eaft Indies, progrefs had been made during the little time the
and was appointed refident to the Dutch fa&ory at baron had held the fpvereignty of the ifland, and that
Baffoia. Here he became an objedt to the avarice he intended to make it a ftrong and wealthy place;
and rapacity of the Turkilh governors; who having got at the fame time that he difcovered his tafte for litcra-
him accufed of capital crimes, he was at laft glad to ture by advancing a Cum of money for books and in¬
compound with them for 50,000 rupees, the whole ftruments of various kinds, which were afterward*
fum he was worth, befides giving direftions how they pundtually fent. After that time, however, the baron
might fqueeze other 50,000 from his fucceffor in of- quitted the fervice of the Dutch ; and the ifland is
lice (who in truth wiihed him turned out) and the again in poffeffion of the flieick of Bundaric, to whom
banian who did the bufinefs of the Dutch fablory, and it formerly belonged. It is about five miles long and
who had likewife been concerned in underhand* prac- two in breadth ; lying nearly in the middle of the Per-
tices againft him. flan Gulf, about feven leagues from each fide, and about
The new refident was overjoyed at his acceffion, 30 leagues from the mouth of Baflbra river, where all
but loft all patience when he found himfelf obliged to (hips bound to that port muft call for pilots,
pay 30,000 rupees to the governor as a compliment K ARl.E, a Saxon word ufed in our law, fometimes
on his entering into a poll of fuch confequence. Nor Amply for a man; and fometimes, with an addition, for
had the banian much better reafon to be fatisfied, be- a fervatit or clown. Thus the Saxons call a fearnuu
ing obliged to pay down 20,000 rupees to make up lufcarli, and a domeflic fervant hufcark. From hence
the fum which was to fatisfy the rapacity of the go- comes the modern word churl.
verijor. K ARM ATI AMS, a fe& of Mohammedans, who
Baron Kniphaufen failed from Baflbra the very day occalioned great diforders in the empire of the Arabs,
after he was fet at liberty ; but having landed on this See Bagdad, n° 49,
ifiand,he, in conjunaion with anArabian fheick,formed KASl’RIL, or Kestril. See Falco,
the plan of the ibulement. He then carried a letter KATTEGATTE, a noted fea lying between part
from the fheick to the governor and council of of Jutland and the coaft of Sweden, and towards the
Batavia, in which the former propofed to give up latter covered with a great number of jfles. It is al-
the fovereignty of the ifland. Before letting out moft clofed at the extremity by the low Danifh iflands
for this place, however, the baron took care to dif- of Seaknd and F.unen, which had in old times been
patch a meffenger acrofs the defart to Conftantinople, (with Sweden) the feat of the Suiones. Between the
acquainting the Dutch ambaffador with the treatment firft and the coaft of Sweden is the famous found, the
he had received, and requefting liberty of the grand paffage tributary to the Danes by thoufands of fliips.
vizier for the Dutch to fettle at Kareck. The mef- Thefe iflandsi were of old called Codonattia, and gave
fenger returned with a favourable anfwer before the to the Kattegatte the nam.e of Sinifs Codanus. Its
baron came back from Batavia. The governor of greateft depth is 35 fathoms. It decreafes as it ap-
Baffora, then, having attempted in vain to perfuade proaches the found; which begins with 16 fathoms,
him to return to that place, wrote a letter of com- and near Copenhagen lhallows to even four: The Ro-
plaint to Batavia, accufing the baron in terms of the man fleet, under the command of Germanicus, failed,
3 I a accor-
Karedc
Kattegatte.
K E D [ 43^ ] K E E
Kauff- according to Pliny, round Germany, and even doubled
beuren jjjg Cimbricum Promontorium, and arrived at the illands
f Kedron t^le t>ottom of the Kattegatte : either by ob-
. fervation or information, the Romans were acquainted
with 33. One they called Glejfaria, from its amber,
a fofiil abundant to this day on part of the fouth fide
of the Baltic. A Roman knight was employed by
Nero’s mailer of the gladiators to collect in thefe
parts that precious produ&ion, by which he came per-
feftly acquainted with this country.
KAUFFBEUREN, a free and imperial town of
Germany, fituated in the river Wardach, in E. Long.
10. 53. N. Lat. 47. 57.
KAY, Q_uay, ox Key. See Key.
KAZY, in the Eaft Indies, a Mahometan judge or
Hiagiftrate $ appointed originally by the court of Delhi
to adminiiler juftice according to their written law; »ut
particularly in matters relative to marriages, the fales
of houfes, and tranfgreffions ofnhe Koran. He attefts
or authenticates writings, which under his leal are ad¬
mitted as the originals in proof.
KEBLA, an appellation given by the Mahometans
to that part of the world where the temple of Mecca is
fituated, towards which they are obliged to turn them-
felves when they pray.
KECKERMAN (Bartholomew), a native of Dant-
zick, and profeffor of philofophy there about the be¬
ginning of the 17th century, compofed fyftems of al-
moft all the fciences, in which he (hows more method
than genius. He died in 1609, fairly worn out at the
age 0138 with mere fcholaftic drudgery.
KEDAR (anc. geog.), a diflridt in the defart of
the Saracens (fo called from Cedar, the fon of Ifh-
mael, according to Jerome, who in another place fays
that Kedar was uninhabitable), on the north of Arabia
Felix. Kedareni, the people; who dwelt in tents like the
other Scenites (Pfalm cxx.), were rich in cattle (Jfa-
iah lx.), of a fwarthy complexion (Canticles i.), and
excellent at the bow (Ifaiahxxi.)
KEDES (anc. geog.), a city of refuge and Levi-
tical in the tribe of Naphthali, on the confines of Tyre
and Galilee; (Jofisphus). Jerome calls it a facerdotal
city, fituated on a mountain 20 miles from Tyre, near
Paneas, and called Cid'iffus, taken by the king of Af-
fyria.—Another Kedes in the tribe of Iffachar (1 Chron.
vii. 72.) which feems to be called Kifion (Jolhua xix.)
KEDGE, a fmall anchor, ufed to keep a fhip fteady
whilft Ihe rides in a harbour or river, particularly at the
turn of the tide, when (he might otherwife drive over
her principal anchor, and entangle the ftoek or flukes
with her flack-cable, fo as to loofen it from the
ground. This is accordingly prevented by a kedge-
rope that hinders her from approaching it. The Ked-
ges are particularly ufeful in tranfporting a fliip;
i. e. removing her from one part of the harbour to an¬
other, by means of ropes which are faftened to thefe
anchors. They are generally furnifhcd with an iron
flock, which is eafily difplaced for the convenience of
flowing them. ^
KEDRON, or Cedron (anc. geog.), a town which,
from the defeat and purfuit of the Syrians (1 Mac. xvi.),
appears to have flood on the road which led from the
Higher India to Azotus; in this war it was burnt by
the Jews.
Kedron, ox Cedron (anc. geog.), St John calls it
a brook, but Jofephus a deep valley between Jerufalem Keel,
and mount Olivet to the eaft; called alfo Kedrin from KecMon'
its blacknefs. A brook only in winter, or in rainy
weather, according to Maundrel.
KEEL, the principal- piece of timber in a ftiip,
which is ufually firfl; laid on the blocks in building. If
we compare the carcafe of a (hip to the Ikeleton of the
human body, the keel may be confidered as the back¬
bone, and the timbers as the ribs. It therefore fup-
ports and unites the whole fabric, fince the Item and
ftern-poft, which are elevated on its ends, are in fome
meafure a continuation of the keel, and ferve to con-
neft and inclofe the extremities of the fides by tran-
foms ; as the keel forms and unites the bottom by tim¬
bers.
The keel is generally compofed of feveral thick
pieces placed lengthways, which, after being fcarfed
together, are bolted, and clenched upon the upper fide.
When thefe pieces cannot be procured large enough to
afford a fufficient depth to the keel, there is a ftrong.
thick piece of timber bolted to the bottom thereof, call¬
ed the falfe keel, which is alfo very ufeful in preferving
the lower fide of the main keel. In our largeft (hips
of war, the falfe keel is generally compofed of two
pieces, which are called the upper and the lower falfe
keels. See Midship-Frame.
The lowed plank in a (hip’s bottom, called the
garboard-Jlreak, has its inner-edge let into a groove or
channel cut longitudinally on the fide of the keel: the
depth of this channel is therefore regulated by the thick-
nefs of the garboard-ftreak.
Keel is alfo a name given to a low flat-bottomed vef-
fel, ufed in the river Tyne to bring the coals down from
Newcaftle and the adjacent parts, in order to load the
colliers for tranfportation.
Kerl:Hauling, a punifliment inflicted for various
offences in the Dutch navy. It is performed by
plunging the delinquent repeatedly under the drip’s
bottom on one fide, and hoiiting him up on the other,
after having paffed under the keel. The blocks or
pullies by which he is fufpended are faftened to the
oppofite extremities of the main-yard, and a weight of
lead or iron is hung upon his legs, to fink him to a
competent depth. By this apparatus he is drawn clofe
up to the yard-arm, and thence let fall fuddenly into
the fea, where, palling under the (hip’s bottom, he is
hoifted up on the oppofite fide of the veffel. As this
extraordinary fentence is executed with a ferenity of
temper peculiar to the Dutch, the culprit is allowed-
fufficient intervals to recover the frnfe of pain, of
which indeed he is frequently deprived during the
operation. In truth, a temporary infenfibility to his
fufferings ought by no means to be conftrued into a
difrefpedt of his judges, when we confider that this
puniftiment is fuppofed to have peculiar propriety in
the depth of winter, whilft the flakes of ice are
floating on the dream; and that it is continued till
the culprit is almoft fuffocated for want of air, be¬
numbed with the cold of the water, or ftunned with-
the blows his head receives by ftriking the (hip’s
bottom.
KEELSON, a piece of timber which may be pro¬
perly defined the interior or counter-part of the keel;
as it is laid upon the middle of the floor-timbers, im¬
mediately over the keel* and like it compofed of fe¬
veral
K E E [ 437 ] K E I
Keeper, veral pieces fcarfed together. In order to fit with
Keeping. morc fecur;ty upon the floor-timbers and crotches, it
* is notched about an inch and a half deep, oppofite
to each of thofe pieces, and thereby firmly fcored
down upon them to that depth, where it is fecured
by fpike-nails. The pieces of which it is formed are
only half the breadth and thicknefs of thofe of the keel.
The keelfon ferves to bind and unite the floor-timbers
to the keel. It is confined to the keel by long bolts,
which, being driven from without through feveral of
the timbers, are fore-locked or clenched upon rings on
the upper-fide of the keelfon.
KEEPER of the great seal, is a lord by his
office, and ftyled /or<7 keeper of the great feal of Great Bri¬
tain; he is always one of the privy-council. All grants,
charters, and commiffions of the king under the great
feal, pafs through the hands of the lord- keeper ; for
without that feal many of thofe grants, &c. would be
of no force; the king being, in the inteipretation of
the law, a corporation, and therefore paffes nothing
but by the great feal, which is alfo faid to be the pub¬
lic faith of the kingdom, being in the higheft elteem
and reputation.
Whenever there Is a lord-keeper, he is invefted with
the fame place, authority, pre-eminence, jurifdiflion,
or execution of laws, as the lord-chancellor of Great
Britain is veiled with.
The lord-keeper is conftituted by the delivery of
the great feal, &c.
Keeper of the Privyfeal, is alfo a lord by his
office, through whofe hands all grants, pardons, &c.
pafs before they come to the great feal; and even
fome things pafs his hands which do not pafs the
great feal at all. This officer is alfo one of the privy-
council, yet was anciently called clerk of the privyfeal.
His duty is to put the feal to no grant, &c. without
a proper warrant; nor with warrant where it is again!!
law, or inconvenient, but lhall firft acquaint the king
therewith.
KEEPING, in painting, denotes the reprefenta-
tion of obje&s in the fame manner that they appear
to the eye at different diftances from it ; for which the
painter Ihould have recourfe to the rules of perfpeftive.
There are two inftances in which the famous Raphael
Urbin has tranfgreffed thefe rules: in one of his car¬
tons, reprefenting the miraculous draught of filhes, the
men in each of the two boats appear of full fize, the
features of their faces being llrongly marked ; and the
boats are reprefented fo fmall, and the men fo big,
that any one of them appears fufficient to fink either
of the boats by his own bare weight: and the fowls on
the Ihore are alfo drawn fo big, as to feem very near
the eye of the obferver, who could not poffibly, in that
cafe, diftinguilh the features of the men in the diftant
boats. Or, fuppofing the obferver to be in either of
the boats, he could not fee the eyes or beaks of the
fowls on the Ihore. The other inllance occurs in his
hiftorical pidlure of our Saviour’s transfiguration on
the mount; where he is reprefented with thofe who
were then with him, almoft as large as the reft of his
difciples at the foot of the mount, with the father and
mother of the boy whom they brought to be cured ;
and the mother, though on her knees, is more than
half as tall as the mount is high. So that the mount
appears- only of the fize of a little hay-rick, with a few
people on its top, and a greater number at its bottom Keil,
on the ground ; in which cafe, a fpe&ator at a little Kei11,
diftance could as well diftinguilh the features of thofe
at the top as of thofe on the ground. But upon any large
eminence, deferving the name of a mount, that would
be quite impoffible.
KEIL, a very important fortrefs of Germany, feated
on the banks of the Rhine, built by the French after
a defign of marlhal Vauban, for the defence of Straf-
burg. It was ceded to the empire in 1697, by the
treaty of Ryfwick. The French retook it in 1 703,
and it was reftored to the empire by the treaty of P.e-
ftadt, E. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 48. 40.
KEILL (Dr John), a celebrated aftronomer and
mathematician, was born at Edinburgh in 1671, and
ftudied in the univerfity of that city. In 1694 he went
to Oxford; where, being admitted of Baliol college,
he began to read leisures according to the Newtonian
fyftem in his private chamber in that college. He is
faid to have been the firft who taught Sir Ifaac New¬
ton’s principles by the experiments on which they are
founded : and this, it feems, he did by an apparatus of
inftruments of his own providing, by which means he
acquired a great reputation in the univerfity. The
firft fpecimen he gave the public of his /kill in mathe¬
matical and philoiophical knowledge, was his Exami¬
nation of Dr Burnet’s theory of the earth, with Re¬
marks on Mr Whijlon’s theory: and thefe theories being
defended by their refpe&ive inventors, drew from Mr
Keill /In examination of the refections on the theory of
the earth, together with A defence of the remarks on
Mr Whifon’s ne<w theory. In 1701, he publilhed his
celebrated treatife, intitled, Intraduaio ad veram p!jy-
fcam, which only contains 14 lectures; but in the
following editions he added two more. This work
has been tranflated into Englilh, under the title of
An introduBion to natural philofophy. Afterwards, be¬
ing made fellow of the Royal Society, he publilhed,
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, a paper, of the laws
of attraction ; and being offended at a paffage in the
Ada eruditorum of Leipfic, warmly vindicated againft
Mr Leibnitz Sir Ifaac Newton’s right to the honour
of the firft invention of his method of fluxions. In
1709 he went to New-England as tnafurer of the
Palatines. About the year 1711, feveral obje&ions
being urged againft Sir Ifaac Newton’s philofophy, in
fupport of Des Cartes’s notions of a plenum, Mr Keill
publilhed a paper in the Philofophical TranfaCftions
on the rarity of matter, and the tenuity of its compo-
fition. But while he was engaged in this difpute,
queen Anne was pleafed to appoint him her decy-
pherer; and he continued in that place under king
George 1. till the year 1716. He had alfo the de¬
gree of dodlor of phyfic conferred on him by the uni¬
verfity of Oxford in 1713. He died in 1721. He
publilhed, belides the works already mentioned, In-
trodudio ad veram afronomiam, which was tranllated in¬
to Englilh by Dr Keill himfelf; and an edition of
Commandinus’s Euclid, with additions of his own.
Keill. (James), M. D. an eminent phyfician, and
brother of the former, was born in Scotland about
the year 1673; an^ having travelled abroad, read lec¬
tures of anatomy with great applaufe in the univerfities
of Oxford and Cambridge, by the latter of which he
had the degree of doctor of phyfic conferred upon hint.
K E I [ 438 ] K E L
Keith confiderable p raft ice as a phyficktn ; and died there of
1 - . ’ a cancer in the moutli in 1719. Hepublifhed, 1. An
Englilh tranflation of Lemery's chemiftry. 2. An
account of animal fecretion, the quantity of blood in
the human body, and mufcular motion. 3. A treatife
on anatomy. 4. Several pieces in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions.
KEISERSBERG, a town of Alface in France,
and in the bailiwic of Haguenau, which has belonged
to the French ever fince the year 1548. It is feated
in a pleafant country, in E. Long. 7. 25. N. Lat.
48. 10.
KEISERSLAUERN, a town of Germany, in the
Lower Palatinate, belonging to the ekftor Palatine ;
feated on the river Louter, in E. Long. 7. 5 1. N< Lat.
49. 22.
KEISERTOUL, a town of Switzerland, in the
county of Baden, with a bridge over the Rhine, and
a cattle. It belongs to the bifliop of -Conttance, and
is lituated in E. Long. 8- 40. N. Lat. 47. to.
KEISERWERT, a town of Germany in the circle
of Wettphalia, the diocefe of. Cologne, and the duchy
of Berg ; fubjeft to the eleftor Palatine. The forti¬
fications are demolifhed. It is feated on the Rhine, in
E. Long. 6. 49. N. Lat. 51. 16.
KEITH (James), field-marfhal in the Pruflian fer-
vice, was the younger fon of William Keith, earl-mar-
Ihal of Scotland; and was born in 1696. He vvasde-
figned by his friends for the law ; but his inclination
led to aims, and the firfi occafion of drawing his fword
was rather an unhappy one. When he was 18 years
old the rebellion broke out in Scotland; and through
the inftigation of his mother, he joined James's party :
lie was wounded at the battle of Sheriff-muir, and made
his efcape to France. Here he applied himfelf to mi¬
litary ftudies ; and going to Madrid, he by the inte-
reft of the duke of Liria obtained a commiffion in the
Iriih brigades, then commanded by the duke of Or¬
mond. He afterwards attended the duke of Liria,
when he went ambalfador to Mufcovy ; and being by
him recommended to the czarina, was promoted to the
rank of lieutenant-general, and invefted with the order
of the black eagle. He diftinguilbed himfelf by his
valour and conduft in the Ruffian fervice, and had no
inconfiderable fhare in the revolution that raifed Eli¬
zabeth the daughter of Peter the Great to the throne :
he alfo ferved in feveral embaffies; but finding the
honours of that country but a fplendid kind of flavery,
he left that court and entered the Pruffian fervice.
The king of Prufiia made him field-marfhal of the
Pruffian armies, and governor of Berlin ; and diftin-
guifhed him fo far by his confidence, as to travel in
difguife with him over a great part of Germany, Po¬
land, and Hungary. In bufinefs, he made him his
chief counftllor; in his diverlions, his chief compa¬
nion. The king was much pleafed with an amufe-
ment which the marfhal invented in imitation of the
game of chefs. The marfhal ordered feveral thoufand
fmall flatties of men in armour to be cafl by a founder;
thefe he would fet oppofite to each other, and range
them in battalia, in the fame manner as if he had been
drawing up an army ; he would bring out a party from
the wings or centre, and fhow the advantage or difad-
vantage refulting from the different draughts which
he made. In this manner the king and the marfhal Kell
often amufed themfelves, and at the fame time impro- B
ved their military knowledge.. This brave and expe-
rienced general, after many important fervices in the
late wars of that illuftrious monarch, was killed in the
unfortunate aftair of Hohkerchen in the year 1758.
The family of Keith was among the rnoft ancient
in Europe. In 1010 the Scots gained a complete
viftory over the Danes at Camus town in Angus;
King Malcolm II. as a reward for the fignal bravery
, of a certain young nobleman who purfued and killed
Camus the Danifh general, bellowed on him feveral
lands, particularly the barony of Keith in Eaff Lo¬
thian, from which his poflerity affumed their firname.
The king alfo appointed him hereditary great ma-
refchal of Scotland, which high office continued in his
family till the year 1715, when the lail earl engaged
in the rebellion and forfeited his eftate and honours ;
and thus ended the family of Marefchal, after ferving
their country in a diitinguifhed capacity above 700
years.
KELLINGTON, or Kickhampton, a town of
Cornwall in England, which fends two members to
parliament. IV~. Long. 4. 38. N. Lat. 50. 36.
KELLS, a fair and poll town of Ireland, in the
county of Meath and province of Leiniler, 31 miles
from Dublin. It is a borough likewife, and returns
two members to parliament; patron earl of Beftive.
This place gives title of vifeount to the family of Chol-
mondeley. Near it is Headfort, the magnificent feat
of Lord Beftive. This town is pleasantly fituated
on the river Blackwater, and has four fairs. It was
anciently called Kenanus, and afterwards Kenlis. In
former ages it was one of the moft famous cities in
the kingdom ; and on the arrival of the Englifh was
walled and fortified with towers. In 1178 a cattle
was erefted where the market place now is ; and op-
ppfite to the cattle was a crofs of an entire Hone, or¬
namented with bas-relief figures and many curious in-
feriptions in the ancient irifh charafter. Within a
fmall diflance was the church of St Senan ; and on
the fouth of the churchyard is a round tower which
meafures 99 feet from the ground, the roof ending in
a point; and near the top were four windows oppofite
to the cardinal points. There was a celebrated mo-
naftery founded here in 550 for regular canons, and
dedicated to the Virgin Mary. It owed its origin to
S,t Columb, to whom the fite of the abbey .was grant¬
ed by Dermod Mac Carval, or Dermod the fon of
Kervail king of Ireland. An epifeopai fee was after¬
wards creeled here, which in the (3th century was
united to that of Meath. A priory or hofpital was
alfo erefted by Walter de Lacie, lord of Meath, in the
reign of Richard I. for crofs-bearers or crouched friars
following the order of St Auguftin. There was like¬
wife a perpetual chantry of three prieftg or chaplains
in the parilh-church of St Columb in Kells to cele¬
brate mafs daily; one in the. Rood chapel, another in St
Mary’s chapel, and a third in the chapel of St Cathe¬
rine the virgin.
Kells is alfo the name of a village, being a poll
and fair town in the county of Kilkenny, 64 miles
from Dublin. It is an ancient place, fituated on Kings
river; and was noted for a priory of Auguftines, built
and richly endowed by Geolfroy Fitz* Roberts, who
KEL C 439 1 KEL
Ks'Jr* came into tKis kingdom with Strongbov^ The prior
t~~'< ^ of this place had the title of lord fpiritual, and as fuch
fat in the hotife of peers before the Reformation ; the
ruins only of this abbey now remain: a fynod was
held in it anno 1152, when John Paparo, legate from
Rome, made one of the number of bilhops that were
convened there at that time to fettle the affairs of the
church. The prefent church is built in the Gothic
manner. Fairs held t3th July.
There is a third place of the above name, fituated
in the county of Antrim and province of Uliler* 89
miles from Dublin, near which are the ruins of a
church : this place is but a fmall village, feated on a
river of the fame name, over which it has a bridge.
KELLY (Hugh), an author of confiderable re¬
pute, was born on the banks of Kiltarney lake in Ire¬
land in 1739. His father, a gentleman of good fa¬
mily, having reduced his fortune by a feries of unfore-
feen misfortunes, was obliged to repair to Dublin that
he might endeavour to fupport himfelf by his perfonal
induttry. A tolerable fchool education was all he
could afford to bis fon ; who was bound an apprentice
to a haymaker, and ferved the whole of his time with
diligence and fidelity. At the expiration of his in¬
dentures, he fet out for London to procure a liveli¬
hood by his bufinefs; where he encountered all the
difficulties a perfon poor and without friends could be
fubjedt to on his firft arrival in town. Happening,
however, to become acquainted with an attorney, he was
employed by him in copying and tranfcribing ; an occu¬
pation which he profecuted with fo much affiduity,
that he is faid tohave earned about three guineas a-week,
an income which, compared to his former gains, might
be deemed affluent. Tired, however, of this drudgery,
he foon after, about 1762, commerced author, and was
intrufted with the management of the Lady’s Mufeum,
the Court Magazine, the Public Ledger, the Royal
Chronicle, Owen’s Weekly Poll, and fome other pe¬
riodical publications, in which he wrote many origi¬
nal effays and pieces of poetry, which extended his
reputation, and procured the means of fubfillence for
himfelf, his wife to whom he was then lately married,
and a growing family. For feveral years after this pe¬
riod, he continued writing upon a variety of fubjedls,
as the accidents of the times chanced to call for the af-
fiftance of his pen ; and as during this period politics
were the chief obje£ts of public attention, he employed
himfelf in.compofing many pamphlets on the important
queftions then agitated, the greater part of which are
now buried in oblivion. Among thefe, however, was
a Vindication of Mr Pitt’s Adminiftration, which Lord
Chefierfield makes honourable mention of in the fe-
cond volume of his letters. In 1767, the Babler ap¬
peared in two pocket volumes, which had at lirft been
inferted in Owen’s Weekly Chronicle in fingle papers;
as did the Memoirs of a Magdalene, under the title of
Louifa Mildmay. About 1767 he was tempted by
the luccefs of Churchill’s Rofciad to write fome firic-
tures on the performers of either theatre, in two
pamphlets, intitled Tbefpis, both which gave great of¬
fence to fome of the principal perfons at each houfe.
The talents for fatire, which he difplayed in this work,
recommended him to the notice of Mr Garrick, who
in the next year caufed his firft play of Falfe Delicacy
to be a&cd at Drury-Lane. It was received with great
apptaufe ; and from this time he continued to write for Kelp,
the ftage with profit and fuccefs, until the laft period ^
of his life. As his reputation increafed, he began to ^
turn his thoughts to fome mode of fupporting his fa¬
mily lefs precarious th?.n by writing, and for that pur-
pofe entered himfelf a member of the Middle Temple.
After the regular fleps had been taken, he was called
to the bar in 1774, and his proficiency in the ftudy
of the law afforded promifing hopes that he might make
a diliinguifhed figure in that profeffion. His feden-
tary courfe of life had, however, by this time injured
his health, and fufcje&ed him to much affli£Hon. Early
in 1777 an abfcefs formed in hie fide, which after a
few days illnefs put a period to his life. He was the
author of fix plays befides that above-mentioned.
KEI..P, in the glafs-trade, a term ufed for a fort of
potafhes made life of in many of the glafs-works,
particularly for the green glafs. It is the calcined
alhes of a plant called by the fame name ; and in fome
places, of fea-thongs or laces, a fort of thick-leaved
fuctis or fea-wrack*. This plant is thrown on the * See
rocks and Ihores in great abundance, and in the fum-
mer months is raked together and dried as hay in the
fun and wind, and afterwards burnt to the afhes called
kelp. The procefs of making it is thus: The rocks,
which are dry at low water, are the beds of great
quantities offea-weed; which i^cut, carried to the
beach, and dried: a hollow is dug in the ground three
or four feet wide ; round its margin are laid a row of
ftones, on which the fea-weed is placed, and fet on
fire within, and quantities of this fuel being conti¬
nually heaped upon the circle, there is in the centre a
perpetual flame, from which a liquid like melted metal
drops into the hollow beneath : when it is full, as it
commonly is ere the clofe of day, all heterogeneoua
matter being removed, the kelp is wrought with iron
rakes, and brought to an uniform confidence in a date
of fuiion. When cool, it confolidates int<x a heavy
dark-coloured alkaline fubdance, which undergoes in
the glafs-houfes a fecond vitrification, and affitmes a
peifeA tranfparency ; the progrefs by which thus a
parcel of ft a-weed, formerly the IHmy bed of feals or
dreary {belter of ffiell-fidt, is converted into a crydal
ludre for an affembly-ronm, or a let of giaffes for his
majefty’s table, is a meta.aorphofis that might be a
fubjedt for an entertaining tale.
KELSO, a town of Roxburghdu're in Scotland,
pleafantly fituated on the river Tweed, in W. Long.
1. 20. N. Lat. yj. 38. Of this town Mr Pennant
gives the following defeription. It is built much
after the manner of a Fltnriffl town, with a fquare and
town-houfe. It contains about 2700 fouls, has a very
confiderable market, and great quantities of corn are
fold here weekly by fample. The abbey of Tyronen-
fians was a vad pile, and, to judge by the remains, of
venerable magnificence. The walls are ornamented
with falfe round arches, interfedling each other. Such
interfeftions form a true Gothic arch ; and may aa
probably have given rife to that mode as the arched
lhades of avenues. The lleeple of the church is a vaft
tower. This houfe was founded by David I. when
earl of Cumberland. He fird placed it at Selkirk,
then removed it to Roxburgh, and finally, when he
came to the crown, fixed it here in 1 128. Its reve¬
nues were in money above 20CO1. Scots a-year. The
abbot.
K E M
[ 440 1
KEN
Kempis abbot was allowed to wear a mitre and pontifical barony of Walburg. It is about 17 miles long and Ken
N robes; to be exempt from epifcopal jurifdiftion, and broad; and has no confiderable place but the towns of Kend
. e J* permitted to be pretent at all general councils. The Kempten and Kauffbeuren, which are imperial. "V
environs of Kelfo are very finer the lands confift KEN (Thomas), an eminent Englilh biflrop in the
of gentle rifings, inclofed with hedges, and extreme- 17th century, was bred at Winchefter fchool, whence
ly fertile. They have much reafon to boaft of their he went to Oxford; and in 1669 was made a prebend
profpefts. From the Chalkheugh is a fine view of of Winchefter. In 1675, the year of the Jubilee, he
the fotks of the rivers, Roxburgh-hill, Sir John travelled to Rome ; and ufed to fay, He had reafon to
Douglas’s neat feat, and at a diftance Flenrus; and give God thanks for his travels, having returned more
from Pinnicle-hill is feen a vaft extent of country, confirmed of the purity of the reformed religion than
highly cultivated, watered with long reaches of the he was before. He was appointed by king Charles II.
Tweed, well wooded on each margin. Thefe borders to attend the lord Dartmouth at the demolifhing of
ventured on cultivation much earlier than thofeonthe Tangier ; and at his return was made chaplain to his
weft and eaft, and have made great progrefs in every —:“a” ~~ u‘ r  —r- -c
fpecies of rural economy. Turnips and cabbages for
the ufe of cattle cover many large fra&s; and pota¬
toes appear in vaft fields. Much wheat is raifed in
the neighbourhood, part of which is fent up the frith
of Forth, and part into England. The fleeces here are
very fine. The wool is fent into Yorkfhire, to Lin¬
lithgow, or into Aberdeenihire, for the ftocking ma-
mifadture; and fome is woven here into a cloth called
plains, and fold into England to be dreffed. Here is
alfo a confiderable manufadfure of white leather, chiefly
to fupply the capital of Scotland. At Kelfo there is
a fine ftone-bridge of fix arches over the Tweed near
its confluence with the Teviot.
KEMPIS (Thomas a), a pious and learned regular
canon, was born at the village of Kemp, in the diocefe
of Cologn, in 1380 ; and took his name from that vil¬
lage. He performed his ftudies at Deventer, in the
community of poor fcholars eftablifhed by Gerard
Groot ; and there made a great progrefs in the fciences.
In 1399* hc entered the monaftery of the regular ca¬
nons of Mount St Agnes, near Zwol, of which his
majefty, as he was fome time after to the princefs of
Orange, then refiding in Holland. In 1685 he was
confecrated bilhop of Bath and Wells. The month
following he attended king Charles II. at his death;
and gave clofe attendance at the royal bed for three
whole days and nights, watching proper intervals to
fuggeft pious and proper thoughts on fo ferious an oc-
cafion. In the following reign he zealoufly oppofed
the progrefs of Popery ; and in June 1688, he, with
five other bilhops and the archbifliop of Canterbury,
was committed prifoner to the Tower of London for
fubferibing a petition to his majefty againft the decla¬
ration of indulgence. Upon the Revolution, however,
he refufed to take the oaths to king William and Queen
Mary, on which account he was deprived of his bi-
(hopric. Her Majefty queen Anne beftowed on him
a yearly penfion of 2001. to his death in 1710. He
publifhed feveral pious books. His charity was fo
great, that when he was bifhop of Bath and Wells, ha¬
ving received a fine of 40001. he gave a great part of
it to the French Proteftants.
KENDAL, a town of Weftmoreland, feated in a
brother was prior. Thomas a Kempis there diftin- valley, among hills, on the weft fide of the river Can.
guifned himfelf by his eminent piety, his refpedt for or Ken, over which there are two ftone bridges, and
his fuperiors, his charity to his brother canons, and one of wood which leads to the cattle now in ruins.,
his continual application to labour and prayer. He It is a large handfome place ; and has two long ftreets,
died in t47i, aged 70. The heft editions of his which crofs each other. The inhabitants have driven
works; which confift of fermons, fpiritual treatifes, a'trade with the cotton and woollen manufadlory
and lives of holy men, are thofe of Paris in 1649, throughout England ever fince the reign of Edw. III.
and of Antwerp in 1607. The famous and well-known and particular laws were enafted for regulating Ken-
book De Imitatione Chrljli, w hich has been tranflated dal cloaths as early as Richard II. and Henry IV. It
into almoft all the languages of the world, though it has is of note alfo for the manufa&ory of cottons, drug-
almoft always been numbered among the works of Tho- gets, ferges, hats, worfted and yarn ftockings, &c.
mas a Kempis, is alfo found printed under the name of Queen Elizabeth incorporated it with aldermen and
Prerfon ; and on the credit of fome MSS. has been fince burgefles ; and king James I. with a mayor, recorder,
aferibed to the abbot Gerfon of the order of St Be- town-clerk, 12 aldermen, 24 burgeffes or common
nedift. This has occafioned a violent difpute be- eounciimen, and 2 attornies. There are 7 companies
tween the canons of St Auguftine and the Benedic- here, who have each their hall, viz. mercers, fheer-
tines : but while devout Chriftians find fpiritual com- men, cordwainers, glovers, tanners, taylors, and pew-
fort in the work, the name of the writer is of fmall terers. Here is an elegant town-ball lately repaired j
importance. and they enjoy a court of confidence granted by
KEMPTEN, a free and imperial town of Germany, George III. for debts under 40s. It has a large beau-
in Lower Suabia, and in Algow, and alfo in the ter- tiful church, which Hands on the other fide of the
ritory of the abbot of Kempten, who is a prince of brook called Blindbeck, out of the liberty of the
the empire, and has a voice in the diet. The inhabi- town : a large neat and handfome building 180 feet
tants are Proteftants ; and it has been feveral times long and 99 broad, with 5 ailes each parted by
taken, but has always recovered its liberty. It is
feated on the river Iller. E. Long. 10. 33. N. Lat.
47* 47*
Kempten, a territory in the circle of Suabia, in
Germany, between the biftiopric of Augfburg and the
-N° 171.
. row of 8 pillars, and a ftrong fquare fteeple. Near
is Abbot’s-hall, the refidence of the abbot when this
church belonged to an abbey diflblved by Henry VlII.
In 175J, a new chapel was erefted in the middle of
the town, befides which there are 12 chapels of eafe
belonging
KEN [441
Kennel, belonging to it. The diffenters and quakers have
“""Y—— meeting-houfes. Here 19 a free grammar-fchool well
endowed and alfo a charity-fchool for 10 boya and
16 girls, who are all eloathed as well as taught. Eaft-
ward of the town, on the oppofite fide of the river on
a hill, from whence is a fine profpeft, iland the ruins
of a caftle, wherein was born Catherine Parr (the fixth
wife of Henry VIII.) By the late inland navigation,
it has communication with the rivers Mercy, Dee,
Kibble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber,
Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation, including its
windings, extends above 500 miles in the counties of
Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancafter, Chefter, Staf¬
ford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
Here are kept the fefiions of the peace for this part of
the crunty called the barony of Kendal; and there is a
very great market on Saturday, with all kinds of pro-
vifions and woollen-yarn, which the girls bring hither in
large bundles. It has fairs on May 6, and November 8 ;
and between them a great beaft-market every fortnight.
The river here, which runs half through the town in a
ftony channel, abounds with trout and falmon ; and
on the banks of it live the dyers and tanners.
KENNEL, a term ufed indifferently for a puddle,
a water-courfe in the ftreets, a houfe for a pack of
hounds, and the pack or cry of hounds themfelves.
Mr Beckford, in his Effay on Hunting, is very par¬
ticular in defcribing a kennel for hounds ; and a ken¬
nel he thinks indifpenfably neceffary for keeping thofe
animals in proper health and order. “ It is true (fays
he) hounds may be kept in barns and ftables ; but thofe
who keep them in fuch places can bell inform you whe¬
ther their hounds ate capable of anfwering the purpofes
for which they are defigned. The fenfe of fmelling is
fo exquifite in a hound, that I cannot but fuppofe that
every flench is hurtful to it. Cleanlinefs is not only
abfolutely neceffary to the nofe of the hound, but alfo
to the prefervation of his health. Dogs are naturally
cleanly ; and feldom, if they can help it, dung where
they lie. Air and frefh draw are neceffary to keep
them healthy. They are fubjedl to the mange ; a dif-
order to which poverty and naflinefs will very much
contribute. The kennel fhould be fituated on an emi¬
nence ; its front ought to be to the eafl, and the courts
round it ought to be wide and airy to admit the fun-
beams at any time of the day. It is proper that it fhould
be neat without and clean within ; and it is proper to
be near the mailer’s houfe, for obvious reafons. It
ought to be made large enough at full, as any addition
- to it afterwards may fpoil it in appearance at leaft.”
Two kennels, however, in our author’s opinion, are
abfolutely neceffary to the well-being of hounds:
“ Whtn there is but one (fays he), it’is ftldom fweet;
and when cleaned out, the hounds, particularly in win¬
ter, fuffer both while it is cleaning and afterwards as
long as it remains wet.”
When the feeder firfl comes to the kennel in a mor¬
ning, he fhould let out the hounds into the outer
court ; and in bad weather, fhould open the door of
the hunting kennel (that in which the hounds defign-
ed to hiint next day are kept), lead want of reft fhould
incline them to go into it. The lodging room fhould
then be cleaned out, the doors and windows of it
opened, the litter fhaken up, and the kennel made
fweet and clean before the hounds return to it again.—
Vol. IX. Part II.
1 KEN
The floor of each lodging-room fhould be bricked, and Kennel,
Hoped on both Tides to run to the centre, with a gut- Kcnnet‘
ter left to carry off the water, that when they are wafhed ’ ""'
they may foonbedry. If water fhould remain through
any fault in the floor, it muft be carefully mopped up ;
for damps are always very prejudicial.
The kennel ought to have three doors ; two in the
front and one in the back ; the laft to have a lattice-
window in it with a wooden fhutter, which is con-
ftantly to be kept clofed when the hounds are in, ex¬
cept in fummer, when it fhould be left open all the day.
At the back of Mr Bcckford’s kennel is a houfe
thatched and furzed up on the fides, big enough to
contain at leaft a load of ftraw. Here fhould be a pit
ready to receive the dung, and a gallows for the flefh.
The gallows fhould have a thatched roof, and a circu¬
lar board at the pofts to prevent vermin from climbing
up. He advifes to inclofe a piece of ground adjoining
to the kennel for fuch dog-horfes as may be brought
alive ; it being fometimes dangerous to turn them out
where other horfes go, on account of the diforders with
which they may be infedled. In fome kennels a ftovc
is made ufe of; but where the feeder is a good one,
Mr Beckford thinks that a mop properly ufed will ren¬
der the ftove unneceffary. “ I have a little hay rick
(fays he) in the grafs-yard, which I think is of ufe
to keep the hounds clean and fine in their coats. You
will frequently find them rubbing themfelves againft it.
The fhade of it is alfo ufeful to them in fummer. If
ticks at any time be troublefome in your kennel, let
the walls of it be well wafhed; if that fhould not de-
ftroy them, the walls muft then be white-wafhed.”
Befides the directions already given concerning the
fituation of the kennel, our author recommends it to
have a ftream of water in its neighbourhood, or even
running through it if pofiible. There fhould alfo be
moveable ftages on wheels for the hounds to he on.
The foil ought at all events to be dry.
To Kfnnel, a term applied by fox-hunters to a fox
when he lies in his hole.
KENNET (Dr White), a learned Englifh writer
and bifhop of Peterborough, in the 18th century, bred
at St Edmund-hall, Oxford ; where he foon diftinguifh-
ed himfelf by his vigorous application to his ftudies,
and by his tranflations of feveral books into Englifh,
and other pieces which he publifhed. In 1695 our
author publifhed his Parochial Antiquities. A fermon
preached by him on the 30th of January 1703 at
Aldgate expofed him to great clamour. It was print¬
ed under the title of A compajjionute inquiry info the
caufes of the civil war. In 1706, he publifhed his Cafe
of Impropriations, and two other trafls on the fame
fubjeCl. In 1706, he publifhed the third volume of
The Complete Hiftory of England (the two former
volumes compiled by Mr Hughes). In 1709, he pub-
li'fhtd A Vindication of the Church and Clergy of
England from fome late reproaches rudely and unjuftly
caft upon them ; and A true Anfwer to Dr Sacheve-
rel’s Sermon. When the great point in Dr Sache-
verel’s trial, the change of the rniniflry, wasigained, and
very ftrange addreffes were made upon it, there was to
be an artful addrefsfrom the bifhop and clergy of Lon¬
don, and they who would not fubfcribe it were to be
reprefented as enemies to the queen and the miniftry.
Dr Kennet fell under this imputation. He was expofed
3 K to
KEN [ 442 1 KEN
Kenr.et, to great odium as a low church man, on account of
Ke- n.cott. ^jg con(ju& and writings. When he was dean of Pe-
v'" terborough, a very uncommon method was taken to
expofe him by Dr Walton, re£tor of the church of
White-chapel: for In the altar-piece of that church,
which was intended for a reprefentation of Chriit and
his 12 apoftles eating the paffover and laft fupper, Ju¬
das the traitor was drawn fitting in an elbow-chair,
drefied in a black garment,- with a great deal of the
air of Dr Kennet’s face. It was generally faid that
the original /ketch was for a bifhop under Dr Walton’s
difpleafure ; but the painter being apprehenfive of an
adtion of Scandalum Magnatum, leave was given to
drop the bi/hop, and make the dean. This giving
general offence, upon the complaint of others (for Dr
Kennet never faw it, or feemed to regard it), the bi¬
fhop of London ordered the pidfure to be taken down.
In 1713, he prefented the fociety for propagating
the gofpel with a great number of books, fuitable to
their defign ; publi/hed his Bibliotheca simericana Pri-
morclia, and founded an antiquarian and hiftorical li¬
brary at Peterborough. In 1715, he publi/hed a fer-
mon, intitled The Witchcraft of the prefent Rebellion, and
afterward feveral other pieces. In 1717, he was en¬
gaged in a difpute with Dr William Nicholfon, bi/hop
of Carlifle, relating to fome alterations in the bi/hop
of Bangor’s famous fermon ; and di/liked the proceed¬
ings of the convocation again/!; that bi/hop. Upon
the death of Dr Cumberland bi/hop of Peterborough,
he was promoted to that fee, to which he was confc-
crated in 1718. He fat in it more than ten years,
and died in 1728. He was an excellent philologift, a
good preacher, whether in Engli/h or Latin, and well
verfed in the hiftories and antiquities of our nation.
Kennet (Bafil), a learned Engli/h writer, and bro¬
ther to the preceding, was educated in Corpus Chri/li
college, in the univerfity of Oxford, where he became
fellow. In 1706, he went over chaplain to the Engli/h
factory at Leghorn ; where he met with great oppofi-
tion from the Papifts, and was in danger from the in-
quifition. He died in the year 1714. He publi/hed
Lives of the Greek Poets ; the Roman Antiquities ;
a volume of Sermons preached at Leghorn ; A tranf-
lation into Englifh of Puffendorf’s Treatife of the Law
of Nature and Nations. He was a man of mod ex¬
emplary integrity, generofity, piety, and modefty.
KENNICOTT (Dr Benjamin), well known in the
learned world for his elaborate edition of the Hebrew
Bible and other valuable publications, was born at Tot-
nefs in Devon/hire in the year 1718. With the
rank and chara&er of his parents we are entirely un¬
acquainted ; but it is certain they were unable to fatisfy
that thirft for knowledge which they could not but
difcover in their fon. Some opportunities of early
improvement muft, however, have been afforded him,
or (which we fometimes fee) the natural vigour of his
mind muft have fuperfeded the neceffity of them. For
in the year 1743, he wrote A Poem on the Recovery
of the Hon. Mrs Eliz. Courtenay from her late dan¬
gerous lllnefs; and this probably recommended him to
the notice of thofe gentlemen who afterwards fent
him to Oxford and fupported him there. In judging
of this performance, they may be fuppofed to have
1 confidered not fo much its intrinfic merit, as the.cir-
cumftancee under which it was produced. For though
it might claim juft praife as the fruit of youthful in-
duftry ftruggling with obfcurity and indigence, as a Kennicott,
poem it never rifes above mediocrity, and generally —v
links below it. But in whatever light thefe verfes were
confidered, the publication of them was foon followed
by fuch contributions as procured for the author the
advantages- of an academical education. In the year
1744 he entered at Wadham college ; nor was it long
before he diftinguifhed himfelf in that particular branch
of ftudy in which he afterwards became fo eminent.
His two differtations, On the Tree of Life, and The
Oblations of Cain and Abel, came to a fecond edition
fo early as the year 1747, and procured him the fin-
gular honour of a bachelor’s degree conferred on him
gratis by the Univerfity a year before the ftatutable
time. The differtations were gratefully dedicated to
thofe benefaftors whofe liberality had opened his way
to the Univerfity, or whofe kinduefs had made it a
fcene not only of manly labour, but of honourable
friend/hip. With fuch merit, and fuch fupport, he
was a fuccefsful candidate for a fellow/hip of Exeter
college, and foon after his admiflion into that fociety,
he diftingui/hed himfelf by the publication of feveral
occafional fermons. In the year 1753 he laid the
foundation of that ftupendous monument of learned
induftry, at which the wife and the good will gaze
with admiration, when prejudice, and envy, and in¬
gratitude, /hall be dumb. This he did by publi/hing
his firll differtation, On the State of the Printed He¬
brew Text, in which he propofed to overthrow the
then prevailing notion of its abfolute integrity. The
firft blow, indeed, had been ftruck long before, by
Cappellus, in his Critica Sacra, publi/hed after his
death by his fon, in 1650—a blow which Buxtorf,
with all his abilities and dialeftical /kill, was unable to
ward off. But Capellus having no opportunity of
confulting MSS. though his arguments were fupported
by the authority of the Samaritan Pentateuch, of pa¬
rallel paffages, and of the ancient verfions, could ne¬
ver abfolutely prove his point. Indeed the general
opinion was, that the Hebrew MSS. contained none,
or at leaft. very few and trifling variations from the
printed text: and with refpeft to the Samaritan Pen¬
tateuch very different opinions were entertained. Thofe
who held the Hebrew verity, of courfe condemned the
Samaritan as corrupt in every place where it deviated
from the Hebrew : and thofe who believed the He¬
brew to be incurred!:, did not think the Samaritan of
fufficient authority to corredt it. Befides, the Samari¬
tan itfelf appeared to a very great advantage ; for no
Samaritan MSS. were then known, and the Pentateuch
itfelf was condemned for thofe errors which ought ra¬
ther to have been aferibed to the incorredtnefs of the
editions. I« this differtation, therefore, Dr Kennicott,
proved that there were many Hebrew MSS. extant,
which, though they had hitherto been generally fup¬
pofed to agree with each other, and with the Hebrew
text, yet contained many and important various read¬
ings : and that from thofe various readings confider-
able authority was derived in fupport of . the ancient
verfions. He announced the exiftence of fix Samari¬
tan MSS. in Oxford only, by which many errors in
the printed Samaritan might be removed ; and he at¬
tempted to prove, that even from the Samaritan, as it
was already printed, many paffages in the Hebrew
might undoubtedly be corre&ed. This work, as it
was rcafonable to expert, was examined with great fe-
KEN [ 443 ] KEN
Kdopfco't. verity both St home and abroad. In fome foreign uni-
v ' verfities the belief of the Hebrew verity, on its being
attacked by Capelins, had been infilled on as an arti¬
cle of faith—Capelli fententia adeo non approbata
fuit Jidei foe its, ut potius Hilvetii theologi, et fpeciatim Ge-
nmenfes, anno 1678, .ptculiari canons caverint, ne qms in
ditione fua minifler ec cleft a recipiatur, ntfi fat eatur publics,
textum Hcbraum, ut hodie eji in exemplaribus Maforeticis,
quoad confonantes et vacates, divinum et authcnticum effe,
(Wolfii Biblioth. Heb. tom. ii. 27). And at home
this do&rine of the corrupt ftate of the Hebrew text
was oppofed by Comings and Bate, two Hutchinfoni-
ans, with as much violence as if the whole truth of the
revelation were at ftake.
The next three or four years of Dr Kennicott’s life
were principally fpent in fearching out and examining
Hebrew MSS. though he found leifure not only to
preach, but to publifh feveral occafional fermons. A-
bout this time Dr Kennicott became one of the king’s
preachers at Whitehall; and in the year 1759 we find
him vicar of Culham in Oxfordfhire. In January 1760
he publifhed his fecond differtation on the ftate of the
Hebrew Text; in which, after vindicating the autho¬
rity and antiquity of thelSamaritan Pentateuch, he dif-
armed the advocates for the Hebrew verity of one of
their moft fpecious arguments. They had obferved
that the Chaldee Paraphrafe having been made from
Hebrew MSS. near the time of Chrift, its general
coincidence with the prefent Hebrew Text muft evince
the agreement of this laft with the MSS. from which
the paraphrafe was taken. Dr Kennicott demonftra-
ted the fallacy of this reafoning, by fhowing that the
Chaldee Paraphrafe had been frequently corrupted, in
order to reconcile it with the printed text; and thus
the weapons of his antagonifts were fuccefsfully turned
upon themfelves. He appealed alfo to the writings of
the Jews themfelves on the fubjeft of the Hebrew
Text, and gave a compendious hiftory of it from the
clofe of the Hebrew canon down to the invention of
printing, together with a defer ipt ion of 103 Hebrew
MSS. which he had difeovered in England, and an ac¬
count of many others preferved in various parts of Eu-
rope. A collation of the Hebrew MSS. was now loud¬
ly called for by the moft learned and enlightened of the
friends of biblical criticifm ; and in this fame year
(1760) Dr Kennicott emitted his propofals for colla¬
ting all the Hebrew MSS, prior to the invention of
printing, that could be found in Great Britain and
Ireland, and for procuring at the fame time as many
collations of foreign MSS. of note, as the time and
money he ftiould receive would permit. His firft fub-
feribers were the learned and pious Archbilhop Seeker,
and the delegates of the Oxford prefs, who with that
liberality which has generally marked their charadler,
gave him an annual fubfeription of 40 1. In the firft
, year the money received was about 500 guineas, in the
the next it arofe to 900, at which fum it continued
ftationary till the tenth year, when it amounted to
1000. During the progrefs of the work the induftry of
our author was rewarded by a canonry of Chrift Church.
He was alio prefented, though we know not exadly
when, to the valuable living of Mynhenyote, in Corn¬
wall, on the nomination of the Chapter of Exeter.
In 1776 the firft volume was publilhed, and in 1780
the whole was completed. If now we confider that
above 600 MSS. were collated, and that the whole Ke»o,
work occupied 20 years of Dr Kennicott’s life, it muft cnn '
be owned that facred criticifm is more indebted to him
than to any fcholar of any age. Within two years of
his death, he refigned his living in Cornwall, from
confcientious motives, on account of bis not ha¬
ving a profpedt of ever again being able to vifit his pa-
rilh. Although many good and confcientious men may
juftly think, in this cafe, that his profeffional labours
carried on elfewhere might properly have intitkd him
to retain this preferment, and may apply this reafoning
in other cafes ; yet a conduft fo fignally difinterefted
deferves certainly to be admired and celebrated. Dr
Kennicott died at Oxford, after a lingering illnefs.
Sept. 18, 1783 ; and left a widow, who was filler to
the late Edward Chamberlayne, Efq; of the treafury.
At the time of his death he was employed in printing
Remarks on Seled Pajfages in the Old Tejlament; which
were afterwards publilhed, the volume having been
completed from his papers.
KENO. See Kino.
KENRICK (William), an author of confiderable
abilities, was the fon of a citizen of London, and
brought up, it is faid, to a mechanical employment.
This, however, he feemsearly to have abandoned; and
to have devoted his talents to the cultivation of letters,
by which he fupported himfelf during the reft of a
life which might be faid to have palled in a ftate of
warfare, as he was feldom without an enemy to attack
or to defend himfelf from. He was for fome time
ftudent at Leyden, where he acquired the title of
J. U. D. Not long after his return to England, he
figured away as a poet in Epiftles Philofophical and
Moral, 1759, addrelfed to Lorenzo; an avowed de¬
fence of infidelity, written whilft under confinement for
debt, and with a declaration that he was “ much lefs
ambitious of the charadler of a poet than of a philo-
fopher.” From this period he became a writer by
profeffion ; and the Proteus lhapes under which he
appeared, it would be a fruitless attempt to trace.
He was for a confiderable time a writer in The Month¬
ly Review; but quarrelling with his principal, began
a New Review of his own. When our great Lexico¬
grapher’s edition of Shakefpeare firft appeared in 1765,
it was followed in a fortnight by a pamphlet, intitled,
“ A Review of Dr Johnfon’s new Edition of Shake¬
fpeare, in which the ignorance or inattention of that
editor is expofed, and the poet defended from the
perfecution of his commentators, 1765.” This pam¬
phlet was followed by an Examination of it, and that
by a Defence in 1766 ; in which year he produced his
pleafant comedy of-Falllaff’s Wedding, at firft intend¬
ed to have been given .to the public as an original play
of Shakefpeare retrieved from obfeurity, and is, it muft
be acknowledged, a happy imitation of our great dra¬
matic bard. With the celebrated Englilh Rofcius
Dr Kenrick was at one time on terms of the ftridleft
intimacy: but took occafion to quarrel with him in
print, in a mode too unmanly to be mentioned. In
politics alfo he made himfelf not a little confpicuous;
particularly in the difpute between his friends Wilkes
and Horne. He was the original editor of The
Morning Chronicle; whence being oufted for negledt,
he fet up a new one in oppofition. He tranflated in
a very able manner the Emilius and the Eloifa of
3 K 2 lloufleau;
KEN C 444 1 KEN
Kenfing- Roufleau; the Elements of the Hiftory of Ei^land
by Milot (to injure, if poffible, a tranflation of the
, nt' . fame work by Mrs Brooke) ; and produced feveral
~ T dramatic performances, together with an infinite variety
of publications both original and tranflated. To him
alfo the public are indebted for the collefUon (imper-
feft as it is) of The Poetical Works of Robert Lloyd,
M. A. t774) 2 vols 8vo. Dr Kenrick died June 9.
1777.
KENSINGTON, a village of Middlefex, on the
weftem road from London, near 2 miles from Hide-
P rk-Corner. It is extremely populous; and befides
the palace, now neglected, contains many genteel
houfes, and feveral boarding-fchools. The palace,
which was the feat of the Lord Chancellor Pinch af¬
terwards Earl of Nottingham, was purchafed by King
William ; who greatly improved it, and caufed a roy¬
al road to be made to it, through St James’s and Hide
Parks, with lamp polls ere&ed at equal diftances on
each fide. Queen Mary enlarged the gardens. Her
filler Queen Ann improved what Mary had begun ;
and was fo pleafed with the place, that (he frequently
fupped during the fummer in the green-houfe, which
is a very beautiful one : but Queen Caroline completed
the defign by extending the gardens from the great
road in Kenfington to Afton ; by bringing what is
called the Serpentine-River into them ; and by taking
in fome acres out of Hide-Park, on which Ihe caufed a
mount to be eredled, with a chair on it that could be
eafily turned round for Ihelter from the wind, fince
decayed. This mount is planted about with ever¬
greens, and commands a fine view over the noble gar¬
dens, and the country fouth and well. They were ori¬
ginally defigned by Kent, and have lately* been very
much impioved by Brown ; and though they contain
no llriking beauties, which their flat fituation will not
admit, yet they have many pleafing parts, and afford
much delight to the inhabitants of London, particu¬
larly to thofe whofe profeflions will not allow of fre¬
quent excurfions to more diftant places. Thefe gar¬
dens, which are three miles and a half in compafs; are
kept in great order. The palace indeed has none of
that grandeur which ought to appear in the refidence
of a Britilh monarch ; but the royal apartments are
noble, and fome of the pidlures good. It was at this
place King William, Prince George of Denmark,
Queen Ann, and King George II. died. The old
church was pulled down in 1-696, and a much better
one built in its room. Part of this village, from the
palace-gate to the Bell, is in the parifli of St Marga¬
ret’s, Weftminfter.
KENT, one of the counties of England, fituated
at the fouth-eaft corner of the ifland, and from thence
enjoying many advantages. The capacious aeftuary of
the Thames wafhes its northern parts, as the fea does
the fouth-call; whence fome with no great impropri¬
ety have ftyled it a peninfula. In point of extent,
this is the fifth (hire in South Britain, little lefs in its
dimenfions than the province of Holland; larger in
fize than the duchy of Juliets in Germany ; and almoil
exa&ly equal to that of Modena in Italy. Kent is,
with great appearance of truth, fuppofed to be fo
ftyled from the ancient Britifh word kant, fignifying a
corner., or, when applied to a country, an head land.
It is certain, that the Romans beftowed the name of
Cantlum on the province, and on its mod confpicuous Kent,
promontory the north Foreland ; and from the diflridl —nr"™"
they inhabited, the people were called Cantli; which
has prevailed even to our times, when Kent, and the
the men of Kent, are the common appellatives. It is
however probable, that thefe Cantii were not the ori¬
ginal inhabitants, but a latter colony from the oppo-
fite continent, eftablilhed here, like the Belgae, not
long before the Roman invafion. At the time of Ce-
far’s coming, this fpacious and fertile region was di¬
vided into four principalities, or, as they are, accord¬
ing to the manners of thofe days, commonly called,
kingdoms. It was his obfervation of thefe people, that Campbell'1
they were particularly diftinguiflied by their civility Political
and politenefs ; a charafter which their defcendants s,,,'u'3'
have preferved. When that wife people became ma¬
ilers of the fouthern parts of the ifland, this province
received the moft confpicuous marks of their attention,
as appears from the ftations which they fo prudently
eflablifhed, while their government flourifhed in its
full vigour. The care they took of the ports on the
fea-ccafl as foon as it came to be in danger, and the
feveral fortreffes which they eredted for the defence of
their fubjedls againft the fudden attempts of barba¬
rous invaders, are evidences of the fame kind. Thefc
forts, fo prudently difpofed, and fo well fecured, were
under the dire&ion of a particular great officer, called
Littoris Saxonici Comes, i. e. the count of the Saxon
fhore ; which office feems to have been preferved by
the Britifh monarchs who governed here, after the Ro¬
mans quitted the ifle. The Saxon kings of Kent dif-
charged this trull in their legal capacity, from the
middle of the fifth to the beginning of the ninth cen¬
tury. Uuder the northern princes, this poll was again
revived, though with a change of title, in the Lord
Warden of the cinque Ports. Indeed, under all govern¬
ments, the people of Kent have been efpecially confi-
dered ; as appears from their claim to the poll of ho¬
nour in our land-armies, and the privileges granted to
their havens, in confideration of their undertaking the
defence of our channel.
' As to the climate of this county, it varies accord¬
ing to the fituation of places. In the low flat lands,
and efpefcially in the marfhes, the air is heavy, moift,
and unhealthy ; and yet not to fuch a degree as it has
been fometimes reprefented ; for, with a little care and
caution, flrangers, as well as natives, quickly reconcile
their conflitutions to the temperature even of thefe
parts, and live in them without much inconveniency
or apparent danger. But, in reference to the reft ot
the country, the air is as thin, pure, and wholefome, as
in any part of. Britain. There is no region more hap¬
pily or more beautifully diverfified in regard to foil, fo
that every kind thereof is, fomewhere or other, to be
miet with in its bounds; and in no fhire are any of
thefe foils more fertile than they are in this. The
Weald yields variety of fine timber, particularly of
chefnut; the middle part has very rich arable land,
annually bearing every fpecies of grain in immenfe
plenty, and thefe excellent in tfieir feveral forts. There
are alfo many beautiful orchards, which produce a va¬
riety of fine fruits, and more efpecially apples and cher¬
ries, which were introduced here from Flanders by
one Richard Harris, who was the king’s fruiterer, in
the reign of Henry VIII. The flat country is re¬
nowned
KEN I 445 ] KEN
Kent, nowned for its meadows; and Rumney-marfh has
V' v  1 hardly its equal. We may from this concife defcrip-
tion very eafily collect, that the natural produfts of
Kent are numerous, and of great value. In the
bowels of the earth rhey find, in feveral places, a rough
hard ferviceable ftone for paving, which turns to fome
advantage ; but not fo much as their exquifite fullers-
earth, rich marl, and fine chalk, which are there in
abundance. If we except iron-ore, indeed, they have
no mines ; but there are prodigious heaps of copperas-
ftones thrown on the eoaft. The ifle of Shepey, and
all the adjacent ftrore as far as Reculver, is jultly fa¬
mous for its wheat. Thanet is in no lefs credit for its
barley, or rather was fo ; for now it produces, through
the painful induftry and ikilful hufbandry of its inha¬
bitants, copious crops of good wheat as well as bar¬
ley. Horfes, black cattle, and (beep, they have in great
numbers, and remarkable in point of fixe ; and hop-
grounds in all parts of the county, which turn to very
confiderable account. To which we may add, weld,
or as fome call it dyers- meed, which is a very profit¬
able commodity, and of which there grows much in the
neighbourhood of Canterbury ; alfo madder, which is,
or has been, occafionally cultivated. The rivers and
fea-coafts abound with fifh of different kinds. The ex¬
cellency of its oyfters on the eaftern ihore is celebra¬
ted by the Roman poets. Thofe of Feverlham and
Milton are not only in great efteem at th^ Lon¬
don market, but are likewife fent in great quantities
to Holland.
The many rich commodities produced in this coun¬
ty. is the reafon why moil of our writers have repre-
fented it as in a manner void of manufaftures ; which,
however, as appears upon a ttrift and impartial exa¬
mination, is very far from being the cafe. Of iron works
there were anciently many ; and there are ftill fome,
where kettles, bombs, bullets, cannon, and fuch like,
are made. At Deptford Sir Nicholas Crifpe had
in his life-time a very famous copperas work ; as,
indeed, there that ingenious gentleman, one of the
greateft improvers and one of the moft public-fpirited
perfons this nation ever bred, introduced feveral other
inventions. Copperas was alfo formerly made, toge-
• "Philofopb. ther with brimftone, in the ifle of Shepey *. But the
Yranfaa. original and for many ages the principal manufadure
®   of this county was broad cloath of different colours,
eftabliflied chiefly at Cranbrook by King Edward III.
who brought over Flemings to improve and perfed
(the trade being introduced long before) his fubjeds
in that important art. At this and other places it
flourilhed fo much, that even at the clofe of Qjneen
Elifabeth’s reign, and according to fome accounts
much later, the beft for home confumption, and the
largeft quantities for exportation, were wrought here ;
many fulling mills being ereded upon alm'olt every ri¬
ver, and the greateft plenty of excellent fullers-earth
affording them Angular afliftance; infomuch that it
is ftill a tradition, that the yeomanry of this county,
for which it has been ever famous, were moftly the
defcendants of rich clothiers, who laid out the money
acquired by their induftry in the purchafe of lands,
which they tranfmitted, with their free and independ¬
ant fpirit, to their pofterity. The duke of Alva’s per-
fecution of the Proteftants in the Low Countries drove
a multitude of Walloons over hither, who brought with
them that ingenuity and application for which they K^t
had been always diftinguifhed. Thefe diligent and ac- H .
tive people fettled a manufadory of flannel or baize at , nlu<:'' ’i
Sandwich. By them the filk-looms were fet up at
Canterbury, where they ftill fubfift ; and they alfo in¬
troduced the making of thread at Maidftone, where it
yet remains, and merits more notice and encourage¬
ment than hitherto it has met with.
Upon the river Dart, at the confluence of which
with the Thames Hands the town of Dartford, was
fet up, in the reign of Queen Elifabech, the firft mill
for making white paper by Mr John Spilman, a Ger¬
man, upon whom, long after, King James conferred
the honour of knighthood; but; King Charles more
fenfibly beftowed upon this Sir John Spilman a patent
and a penfion of 2001. a-year, as a reward of his in¬
vention, and for the fupport of the manufadure. A-
bout the year 159c. Godfrey Box, a German, ered¬
ed upon the fame river the firft flitting-mill which was
ever ufed for making iron-wire ; and alfo the firft bat¬
tery-mill for making copper-plates. Other new in¬
ventions, requiring the afliftance of water, have been
fet up on other ftreams; and a great variety of ma¬
chines of this fort ftill fubfift in different parts of this
county. But thefe things are now fo common, that
it would be both tedious and ufelefs to inlift upon
them. Am mgft thefe, we may reckon the making
gunpowder in feveral places. That manufadure,
however, which is now the glory of this county, and
indeed of Britain, is fhip-building; more efpecially
at the royal yards; as at Woolwich, which was fet¬
tled by Henry VIII. and fome conliderable ftrips
built there. At prefent, there is not only a moft
complete eftablilhment for the building and equipping
men of war, a rope walk, foundery, and magazines ;
but alfo many private docks, in which prodigious
bufinefs is carried on, and multitudes of people are
employed.
KENTISH-town, a village of Middlefex, three
miles north of London, near Hampftead, much im¬
proved of late by feveral handfome houfes belonging
to the citizens of London, See. A new chapel has
lately been ereded here.
KENTUCKY, a province of North America, be¬
longing at prefent to the ftate of Virginia, but pro-
pofed foon to be admitted into the union as an inde¬
pendent ftate. It is fituated between 36° 30' and 39O
3°' North Latitude, and 8* and ty° Weft Longitude ;
being 250 miles in length, and 200 in breadth. It is
bounded north-weft by the river Ohio ; weft, by
Cumberland river; fouth, by N ;rth Carolina ; eaft,
by Sandy river, and a line drawn due fouth from its
fource till it ftrikes the northern boundary of North
Carolina. Kentucky was originally divided into two
counties, Lincoln and Jefferfon. It has fince been
fubdivided into feven, viz. Jefferfon, Fayette, Bour¬
bon, Mercer, Nelfon, Maddifon, Lincoln ; and Lex¬
ington is the chief town.
The river Ohio walhes the north-weftern fide of Ken¬
tucky, in its whole extent. Its principal branches,
which water this fertile trail of country, are Sandy,
Licking, Kentucky'] Salt, Green, and Cumberland
rivers. _ Thefe again branch into various diredions,
into rivulets of different magnitudes, fertilizing the
country in all its parts—There are five noted fait
fprings
K. E N [ 446 ] KEN
Kentucky, fpringa or licks in this country, viz. the higher and lower eftablifhed, befides feveral congregations where churches Kcnt»«Vy*
^  Blue Springs on Licking river, from fome of which, were not conftituted. Thefe were fupplied with up- —
it isfaid, iflue ftreamsof briniih water ; the Big Bone wards of 30 minifters or teachers. There are feveral
lick, Drennon’s licks, and Bullet’s lick at Salifburg. large congregations of Prefbyterians, and fome few of
The laft of thefe licks, though in low order, has fup- other denominations.
plied this country and Cumberland with fait at 20 The legillature of Virginia have made provifion for
ihillings the bulhel, Virginia currency ; and fome is a college in Kentucky, and have endowed it with very
exported to the Illinois country. The method of pro¬
curing water from thefe licks is by finking wells from
confxderable landed funds. Schools are eftablifhed in
the feveral towns, and in general regularly and hand-
30 to 40 feet deep- The yvater drawn from thefe wells fomely fupported. They have a printing office, and
is more ftrongly impregnated with fait than the water publifh a weekly gazette. They have erected a pa-
from the fea. per-mill, an oil mill, fulling mills, faw mills, and a
This whole country, as far as has yet been difco- great number of valuable grift mills. Their fait works
vered, lies upon a bed of lime-ftone, which in general are more than fufficicnt to fupply all the inhabitants at
is about fix feet below the furface, except in the valleys a low price. They make confiderable quantities of
where the foil is much thinner. A tra6l of about 20
miles wide along the banks of the Ohio is hilly bro¬
ken land, interfperfed with many fertile fpots. The
fugar from the fugar trees. Labourers, particularly
tradefmen, are exceedingly wanted here.
The firft white man who difcovered this province
reft of the country is agreeably uneven, gently afcend- was one James M‘Bride, in the year 1.754. Front
_ing and defcending at no great diftances. This coun- this period it remained unexplored till about the year
try in general is well timbered ; and fuch is the variety 1767, when one John Finley and fome others, trading
and beauty of the flowering fltrubs and plants which with the Indians, fortunately travelled over the fertile
grow fpontaneoufly in it, that in the proper feafon the region now called Kentucky, then but known to the
wildernefs appears in bloflbm. The accounts of the Indians by the name of the Dark and Bloody Grounds,
fertilitv of the foil in this country have in fome in- and fometimes the Middle Ground. This country
{lances'exceeded belief, and probably have been exag- greatly engaged Mr Finley’s attention, and he com-
gerated. That fome parts of Kentucky, particularly municated his difcovery to Colonel Daniel Boon, and
the high grounds, are remarkably good, all accounts a few more, who conceiving it to be an interefting ob-
agree. The lands of the firft rate are too rich for jedt, agreed in the year 1769 to undertake a journey
wheat, and will produce 50 and 60, and in fome i
ftances it is affirmed xoo bufliels of good corn an acre.
in order to explore it. After a long fatiguing march o-
ver a mountainous wildernefs, in a weftward_dire£tion.
In common the land will produce 30 bufhels of wheat they at length arrived upon its borders ; and from the
or rye an acre. Barley, oats, cotton, flax, hemp, and top of an eminence, with joy and wonder defcried the
vegetables of all kinds common in this climate, yield beautiful landfcape of Kentucky. Here they encamp-
abundantly. The old Virginia planters fay, that if ed, and fome went to hunt provifions, which were
the climate does not prove too moift, few foils known readily procured, there being plenty of game, while
will yield more and better tobacco.—The climate is Colonel Boon and John Finley made a tour through
healthy and delightful, fome few places in the neigh- the country, which they found far exceeding their ex-
bourhood of ponds and low grounds excepted. The pe&ations; and returning to camp, informed their
inhabitants do not experience the extremes of heat companions of their difcoveries. But in fpite of this
and cold. Snow feldom falls deep or lies long. The promifing beginning, this company meeting with no-
winter, which begins about Chriftmas, is never longer thing but hardfhips and adverfity, grew exceedingly
than three months, and is commonly but two, and dilheartened, and was plundered, difperfed, and killed
is fo mild as that cattle can fubfift without fodder.
It is impoffible to afcertain with any degree of ac¬
hy the Indians, except Colonel Boon, who continued
inhabitant of the wildernefs until the year x.771.
curacy the prefent number of inhabitants, owing to when he returned home,
the numerous acceffions which are made almoft every Colonel Henderfon of North Carolina being in-
month. In 1783, in the county of Lincoln only, there formed of this country by Colonel Boon, he and fome
were on the militia rolls 3570 men, chiefly emigrants other gentlemen held a treaty with the Cherokee In-
fromthe lower parts of Virginia. In 1784 the num¬
ber of inhabitants were reckoned at upwards of 30,000.
dians at Wataga in March 1775, and then purchafed
from them the lands lying on the fouth fide of Ken-
From the accounts of their aftonilhing increafe fince, tucky river for goods at valuable rates, to the amount
we may now fafely eftimate them at 1,000,000. It is of 6000 1. fpecie.
aflerted that at leaft 20,000 migrated here in the year Soon after this purchafe, the ftate of Virginia took
1787. Thefe people, collefted from different dates, of the alarm, agreed to pay the money Colonel Donald-
different manners, cuftoms, religions, and political fon had contra&ed for, and then difputed Colonel
fentiments, have not been long enough together to HenderCan’s right of purchafe, as a private gentleman
form a uniform and diitinguiftiing character. Among of another ftate in behalf of himfelf. However, for
the fettlers there are many gentlemen of abilities, and his eminent fervices to this country, and for having
many genteel families from feveral of the Hates, who been inftrumental in making fo valuable an acquilition
give dignity and refpe&ability to the fettlement. They to Virginia, that ftate was pleafed to reward him with
e in general more orderly perhaps than any people
who have fettled a new country.
tra£t of land^at the mouth of Green river, to the
amount of 200,000 acres ; and the ftate of North Ca-
As to religion, the Baptifts are the moft numerous rolina gave him the like quantity in Powel’s Valley.
fed in Kentucky. In 1789 they had 16 churches
This region was formerly claimed by various tribes of
Indians;
K E P [ 447 1 K E R
■ KepVr. [ndians ; whofe title, if they had any, originated in
fuch a manner as to render it doubtful which ought to
poflcfs it. Hence this fertile fpot became an objedfc
of contention, a theatre of war, from which it was
properly denominated the Bloody Grounds. Their
contentions not being likely to decide the right to any
particular tribe, as foon as Mr Henderfon and his
friends propofed to purchafe, the Indians agreed to
| fell; and notwithftanding the valuable confideration
they received, have continued ever fince troublefome
neighbours to the new fettlers.
The progrefs in improvements and cultivation which
has been made in this country, almoft exceeds belief.
Eleven years ago Kentucky lay in foreft, almoft unin¬
habited but by wild beads. Now, notwithftanding
the united oppofition of all the weftern Indians, (he
exhibits an extenfive fettlement, divided into feven
large and populous counties, in which are a number
of flourilhing little towns, containing more inhabi¬
tants than are in Georgia, Delaware, or Rhode- Ifland
Hates; and nearly or quite as many as in New Hamp-
Ihire.
KEPLER (John), one of the greateft aftronomers
of his age, was born at Wiel,- in the country of Wirt-
emberg, in 1571. In the year 1595, he wrote an
excellent book, which was printed at Tubingen the
year following, under the title of Prodromus differta-
tionum de proportions orbium ccelejlium, deque caujis cce-
lorum numcri, magnitudinis, motuumque periodkorum ge¬
nu ms et propriis, &c. Tycho Brahe having fett:ed
in Bohemia, and obtained from the emperor all forts
of conveniencies for the perfedling of aftronomy, was
fo pafiionately defirous of having Kepler with him,
and wrote fo many letters to him on that fubjecl, that
he prevailed upon him to leave the univerfity of Gratz,
and remove into Bohemia with his family and library
in the year 1600. Kepler in bis journey was feized
fo violently with the quartan ague, that he could not
do Tycho Brahe all the fervices of which he was be¬
fore capable. He was even a little diffatisfied with
the refervednefs which Tycho Brahe fhowed towards
him ; for the latter did not communicate to him all
he knew; and as he died in 1601, he did not give
time to Kepler to be very ufeful to him, or to receive
any confiderable advantage under him. From that
time Kepler enjoyed the title of Mathematician to the
emperor his life; and gained mote and more repu¬
tation by his works. The emperor Rodolphus or¬
dered him to finifti the tables, of Tycho Brahe, which
were to be called the Rodolphine Tables. Kepler ap¬
plied himfelf to it vigoroufly : but unhappy are thofe
learned men who depend upon the good-humour of
the intendants of the finances. The treafurers were fo
ill-affefted toward our author, that he could not publifh
thefe tables till 1627. He died at Ratifbon, where he
was foliating the payment of the arrears of his penfion
in 1630.
The principal works of this great aftronomer are, 1.
Prodromus differtationum above mentioned, to which he
has alfo given the title of MffletiUm Cofmographicum ;
which he efteemed more than any other of his works,
I and was for fome time fo charmed with it, that he faid
he would not give up the honour of having invented
I what was contained in that book for the electorate of
Saxony, z, Harmonia mundit with a defence of that
treatife. 3. De cometis, libri tres. 4. Epitome aflro- Kentophy.
norma Copernkante. 5. sjlronomia nova. 6. Chilias .
logarithmorum, &c. 7. Nova Jlereometria doliorum vi-
nariorum, &c. 8. Dioptrics. 9. De vero not ait anno
Chrijli. 10. Ad Viteilionem Paralipomena, quibus A-
ffronomia pars optica traditur, &c. 1 1. Somnium Luna-
rifoe AJlronomia; in which he began to draw up that
fyftem of comparative aftronomy which was afterwards
purfued by Kircher, Huygens, and Gregory. His
death happened while the work was printing; upon
which James Bartfchius his fon-in-law undertook the
care of the imprefiion, but was alfo interrupted by
death ; and Lewis Kepler his fon, who w'as then a
, phyfician at Konigfberg in Pruffia, was fo much ftart-
led at thefe difafters, that it was with the utmoft diffi¬
culty he could be prevailed upon to attempt to finilh
it, left it ftiould prove fatal to him : he completed
the talk, however, without receiving any perfonal in¬
jury.
KERATOPHYTUM, in natural hiftory, a fpecies
of Gokgonia.—The keratophyta are called the fruti-
ces corailoides, or fea fttrubs; and generally known a-
mong naturalifts by the different appellations of lito-
phyta, Uthoxyla, and keratophyta; epithets tending to
convey an idea of their compofition, which at firft view
feems to confift partly of a woody or horny, partly of
a ftony or calcareous fubftance, varioufly difpofed with
refpetft to each other. Their general form approaches-
to that of (hrubs, having a root-like bafe, by which
they adhere to fome folid fupport in the ocean ; and a
ftem or trunk, and branches differently difpofed ; fome
rifing up in one or more different-twigs, fubdivided.
into fmaller and feparate ramifications; while others
have their fmaller branches conne&ed in fuch a man¬
ner, as to form a curious net-like ftruCture : from this •
diverfity of figure they borrow the names of fea fans,
fea-feathers, See. The feeming fibres of the bafe are,
in reality, fmall tubes, of which the whole fhrub con-
fifts : thefe tubes run up longitudinally into the trunk,
and are alfo circularly difpofed about the centre of the
trunk: the woody part, as naturalifts have called it,
thus formed, affords when burnt a ftrong fmell like
burning horn; whence fome have called it the horny part.
Upon this part is fuperinduced a kind of ftony or cal¬
careous coat, which covers both trunk and branches
to their extremities. In this coat maybe difcovered>
regular orders or pores of cells; and viewed by the
microfcope, it always appears to be an organical body
cohfifting^ of a regular congeries, like the cells in
which animals have been formed or exifted. Some of
this kind of bodies have loft their calcareous covering
by the violence of the waves and other accidents. In
fome fpecimens of an advanced growth, the calcareous
tubes juft mentioned fend out little cells of animals of
the polype kind, with proper openings to them all;
thefe cells are diffufed along the branches in fome re¬
gular order, much in the fame manner as they are in
the corallines. From the cells the animals have been
difeovered extending themfelves, as well to procure
food, as materials for the increafe of this furprifing
ftru&ure; and therefore there is no reafon to doubt
that they are animal productions.
A fmall fprig of the keratophyton ftabelliforme,.
or warted fea-fan, is reprefented in Plate CCL.
The outfide is covered with a cruft full of little lump#-
4
K E R
[ 448 ]
K E R
Kerckring lumps like warts; which, when diflblved in vinegar, neglefted, although much praifed by their authors.— Kermes.
K II difcover the contracted bodies of polypes, like claws. The fame of kermes was occafioned by friar Simon,
. erm<:3> q an{j 0! are two views of one of the warts mag- apothecary to the Chartreux friars. He received
nified; C2, is the appearance of the polype when this preparation from a furgeon called La Li-
the cretaceous matter is diflalved ; C3, repreients the gerie, who had procured it from a German apothe-
particles that compofe the incruftation, magnified.— cary who had been a fcholar of the famous Glauber.
D, reprefents a fea-willow, or keratophyton dicho- Friar Simon, from the commendations given to this
tomum. On both edges of the flat branches are new remedy by La Ligerie, adminiftered it to a Char-
regular rows of little rifing cells in the calcareous treux friar, who was dangeroufly ill of a violent pe-
part, with firiall holes for an entrance to each. See ripneumony, by which the friar was fuddenly, and as
Corallines. it had been miraculoufly, cured. From that time the
KERCKRING (Theodore), a famous phyfician friar-apothecary publiihed the virtue of his remedy,
of the 17th century, was born at Amfterdam, and ac- Several other remarkable cures were performed by
quired a great reputation by his difcoveries and his means of kermes. The public believed in its medici-
works. He found out the fecret of foftening amber nal qualities, and called it powder of Chartreux; be-
without depriving it of its tranfparency ; and made ufe caufe it was prepared only in the apothecary’s /hop
of it in covering the bodies of curious infers in order belonging to thefe monks. The reputation of kermes
to preferve them. He was a member of the Royal
Society of London, and died in 1693 at Hamburg,
where he had fpent the greateft part of his life, with
the title of refdent of the grand duke of Tufcany.
His principal works are, 1. Spicilegh
extended itfelf more and more; till at length the duke
of Orleans, then regent of France, procured the pub*
lication of the procefs by La Ligerie.
This procefs confifts in boiling, during two hours,
pulverifed crude antimony" in the fourth part of its
2. Anthropogenite ichnographia. There is alfo attri- weight of the liquor of nitre fixed by coals, and twice
Luted to him an anatomical work, printed in 1671 in its weight of pure water: at the end of this time the
folio. liquor is to be decanted and filtrated, while boiling,
KERI Cetib, are various,readings in the Hebrew through brown paper. It continues clear while it is
Bible: keri, fignifies that which is read; and cetib, that boiling hot; but when it cools, it becomes turbid, ac-
which is written. For where any fuch various readings quires a red brick colour, and again becomes clear by
occur, the wrong reading is written in the text, and the depofition of a red fediment, which is the kermes,
that is called the cetib ; and the true reading is written The boiling may be thrice repeated, and each time
in the margin, with p under it, and called the keri. It the fame quantity of water is to be added to the anti-
is generally faid by the Jewifh writers, that thefe cor- -mony, and a fourth part lefs of the liquor of fixed
reftions were introduced by Ezra ; but it is moft. pro- nitre. The feveral fediments from thefe three boil-
bable, that they had their original from the miftakes ings are to be added together, walhed with clean wa-
of the tranfcribers after the time of Ezra, and the ob- ter till the water acquires no talle ; and the kermes is
fervations .and corre&iohs of the Maforites. Thofe then to be dried. La Ligerie direfts, that aquavits
Keri-cetibs, which are in the facred books written by {hall be once or twice poured upon it and burnt, and
Ezra himfelf, or which were taken into the canon after the kermes dried again.
his time, could not have been noticed by Ezra him- We now proceed to explain the nature of kermes,
felf v and this affords a prefumption, that the others and the phenomena of its preparation Crude an-
are of late date. Thefe words amount to about 1000 ; timony is compofed of regulus of antimony.and com-
and Dr Kennicott, in his Dijfertatio Generalh, remarks,
that all of them, excepting 14, have been found in the
text of manufcripts.
KERMAN, the capital city of a province of that
name in Perfia, feated in E. Long. 56. 30. N. Lat,
30. o. The province lies in the fouth part of Perfia,
mon fulphur, united naturally with each other,
in almoft all metallic minerals. The fixed alkali
with which the crude antimony is boiled, although
it is diluted with much water, afts upon the ful-
phur of the antimony, and forms with it liver of ful¬
phur ; and as this compound is a folvent of all metal-
on the Perfian gulph. The Iheep of this couptry, to- lie matters, it diffolves a certain quantity of the
wards the latter end of the fpring, fired their wool,
and become as naked as fuckling pigs. The principal
revenue of the province confifts in thefe fleeces.
KER.MES, in zoology, the name of an infeft pro¬
duced in the excrefcences of a fpecies of the oak. See
Coccus.
Kermes Mineral, fo called from its colour, which
refembies that of vegetable kermes, is one of the moft
important antimonial preparations, both with regard
to its chemical phenomena and to its medicinal ufes.
The ufe of kermes-mineral was not eftabliftred in
medicine before the beginning of this century. Some
chemifts, indeed, amongft others Glauber and Lemeri,
had before that time mentioned in their works feveral
gulus of antimony. In this operation then a combi¬
nation is formed of fixed alkali, of fulphur, and of re¬
gulus of antimony. Of thefe three fubftances the
fixed alkali only is foluble in water, and is the inter¬
mediate fubftance by which the fulphur and regulus
are fufpended in the water. But we are to obferve,
that the alkali becomes impregnated by this operation,
and by boiling, with a larger quantity of regulus,
and efpecially of fulphur, than can be fufpended in
cold water ; hence the deco<ftion of kermes, which is
clear, limpid, and colourlefs while boiling hot, be¬
comes turbid and depofits a fediment while it cools.
This compound, therefore, like certain falls, may be
kept diffolved in larger quantity by hot than by cold
preparations of antimony which approach more or lefs water, and much of it is therefore depofited by cool-
to kermes; but thefe preparations being little known, ing.
were confounded with many others which are entirely Further, while the kermes is precipitating, the
N° 172,. whole
K. E tl I 449 ] K E R
'Kerme', xj^iole antimoniated liver of fulphur,'which is diflblved containing a much larger proportion of alkali; fb that Kermei,
by the boiling liquor, may be divided into two parts ; it can keep diflblved the ^regulus and fulphur with
one of which, that is the ktrmes, being dvercharged which it is United, even when the liquor is cold,
with the regulus, and particularly with the fulphur, In the procefs for feveral antimonial preparations, a
contains but a little alkali, which it drtfws along with kermes, or compounds like it, are formed. This al-
it during its depofitipn. The other part, as it con- ways happens when crude antimony is treated by fu-
tains much more alkali, remains diflblved even in the fion with a quantity of alkaline fait, fo that an anti-
Oold liquor, by means of this larger quantity of al- moniated liver of fulphur refults from it, overcharged
•kali. All thefe propofitions are to be explained and with regulus and'fulphur ; that is, containing more of
demonftrated by the following obfervations. thefe two fubftances than it can keep diflblved in cold
Firft, when the deco&ion of kermes is cold, and water. If any of thefe combinations be boiled in wa-
l has formed all its fediment, if, without adding any ter, a matter analogous to kermes is always depofited
thing to it, it be heated till it boil, it again entirely by cooling. This happens,' for inftance, to the fcoria
Eediffolves the kermes; the fediment difappears; the of the regulus of antimony, and in an operation de¬
liquor becomes clear, and by c; Id is again rendered feribed by Mr Geoffroy to abridge the procefs for ma-
turbid and depofites fediment as before. Thus the king kermes by fullon.
kermes may be made to precipitate and to rediflblve To make kermes by fufion, Mr Geoffroy fufes two
es often as we pleafe. parts of antimony with one part of alkaline fait; he
'Secondly, by digefting kermes in aqua regia, which powders this matter while yet hot, and keeps it du-
diflblves its alkali and regulus, the fulphur is feparated ring two hours in boiling water; he then filtrates it,
pure. The acids of aqua regia form a nitre and a and receives the liquor into more boiling water, from
febrifugal fait of Sylvius with the alkali of the ker- which, when it cools, about fix gros of kermes is de-
tnes ; and if a certain quantity of kermes be melted pofited, when an ounce of antimony has been ufed.
with black flux after having deftroyed its fulphur by This method of making kermes is much more ex-
Toafting, a true regulus of antimony may be obtained peditious, but lefs perfect; for, as the author con-
from it. fefles, the kermes produced is not fo fine and foft as
Thefe experiments, which were made by Mr Geof- that made in the ordinary method,
froy, and the detail of which is found In memoirs Mr Lemeri the elder mentions alfo, in his Treatife
given to the Academy in. the years 1734 and 1735, concerning Antimony, an operation from which his
upon the analyfis of kermes, fhow evidently the pre- fon pretends that kermes may be obtained. This ope-
fence of fulphur, of fixed alkali, and of regulus of ration confifts in digefting, and afterwards boiling,
antimony, in this compound. From Mr Geoffroy’s powdered crude antimony in a very pure liquor of fix-
Cxperiments we find, that 72 grains of kermes contain ed nitre. This liquor, if it be in fufficient quantity,
about 16 or 17 grains of regulus, 13 or 14 grains is capable of diflblving quickly and entirely powder-
of alkaline fait, and 40 or 41 grains of common ful- ed crude antimony; and we cannot doubt but that, by
phur. ‘ cooling, a confiderable quantity of a fubftance very ana-
Thirdly, by repeating the boiling of the liquor up- logous to kermes will be produced. Neverthelefs, none
on the antimony, more and more kermes will be form- of tbefe fhort methods of making kermes is directed by
-ed each time by cooling, as at firft ; and this experi- difpenfatories, or by the beft books for deferibing the
tnent may be repeated a great many times. Mr Geof- preparations of chemical remedies,
froy fays, that he repeated it 78 times without any Kermes is ufed in medicine only ; and from it fin-
Other addition than that of ptire water to fupply that gularly excellent effefls may be produced, when admi-
which was loft by evaporation ; and that each time a nittered by able phyficians. In kermes are united the
'confiderable quantity of kermes was formed by cool- exciting and evacuanC virtues of the emetic preparations
ing. I his experiment proves, that the alkali tranf- of antimony, with the tonic, dividing, aperitive, and
forms the antimony into kermes by overcharging it- refolving properties of the liver of fulphur; that is to
felf with regulus and fulphur, and at each precipita- fay, that it is capable of anfwering two principal indi-
tion the kermes does not retain and take with it but cations in the treatment of many acute and chronic
a very fmall quantity of alkali. difeafes. Properly managed, it may become an eme-
Fourthly, if any acid be poured upon the liquor in tic, purgative, a diuretic, a fudorific, or an expefto-
which the kermes has been formed, and from which rant, as is required, and it is always attenuating and
it has been ertirely feparated by cooling, Mr Beaume refolving. When feven or ^ight grains are taken at
has obfetved, that this liquor is again rendered turbid, once, it chiefly a£ts upon the primse vias, generally as
and that a fecond fediment is formed of a yellow red- an emetic and as a purgative. A dofe of three or four
dilh colour, which is nothing elfe than golden fulphur grains is feldom emetic, and more frequently purga-
of antimony ; that is, regulus of antimony and iul- tive When taken in thefe quantities as an evacuant,
phur mixed together, but in very different propor- a little of it paffes alfo into the vise fecundae & tertiae.
tions, and with very different ftrengths of union, from Wheu it is adminiftered in fmaller dofes, it paffes al-
thofe in which they are found in the crude antimony, moft entirely into the ladleal, blood, and lymphatic
After this precipit? ion, in the liquor a neutral fait veffels. In thefe it occafions fuch fpafms and ofcilla-
is left, which is formed by the contained alkali and tions as it does in the primse vise ; fo that it increafes
the precipitating acid. From this experiment we find, all fecretions and excretions, but particularly thofe of
that in the liquor from which the kermes has been urine, fweat, and exp.eftoration, according to the dofe,
idepofited, a confiderable quantity of antimoniated li- to the nature of the difeafe, and to the difpofition of
ver of fulphur remains, which differs from -kennes by the patient. It produces very good effects in thofe
Voi. IX. Part II. 3 L difeafe*
K E R [ 450 ] K E S
Kern, difeafes of the breaft which proceed from fullnefs and
Kerry- obftruftion.
-1’' * Kermes may be adminiftered in linftnfes, in oily or
in cordial potions, in any vehicle ; or incorporated in
a bolus, with other fuiiable remedies. One precaution,
hitherto little obferved, is very neceiTary; that is, not
to join it with acid matters, if it is intended to aft as
kermes. Anti-acid and abforbent fubftances ought to
be joined with it, if the patient has an acid in the
primae vise, or an acefcent difpofition ; for as thefe
acids faturate the alkali by which the kermes is ren¬
dered an antimoniated liver of fulphur, and by which
alone it differs from golden fulphur of antimony, they
accordingly render the kermes entirely fimilar to the
golden fulphur of antimony, the properties of which
are very different from thofe of kermes.
KERN, or Kerne, a term in the ancient Irifh
militia, fignifying a fool-foldier.—Camden tells us, the
armies of Ireland confifted of cavalry, called galloglaf-
Jes; and infantry, lightly armed, called kernes.—The
kernes bore fwords and darts ; to the laft were fitted
cords, by which they could recover them after they
had been launched out.
Kernes, in our laws, fignify idle perfons or vaga¬
bonds.
KERRY, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Munfter, anciently called Corrigia, or “ the rocky coun¬
try,” from Cerrig or Carrie, “ a rock.” It is bound¬
ed by the Shannon which divides it from Clare on
the north, by Limerick and Cork on the eaft, by an¬
other part of Cork on the fouth, and by the Atlantic
Ocean on the weft. The heft town in it is Dingle, fi-
tuated in a bay of the fame name. It comprehends a
great part of the territoty formerly called Defmond, and
eonfifts of very different kinds of foil. The fouth parts
are plain and fertile, but the north full of high moun¬
tains, which, though remarkably wild, produce a
great number of natural curiofities. It contains
636,905 Irifh plantation acres, 84 parifhes, 8 baro¬
nies, 3 boroughs, returns 8 members to parliament,
and gives title of earl to the family of Fitzmaurice. It is
about 57 miles long, 45 broad, and lies within N. Lat.
51. 30. and 52. 24.; the Longitude at the mouth
of Kenmare river being io° 35' weft, or 42' 20" dif¬
ference of time with London. It is the fourth county
as to extent in Ireland, and the fecond in this pro¬
vince ; but in refpeft to inhabitants and culture doth
not equal many fmaller counties. In it there are two
epifcopal fees, which have been annexed to the bifhop-
ric of Limerick fince the year 166a, viz. Ardfert and
Aghadoe. The fee of Ardfert was anciently called
the diocefe of Kerry, and its bifhops were named bi-
flbops of Kerry. Few mountains in Ireland can vie
with thofe in this county for height? during the great¬
er part of the year their fides are obfeured by fogs,
and it muft be a very ferene day when their tops ap¬
pear. Iron ore is to be had in great plenty in moft
of the fouthern baronies. The principal rivers are the
Blackwater, Feal, Gale and Brick, Caftiin, Mang,
Lea, Flefk, Laune, Carrin, Fartin, Inry, and Rough¬
ly, and the principal lake is Killarney. There are
feme good medicinal waters difeovered in this county;
particularly Killarney water, Iveragh, Spa, Fellofwtll,
Dingle, Caftlemain, and Tralee-Spas: as alio a faline
Spring at Maherybeg. Some rare and uteful plants.
grow in Kerry, of which Dr Smith gives a particular Kerfey
account in his hiftory of that county. II
KERSEY, a kind of coarfe woollen cloth, made , Keftre^*
chiefly in Kent and Devonfhire.
KESITAH. This word is to be met with in Ge-
nefis and in Job, and is tranflated in the Septuagint and
Vulgat “ fheep or lambsBut the Rabbins and mo¬
dern interpreters are generally of opinion, that kefitah
fignifies rather a piece of money. Bochart and Eu-
gubinus are of opinion the Septuagint meant mirue, and
not lambs; in Greek hecatonmnon, txaTov^vav, inftead of
ticarov auvuv. Now a mina was worth 60 Hebrew flie-
kels, and confeqnently 61. 16s. io4-d. Sterling. M.
de Pelletier of Rouen is of opinion, that kefitah was
a Perfian coin, ftamped on one fide with an archer
(Kefitah ox Kefelh in Hebrew fignifying “ a bow”)
and on the other with a lamb ; that this was a gold
coin known in the eaft by the name of a dark, and
was in value about 12 livres and 10 d. French money.
Several learned men, without mentioning the value of
the kefitah, fay it was a filver coin, the impreflion
whereof was a ftieep, for which reafon the Septuagint
and Vulgate tranflate it by this name. Calmet is of
opinion, that kefitah was a purfe of gold or filver. In
the eaft they reckon at prefent by purfes. The word
kijla in Chaldee fignifies “ a meafure, a veffel.” And
Euftathius fays, that kifta is a Perfian meafure. Jo¬
nathan and the Targum of Jerufalem tranflate kefitah
“ a pearl.” (Gen. xxxiii. 19.; Job, xlii. ix). Or 9I.
Englifh, fuppofing, as Dr Prideaux does, that a fhe-
kel is worth 3 s. A daric is a piece of gold, worth,
as Dr Prideaux fays, 25 s. Englifti.
KESSEL, a town of Upper Guelderland, in the
Netherlands, with a handfome caftle. It is the chief
town in the territory of the fame name, and feated oa
the river Meufe, between Ruremond and Venlo, it be¬
ing about five miles from each. It was ceded to the
king of Pruflia by the treaty of Utrecht. E. Long,
6. 13. N. Lat. 41'. 22.
Kessel (John Van), an eminent painter, waa
born at Antwerp in 1626, and became exceedingly fa¬
mous for painting thofe particular objefts which he
delighted to reprefent; and not only excelled in fruits
and flowers, but was likewife eminent for painting
portraits. In this manner he refembled Velvet Brue¬
ghel, and very near equalled him in his birds, plants, and
flowers. The prodigious high prices for which he fold
his works, occalioned the rich alone to be the purcha-
fers ; and the king of Spain admired the performances
of Van Ktffel to fuch a degree, that he purchafed as
many of them as he could pofiibly procure, till at laft
he prevailed on that artift to vifit his court, where he
was appointed painter to the queen, and was retained
in her fervice as long as fhe lived. He painted por¬
traits admirably, with a light free touch, and a tone
of colour that very much refembled Vandyck j nor are
his works in that ftyle confidered in Spain as inferior
to that great mafter. He died in 1708, aged 82.
KESSELDORF, a village of Germany, in the cir*
cle of Upper Saxony, three miles below Drefden, re¬
markable for the battle gained by the king of Pruffia
over the Saxons, on the 15th of December 1745-
KESTREL, the Englilh name of a hawk, called
alfo the flannel and the •windhover, and by authors
the tinnunculus and chsncris. It builds with us in
hollow
K E T [ 451 ] KEY
f Kefwick hollow oaks, and feeds on partridges and other birds,
ll See Falco.
Kettlewell. KESWICK, a town of Cumberland, fituated on the
*' ' fide of a lake in a fruitful plain, almoft encotnpafied
with mountains, called the Ter-went Fells. It was for¬
merly a town of good note, but now is much decayed.
However, it is ttill noted for its mines and miners, who
have a convenient fmelting houfe on the fide of the ri¬
ver Derwent, the dream of which is fo managed as
to make it work the bellows, hammers, and forge, as
alfo to faw boards. There is a work-houfe here for
employing the poor of this paridi and that of Crofsth-
wait. W. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 54. 30.
KETCH, a veil'd equipped with two mads, viz.
the main-mad and mizen-mad, and ufually from 100
to 250 tons burden.—Ketches are principally ufed as
yachts or as bomb-vefiels; the former of which are
employed to convey princes of the blood, ambaffadors,
or other great perfonages, from one part to another ;
and the latter are ufed to bombard citadels, towns,
Or other fortredes. The bomb-ketches are therefore
furnilhed with all the apparatus necedary for a vigo¬
rous bombardment; they are built remarkably drong,
as being fitted with a greater number of riders than
any other veffd of war ; and indeed this reinforce¬
ment is abfolutely necefiary to fudain the violent Ihock
produced by the difeharge of their mortars, which
would otherwife in a very (hort time lhatter them to
pieces.
KETTLE, in the art of war, a term the Dutch
give to a battery of mortars, becaufe it is funk under
ground.
KErriE-Drums, are formed of two large badns of
copper or brafs, rounded at the bottom, and covered
over with vellum or goat-lkin, which is kept fad by a
circle of iron, and by feveral holes fadened to the bo¬
dy of the drum, and a like number of ferews to ferew
up and down, and a key for the purpofe. The two
bafins are kept fad together by two draps of leather
which go through two rings, and are fadened the
one before and the other behind the pommel of the
kettle-drums faddle. They have each a banner of filk
or damafle, richly embroidered with the fovereign’s
arms or with thofe of the colonel, and are fringed
with filver or gold ; and, to preferve them in bad wea¬
ther, they have each a cover of leather. The drum-
fticks are of crab-tree or of any other hard wood, of
eight or nine inches long, with two knobs on the ends,
which beat the drum-head and caufe the found. The
kettle drum with trumpets is the mod martial found of
any. Each regiment of horfe has a pair.
Kettle-Drummer, a man on horfeback appointed
to beat the kettle-drums, from which he takes his
name. He marches always at the head of the fqua-
dron, and his pod is on the right when the fquadron is
drawn up.
KETTLEWELL (John), a learned divine, born
in 1653, was dtfeended from an ancient family in the
North-riding of Yorkflnre, bred in Edmund-Hall Ox¬
ford, and ele&ed fellow of Lincoln-ccllege.. In 1675,
he went into orders; but after the revolution was de¬
prived of his living, on account of his refufal to take
the oaths to King William and Queen Mary. He died
of a confumption in 1695. He publidied feveral works,
t. which were collefted and reprinted together in 1718, in
2 vols folio. He was a man of great candour, meek- KeveU
nefs, piety, and charity. II
KEVELS, in du’p-bnilding, ■& frame compofed of ey~
two pieces of timber, whofe lower ends red in a fort
of dep or foot, nailed to the (hip’s dde, from whence
the upper ends branch outward into arms or horns, fer-
ving to belay the great ropes by which the bottoms of
the main-fail and fore-fail are extended.
KEW, a village of Surry in England, oppofite to
Old .Brentford, 10 miles wed from London. Here is
a chapel of eafe erefted at the expence of feveral of the
nobility and gentry in the neighbourhood, on a piece
of ground that was given for that purpofe by the late-
Q^neen Anne. Here the late Mr Molineux fecretary
to the late king, when prince of Wales,had a fine feat
on the Green, which became the refidence of the late
prince and princefs of Wales, who greatly improved both
the houfe and gardens; now occupied by his prefent ma-
jefty, who has greatly enlarged the gardens, and form¬
ed a jun&ion with them and Richmond gardens. The
gardens of Kew are not very large, nor is their fitua-
tion by any means advantageous, as it is low and com¬
mands no profpedts. Originally the ground was one
continued dead flat; the foil was in general barren,
and without either wood or water. With fo many
difadvantages it was not eafy to produce any thing
even tolerable in gardening ; but princely munificence,
guided by a dire&or equally Ikilled in cultivating the
earth and in the politer arts, overcame all difficulties.
What was once a defert is now an Eden. In 1758,
an aft pafled for building a bridge acrofs the Thames
to Kew-Green ; and a bridge was built of eleven
arches; the two piers and their dependant arches
on each fide next the (bore, built of brick and done;
the intermediate arches entirely wood; the centre
arch 50 feet wide, and the road over the bridge 30.
But this bridge is to be taken down as foon as
a very elegant one, now erefting dole by it (1791), is
completed.
KEXHOLM, that part of Finland which borders
upon Ruffia. The lake Ladoga crofles it, and divides
it into two parts. By the treaty between Ruffia and
Sweden in 1721, the Swedes were obliged to abandon
the bed part to the Ruffians. The country in gene¬
ral is full of lakes and mardies, thinly inhabited, and
badly cultivated. The lake above mentioned is £20
miles in length, and full of fifli.
Kexholm, or Carelgorod, a town of Ruffia, in A
territory of the fame name, not very large, but well
fortified, and has a drong caitle. The houfes are
built with wood. It formerly belonged to the Ruf¬
fians, after which the Swedes had pofieffion of it for a-
whole century ; but it was retaken by the Ruffians in
1710. Near it is a confiderable falmon-fithery. It is
feated on two iflands on the north-wed fideof the lake
Ladoga, in E. Long. 30. 25. N Lat. 61. 12. Near
it is another town called New Kexholm.
KEY, an indrument for the opening of locks.
See Lock.
L. Molinus has a treatife of keys, De clavibus vote*
rum, printed at Upfal: he derives the Latin name da-
vis, from the Greek **«*> daudo, “ I (hutor from the
adverb dam “ privatelyand adds, that the ufe of
keys is yet unknown in fome parts of Sweden.
The invention of keys is owing to one Theodore of
3 L 2 Samos,
KEY
[ 4'5* T
K E Y
Samos, according to Pliny and Polydore Virgil: but
this muft be a miftake, the ufe of keys having been
known before the fiege of Troy ; mention even feems
made of them in the 19th chapter of Gensfis.
Molinus is of opinion, that keys at firft only ferved'
for the untying certain knots, wherewith they ancient¬
ly fecured their doors: but the Laconic keys, he
maintain^, were nearly akin in ufe to our own ; they
confided of three ftngle teeth, and made the figure of
an E ; of which form there are ftill fome to be feen irr
the cabinets of the curious.
There was another key called made in the
manner of a male-fcrew ; which had its correfponding
- female in a bolt affixed to the door. Key is hence
become a general name for feveral things ferving to.
Ihut up or clofe others. See the article Lock.
Key, or Key-Jlone, of an Arch or Vault, is the laft
our term hy-or quay, the ground where they are made Keynlhant*,
being bound in with planks and ports. Keyfcr- >
Keys are alfo certain funken rocks lying near '
the furface of the water, particularly in the Weft-
Indies.
KEYNSHAM, a town of Somerfetfiiire,- ti6 miles
from London. It is a great thoroughfare in the lower
road bit ween. Bath and BriftoL They call it prover-
bially fmoaky Keynfham, and with equal reafon they
might call it foggy. It has a fine large church, a ftone
bridge of 15 arches over the Avon to Gloucefterlhire*.
and another over the river Chew. Its chief trade i&
malting. It has a. chaiity-fchool* a weekly market^
and' three fairs.
KEYSER’s Pills, a celebrated mercurial medicine,,
the method of preparing which was purchafed by the,-
Eiench government, and has fince been publirtied by¬
ftone placed a-top thereof; which being wider and M. Richard;
fuller at the top than bottom, wedges, as it were, and; The firft, and what, according to Mr Keyfer, is th&
binds all the reft; The key is different in the diffe-- moft eflential,operation, confilts in feparating the mer-
rent orders : in the Tufcan and Doric it is a-plain, cury very exa&ly from all heterogeneous matter, by,
Hone only projedh'ng; in the Ionic it is cut and. reducing it to an aethiops. This is effedted by means,
waved fomewhat after the manner of confoles ; in the of an hydraulic machine, a plan of which Mr Keyfer
Corinthian and Compofite it is a.confole enriched with
fculpture, foliages, &c.
Key is alfo ufed for ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion ; par¬
ticularly for the power of excommunicating and ab-
folving. The Romanifts fay, the pope has the power
of the keys, and can open and {hut Paradife as he
intended to have given to government before his death r.j
but although he did not live to accomplifh, his refo-
lation, his family ilill offer to do it when defired. Ac--
cording to the defcription given by M. Richard, this
machine confifts of a number of .buckets, in which mer¬
cury is triturated with water, till the water acquires a-
pleafes ; grounding their opinion.on ,that expreffion of black colour. This water, upon Handing, depofits
Jefus Chrift to Peter, “ I will give thee the keys of the fedimen.t, which, being, dried by a proper heat, is tha
kingdom of heaven.” In St Gregory v/e read, that it mthiops required.
was the cuftom heretofore for the popes to fend a. The fecund procefs confifts in revivifying the mer-
golden key, to princes, wherein they inclofed a little cury by difttllalion, in freeing it from all oily matters,
of the filings of St Peter’s chains kept with a world of by means of quick-lime, in detaching this quick-lime,
devotion at Rome ; and that thefe keys were worn in by repeated wafhings, and afterwards in drying it by,
the bofom, as.being fuppofed to contain fome wonderr means of a fand heat;
ful virtues..
Key is alfo ufed for an index.or explanation of a cii
pher. See Cipher,
Keys of an Organ, Hdrpfchord, &c. thofe.h’ttle pieces
The. third operation confifts in the reduction of the-
mercury purified by this procefs to a red calx, by,
means of heat.. In conducing this operation, Me
Keyfer advifes, that the mercury be put into glafa.
in the fore,part of thofe inftruments, by means whereof matraffes, a fmall quantity only in each. For the
the jacks play, fo as to ftrike the firings. Thefe are,
in number 28 or 29, In large organs there are feveral
fets of the keys, fome to play the fecondary organ,
fome for the main-body, fome for the trumpet, and
fome for the echoing trumpet, &c.; in fome there are.
but a part that play, and the reiLare only for orna¬
ment. There are 20 flits in the large keys, which make,
half-notes. See the article Organ, &c.
Key, in mufic, a certain fundamental note or tone,
to which the whole piece, be it in cantata, fonata, con¬
certo, &c. is accommodated, and with which it ufually
begins but always ends.
Key, or Quay, a long wharf, ufually built of ftone,
proper degree of heat, he directs thofe who would,
praftife the operation to confult Lemery and other,
chemifts..
The fourth .operatjon. is, the diflblution of the cal¬
cined mercury, obtained by the former procefs, in di-
Hilled vinegar, by means of triture. A ,pound of this,
mercury may be diffolved in eight pints of vinegar, by¬
rubbing it for an hour or two in a mortal, which
fhould be kept folely.for that purpofe. Care muft alfo,
be taken that the vinegar be .not diftilled in a metallic
but in a glafs veffel..
The fifth procefs confifts in the intimate mixture of.
this vinegar, impregnated with mercury, with manna..
by the fide of a harbour orriver, and having feveral Each pound of the vinegar containing about twoounces,
ilorehoufes for the convenience of lading and dif- of mercury, will require two pounds of manna. They
charging merchant-ftiips. It is accordingly furnifhed muft be rubbed, together upon marble ftoiies till they-
with pofts and rings, whereby they are fecured ; to-, acquire a uniform confidence, which .will be liquid to
gether with cranes, capfterns, and other engines, to fuch a degree as to pafs through a hair-cloth, for fe-
lift the goods into or out of the veffels which lie parating the impurities of the manna. After being,
along fide. managed in this manner, it muft be fpread upon a
The verb cajare, in old writers, according to Scali- marble flab, and left to^ dry there, without the affift-
ger, fignifies to keep in or refrains and hence came, ance of fire, till it acquires tuch a conflftence as not to
a rua
key [ 453 ] K I A
Keyfer, run off upon the table being turned to its fide. It
Keyflgr‘ muft then be placed before the fire, and at the fame
time moved from one part of the Hone to another, by
means of a knife, furnifhed with a large pliant blade.
By this means, it is perfedtly prepared for forming
the pills.
The fiiith and lait procefs confifts in the formation-
of the mafs thus prepared into pills. Thefe Mr Key¬
fer made to weigh either three grains or a grain and
a half; the firlt for robuft, the lait for delicate confti-
tutions.
To this account given for the preparation of thefe
pills, Mr Keyfer has added fome reflections, by way
of fupplement. He obferves, that, by the purifica¬
tion of the mercury from diftillation, a great quantity
of heterogeneous matter is feparated from it. This,
however, by no means frees it completely from all fo¬
reign matter. And, as mercury purified, upon being
calcined and difiblved in vegetable' acid, is a much
more powerful medicine than mercury, calcined with¬
out purification, he concludes, that repeated purifica¬
tions would render it (till more aCtive.
Another remark which he gives, refpefts the diffo-
lution of the mercurius calcinatus in the diftilled vine¬
gar. He obferves, that the mercury thus diffolved
may be made to unite with running mercury, and-to
form a very Angular produCt. He formerly mention¬
ed, that a pound of this mercurius calcinatus was to
be dilfolved in eight pints of vinegar. If to this be ad¬
ded two pounds of running mercury, and the agita¬
tion continued, a fubftance will arife to the furface in
the form of cream. This being removed by the affift-
ance of a wooden'fpoon, more will continue to rife as
long as the agitation is continued. The cream being
dried and incorporated with manna, in the propor¬
tion of one part of the cream to eight of manna, .forms
a very ufeful purgative, and is faid to be an effectual,
reciedy againft recent venereal complaints,.particularly
again(i chancres.
M. Richard concludes his account of Keyfer’s pills
with obferving, that he confiders it to be, without ex¬
ception, the moft effectual remedy for the venereal dif
cafe hitherto difcovered. But before entering upon
the detail, he remarks, that it is his. opinion the pro¬
cefs may be much abridged, without diminifhing the
efficacy of the medicine. He judged it proper, how¬
ever, to deliver to the public the method of preparing
the pills in Mr Keyfer’s own words; and he has not
afterwards pointed out the improvements he pro-
pofes.
KEYSLER (John George), a learned German an¬
tiquarian, was born at Thourneau in 1689. After
ftudying at the univerfity of Halle, he was appointed
preceptor to Charles Maximilian andChriftian Charles,
the young counts of Giech Buchau ; with whom he
travelled through the chief cities of Germany, France,
and the Netherlands, gaining great reputation among
the learned as he went along, by -illuftrating feveral
monuments of antiquity, particularly fome fragments
of Celtic idols lately difeovered in the cathedral of Pa¬
ris. Having acquitted himfelf of this charge with
great honour, he procured in 1716 the education of
two grandfons of Baron Bernftorff firft minifter of Hate
to- his Britannic majeily as eleftor of Brunfwick Lu¬
nenburg. However, obtaining leave in 1718 to vK
fit England, he was defied a fellow of the Royal So- Kiair
ciety for a learned effay De Dea Nehdenma numine ve-
terum Walachorum topico : he gave alfo an explanation L
of the ancient monument on Salidbury plain called
Stone-henge, with A Differtation on the Confecrated
Mifletoe of the Druids. "WJiich detached effays, with
others of the fame kind, he publiflied on his return to-
Hanover, under the title of Antlquitcites feleRa Septen-
trionales et Cel tied:, &c. He afterwards made the grand
tour with the young barons, and to this tour we owe '♦
the publication of his travels ; which were tranflated
into Englifli, and publiflitd in 1756, in 4 vols 4to.
Mr Keyfler on his return fpent the remainder of his
life under the patronage of his noble pupils, who com¬
mitted their fine library and mufeum to his care, with
a handfome income. He died in 1743.
KIAM, a great tiver of China, which takes its rife
near the weftern frontier, croffes the whole kingdom
caftward, and falls into the bay or gulph of Nanking,-
a little below that city.
Kf ANG-st, a province of China, bounded on the
north by that of Kiang-nan, on the weft, by Hou-
quang, on the fouth by Quang-tong, and on the call by
Fo-kien and Tche-kiang. The country is extremely
fertile ; but it is fo populous, that it can fcarcely fup-
ply the wants of its inhabitants : on this account they
are very economical; which expofes them to the far-
cifms and raillery of the Chinefe of the other pro¬
vinces: however, they are people of great folidity and
acutenefs, and have the talent of rifing rapidly to the
dignities of the Hate. The mountains are covered
with fimples ; and contain in their bowels mines of
gold, lilver, lead, iron., and tin : the rice it produces -
is very delicate, and feveral barks are loaded with it
every year for the court. The porcelain made here is
the findl and moft valuable of the empire. This pro¬
vince contains 13 cities of the firft clafs, and 78 of
the fecond and third.
Kiano-Nan, a province of China, and one of the
moft fertile, commercial, and confeqiiently one of the •
richeft, in the empire. It is bounded on the weft by
the provinces of Ho-nan and Hou quang •; on the fouth
by Tche-kiang and Kiang-fi ; and on the eaft by the
gulph of Nanking ; the reft borders on the province
of Chan tong. The emperors long kept their court
in this province ; but reafons of ftate having obliged
them to move nearer to Tartary, they made choice of
Pe-king for the place of their refidence. This pro¬
vince is of vaft extent; it contains fourteen cities of
the firft clafsr and ninety-three of the fecond and third, •
Thefe cities are very populous, and there is fcarcely
one of them which may not be called a place of trade.
Large barks can go to them from all parts; becaufe
the whole country is interfe&ed by lakes, rivers, and
canals, which have a communication with the great
river Yang-tfe.kiang, which runs through the middle,
of the province. Silk-ftuffs, lacquer-ware, ink, paper,
and in general every thing that comes from Nanking,,
as well as from the other cities of the province, are^
much more efteemed, and fetch a higher price than-
thofe brought from the neighbouring provinces. In*
the village of Chang-hai alone, and the- villages depen¬
dent on it, there are reckoned to be more than 200,000 *
weavers of common cotton cloths. The manufadluring •
of thefe cloths gives employment to the greater part ox--.
tka -
KID [ 454- 3 K I E
■Klturg tlve'women.—In feveral places on the Tea coaft there are
f _ II found many falt-pits, the fait of which is diftributed
toinlter" over ^ie emP'rs- In Ihort this province is fo abun-
dant and opulent, that it brings every year into the
emperor’s treafury about 32,000,000 taels (or ounces'
of filver), exclufive of the duties upon every thing
exported or imported. The people of this country
are civil and ingenious, and acquire the fciences with
great facility : hence many of them become eminent
in literature, and rife to offices of importance by their
abilities alone. This province is divided into two parts,
each of which has a diftindt governor. The governor
of the eaftern part refides at Sou tcheou-fou, that of
the wehern at Ngan-king-fou. Each of thefe gover-N
nors has. under his jurifdidtion feven fou or cities of the
firlt clafs.
KIBURG, a town of the canton of Zurich in
Switzerland, with a caftle ; feated on the river Theoff,
in E. Long. 8. 50. N. Lat. 47. 20.
KID, in zoology, the name by which young goats
are called. See Goat.
KIDDER. (Dr Richard), a learned Engliffi biffiop,
was born in Suflex, and bred at Cambridge. In 1689,
he was inftalled dean of Peterborough ; and in 1691,
was nominated to the bifhopric of Bath and Wells, in
the room of Dr Thomas Ken, who had been deprived
for not taking the oaths to king William and queen
Mary. He publiffied, 1. The young man’s duty. 2.
A demonftration of the Meffiah, 3 vols 8vo. 3. A
commentary on the five bonks of Mofes, 2 vols 8vo ;
and feveral other pious and valuable trafts. He was
killed with his lady in his bed by the fall of a flack
of chimneys, at his houfe in Wells, during the great
ftorm in 1703. The bifhop, in the differtation pre¬
fixed to his commentary on the five books of Mofes,
having reflefted upon Monfieur Le Clerc, fome letters
paffed between them in Latin, which are publifhed by
JLe Clerc in his Bibkotheque Choifie.
KIDDERMINSTER, orKEDDERMiNSTER,atown
of Worcefterfhire, feated under a hill on the river Stour,
not far from the Severn, 1 28 miles from London. It
is a large town of 1180 houfes, with about 6000 in¬
habitants, who carry on an extenfive trade in weaving in
various branches. In 1735 a carpet manufaftory was
eftablifhed with fuccefs, fo as to employ in 1772 above
250 looms ; and there are upwards of 700 looms em¬
ployed in the filk and worded. Above 1600 hands
are employed as fpinners, &c. in the carpet looms only
in the town and neighbourhood ; upwards of 1400 are
employed in preparing yarn, which is ufed in different
parts of England in carpeting ; and it is fuppufed not
lefs than 2000 are employed in the fiik and worfted
looms in the town and neighbourhood. The filk manu-
fafture was eftablifhed in 1755. The town is remark¬
ably healthy, and has alfo an extenfive manufafture of
quilting in the loom in imitation of Marfeillcs quilting.
Here is a Prefbycerian meeting houfe ; and they have
a handfome church, two good free-fchools, a charity-
fchool, and two alnu-houfes, &c. The town is go¬
verned by a bailiff, 1 2 capital burgeffes, 25 common
councilmen, &c. who have a town-hall. It former¬
ly fent members to parliament. By the late inland
navigation, it has communication by the junft’on of
the Severn canal with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Rib-
fcle, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames,
Avon, &c. which navigation, including its windings, Kllderj
extends above 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln, II
Nottingham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, Chef-
ter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxfotd, Worcef-
ter, &c. This parifh extends to Bewdley-bridge, has
a weekly market, and three fairs. W. Long. 2. ic.
N. Lat. 52. 28.
K! DDERS, thofe that badge or carry corn, dead
viftuals, or other merchandife, up and down to fell:
every perfon being a common badger, kidder, lader,
or carrier, &c. fays the flat. 5. Eliz. cap. 12. And
they are called kiddiers, 13 Eliz. cap. 25.
KIDDLE, or Kidel, (Kidellus), a dam or wear in a
river with a narrow cut in it, for the laying of pots
or other engines to catch fifh.
The word is ancient; for in Magna Charta, cap. 24.
we read, Omnes kidellideponantur per Bhsmeftam iff Med-
vjeyam, iff per totam Angliam, niji per cqfteram mans.
And by king John’s charter, power was gi anted to
the city of London, de kidellis amovendis per Thamejiam
iff Mediveyam. A furvey was ordered to be made of
the wears, mills, flanks, and kidells, in the great
rivers of England, 1 Hen. IV. Fifhermen of late
corruptly call thefe dams kettles; and they are much
ufed in Wales and on the fea-coafts of Kent.
K1DDINGTON, a town- of Oxfordfhire, four
miles from Woodftock, and 12 from Oxford. It is
fituated on the Glym river, wdiich divides the parilh in
two parts, viz. Over and Nether Kiddington, in the
latter of which Hands the church. This parifh was
given by King Offa in 780 to Worcefter priory. Here
King Ethelred had a palace j in the garden of the
manor-houfe is an antique font brought from Edward
the Confeffor’s chapel at Iflip, wherein he received
baptifm. In Hill-wood near this place is a Roman
encampment in extraordinary prefervation, but little
noticed.
KIDNAPPING, the forcible abduftion or flealing
away of man, woman, or child, from their own coun¬
try, and lending them into another. This crime was
capital by the Jewifh law : “ He that ftealeth a man
and felleth him, or if he be found in his hand, fliall
furely be put to death*. So likewife in the civil law, ^
the offence of fpiriting away and Healing men and
children, which was called plagium, and the offenders
plagiarii. was punifhed with death. This is unque-
flionably a very heinous crime, as it robs the king of
his fubjefts. banifhes a man from his country, and may
in its confequences be produftive of the moil cruel and
difagreeable hardfhips; and therefore the common law
of England has punifhed it with fine, imprifonment,
and pillory. And alfo the ftatute 11 and 12 W. III.
c. 7. though principally intended againft pirates, has
a claufe that extends to prevent the leaving of fuch
perfons abroad as are thus kidnapped or fpirited away;
by enafting, that if any captain of a merchant-veffel
fhall (during his being abroad) force any perfon on
fhore, or wilfully leave him behind, or refufe to bring
home all fuch men as he carried out, if able and defi-
rous to return, he fhall fuffer three months imprifon¬
ment.
KIDNEYS, in anatomy. See there, n° 101.
Kionur Bean See Phaseolus.
KIEL, a city of Germany, in the duchy of Hol-
ftein, in the circle of Lower Saxony, and the refi-
dence
K I L [ 4;j ] K I L
Kiggelaria dence of the duke of Holftein Gottorp. It has a caftle, than to engage deeply in the inore toilfome bufinefs
iniverfity founded in 1665 ; and there is a very of huibandry. —All the ground hitherto cultivated in ^
ted fair held here. It is feated at the bottom this ifland lies round the village. The foil is thin, full
of a bay of the Baltic Sea called Killerivid, at the of gravel, and of confequence very (harp. This, tho*
in "F T rinrr 1 1*1 Ttafurallir nnw. is. . r^nrlprp/'l pvfrpmplv
mouth of the river Schwentin, in E. Long. 10. 17,
N. Lat. 54. 26.
KIGGELARIA, in botany : A genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the dicecia clafs of plants;
und in the natural method ranking under the 37th or¬
der, Column fera. The male calyx is quinquepartite;
the corolla pentapetalous ; there are five trilobous glan¬
dules ; the antherse are perforated at top : the female
calyx and corolla as in the male ; there are five ftyles;
the capfule unilocular, quinquevalved, and polyfper-
mous. There is but one fpecies, viz. the Africana. It
hath an upright’ woody llem, and purplilh branches,
growing 15 or 18 feet high ; oblong, fawed, alternate
leaves; and dioecious, greenifh-white flowers, in clu-
fters from the fides of the branches ; fucceeded by
globular rough fruit, the fize of cherries, containing
the feeds, which feldom ripen here. As this is a na¬
tive of warm climates, it mult be conftantly kept in a
Hove in this country. It is propagated by feeds, lay¬
ers, or cuttings, though moft readily by feeds.
KIGHLEY, a town in the weft riding of York-
fhire, fix miles to the fouth-eaft of Skipton in Craven.
Itftands in a valley furrounded with hills at the meet¬
ing of two brooks, which fall into the river Are one
mile below it. Every family is fupplied with w'ater
brought to or near their doors in ftone troughs from
a never-failing fpring on the weft fide of it. The pa-
naturally poor, is, however, rendered extremely fer¬
tile, by the Angular induftry of very judicious huf-
bandmen ; thefe prepare and manure every inch of
their ground, fo as to convert it into a kind of gar¬
den. All the inftruments of agriculture they ufe, or
indeed require, according to their fyftem, are a fpade,
a mall, and a rake or harrow. After turning up the
ground with a fpade, they rake or harrow it very care¬
fully, removing every fmall ftone, every noxious root
or growing weed that falls in their way, and pound
down every ftiff clod into dull. It is certain that a
fmall number of acres well prepared in St Kilda, in
this manner, will yield more profit to the hufbandman
than a much greater number when roughly handled in
a hurry, as is the cafe in the other weftern ifles. The
people of St Kilda fow and reap much earlier than any
of their neighbours on the weftern coaft of Scotland.
The heat of the fun, refle&ed from the hills and rocks
into a low valley facing the fouth-eaft, nvuft in the
fummer time be quite intenfe ; and however rainy the
climate is, the corn muft for thefe reafons grow very
fall and ripen early.
The harveft is commonly over at this place before
the beginning of September; and fhould it fall out
otherwife, the whole crop would be almoft deftroyed
by the equino&ial ftorms. All the iflanders on the
weftern coaft have great reafon to dread the fury of
rifh is fix miles long and two broad, and is 60 miles autumnal tempefts: thefe, together with the exceilive
from the eaft and weft feas ; yet at the weft end of it
near Camel-Crofs is a rifing ground, from which the
. fprings on the eaft fide of it run to the eaft fea, and
thofe on the weft to the weft fea. By the late inland
navigation, this town has a communication with the ri-
quantities of rain they have generally throughout
feven or eight months of the year, are undoubtedly
the moft difadvantageous and unhappy circumftances'
of their lives. ,
Barley and oats are the only forts of grain known
vers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Se- at St Kilda; nor does it feem calculated for any other..
vern, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation,
including its windings, extends above 500 miles, in
the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, Lancafter, Weft-
Fifty bolls of the former, old Highland meafure, are
every year brought from thence to Harris; and all the
weftern iflands hardly produce any thing fo good of.
moreland, Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Ox- the kind. Potatoes have been introduced among that
ford, Worcefter, &c.
KILARNEY. See Killarney.
KILBEGGAN, a poll, fair, and borough town
of Ireland, in the county of Weftmeath and province
people only of late, and hitherto they have railed but
fmall quantities of them. The only appearance of a
garden in this whole land, fo the natives call their
principal ifland in their own language, is no more.
of Leinfter, 44 miles from Dublin. It returns two than a very inconfiderablc piece of ground, which is
members to parliament ; patronage in the Lambert fa¬
mily. It is feated on the river Brofna, over which
there is a bridge. There was here a monaftery found¬
ed in 1 zoo, and dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and in¬
habited by monks from the Ciftertian abbey of Mele-
fent. The fairs are two.
KILDA (St), one of the Hebrides or weftern
iflands of Scotland. It lies in the Atlantic ocean, a-
bout 58. 30. N Lat.; and is about three Englifh miles
‘n length from eaft to weft, and its breadth from fouth
inclofed and planted with fome cabbages. On the
eaft fide of the ifiand, at the diftance of a quarter of
a mile from the bay, lies the village, where the whole
body of this little people (the number amounting in:
1764 to no more than 88) live together like the inha¬
bitants of a town or city. It is certain that the inha¬
bitants were much more numerous formerly than at
prefent ; and the ifland, if under proper regulations,
might eafily fupport 300 fouls. Martin, who vifited
it about the end of the laft century, found 180 per-
to north not lefs than two. The ground of St Kilda, fons there ; but about the year 17 30, one of the peo-
like much the greateft part of that over all the High- pie coming to the ifiand of Harris, was feized with
lands, is much better calculated for pafture than til- the fmall-pox and died. Unluckily his clothes were
lage.—Reftrained by idlenefs, a fault or vice much carried away by one of his relations next year; and thus
jnore pardonable here than in any other part of Great was the infeftion communicated, which made fuch ha-
Britain, or difeouraged by the form of government vock, that only four grown perfons were left alive. Their
lender which they live, the people of the ifland ftudy houfes arc built in two rows, regular, and facing one
td rear up ftieep, and to kill wild-fowl, much more anotherpwitha tolerable caufeway in the middle, which:
wthe^
K T L f 456 J K I L
Kilda. they call the Jlrect. Thefe habitations are made and
contrived in a very uncommon manner. Every one of
them is flat in the roof, or nearly fo, much like the
houfes of fome oriental nations. That from any one
•of thefe the St Kildans have borrowed their manner
of building, no man of fenfe will entertain a fufpicion.
They have been taught this leflbn by their own reafon,
improved by experience. The place in which their
Jot has fallen is peculiarly fubjeft to -violent fqualls
.and furious hurricanes: were their houfes raifed higher
than at prefent, they believe the firft winter-ftorm
would bring them down about their ears. For this
• reafon the precaution they take in giving them roofs
much flatter than ordinary feems to be not altogether
wnneceflary. The walls of thefe habitations are made
of a rough gritty kind of ftones, huddled up together
in hafle, without either lime or mortar, from eight
.to nine feet high. In the heart of the walls are the
beds, which are Overlaid with flags, .and large enough
to contain three perfons. In the fide of every bed is
an opening, by way of door, which is much too nar¬
row and.low to anfwer that purpofe. All their dwell-
ing-houfes are divided into two apartments by parti¬
tion-walls. In the divifion next the door, which is
much the largeft, they have their cattle flailed during
the whole winter-feafon ; the other ferves for kitchen,
,hall, and bed.room.
It will be readily expe&ed, that a race of men and
women bred in St Kilda muft be a very flovenly ge¬
neration, and every way inelegant. It is indeed im-
• poflible to defend them from this imputation. Their
•method of preparing a fort of manure, to them indeed
of vail ufe, proves that they are very indelicate. Af-
•ter having burnt a confiderable quantity of dried turf,
.they fpread the alhes with the niceft care over the floor
of that apartment in which they eat and fleep. Thefe
.alhes, fo exactly laid out, they cover with a rich
friable fort of earth ; over this bed of earth they fcat-
.ter a proportionable heap of that dull into which peats
*ire apt to crumble away: this done, they water, tread,
•and beat the whole compoll into a hard floor, on whic.h
•they immediately make new fires very large, and ne¬
ver extinguilhed till they have a fufficient flock of new
alhes on hand. The fame operations are repeated with
a never-failing punftuality, till they are juft ready to
Jbw their barley; by that time the walls of their hou-
les are funk down, or, to fpeak more properly, the
floors rifcn about four or five feet.
To have room enough for accumulating heaps of
.this compoll one above another, the ancient St Kil-
4ians had ingenuity enough to contrive their beds
within the linings of their walls; and it was for the
fame reafou they took care to raife thefe walls to an
height far from being common in the other weftern
Mauds. The manure produced in this way muft un¬
doubtedly be good ; though probably rather lharp than
of long duration, as it is fcattered in fmall quantities
Upon the furface of the ground. Be that as it will,
thofe who pra&ice this art are abundantly lavilh in its
praifes. They call it a commodity inejhmably precious ;
pnd one may venture to affirm, that a genuine St Kil-
dian would fcruple to barter it away for all the dia-
jmonds in Brafil and Golconda.
It is certain that cieanlinefs mull contribute greatly
172,
to health, and of courfe longevity ; but in fpite of that
inftance of indelicacy now given, and many more which
mi£ht have been added, the people of this ifland are
not more Ihort-lived than other men. Their total want
of thofe articles of luxury, which have fo natural a ten¬
dency to deftroy the conllitution of the human body,
and their moderate exercifes, will, together with fome
other circumllances, keep the balance of life equal
enough between them and thofe who are abfolute
ftrangers to llovenlinefs.
Befides the dwelling-houfes already defcribed, there
ere a prodigious number of little cells difperfed over
all the illand ; which confift entirely of Hones, without
any the fmalleft help of timber. Thefe cells are from
-12 to iS feet in length, and a little more than feven
in height. Their breadth at the foundation is nearly
equal to the height. Every ftone hangs above that
immediately below,-not perpendicularly, but inclines
forward, fo as to be nearer the oppofite fide of the
grotto, and thus by imperceptible degrees till the
two highell courfes are near enough to be covered
by a Angle flag at the top. To hinder the rain from
falling down between the interftices above, the upper
part of the building is overlaid with turf, which looks
like a fine green (ward while new. The inhabitants
fecure their peats, eggs, and wi!d-fowl, within thefe
fmall repofitories; every St Kildian has his fhare of
them, in proportion to the extent of land he pof-
feffes, or the rent he pays to the fteward. From the
conftrudlion of thefe cells, and the toil they mutt have
coft before they could have been finifhed, it feems
plain, that thofe who put them together, were, if not
more ingenious than their neighbours in the adjacent
iflands, at lead more induftrious than their own fuc-
ceffors.
The St Kilda method of catching wild-fowl is very
entertaining. The men are divided Into fowling-par¬
ties, each of which confifls generally of four perfons
diftinguifhed by their agility and Ikill. Each party
muft have at lead one rope about 30 fathoms long;
this rope is made out of a ftrong raw cow hide, faked
for that very purpofe, and cut circularly into three
thongs all of equal length ; thefe thongs being clofe-
ly twitted together, form a three-fold card, able to
fuftain a great weight, and durable enough to laft for
about two generations: to prevent the injuries it would
otherwife receive from the fharp edges of the rocks,
againft w'hich they muft frequently ftrike, the cord is
lined with fheep-lkins, dreffed in much the fame man-
This rope is a piece of furniture indifpenfably ne-
ceffary, and the mod valuable implement a man of
fubftance can be poffeffed of in St Kilda. In the*tef-
tament of a father, it makes the very firft article in
favour of his eldeft fon : fhould it happen to fall to a
daughter’s ftiare, in default of male heirs, it is reckon¬
ed equal in value to the two heft cows in the ifland.
By the help of fuch ropes, the people of the great-
ell prowefs and experience here traverfe and examine
rocks prodigioufly high. Linked together in couples,
each having either end of the cord faftened about his
waift, 4hey go frequently through the moft dreadful
precipices : when one of the two defcends, his col¬
league plants himfelf on a ftrong Ihelf, and takes care
K. I L
C 457 1
K I L
ICildafe. to have fuch fure footing there, that if his fellow-ad- Vefey in 1290; the round tower here is 130 feet high, Kildare
1 venturer makes a falfe ftep, and tumbles over, he may built of white granite to about 12 feet above the
« i_i- r  j -—1    kt..„ a  t'i  Kilianus.
be able to fave him.
The following anecdote of a fteward of St Kilda’s
ground, and the reft of common bine ftone. The pe- u
deftal of an old crofs is ftill to be feen here ; and the
deputy will give the reader a fpecimen of the dangers upper part of a crofs lies near it on the ground.—Fairs
they undergo, and at the fame time of the uncom
mon ftrength of the St Kildians. This man, obferving
his colleague lofe his hold, and tumbling down from
above, placed himfelf fo firmly upon the Ihelf where
he flood, that he fuftained the weight of his friend,
after falling the whole length of the rope. Undoubt¬
edly thefe are ftupendous adventures, and equal to any
thing in the feats of chivalry. Mr Macaulay gives an
inftance of the dexterity of the inhabitants of St Kil-
da in catching wild-fowl, to which he was an eye-wit-
nefs. Two noted heroes were drawn out from among
all the ableft men of the community : one of them
held here on 12th February, Eafter-Tuefday, 12th
May, and 19th September. The fairs held here are
four.
Kildare, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Leinfter, which is 37 miles in length and 20 in.
breadth; and is bounded on the eaft by Dublin and
Wicklow, op the weft by King and Queen’s county,
on the north by Eaft-Meath, and on the fouth by Ca-
therlogh. It is a fine arable country, well watered by
the Barrow, Liffey, and other rivers, and well inhabi¬
ted and cultivated, containing 228,590 Irifh plantation
acres, 100 parifhes, 10 baronies, 4 boroughs, and re¬
fixed himfelf on a craggy fhelf; his companion went turns 10 members to parliament. The chief town
down 60 fathoms below him ; and after having darted
himfelf away from the face of a moft alarming preci-
of the fame name, and gave title of earl to the noble
family of Fitzgerald. It was anciently called Chille-
pice hanging over the ocean, he began to play his dair, i. e. “ the wood of oaks,” from a large foreft
gambols ; he fung merrily, and laughed very heartily: which comprehended the middle part of this county ;
after having performed feveral antic tricks, and given in the centre of this wood was a large plain, facred to
all the entertainment his art could afford, he returned ' ~‘ ' '   
in triumph, and full of his own merit, with a large
heathen fuperftition, and at prefent called the Curragb
^ of Kildare; at the extremity of this plain, about the
firing of fowls about his neck, and a number of eggs commencement of the 6th century, St Brigid, one of
in his bofom. This method of fowling refembles that
of the Norwegians, as defcribed by bifhop Pontoppi-
dan.
KILDARE, a town of Ireland, and capital of a
county of the fame name, is fituated 28 miles fouth-
weft of Dublin. It returns two members to parlia¬
ment, patron the duke of Leinfter $ and is governed
by a fovereign, recorder, and two portrieves. The
church of Kildare was very early erefted into a cathe¬
dral with epifcopal jurifdidlion, which dignity it re¬
tains to this day ; the cathedral, however, has been for
feveral years negle&ed, and at prefent is almoft in ruins.
the heathen veftals, on her converfion to the Chriftian
faith, founded, with the afiiftance of St Conlaeth, a
church and monaftery, near which, after the manner
of the Pagans, St Brigid kept the facred fire in a cell,
the ruins of which are ftill vifible.
KILDERKIN, a liquid meafure, containing two
firkins.
KILIAN (Lucas), an eminent engraver, was a
native of Auglburg in Germany, and flourilhed at the
beginning of the 17th century. In what fchool he
learned the art is uncertain ; but his ftyle of engra¬
ving bears no fmall refemblance in many particulars to
St Brigid founded a nunnery at Kildare, which after- that of Henry Goltzius, and of John Muller his dif-
wards came into the poffeffion of the regular canons of ciple. It appears, however, that he went to Italy in
St Auguftin: this faint died ill February 523, and
was interred here ; but her remains were afterwards r
order to complete his ftudies, where he engraved feve¬
ral plates from the pictures of the great Italian mafters.
moved to the cathedral church of Down. In the year According to Mr Strutt, few artifts have manifeftcd a
638, Aod Dubh or Black Hugh king of Leinfter abdi¬
cated his throne, and took on him the Auguftinian ha-
greater command of the graver than Kilian, whether
we confider the facility with which the ftrokes i
bit in this abbey ; he was afterwards chofen abbot and turned upon each other, or the firmnefs with which
u:/! r  j- 1 .1.  1 it t ^ r . , ......
bifhop of Kildare, and died on the xoth May. In ■756,
Eiglitigin the abbot, who was alfo bifhop of Kildare,
was killed by a prieft as he was celebrating mafs at the
altar of St Brigid ; fince which time no prieft whatfo-
ever was allowed to celebrate mafs in that church in
the prefence of a bifhop. In 1220 Henry de Loun-
dres archbifhop of Dublin put out the fire called inex-
tinguifhablc, which had been preferved from a very ear¬
ly time by the nuns of St Brigid. This fire was how¬
ever relighted, and continued to burn till the total
fuppreffion of monafteries. Here was alfo a Grey ab-
they are executed ; and one cannot help admiring it,
though it evidently ftrikes us, that by paying too clofe
attention to this part of the art, he negle&ed the cor-
reftnefs of his outlines, and fatigued the lights with
unneceffary wor\ ; by which means he broke the maf-
fes, and often totally deftroyed the effeft of his prints.
The naked parts of the human figure are feldom well
expreffed; the extremities efpecially are in general
very heavy, and fometimes incorredt. Upon the work*
of this mailer, however, it appears, that Balechou, fo
famous for his fkill in handling of the graver, formed
bey on the fouth fide of the town, erefled for friars of his tafte. His works are exceedingly numerous. The
the Francifcan order, or, as they were more generally '   ’ ' "
called. Grey friars, in the year 1260, by Lord Wil¬
liam de Vefey ; but the building was completed by
Gerald Fitzmaurice, Lord Offaley. A confiderable
part of this building yet remains, which appears not
to have been of very great extent. A houfe for white             _
fiiars was likewife founded in this town by William de prefs at the printing-houfe of Plantin for co years.
Vol, IX. Part II. . 1 5 M He
time'of his death is not any where mentioned.—There
were feveral other engravers of the fame name and fa¬
mily ; but of too inferior merit to deferve particular
notice.
KILIANUS (Cornelius), a native of Brabant, di-
ftinguifhed himfelf as an excellent corredlor of the
K I L [ 458 ] K I L
Kilkenny He likewife wrote feveral books which are efteemed. towers which have fo much engaged the attention of Kilkenny*
L . y—— pjjg Apology for Correftors againft Authors, an epi- travellers. The bifhop’s palace is a handfotne building,v—v*~,*,
gram of 18 verfes, is a proof his abilities in Latin and communicates by a covered paffage with the church,
poetry. The caftle was firft built in 1195, on the fite of one
KILKENNY, a county of Ireland, in the province deitroyed by the Iri(h in 1173. The fit nation in a
of Leinfter, bounded on the fouth by the county of military view was moft eligible : the ground was ori«
Waterford, on the north by the Queen's county, on ginally a conoid, the elliptical fide abrupt and precipi-
the weft by the county of Tipperary, on the eaft by tous, with the river running rapidly at its bafe : here
the counties of Wexford and Catherlogh, and on the the natural rampart was faced with a wall of folid ma-
corth-weft by Upper Offory. The greateft length of fonry 40 feet high 5 the other parts were defended by
this county from north to fouth is 38 miles, the baftions, curtains, towers, and outworks; and on the
breadth from eaft to weft 18 ; and it contains 10 ba- fummit the cattle was erefted. This place, as it now
ronies. It is one of the moft healthful, pleafant,” and ftands, was built by the anceftors of the dukes of Or-
populous counties of Ireland. It contains 287,650 mond : here the Ormond family refided.; and it is now
Iriftr plantation acres, 96 parifties, 9 baronies, and 7 in the pofieffion of Mr Butler, a defeendant of that il-
boroughs. and returns 16 members to parliament, luftrious race. The college originally founded by the
Gilbert Clare, Earl of Gloucefter and Hereford, mar- Ormond family is rebuilt in a ftyle of elegance and
rying Ifabella, one of the daughters and co-heireffes of convenience. The tholfel and market-boufe are both
William earl Marflial, received as her dower the county good buildings; and over the latter is a fuit of rooms,,
of Kilkenny. in which, during the w'inter and at races and affizen
Kilkenny, the capital of a county of the fame times, aifemblies are held. There are two very fine
name in Ireland, fituated in the province of Leinfter, bridges of cut marble over the Nore; John's Bridge
57 miles fouth-vveft of Dublin. It takes its name
from the cell or church of Canic, who was an eminent
hermit in this country ; and is one of the moft elegant
particularly is light and elegant. The Ormond family
built and endowed a free fchool in this city. Here are
the ruins of three old monafteries, called St John'ty
cities in the kingdom. It is the feat of the biihop of St Francis's, and the Black abbey: belonging to the
Oflbry, which was tranflated from Agabo in Offory, latter are the remains of feveral old monuments, al-
about the end of Henry ILd’s reign, by biftiop O’Dul- moft buried in the ruins; and the courts of the others
lany. The city is pleafantly fituated on the Neor, a are converted into barracks. The manufa&ures chiefly
navigable river that difeharges itfelf into the harbour carried on here are, coarfe woollen cloths, blankets of
of Waterford. It is faid of Kilkenny, that its air is extraordinary fine quality, and confiderahle quantities
without fog, its water without mud, its fire without of ftarch. In the neighbourhood alfo, arc made very
fmoke, and its-ftreets paved with marble. The two beautiful chimney-pieces of that fpecies of ftone al-
latter are indeed matter of fail; for they have in ready mentioned, called Kilkenny marble: they are cut
the neighbourhood a kind of coal that burns from and polifhed by water, a mill for that purpofe (the on-
firft to laft without fmoke, and pretty much refembles ly one of its kind perhaps in Europe) being invented
the WeKh coal. Moil of the ftreets alfo are aftually by the late Mr Colles. The Kilkenny coal-pits are
paved with a very good fort of black marble ; of which within nine miles of the town. This city came by
they have large quarries near the town, which takes a marriage into the ancient family of Le Defpencer. It
fine poliih, and is beautifully intermixed with white was incorporated by charter from King James I. in
granite. The air too is good and healthy, though 1609 The market-crofs of Kilkenny continued an
not remarkably clearer than in many other parts of ornament to the city until 1771, when it was taken
the kingdom. The city is governed by a mayor, re- down ; the date on it was MCCC. Sir James Ware
corder, aldermen, and (heriffs. It comprifes two mentions Bifhop Cantwell’s rebuilding the great bridge
towns, viz. Kilkenny fo called, and Irifli-town, each of Kilkenny, thrown down by an inundation about
of which fends two members to parliament, and both the year 1447. It appears alfo that St John's bridge
together are computed to contain about 20,000 inha- fell down by a great flood in 1564; and on 2d O&o-
bitants. This city was once of great confequence, as ber 1763, by another like circumftance, Green’s bridge
may be feen by the venerable ruins yet remaining of near the cathedral fell.—The borough of St Canice,
tthurches, monafteries, and abbeys, which even now or Irifh-town, always enjoyed very ancient preferiptive
in their dilapidated ftate exhibit fuch fpecimens of ex- rights. A clofe roll of 5 Edward III. A. D. 1376,
quifite tafte in archite&ure as may vie with any mo- forbids the magiftrates of Kilkenny to obftruft the fale
dern improvements ; and the remains of its gates, tow- of viftuals in the market of Irifh-town, or within the
«rs, and walls, (ho v it to have been a place of great crofs, under the pretence of cuftom for murage t
ftrength. Here too at different times parliaments and left the ample grants made to Kilkenny might be
were held, in which fome remarkable ftatutes were interpreted fo as to include Irifh-town, the corporation
paffed. It has two churches, and feveral catholic of the latter fecured their ancient rights by letters-
shapels; barracks for a troop of horfe and four com- patent 15 Edward IV. A. D. 1474. Thefe renew
panies of foot; a market is held twice in the week, their former privileges, and appoint a portrieve to be
and there are feven fairs in the year.—Irifh-town is chofen every 21ft September, and fworn into office on
more properly called the borough of St Canice, vulgar- the nth Oaober. The portrieve’s prifon was at
ly Kenny; the patronage of which is in the bifhop of Troy-gate. Whenever the mayor of Kilkenny came
Offory. The cathedral, which ftands in a fequeftered fi- within Water-gate, he dropt down the point of the
tuation, is a venerable Gothic pile, built above 500 city-fword, to fhow he claimed no pre-eminence within
years; and clofe to it is one of thofe remarkable round the borough.
7 * KILL ALOE,
K I L
[ 459 ]
It I L
Killaloe, KILLALOE, a bidiop’s fee in the county of riety of forms by the waves, and the trees and flmibs Killarney.
Killamey. C}are anc} province of Munfter, in Ireland, 86 miles
from Dublin, otherwife Lounia. It was anciently
buriting from the pores of the faplefs ftone, forced to ^
affume the moll uncouth lhapes to adapt themfelves to
written Ktll-da-Lua, i. e. “ the church of Lua,” from their fantaftic fituations. The iflands are not fo nu-
Lua, or Mvlua, who about the beginning of the 6th merous in this as in the upper lake; but there is one
century founded an abbey near this place St Molua
appears to have derived his name from Loania, the
place of his refidence, as was cuftomary amongft the
ancient Irilh. On the death of St Molua, St Flannan
his difciple, and fon of the chief of the diftri&, was
confecrated bilhop of this place at Rome about the
of uncommon beauty, viz. Innisfallen, nearly oppofite
to O’Sullivan’s cafcade: It contains 18 Irilh acres.
The coaft is formed into a variety of bays and promon¬
tories, Ikirted and crowned with arbutus, holly, and
other/hrubs and trees ; the interior parts are diverfified
with hills, and dales, and gentle declivities, on which
year 639, and the church endowed with confiderable every tree and fhrub appears to advantage : the foil is
eftates by his father Theodorick. Towards the clofe
of the 12th century, the ancient fee of Rofcrea was
united to that of Killaloe; from which period thefe
united bilhoprics have been governed by the fame bi¬
rich even to exuberance ; and trees of the largeft fize
incline acrofs the vales, forming natural arches, with
ivy entwining in the branches, and hanging in feftoona
of foliage. The promontory of Mucrufs, which di¬
fhops. At Killaloe is a bridge over the Shannon of vides the upper from the lower lake, is a perfeft land
9 arches; and here is a confiderable falmon and eel of enchantment; there is a road carried through the
filhery. There are many ancient buildings in and a-
bout this town. The cathedral is a Gothic edifice in
form of a crofs, with the fteeple in the centre, fup-
centre of the promontory, which unfolds all the inte¬
rior beauties of the place. Amongft the diftant moun¬
tains, Turk appears an object of magnificence; and
ported by four arches ; it was built by Donald king of Mangerton’s loftier, though lefs interefting fummit.
Limerick in 1160. There is a building near it, once
the oratory of St Molua; and there is another of the
fame kind in an ifland on the Shannon, having marks
of ftill higher antiquity. The fee houfe of the bilhop
is at Clarisford, near to Killaloe. Adjoining to the ca¬
thedral are yet fome remains of the maufoleum of Brien
Boru.
KILLARNEY, a poft-town of Ireland in the
county of Kerry and province of Munfter, feated near
a fine lake called Lough Lean, or Lake of Killarney. It
is diftant 143 miles from Dublin, and has two fairs.
Within a mile and a half of this place are the ruins
of the cathedral of Aghadoe, an ancient bilhoprick
rears itfelf above thq whole. The paffage to the up¬
per lake is round the extremity of Mucrufs, which
confines it on one fide, and the approaching moun¬
tains on the other. Here is the celebrated rock called
the eagle’s nejl, which produces wonderful echoes. A
French horn founded here, raifes a concert fuperior to
100 inftruments; and the report of a fingle cannon is
anfvvered by a fuccefiion of peals refembling the loud*
eft thunder, which feems to travel the furrounding feene-
ry, and die away among the diftant mountains. The up¬
per lake is four miles in length, and from two to three
in breadth; and is almoft furrounded by mountains, from
which defeend a number of beautiful cafcades. The
united to Ardfert; and within four miles the ruins of iflands in this lake are numerous, and afford an ama-
Aglifh church. At this town is the feat and gardens
of lord Kenmore.
The beautiful lake of Killarney is divided properly
into three parts, called the lower, middle, and upper
lake. The northern or lower lake is fix miles in length
and from three to four in breadth, and the town is fi-
tuated on its northern fhore. The country on this and
the eaftern boundary is rather of a tame charafter; but
is here and there diverfified with gentle fwells, many
of which afford delightful profpe£ts of the lake, the
iflands, and furrounding feenery. The fouthern fhore
is compofed- of immenfe mountains, rifing abruptly
zing variety of pi&urefque views.—The centre lake,
which communicates with the upper, is but fmall in
comparifon with the other two, and cannot boaft of
equal variety. The fhores, however, are in many pla¬
ces indented with beautiful bays, furrounded with dark
groves of trees, fome of which have a moft pi&urefque
appearance when viewed from the water. The eaftem
boundary is formed by the bafe of Mangerton, down
the fteep fide of which defeends a cafcade vifible for
150 yards: this fall of water is fupplied by a circular
lake near the fummit of the mountain, called the
Devil’s Punch Bowl; which, on account of its im-
from the water, and covered with woods of the fineft menfe depth, and the* continual overflow of water, is
timber. From the centre of the lake the view of this conlidered as one of the greateft curiofities in Killar-
range is aftonifhingly fublime, prefenting to the eye an
extent of~foreft fix miles in length, and from half a
mile to a mile and a half in breadth, hanging in a robe
of rich luxuriance on the fides of two mountains,
whole bare tops rifing above the whole form a per-
fedt eontraft to the verdure of the lower region. On
the fide of one of thefe mountains is O’Sullivan’s caf¬
cade, which falls into the lake with a roar that ftrikes
the timid with awe on approaching it. The view of copper,
this fheet of water is uncommonly fine, appearing as if lakes
it were defeending from an arch of wood, which over-
bangs it about 70 feet in height from the point of
view. Coafting along this fhore affords an almoft end-
lefs entertainment, every change of pofition prefenting
a new feene; the rocks hollowed and worn into a va-
ney.—Mr Smith feems to think, that one of the beft
profpefts this admired lake affords, is from a rifing
ground near the ruined cathedral of Aghadoe.
The lake of Killarney is otherwife called Lough
Lane, or Loch Lean, from its being furrounded by high
mountains. Nennius fays, that thefe lakes were en-
compaffed by four circles of mines; the firft of tin, the
fecond of lead, the third of iron, and the fourth of
In the feVeral mountains adjacent to the
ftill to be feen the veftiges of the ancient
mines' of iron, lead, and copper; but tin has not as
yet been difeovered here. Silver and gold are faid by
the Irilh antiquaries to have been found in the early
ages : but this is fomewhat doubtful, efpecially in any
confiderable quantity, though fome filver probably was
3 M 2 extra&ed
K I L [ 460 3 K I L
Killas, extrafted from the lead ore, and fmall quantities of daughter from the field. The Macdonalds on the left Killlgrew.
might have been obtained from the yellow copper of the Highlanders were not equally fuccefsful. Colo-
t ' , ore of Mucrufs. However, in the neighbourhood of nel Haftings’ regiment of foot ftood their ground.
thefe lakes were found in the early ages, as well as at They even forced the Macdonald’s to retreat. Mac-
prefent, pebbles of feveral colours, which taking
beautiful polilh, the ancient Irifh wore in their ears,
girdles, and different articles of their drefs and furni¬
ture.
KILLAS, a genus of ftones belonging to the ar¬
gillaceous clafs, found chiefly in Cornwall in England.
Its texture is either lamellar or coarfely granular; the
fpecific gravity from 2630 to 2666. It contains 60
parts of filiceous earth, 2 5 of argillaceous, 9 of mag-
nefia, and 6 of iron. The greenifh kind contains
more iron, and gives a green tin&ure to the nitrous
acid.
Kf LLICRANKIE, a noted pafs of Perthfliire in
Scotland. It is formed by the lofty mountains im¬
pending over the water of Carrie, which rufhes
through in a deep, darkfome, and horrid channel, be¬
neath. In the laft century this was a pafs of much
danger and difficulty ; a path hanging over' a tremen¬
dous precipice threatened deftru&ion to the lead falfe
ftep of the traveller: at prefent a fine road formed by
the foldiery lent by government, and encouraged by
an additional 6 d. per day, gives an eafy accefs to the
remote Highlands; and the twp fides are joined by a
fine arch.
Near the north end of this pafs, in its open and. un¬
improved ftate, was fought in the year 1689 the battle
of Killicranky, between the adherents of James II. un¬
der Vifcount Dundee, and of William III, under Ge¬
neral Mackay. Dundee’s army was very much infe¬
rior to that of Mackay’s. When he came in fight of future ftate.
lean, with a few of his tribe, and Sir Evan Cameron
at the head of his clan, fell fuddenly on the flank of
this gallant regiment, and forced them to give way.
The flaughter ended not with the battle. Two thou-
fand fell in the field and the flight. The tents, bag¬
gage, artillery, and provifions of the enemy, and even
king William’s Dutch (landard, which wats carried by
Mackay’s regiment, fell into the hands of the High¬
landers. The vi&ory was now complete. But the
Highlander's loft their gallant leader. Perceiving the
unexpe&ed refiftance of Colonel Haftings’ regiment,
and the confufion of the Macdonald’s, Dundee rode
rapidly to the left wing. As he was railing his arm,,
and pointing to the Cameron’s to advance, he received
a ball in his fide. The wound proved mortal; and
with Dundee fell all the hopes of king James at that
time.
KILLIGREW ('William), eldeft for. of Sir Robert
Killigrew knight, was born in 1605, He was genile-
man-ufher of the privy-chamber to king Charles I.
and on the reftoration to Charles II. When the lat-
ter married the princefs Catharine of Portugal, he was
created vice-chamberlain; in which ftation he conti¬
nued 22 years, and died in 169.3- was the author
of four plays, which, though now thrown afide, were
much applauded by the poets of that time,, particular¬
ly by Mr Waller; and in the decline of life he pubr
lifhed fome pious reflexions on the inflability of hu¬
man happinefs,. when our views are not direXed to &
the latter, he found them formed in eight battalions
ready for aXion. They confided of 4500 foot, and
two troops of horfe. The Highlanders under Dun¬
dee amounted to little more than half that number.
Thefe he ranged inftantly in order of battle. Maclean,
with his tribe, formed the right wing. The Macdo¬
nalds of Sky, under their chieftain’s eldeft fon, formed
the left. The Camerons, the Macdonald’s of Glengary,
the followers of Clanronald, and a few Irifti auxiliaries,
were in the centre. A troop of horfe were placed be¬
hind under Sir William Wallace. The officers fent
by James from Ireland were diftributed through all the
Killigrew (Thomas), brother of the former, waa
born in 1611; and in procefs of time diftinguiffied
himfelf by his uncommon natural parts. He was
page of honour to King Charles I. and groom of the
bed-chamber to Charles II. with whom he fuffered
many years exile ; during which he,applied his leifute
hours to the ftudy of poetry, and to the compofitiorj
of feveral plays. After the reftoration he continued
in high favour with the king, and had frequently ac¬
cefs to him when he was denied to the firft peers in the
realm ; and being a man of great wit and livelinefs df
parts, and having from his. long intimacy with that
line. His whole army flood in fight of the enemy for monarch, and being continually about his perfon du-
feveral hours on the fteep fide of a hill, which faced
the narrow plain where Mackay had formed his line.
Dundee wifhed for the approach of nighta feafon.
fuited for either viXory or flight.
ring his troubles, acquired a freedom and familiarity
with him, which even the pomp of majelty afterwards
could not check in him, he fometimes, by way of jeft,
which King Charles was ever fond of, if genuine, even
At five of the clock in the afternoon, a kind of flight though himfelf was the objeX of the fatire, would ad-
Ikirmifh began between the right wing of the High¬
landers and the left of the enemy. But neither army
wifhing to change their ground, the firing was difeon-
tinued for three hours. Dundee in the mean time
flew from tribe to tribe, and animated them to aXion.
At eight of the clock he gave the fignal for battle, and
charged the enemy in perfon at the head of the hojfe.
The Highlanders in deep columns ruftied fuddenty
down the hill. They kept their thot till they were
within a pike’s length, of the enemy; and having fired
their mufliets, fell upon them fword in hand. Mac¬
kay’s left wing could not for a moment fuftain the
ihick. They were driven by the Macleans. with great
venture bold truths which fcarcely any one befides
would have dared even to hint at. One ftory in par¬
ticular is related of him, which if true is a ftrong
proof of the great lengths he would fometimes proceed
in his freedoms of this kind, which is as follows:—
When the king’s unbounded paffion for women had gi¬
ven his miftrefs fuch an afeendant over him, that, like,
the effeminate Perfian monarch, he was much fitter to
have handled a dirtaff than to wield a feeptre, and for
the converfation of his concubines utterly negleXed
the molt important affairs of ftate, Mr Killigrew went
to pay his majeity a vifit in his private apartments,,
habited like a pilgrim who v/as bent on a long journey.
The
K I L [ 461 ] K I L
^jlligrew, The king, furprifed at the oddity of his appearance,
uliileagh, immediately afked him what was the meaning of it,
L—v—' an(j whither he was going ? “ To hell,” bluntly re¬
plied the wag. “Prithee (faid the king), what can
your errand be to that place ?” “ To fetch back Oli¬
ver Cromwell (rejoined he), that he may take fome care
j of the affairs of England, for his fucceffor takes notie at
all.”—One more llory is related of him, which is not
barren of humour. King Charles’s fondnefs for plea-
fure, to which he almoft always made bufinefs give way,
ufed frequently to delay affairs of confequence, from his
majefly’s difappointing the council of his prefence when
met for the difpatch of bufinefs, which negleft gave
great difguft and offence to many of thofe who were
treated with this feeming difrefpe&. On one of thefe
occafions the duke of Lauderdale, who was naturally
impetuous and turbulent, quitted the council chamber
in a violent paffion ; and meeting Mr KUligrew pre-
fently after, expreffed himfelf on the oecalion in very
difrefpe&ful terms of his majefty. Killigrew begged
his grace to moderate his paffion, and offered to lay
him a wager of tool, that he himfelf would prevail on
his majefty to come to council in half an hour. The
duke, furprifed at the boldnefs of the affertion, and
warmed by his refentment againfi. the king, accepted
the wager; on which Killigrew irhmediately went to
the king, and without ceremony told him what had
happened ; adding thefe words, “ I know that your
majefly hates Lauderdale, though the neceffity of your
affairs compels you to carry an outward appearance'of
civility : now, if you choofe to get rid of a man who
is thus difagreeable to you, you need only go this once
to council; for I know his covetous difpofition fo per-
fedfiy, that I am well perfuaded, rather than pay this
t oo 1. he would hang himfelf out of the way, and ne¬
ver plague you more.” The king was fo pleafed with
the archnefs of this obfervation, that he immediately
replied, “ Well then, Killigrew, 1 pofitively will go;”
and kept his word accordingly.—Kiltigrew died in
16: 2, and was buried in Weftminfter-abbey,
Ku-ligrew (Anne), “ a Grace for beauty, and
a Mufe for wit,” as Mr Wood fays, was the daughter
of Dr Henry Killigrew, brother of the two foregoing,
and was born a little before the reftoration. She
gave early indications of genius, and .be came eminent
in the arts both of poetry and painting. She drew
the duke of York and his duchefs to whom ffie was
maid of honour, as well as feveral other portraits and
hiftory-pieces ; and crowned all her other accomplilh-
ments with unblemiffied virtue and exemplary piety.
Mr Dryden feems quite laviffi in her praife, though
Wood affures us he has faid no more of her than (he
was equal if not fuperior to. This amiable young wo¬
man died of the fmall-pox in 1685 ; and the year after
her poems were publifhed in a thin 410 volume.
KJLL1LEAGH, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Down and province of Ulfter, 80 miles from Dub¬
lin ; otherwife written KlllyJeagh. It is the principal
town in the barony of Duffrin ; and feated on an arm
of the lake of Strangford, from which it is fupplied
with a great variety of firti. The family of the Ha-
miltons created firft Lords Clanbois, and afterwards
Earls of Clanbiaflil, had their feat and refidence here
ir a cable Handing at the upper end of the great ftreet;
at the lower end of the ftreet La little fafe bay, where
ftiips lie ftteltered from all winds 5 in the town are fome Killou?h.
good houfes, a deceit market houfe, a horfe barrack, l~—v“—“;
and a Prefbyterian meeting-houfe. On an eminence a
fmall diftance from the town is a handfome church
built in the form of a crofs. This place fuffered much
in the calamitous year 1641. It is now thriving, and
the linen manufacture carried on in it, and fine thread
made, for which it has a great demand. It returns
two members to parliament, pattonage in the Black¬
wood family; and holds three fairs. The celebrated
naturalift and eminent phy fician Sir Hans Sloan was bom
here 16th April 1660, and his father Alexander Sloan
was at the head of that colony of Scots which King
James I. fettled in the place. This town was incor¬
porated by that king at the kftance of the firft earl of
Clanbois.
KILLOUGH (otherwife Port St Arne), aport-
town of Ireland, fituated in the county of Down and
province of Ulfter, 76 miles from Dublin. It lies
north of St John’s Point, and has a good quay, where
ftiips lie very fafe. The town is agreeably fituated ; the
fea flowing all along the banks of the houfes, where
(hips tide in full view of the inhabitants. There is
here a good church, and a horfe-barrack. They have
good tiffiing in the bay ; but the principal trade of
the place confiffs in the exportation of barley, and the
importation of fuch Commodities as are confumed in
the adjacent conntry. A manufacture of fait is alfo
carried on with great advantage. The fairs held here
are five. At a fmall diftance from the town is a char¬
ter working-fehool for the reception of 20 children,
which was fet on foot by the late Mr Juttice Ward.
There is a remarkable well here called St Scordin’s
well, and highly efteemed for the extraordinary light-
nefs of its water. It gufhes out of a high rocky bank,
clofe upon the (bore, and is obferved never to dimiiiiilv
its quantity in the diieft feafon. There is alfo a mineral,
fpring near the fchool, the waters of which the inhabi¬
tants affirm to be both purgative and emetic. At a
fmall diftance from the town near the fea is a rock in
which there is an oblong hole, from whence at the
ebbing and flowing of the tide a ftrange noife is heard
fomewhat refembling the found of a huntfman’s horn.
In an open field about a quarter of a mile from the
town towards St John’s-point there is a very curious
cave, which has a winding paflage two feet and an half
broad, with three doors in it befides the entrance, and
leading to a circular chamber three yards in diameter,
where there is a fine limpid well. The cave is about
27 yards long.
Killovgh Harbour is tolerably fafe and commodi¬
ous ; a fmall degree of caution, however, is neceflary in
failing into it ; for a rock ftands in the middle of the
entrance, covered at half flood, commonly called the
watcr-rock. Either to the eaft or weft of this rock is
a fecure paflage, the inlet lying fouth by eaft and
north by weft. On the weft fide of the rock open to
Coney-ifland is a ftrong quay, and a bafon for ftiips,
where they are defended from all winds, within which
the harbour on both fidts affords good anchorage for
veffels of 150 tons. At the end of the quay the chan¬
nel is 400 yards wide. The bay of Killough is form¬
ed by Itin-fad at the Long-point to the eaft, and St
john’s-point to the weft, as the inner harbour is by a
peninfula called Coiiey-lfle' from the number of rabbits
t here on 3.
K I L T 462 ] KIN
Killybeg-s thereon, and not Cane-ijle as Sir William Petty has it.
11 An impetuous fea runs on all this coaft in florms and
KUm*r' fpring tides.
._r°tC- K1LLYBEGS, a borough and fair town in the
couaty of Donegal and province of Ulfter, 123 miles
from Dublin. It is lituated on the north fide of Do¬
negal bay ; but is a place of no great trade, though
it has a harbour fpacious enough to contain a large
fleet: it has a bold and ample opening to the fea on
the fouth, and is fecured within by the flicker of high
lands furrounding it 5 fo that veflels may enter at any
time of the tide, there being from 5 to 8 fathom wa¬
ter. The herring fifhery is the mod confiderable of
any carried on here ; but the town is likely to in-
creafe in trade and confequence. It returns two
members to parliament, patronage in the Connypgham
family. It has two fairs.
KILMA1NHAM, atown of Ireland, fituated about
half a mile from Dublin. It has a fdfion-houfe and
handfome gaol; and here the quarter feffions are held
for the county of Dublin, and knights of the fliire
elefted for that county. This place was fometimes
the feat of government before Dublin caftle was con¬
verted to that purpofe; and though now much decayed,
it gives title of baron to the family of Wenman. An
ancient priory was founded here, and a houfe for
knights hofpitalers of St John of Jerufalem.
KILM ALLOCK, a town of Ireland, in the coun¬
ty of Limerick and province of Munlter, t6 miles
from the city of Limerick, and 107 from Dublin.—
This town makes a confpicuous figure in the military
hillory of Ireland. In the 16th century it was a po¬
pulous place ; and the remains of the wall, which en¬
tirely furt ounded the town, and of feveral large houfes,
are ftill to be feen. Edward VI. granted a charter to it
with many privileges, as did Queen Elizabeth another,
dated 24th April 1584. In 1598, it was invefted by the
Irilh forces, when the earl of Ormond haftened to its
relief, and arrived in time to raife the fiege : here was
alfo fome conteft during the grand rebellion in 1641
and 1642. By an inquifition 11 Aug. 29 Eliz. it
appears that there had been an abbey in Kilmallock
called Flacifpaghe; on which a ftone houfe was erect¬
ed. In the cathedral church are the remains of a mo¬
nument ereded over the Verdon family, one of whom
reprefented this town in parliament in 1613. Kil¬
mallock returns two members to parliament; patron
Silver Oliver, Efq. This place once gave title of
vifcount to one of the Sarsfield family. Sir James
Ware informs us, that an abbey of Dominicans or
black friars was built here in the 13th century by the
fovereign, brethren, and commonalty. From the ma¬
ny ruins here of caftles and ancient buildings, it has ac¬
quired the name of the Irifb Balbeck. The parifli
church was formerly an abbey for regular canons
founded by St Mochoallog, who died between the
years 639 and 656 ; and fome writers fay, that the Do¬
minican abbey juft mentioned was founded in 1291, by
Gilbert the fecond fon of John of Calleen. Fairs are
held at this town on Whitfun-Tuefday.
KILMARNOCK, a populous and flouri/hing town
of Ayr {hire in Scotland, noted for its manufadure of
carpets, milled hofiery, and Scotch bonnets. It gave
the title of earl to the noble family of Boyd, refiding
in this neighbourhood. This title was forfeited by
the late earl, who, by engaging in the rebellion of 1745, Kilmore
was deprived of his honours, and loft his life on the H ''
fcaffold. His fon, however, who ferved in the king’s 1
army, afterwards fucceeded to the earldom of Errol, a _v
title much more ancient and honourable.
KILMORE, a bifhop’s fee in the county of Cavan
and province of Ulfter in Ireland. It was called in
former ages Clunes, or Clunis, i e. the “ fequeftered
place and is fituated near Loch Ern. St Fedlimid
founded this biflropric in the fixth century ; it was af¬
terwards removed to an obfeure village called Tri-
burna ; where it continued until the year 1454, when
Andrew Mac Brady bifhop of Triburna erefted a
church on the file of that founded by St Fedlimid, to
whofe memory it was dedicated, and denominated
Kilmore or “ the great church.” At prefent there
are neither cathedral, chapter, nor canons, belonging
to this fee; the fmall parifh church contiguous to
the epifcopal houfe ferving for the purpofe of a ca¬
thedral.
KILN, a ftove ufed in the manufa&ure of various
articles. A fabric formed for admitting heat, in or¬
der to dry or burn materials placed in it'to undergo
fuch operations.
KILWORTH, a town of Ireland, fituated in the
county of Cork and province of Munfter, 108 miles
from Dublin. It is a thriving place, with a goad
church, at the foot of a large ridge of mountains call¬
ed Kilivorth mountains, through which a good turnpike
road is carried from Dublin to Cork : below the town
runs the river Funcheon, which is well ftored with fal-
mon and trout, and difeharges itfelf a mile fouth of
this into the Blackwater. Near Kilworth is a good
glebe and vicarage houfe. At this place is Moor¬
park, the fuperb feat of Lord Mountcaftiel; and ad¬
joining to his lordfhip’s improvements Hands the caftle
of Clough-leagb, boldly fituated on the river Fun¬
cheon, which has flood feveral fieges. Six fairs are
held here.
KIMBOLTON, a town of Huntingdonfhire, feated
in a bottom; and noted for the caftle of Kimbolton,
the feat of the duke of Manchefter. W. Long. o. 15.
N. Lat. 52. 18.
KIMCHl (David), a Jewilh rabbi, famous as a
commentator o- the Old Teftamcnt, lived at the clofe
of the ! 2th and beginning of the 1 3th centuries. He
was a Spaniard by birth, fon of rabbi Jofeph Kimchi,
and brother of rabbi Mofes Kimchi, both men of
eminent learning among the Jews: but he exceeded
them both, being the bell Hebrew grammarian the
Jews ever had. He wrote a Grammar and Diftion-
ary of that language ; out of the former of which
Buxtorf made his Thefaurus lingua Hebrea, and his
Lexicon lingua Hebrea out of the latter. His writings
have been held in fuch eftimation among the Jews,
that no one can arrive at any reputation in letters and
theology without ftudying them.
KINCARDINESHIRE. See Mearns.
KINDRED, in law, perfons related to one ano¬
ther, whereof the law reckons three degrees or lines,
■z«!5. the defeending, afeending, and collateral line.
See Consanguinity and Descent.
On there being no kindred in the defeending line,
the inheritance pafles in the collateral one.
KING, a monarch or potentate who rules fingly and „
5 fovereignly
KIN [ 463 1 KIN
King, fovcretgnly over a people.—Camden derives the word
—v-—' from the Saxon cyning, which fignifies the fame ; and
that from can “ power,” or ien “ knowledge,” where¬
with every monarch is fuppofed to be inverted. The
Latin rex, the Scythian reix, the Punic re/ch, the Spa-
niih rey, and French roy, come all, according to Po-
flel, from the Hebrew wki, rofch, “ chief, head.”
Kings were not known amongft the Ifraelites till
the reign of Saul. Before him they were governed
at firft by elders as in Egypt.; then by princes of God’s
appointment, as Mofes and Jofhua; then by judges
till the time of Samuel; and lait of all by kings. See
Judges.
Moll of the Grecian Hates were governed at firft by
kings, who were chofen by the people to decide diffe¬
rences and execute a power which was limited by laws.
They commanded armies, prefided over the worlhip of
the Gods, &c. This royalty was generally hereditary ;
but if the vices of the heir to the crown ‘were odious
to the people, or if the oracle had fo commanded, he
was cut off from the right of fuccelfion; yet the kings
were fuppofed to hold their fovereignty by the ap¬
pointment of Jupiter. The enfign of majefty was the
feeptre, which was made of wood adorned with ftuds
of gold, and ornamented at the top with fome figure ;
commonly that of an eagle, as~ being the bird of Jove.
Rome alfo was governed at firft by kings, who were
elected by the people, with the approbation of the
fenate and concurrence of the augurs. Their power
extended to religion, the revenues, the army, and the
adminiftration of juftice. The monarchical form of
government fubfifted 244 years in Rome, under feven
kings, the laft of whom was Tarquinius Superbus. See
Rome.
Among the Greeks the king of Perfia had ancient¬
ly the appellation of the great king; the king of France
now has that of the mofi Chrijiian king; and the king
of Spain has that of Catholic king. The king of the
Romans is a prince chofen by the emperor, as a coad¬
jutor in the government of the empire.
The kings of England, by the Lateran council, un¬
der Pope Julius II. had the title of Chri/lianiffimus con¬
ferred on them ; and that of defender of the faith was
added by pope Leo X. though it had been ufed by
them fome time before. The title of grace was firft
given to our kings about the time of Henry IV. and
that of majejjy firft to Henry VIII. before which time
our kings were called grace, highnefs, &c.—In all pub
lie inftruments and letters, the king ftyles himfelf nos
“ wethough till the time of king John he fpoke in
the lingular number.
The definition of king above given, is according to
the general acceptation of the term. It will not there¬
fore ftri&ly apply to the fovereign of Britain; and
dill lefs of late to that of France, formerly one of the
moft abfolute, now the moft degraded, of princes,
without power and without conftquence. In Britain,
a happy'mean prevails. The power of the king is
indeed fubjeft to great limitations: but they are the
limitations of wifdom, and the fources of dignity ;
being fo far from diminilhing his honour, that they
add a glory to his crown : For while; other kings are
abfolute monarchs over innumerable multitudes of
flaves, the king of Britain has the diftinguilhed glo¬
ry of governing a free people, the lead of whom
is protected by the laws; hs. has great prerogatives*, King,
and a boundlefs power in doing good 5 and is at the
fame time only reftrained from a&ing inconfiftently
with his own happinefs, and that of his people.
To underliand the royal rights and authority in Bri¬
tain, we muft confider the king under fix diftintt views.
I. With regard to his tide. 2. His royal family.
3. His councils. 4. His duties. 5. His prerogative.
6. His revenue.
I. His title. For this, fee HsREDiTARr Right, and
Succession.
II. His royal family. See Royal Family.
III. His councils. See Council.
IV. His duties. By our conftitution, there are
certain duties incumbent on the king; in confideta-
tion of which, his dignity aiid prerogative are eftablifh-
ed by the laws of the land : it being a maxim in the
law, that protedlion andfubjeflion are reciprocal. And
thefe reciprocal duties are what Sir William Black-
ftone apprehends were meant by the convention in
1688, when they declared that king James had broken
the original contract between king and people. But
however, as the terms of that original contradl were
in fome meafure difputed, being alleged to exift prin¬
cipally in theory, and to be only deducible by reafon
and the rules of natural law, in which dedu&ion dif¬
ferent underllandings might very confiderably differ;
it was, after the revolution, judged proper to declare
thefe duties exprefsly, and to reduce that contrail to
a plain certainty. So that, whatever doubts might
be formerly raifed by weak and fcriipulous mind»
about the exiftence of fu<;h an original contrail, they
muft now entirely ceafe; efpecially with regard to
every prince who hath reigned fince the year 1688.
The principal duty of the king is, To govern his
people according to law. Nee regibus infmita aid libera
potejlas, was the conftitution of our German anceftors
on the continent. And this is not only confonant
to the principles of nature, of liberty, of reafon, and
offociety; but has always been efteemed an exprefs
part of the common law of England, even when pre¬
rogative was at the higheft. “ The king (faith Brae-
ton, who wrote under Henry III.) ought not to bu
fubjeil to man ; but to God, and to the law: for the
law maketh the king. Let the king therefore render
to the law, what the law has inverted in him with*
regard to others; dominion, and power : for he is not
truly king, where will and pleafure rules, and not the
law.” And again : “ The king hath a fuperior.
namely God ; and alfo the law, by which he was made-
a king.” Thus Braflon ; and Fortefcue alfo, having
firft well diftinguifhed between a monarchy abfoiutely
and defpotically regal, which is introduced by eonqueft
and violence, and a political or civil monarchy, which
arifes from mutnal confent (of which laft fpecies he
afierts the government of England to be), immediately
lays it down as a principle, that “ the king of England
muft rule his people according to the decrees of the
laws theieof; infomuch that he is bound by an oath
at his coronation to the obfervance and keeping of hi*
own laws.” But to obviate all doubts and difficulties-
concerning this matter, it is exprefsly declared bv fta-
tute 12 and 13 W. III. c. 2. “ that the laws of Eng¬
land are the birthright of the people thereof; and all
the kings and queens who fhall afeend the throne of
this
KIN [ 464 1 KIN
this realm ought to admimfter the government of the law ; to execute judgment in mercy ; and to maintain
fame according to the faid laws, and all their officers the eftablifhed religion. And with refpeft to the lat- ' /—-J'
and minifters ought to ferve them refpedlively accord- ter of thefe three branches, we may farther remark,
that by the aft of union, 5 Ann. c. 8. two preceding
ftatutes are recited and confirmed ; the one of the par¬
liament of Scotland, the other of the parliament of
England: which enaft ; the former, that every king
ing to the fame : and therefore all the other laws and
fiatutes of this realm, for fecuring the eftablifhed re¬
ligion, and the rights and liberties of the people there¬
of, and all other laws and ftatutes of the fame :“
force, are by his majefty, by and with the advice and at his acceffion (hall take and fubfcribe an Oath, to pre-
confent of the lords fpiritual and temporal, and com- ferve the Proteftant religion, and prelbyterian church¬
mens, and by authority of the fame, ratified and con¬
firmed accordingly.”
And as to the terms of the original contraft be¬
tween king and people, thefe, it is apprehended, are
trow couchetj in the coronation-oath, which by the
ftatute 1 W. & M. ft. 1. c. 6. is to be adminiftered
to every king and queen who ihall fucceed to the im¬
perial crown of thefe realms, by one of the archbifhops
or bifhops of the realm, in the prefence of all the
people 5 who on their parts do reciprocally take the
oath of allegiance to the crown. This coronation-
oath is conceived in the following terms ;
‘ The archlnjhop or bijhopJhallfay, Will you folemn-
government in Scotland ; the latter, that at his corona¬
tion he fhall take and fubfcribe a fimilar oath, to pre-
ferve the fettlement of the church of England within
England, Ireland, Wales, and Berwick, and the ter¬
ritories thereunto belonging.
V. His prerogative. See Prerogative.
VI. His revenue. See Revenue.
Having in the preceding articles chalked out all the
principal outlines of this vaft title of the law, the fu-
preme executive magiftrate, or the king’s majefty, con-
fidered in his feveral capacities and points of view ; it
may not be improper to take a ihort comparative review
of the power of the executive magiftrate, or preroga-
ly promife and fwear to govern the people of this tive of the crown, as it ftood in former days, and as it
kingdom of Britain, and the dominiohs thereto be- Hands at prffent. And we cannot but obferve, that
longing, according to the ftatutes in parliament a- moft of the laws for afeertaining, limiting, and re-
greed, and the laws and cuftoms of the fame ?■
The king or queen'Jhall fay, I folemnly promife fo
to do
“ Archbi/hop or bifop. Will you to your power
caufe law and juftice, in mercy, to be executed ’
your judgments ?—King or queen. I will.
all
{training this prerogative, |have been made within the
compafs of little more than a century paft ; from the
petition of right in 3 Car. I. to the prefent time. So
that the powers of the crown are now to all appearance
greatly curtailed and diminiffied fince the reign of
king James I. particularly by the abolition of the ftar-
’Archbijhop or bi/hop. Will you to the utmoft of chamber and high-commiffion courts in the reign of
your power maintain the laws of God, the true profef- Charles I. and by the difclaiming of martial law, and
lion of the gofpel, and the Proteftant reformed reli- the power of levying taxes on the fubjeft, by the fame
gion eftablifhed by the law ? And will you preferve prince : by the difufe of foreft laws for a century palt:
unto the biftiops qpd clergy of this realm, and to the and by the many excellent provifions enafted under
churches committed to their charge, all fuch rights Charles II.; efpecially the abolition of military te-
and privileges as by law do or {hall appertain unto nures, purveyance, and pre-emption ; the habeas cor-
them, or any of them ?—King or queen. All this I pus aft ; and the aft to prevent the difcorftinuance of
promife to do. parliaments for above three years ; and fince the revo-
“ After this the king or queen, laying his or her hand lution, by the ftrong and emphatical words in which
upon the holy gofpel, Jhall fay. The things which I have our liberties are afferted in the bill of rights, and aft
here before promifed, I will perform and keep : fo help of fettlement ; by the aft for triennial, fince turned
God, And then Jhall kifs the book.”
This is the form of the coronation-oath, as it is now
preferibed by our laws ; the principal articles of which
appear to be at leaft as ancient as the Mirror of Jufti-
ces, and even as the time of Brafton : but the word¬
ing of it was changed at the revolution, becaufe (as
the ftatute alleges) the oath itfelf had been framed in
doubtful words and expreffions, with relation to an¬
cient laws and conftitutions at this time unknown.
However, in what form foever it be conceived, this is
feptennial elections ; by the exclufion of certain
officers from the houfe of commons ; by rendering the
feats of the judges permanent, and their falaries inde¬
pendent ; and by reftraining the king’s pardon from
obftrufting parliamentary impeachments. Befides all
this, if we confider how the crown is impoveriffied and
ftripped of all its ancient revenues, fo that it greatly
depends on the liberality of parliament for its neceffa-
ry fupport and maintenance, we may perhaps be led to
think that the balance is inclined pretty ftrongly to
moft indilputably a fundamental and original exprefs the popular fcale, and that the executive magiftrat<
contraft ; though, doubtlefs, the duty of proteftion has neither independence nor power enough left, to
is impliedly as much incumbent on the fovereign be- form that check upon the lords, and commons which
fore coronation as after : in the fame manner as alle¬
giance to the king becomes the duty of the fubjeft im¬
mediately on the defeent of the crown, before he has
taken the oath of allegiance, or whether he ever takes
it at all. This reciprocal duty of the fubjeft will be
confidered in its proper place. At prefent we are on¬
ly to obferve, that in the king’s part of this original
contraft are expreffed all the duties which a monarch
can owe to his people, viz. to govern according to
N° 17 a.
the founders of our conftitution intended.
But, on the other hand, it is to be confidered, that
every prince, in the firft parliament after his acceffipn,
has by long ufage a truly royal addition to his heredi¬
tary revenue fettled upon him for his life ; and has ne-
very any occafion to apply to parliament for fupplies,
but upon fome public neceffity of the whole realm.
This reftores to him that conftitutional independence,
which at his firft acceffion feems, it muft be owned, to
be
KIN [ 4% ] KIN
be wanting. And then with regard to power, we crown, commanded by the crown. They are kept on King,
may find perhaps that the hands of government are foot, it is true, only from year to year, and that by the
at leaft fufficiently ftrengthened ; and that a Britifh power of parliament: but during •♦hat year, they muft
monarch is now in no danger of being overborne by by the nature of our conflitution, if raifed at all, be at
either the nobility or the people. The inftruments of the abfolute difpofal of the crown. And there need
power are not perhaps fo open and avowed as they for- but few words to demonftrate how great a truft is there-
merly were, and therefore are the lefs liable to jealous by repofed in the prince by bis people i A tusft that
and invidious reflexions ; but they are not the weaker is more than equivalent to a thoufand little troublefome
upon that account. In ihort, our national debt and prerogatives.
taxes (befides the inconveniences before mentioned). Add to all this, that befides the civil lift, the im-
have alfo in their natural confequences thrown fuch a menfe revenue of ahnoft feven million? fterling, which
weight of power into the Executive fcale of govern- is annually paid to the creditors of the public, or car*
ment, as we cannot think was intended by our pa- ried to the finking fund, is tirft depofited in the royal
triot anceftors'; who glorioufly ftruggled for the abo- exchequer, and thence iflued out to the refpeXive of-
lition of the then formidable parts of the prerogative, fices of payment. This revenue the people can never
and by an unaccountable want of forefight eftabliflied refufe to raife, becaufe it is made perpetual by aft of
this fyftem in their ftead. The entire colleXion and parliament; which alfo, when well confidered, will
management of fo vaft a revenue, being placed in the appear to be a truft of great delicacy and high impor-
hands of the crown, have given rife to fuch a number tance.
of new officers, created by and removeable at the royal Upon the whole, therefore, it feetns clear, that what-
pleafure, that they have extended the influence of go- ever may have become of the nominal the real power
vernment to every corner of the nation. Witnefs the of the crown has not been too far weakened by any
commiffioners, and the multitude of dependents on the tranfaXions in the laft century. Much is indeed given
cuftoms, in every port of the kingdom ; the commif- up ; but much is alfo acquired. The ftern commands
fioners of excife, and their numerous fubalterns, in of prerogative have yielded to the milder voice of in-
tvery inland diftriX ; the poll mafters and their fer- fluence: the flavilh and exploded doXrine of non re-
Vants, planted in every town, and upon every public fiftance has given way to a military eftablifliment
road ; the commiffioners of the flamps, and their dif- law ; and to the difufe of parliaments has fuccteded a
tributors, which are fully as fcattered and fully as nume- parliamentary truft of an immenfe perpetual revenue,
rous; the officers of the fait duty, which, though a When, indeed, by the free operation of the finking
fpecies of excife, and conduXed in the fame manner, are fund, our national debts fliall be leflened ; when the
yet made a diftinX corps from the ordinary managers pofture of foreign affairs, and the univerfal introduc-
of that revenue ; the furveyors of houfes and windows; tion of a well-planned and national militia, will fuffet
the receivers of the land-tax ; the managers of lotte- our formidable army to be thinned and regulated ; and
ties; and the commiflioners of hackney-coaches; all when (in confeyuence of all) our taxes fliall be gradu-
which arc either mediately or immediately appointed .ally reduced ; this adventitious power of the crown
by the crown, and removable at pleafure without any will flowly and imperceptibly diminilh, as it flowly and
reafon affigned : thefe, it requires but little penetra- imperceptibly rofe. But till that (hall happen, it will
lion to fee, muft give that power, on which they de- be our efpecial duty, as good fubjeXs and good Eng-
pend for fubfiftence, an influence moft amazingly ex- lilhmen, to reverence the crown, and yet guard a-
tenfive. To this may be added the frequent oppor* gainft corrupt and fer vile influences from thofe who ar&
tunities of conferring particular obligations, by prefe* intrufted with its authority; to be loyal, yet free;
rence in loans, fubfcriptions, tickets, remittances, and obedient, and yet independent; and above every thing,
other money-tranfaXions, which will greatly increafe to hope that we may long, very long, continue to be
this influence ; and that over thofe perfons whofe at- governed by a fovereign, who, in all thofe public aXs
tachment, on account of their wealth, is frequently that have perfonally proceeded from himfelf, hath jna-
the moft defirable. All this is the natural, though nifefted the higheft veneration for the free conftitutioit
perhaps the unforefeen, confequence of ereXing our of Britain ; hath already in more than one inftante
funds of credit, and, to fupport them, eftablifhing our remarkably ftrengthened its outworks; and will there-
perpetual taxes : the whole of which is entirely new fore never harbour a thought, or adopt a perfuafion;
fince the reftoration in 1660; and by far the greateft in any the remoteft degree detrimental to public li-
part fince the revolution in t68fl. And the fame may berty.
be faid with regard to the officers in our numerous King at Arms, or of Arms, is an officer of great an-
army, and, the places which the army has created. All tiquity, and anciently of great authority, whofe bufi-
which put together give the executive power fo perfua- nefs is to direX the heralds, prtfide at their chapters;
five an energy with refpeX to the perfons them- and have the jurifdiXion of armoury,
felves, and fo prevailing an intereft with their friends In England there are three kings of arms, viz. gar-
and families, as will amply make amends for the lofs of ter, clarencieux, and norroy.
external prerogative. Garter, principal King at Arms, was inftituted by-
But though this profufion of offices fliould have no Henry V His bufinefs is to attend the knights of
effeft on individuals, there is ftill another newly ac- the garter at their affemblies, to marlhal the folertinities
quired branch of power ; and that is, not the influ- at the funerals of the higheft nobility, and to carry th4
ence only, but the force of a difciplined army: paid garter to kings and princes beyond thefea; on which
indeed ultimately by the people, but immediately by occafion he ufed to be joined in commiffion with feme
the crown ; raifed by the crown, officered by the principal peer of the kingdom. See Garter.
Vol. IX. Part II. 3 N Gat*
King.
KIN C 466 I KIN
Cldreneteux Kino at Arms, is fo called from the
duke of Clarence, to whom he fi-rft belonged. His
office is to marfhal and difpofe the funerals of all the
inferior nobility, as baronets, knights, efquires, and
gentlemen, on the fouth fide of the Trent. See Cla-
RENCltUX.
Norroy King at Arms, is to do the fame on the
north fide of the river Trent.
Thefe two laft are alfo called provincial heralds, in
regard they divide the kingdom between them into
provinces. By charter, they have power to vifit noble¬
mens families, to fet down their pedigrees, diftinguifh
their arms, appoint perfons their aims, and with gar¬
ter to direft the other heralds.
Anciently the kings at arms were created and fo-
lemnly crowned by the kings of England thensfclves ;
but of later days, the earl marfhal has a fpecial com-
miffion at every creation to perfonate the king.
Lyon King at Arms, for Scotland, is the fecond king
at arms for Great Britain ; he is invefted and crowned
with great folemnity.. To him belongs the publilhing
king’s proclamations, marfhalling funerals, reverfing
arms, &c. See Lvon.
King (Dr John), a learned Englifh bifhop in the
17th century, bred at Weftminfter-fchool, and after¬
ward at Chrift church Oxford. He was appointed
chaplain to queen Elizabeth. In 1605 he was made
dean of Chriit-church, and was for feveral years vice-
chancellor of Oxford. In 1611 he was advanced to
the bifhopric of London. Befides his LeBures upon
Jonah, delivered at York, he publiihed feveral fer-
mons King James I. ufed to flyle him the king of
preachers; and lord chief juflice Coke often declated,
that he <was the hejl fpeaker in the Jlar-chamler in his time.
He.was fo conllant in preaching after he was a bifhop,
that, unlefs he was hindered by want of health, he
omitted no Sunday wheieon he did not vifit fome pul¬
pit in London or near it. Soon after his death, the
Papifts reported, that he died a member of their
church. But the falfity of this ftoty was fufficiently
expofed by his fan Mr Henry King, in a fermon at
St Paul’s crofs foon after ; by bifhop Godwin in the
Appendix to his Contmentarius de prafulihus Anglia,
printed in 1622 ; and by Mr John Gee, in his book,
in t Ted, The foot out of the fnare.
King (Dr Henry), bilhop of Chichefte'r, eldeft
fon of the former, was born in 15,91, and educated at
Oxford. He became an eminent preacher, and chap¬
lain to king James I. and Charles I. In 1638 he was
made dean of Rochefter; and in 1641 was advanced
to the fee of Chichefter. Upon the breaking out of
the civil wars, and the diffolution of epifeopapy, he
was treated with great feverity by the friends to the
parliament; but recovered his bifhopric at the reflora-
tion. This worthy prelate, who had a moft amiable
chara&er, died in 1669; and was interred at his ca¬
thedral of Chichefter, where a monument was ere&ed
to his memory. He publifhed, r. The pfalms of Da¬
vid turned into metre. 2. Poems, elegies, parodoxes,
and fonnets. 3. Several fermons, and other works.
King (Dr William), a facetious Englifh writer in
the beginning of the 18th century, was well defeend-
*d, being allied to the noble families of Clarendon and
Rochefter. He was defied a ftudent of Chrift-church
from Weftminfter-fchool in i6$i, aged 18, He af¬
terward entered upon the law line, and took the de- K’sg.
gree of doflor of civil law. He foon acquired a con- —
fiderabte reputation as a civilian, and was in great prac¬
tice. He attended-the earl of Pembroke, lord lieute¬
nant of Ireland, into that kingdom, where he was ap¬
pointed judge- advocate, foie.commiflumer of the piizes^
keeper of the records, vicar-general to the lord pri¬
mate of Ireland ; w-as countenanced by, perfons of the
higheft rank, and might have made a fortune. But fo
far was he from heaping up riches, that he returned to
England with no other treafure than a few merry^
poems and humorous effays,.and retired to his Undents
place at Chrill-church. He died on Chviftmas-day in
1712, and was interred in the Gloifters of.Weftmin-
fter abbey. His writings are pretty numerous. The
principal are, 1. Animadverfions on a pretended account of
Denmark, wrote by Mr Molefwpvth, afterwards lord
Molefworth. The writing of.thefe procured Dr King
the place of fecretary to princefs Aune of Denmark-
2. Dialogues of the dead. 3. The art of love, in
imitation of Ovid De arte amandi. 4. A volume of
poems. 5. Ufeful tranfa&ions. 6. An luftorical ac¬
count of the heathen gods and heroes. 7. Several
tranflations.—As to the charafter of Dr King, he ha*
turally hated bufinefs, efpecially that of an advocate ;
but made an excellent judge when appointed one of
the court of delegates. His chief pieafure confifted
in trifles ; and he w’as never happier than when he
thought he was hid from the world. Yet he loved
company, provided they were fuch as tallied with his
humour. He would fay a great many, ill natured
things, but never do one. He was made up of ten-
dernefs and pity, and tears would fall from him on the
fmalleft occafion. His education* had been ftri£l, and
he was naturally of a religious difpofition.
King (Dr Wiliam), archbilhop. of Dublin in the
1 &th-century, was defeended from an ancient family :a
the north of Scotland, but born in the county of Ah.
trim in the north of Ireland. In 1674 he went into
pritfts orders. In 1 679 he was promoted by his pa.
Iron, Dr Parker, archbifhop of Dublin, to the chan»
cellorfliip of St Patrick. In i6f:7 Peter Manby, dean
of Londonderry, having publilhed at London, in 4to,
a pamphlet intitled Corjideralions which obliged Peter
Manby dean of Londonderry, to embrace the Catholic re*
ligisn, our author immediately wrote an anfwer. Mr
Manby, encouraged by the court, and affifted by the
moft learned champions of the church of Rome, pub*
lifhed a reply under this title, A reformed catechifm, in
two dialogues concerning the Enghfh, reformation, &c. in
reply to Mr King's anfwer, &c. Our author foon re¬
joined in A vindication of the anfwer. Mr Manby drop¬
ped the controverfy ; but difperfed a loofe fheet.of
paper, artfully written, with this title, A letter to a
friend, Jhowing the vanity of this opinion, that every
man’s fenfe and reafon are to guide him in matters of faith.
This Dr King refuted in A vindication of the Chri.
fian religion and reformation, againjl the attempts ef a
letter, &c. In 1689 he was twice confined in the
tower by order of king James II. and the fame year
commenced dodlor of divinity. In 1690, upon king'
James’s retreat to France after the battle at the Boyne,
he was advanced to the fee of Derry. In 1692 he
publiflied at London in 410, The Jlate of the Proteflantt
of Ireland under tlx late king James's government, See.
KIN f 467 ] KIN
«Sn£. *' A hiflory (fays blfhop Barnet), as truly as it is
' finely written.” He had by him at his death atterted
vouchers of every particular fa& alleged in this book,
which are now in the hands of his relations. How¬
ever, it was foon attacked by Mr Charles Lefiy. Ta
1693 our author finding-the great number of Prote-
ftant diffenters, in his diocefe of Berry, increafed by
a vaft addition of colonies from Scotland, in order to
perfuade them to conformity to theeftablilhed church,
publifhed A difeourfe concerning the inventions of men in
the luorjhip of God. Mr -Jofeph Boyfe, a difienting
minifter, wro:e an anfwer. The bifhop anfwered Mr
Boyfe. The latter replied. The bilhop rejoined. In
1,702 he 'publiihed at Dublin, in *4to, his celebrated
treatife De origine mail. • Mr Edmund Law, M. A.
fellow of Chrift’s college in Cambridge, afterward
pnblifhed a complete tranflation of this, with very va¬
luable notes, in 4to. In the fecond edition he has in-
ferted, by way of notes, a large'collection of the au¬
thor’s papers on the fame fubjcCl, which he had re¬
ceived from his relations after the publication of the
former edition. Our author in this excellent treatife
has many curious obfervations. He afferts and proves
that there is more moral good in the earth than moral
evil. A fermon by our author, preached at Dublin
in 1709, was publifhed under the title of Divine
predejiination and foreknowledge confident <wi h the freedom
of man’s <w'dl. This was attacked by Anthony Col
lins, Efq; in a pamphlet intitled, “ A vindication of
the divine attributes ; in fc.me remarks on the archbi-
fhop of Dublin’s fetmon intitled. Divine predeJUnation,
See.” He publifhed likewife, A difeourfe concerning
the confecration of churches; flowing what is meant by
dedicating than, with the grounds of that office. He died
18*1720.
King (Dr William), late principal of St Maty’s
hall, Oxford, fon of the reverend Peregrine King, was
born at Stepney in Middlefex, in the year 1685. He
was made dodfor of laws in 1715, was fecretary to the
d«ke of Ormond, and earl of Arran, as chancellors of
the univerfity; and was made principal of St Mary’s-
hall on the death of Dr Hudfon in 1719. When he
Hood candidate for member of parliament for the uni¬
verfity, he refigned his office of fecretary, but enjoyed
his other preferment, and it was all he did enjoy to
the time of his death. Dr Clark, who oppof d him,
eatried the eleClion ; and after this difappointment, he
in the year 1727 went over to Ireland, where he is
faid to have written an epic poem, called The Toafl,
which was a political fatire, printed and given away
to his friends, but never fold. On the dedication of
Dr Radcliff’s library in 1749, he fpoke a Latin ora¬
tion in the theatre at Oxford, which was received with
the high eft acclamations; but it was otherwife when
printed, he being attacked in feveral pamphlets on ac¬
count of it. Again,' at the memorable contefted elec¬
tion in Oxfordfhire 1755, his attachment to the old
jutereft drew on him the refentment of the new, and
he was libelled .in newfpapers and pamphlets, againft
which he defended himfelf in an Apology, and warmly
retaliated on his adverfaries. Lie wrote feveral other
things, and died in 1762. He was a polite fcholar,
an excellent orator, an elegant and eafy writer, and
efteemed by the firft men of his time for his learning
and wit.
King (Peter), lord high chancellor of Great Bri¬
tain, was defeended of a good family of that name in
Somerfetfhire, and fon to an eminent grocer and falter
in the city of Exeter, in Devonffiire. He was born at
Exeter in.1669, and bred up for fome years to his fa¬
ther’s bufinefs ; but his inclination to learning was fo
ftrong, that he laid out all the money-he could fpare
in books, and devoted every moment of his leifttre
hours to ftudy : fo that he became an excellent fclfolar
before the world fufpe&ed any fuch thing ; and gave
the public a proof of his (kill in church hiftory,
in his Inquiry into the conjlitution, difcipline. unity, and
wor/hip, of the primitive church, that JlouriJhed with¬
in the JirJl 300 years after Chrijl, London, 1691, in
8vo. This was written with a view to promote the
fcheme of a comprehenfion of the diftenters. He af¬
terwards publifhed the fecond part of the Inquiry into
the conflitution, &c.; and having defired, in his pre¬
face, to be fhown, either publicly or privately, any mi-
ftakes he might have made, that requeft was firft com¬
plied with by Mr Edmund Elys; between whom and
our author there pafLd feveral letters upon the fubjeef,
in 1692, which were publifhed by Mr Elys in 1694,
8vo, under the title of Tetters on feveral fuljecls. But
the moft formal and elaborate anfwer to the Inquiry ap-
peared afterwards, in a work intitled, Original drdught
of the prim;dve church.
His acquaintance with Mr Locke, to whom he was
related, and who left him half his library at his death,
was of great advantage to him: by his advice, after
he had tludied fome time in Holland, he applied him¬
felf to the ftudy df- the law; in which pmfeffion his
learning and diligence made him foon taken notice of.
In the two laft parliaments during the reign of King
William, and in five parliaments during the reign of
Queen Anne, he ferved as burgefs fi r Beer-Alfton in
Devonfhire. In 1702, he publifhed at London, in
8vo, without his name, his Hi/lory of the apojlle’s creed,
with critical obfervations on its feveral articles ; which
is highly efteemed. In 1708, he was chofen recorder
of the city of London ; and in >71 o, was one of the
members of the houfe of commons at the trial of Dr
Sacheverell. In 1714, he was appointed lord chief
juftice of the common-pleas ; and the April follow¬
ing, was made one of the privy-council. In 1715, he
was created a peer, by the title of Lord King, baron
of Ockham in Surry, and appointed lord high chancellor
of Great Britain ; in which poll he continued till 1733,
when he refigned ; and in 1734 died at Ockham in
Surry.
King’s Bench. See Bench (King’s).
Kwa-Bird. See PARADrsEA.
King’s Fi/her. See Alcedo.
Books of Kings, two canonical books of the Old
Teftament, fo called, becaufe they contain the hiftory
of the kings of Ifrael and Judah from the beginning
of the reign of Solomon down to the Babylouifh cap¬
tivity, for the fpace of near 600 years. The firft book
of kings contains the latter part of the life of David,’
and his death ; the flourilhing ftate of the Ifraelite#
under Solomon, his building and dedicating the temple
of Jerufalem, his fhameful defeftion from the true re¬
ligion, and the fudden decay of the Jewifh nation af¬
ter-his death, when it was divided into two kingdoms:
the reft of the book is taken up in relating the a<fts of
3N 2 four
KIN [ 468 ] KIN
four kings of Judah and eight of Ifrael. The fe- animal differs' no lefs from a fimple plant, by fenfation,
cond book, which h a continuation of the fame hiftory* by the ufe of its fenies, and by the power of voluntary
” is a relation of the memorable adfs of 16 kings of Ju- motion which it pofleffes, while thefe qualities do not
dab, and 12 of Ifrael, and the end of both kingdoms, belong to any thing which is merely vegetable,
by the carrying of the 10 tribes captive into AlTyria But notwitftanding thefe fo diftin&ive marks, phi*
by Salmanaffar, and the other two into Babylon by lofophers pretend, that this divifion of natural bodies
Nebuchadnezzar. into claffes is only ideal. They affirm, that, by ob¬
it is probable that thefe books were compofed by ferving nature attentively, we may perceive, that all
Ezra, who extrafted them out of the public records, 'her produftions are conne&ed together by an uninter-
which were kept of what paffed in that nation. rupted chain ; and that by furveying the feveral beings,
King’s-County, a county of the province of Lein- we muft be convinced, that any one being differs very
fter in Ireland, taking its name from king Philip of little from fome other two between which it feems to
Spain, hufband to queen Mary. It is bounded on the be placed; fo that we may defcend from the moil per-
north by Weft Meath ; on the fputh by Tipperary and fe<ft animal to the rudeft mineral by infenfible degrees,
Queen’s-county, from which it is divided by the Bar- and without finding any interval from which a divifion
row; and part of Tipperary and Galway on the weft, might be made. The opinions of naturalifls are there¬
from w-hich it is feparated by the Shannon. It is a fore divided upon this fubjedl; and each opinion feem*
fine fruitful country, containing 257,510 Irifh planta- to be founded upon obfervations, analogies, and rea-
tion acres, 56 pariffies, 11 baronies, and two boroughs> fonings more or lefs conclufive.
and returns fix members to parliament. It is about If w'e avoid inveftigating extremes, however, the
47 miles long and 17 broad, and the chief town is diftin&ive marks mull be acknowledged fufficiently
Philipftown. obvious to juftify the triple divifion above mentioned.
King's Evil, ox Scrophula. See Medicine-/flake. and to difcriminate the individuals of each.
KING TE-TCHtNG, a famous village belonging to For a general view of the operations or conduct of
the diflridl of Jao-tcheou-fou, a city of China in the nature in thofe her three kingdoms, fee the article
pyovince of Kiang-fi. This village, in which are col- Nature. For a particular confideration of them—(in
ledted the heft workmen in porcelain, is as populous as the animal-kingdom), fee Zooeogy, Animal, Brute,
the largeft cities of China. It is reckoned to contain Bird, Ornithology, Insect, Entomology, Ich-
a million of inhabitants, who confume every day more thyology, Fis-h, Comparative Anatomy, and the dif-
than ten thoufand loads of rice. It extends a league ferent animals under their refpedive names;—(in the
and a half ah.ng the banks of a beautiful tiver, and is vegetable kingdom), Botany, Plant, Agricul-
not a colledfion of ftraggling houfes intermixed with ture,Vegetation, Defoliation, Frondescentia,
fpots of ground; on the contrary, the people com- Gemmatio, Fruit, Leaf, Germination, &c. and
plain that the buildings are too crowded, and that the the different plants under their refpe&ive names -
long ftreets which they form are too narrow; thofe
who pafs through them imagine themfelves tranfport-
(in the mineral kingdom), Mineralogy, Meta
lurgy, and the different Ilones and metals under their
ed into the midft of a fair, where nothing is heard a- refpedtive names,
round but the noife of porters calling Out to make way. In what remains of this article we fhall confider na-
Provifions are dear here, becaufe every thing confumed tural bodies only in a chemical view ; that is to fay,
is brought from remote places ; even wood, fo nccef- relatively to the feveralfprinciples which we obtain in
fary for th?ir furnaces, is actually tranfported from the the analyfis of thofe bodies. In the deesmpofition of
diftance of an hundred leagues. This village, not-
withftanding the high price of provifions, is. an afylui
all beings truly living, organifed, and containing with-
themfelves a feed by which they may be reproduced,
for a gveat number of poor families,, who could not fuch as vegetables and animals, we always obtain an
fubfift any where elfe. Children and invalids find em- inflammable, fat, or oily fubftance ; and on the con-
ployment here, and even the blind gain a livelihood by trary, we do not find the fmalleft trace of this principle
pounding colours. The river in this place forms a in any fubftance purely mineral, not even in fu’phur,
kind of harbour about a league in circumference: two which is the moft inflammable of all thefe fubftances.
or three rows of barks placed in a line fometimes bor- " v
der the whole extent of this vaft bafon.
On the other fide, if we carefully examine and com¬
pare with each other the analogous principles obtain-
KI^’GDOM, the territories or extent of country ed from the three kingdoms; fuch as the faline fub—
fiances obtained in the analyfis of animals, vegetables,
Maft naturalifts and and minerals ; we fhall eafily perceive, that all the fa-
fubjedl to a king.
Kingdoms, in natural hiftory.
chemift- divide all natural bodies into three great claffes, line matter which comes from the vegetable or animal
which they call kingdoms. Thefe are the mineral, the kingdoms is altered by oil, while all the faline matter
vegetable, and the animal kingdoms;
which comes from the mineral kingdom is entirely free
-This great and firft divifion is founded on this con- from oil.
fidtration, that any plant or vegetable which is produ- We ought to obferve here, that becaufe any matter-
eed, which ^ ows, which is organized, which contains is found in one or more individuals of any kingdom,
a feed, and which produces its like, feems to be a being we muft not therefore conclude, that it belongs to the
very diftinft and different from a ftone or a metal, in kingdom of fuch individuals ; for we may be convinced,
which, we at moft obferve only a regular arrangement from a flight obfervation of nature, that by a thoufand
of parts, but not a true organization, and which con¬
tains no feed by which it is capable of reproduction ;
combinations, and particular circurnfiances, fubftances
of quite difterent claffes or kingdoms are daily found
and another fouadatioa of this, divilloa is, that aa mixed and confounded together.
Thus, for example,
within.
Kirg-tfofelis
KIN [ 469 1 KIN
Ifcingdatns- within the earth, and even at great depths, that is, in We /hall now proceed to examine, if, by comparing Kingdom*
«_ 1 reg{on appropriated to minerals, fometimes fub- the principles obtained in the decompofition- of vege- II
Aances are found evidently oily, fuch as all bitumens: tables with thofe obtained in the decompofuion of ani* Kingsferr7;-
but we at the fame time can prove, and all the obfer-
vations of natural hiilory prove, that thefe oily fub-
ftances are only accidentally within the earth, and that
mals, we can find fome. effential chara&er by which
thefe two kingdoms may be chemically diftinguiihed,
in the fame manner as we have feen that both of them-
they proceed from the vegetable or animal bodies which may be diftinguifhed from minerals. Fiona experiments
have been buried in the earth by fome of thofe great we indeed learn, that the principles of vegetables differ
revolutions which have happened from time to time evidently enough from thofe of animals; that in ge-
upon the furface of our globe. Alfo in decompofing neral the faline principles of the former are acid, and
feveral vegetables and animals, falts are obtained 5 fuch are transformable in great meafure into fixed alkali by
as common fait, Glauber’s fait, and others, which con- incineration, while the principle of the latter are vola-
tain nothing oily, and which are confequently matters tile alkalis, or eafily changeable into thefe; that vege-
evidently mineral. But, on the other fide, we are cer- tables are much farther removed from putrefa&ion.
tain that thefe mineral falts are extraneous to the anl- than animals ; laftly, that oils truly animal have a cha-
mals and vegetables in which they are found ; that rafter different from vegetable oils, and are in general:
they are only introduced into thefe living bodies, be- more attenuated, or at lead more difpofed to be atte-
caufe they happen to be mixed, with the matters which nuatedand volatilifed. But we mud at the fame time,
have been applied to them as aliments, and that they confefs, that thefe differences are not clear and deci-
ought not to be numbered amongd their principles, five, like thofe betwixt thefe two kingdoms and the.
The proof of this is, that not only the quantity of mineral kingdom ; for we do not find any effential prin-
thtfe mineral falts is not uniform in animals and vege- ciple, either in animals or. in vegetables, which is not
tables ; but alfo, that not a particle of fuch falts is con- alio to be found in the other. In fome plants, chiefly
tained in fome plants and animals equally drong and the cruciform, as much volatile alkali, as little fixed al-
healthy, and of the fame fpecies as thofe in which thefe kali, and as much difpofition to putrify, are found as
falts have generally been obferved. in animal-matters; and thence we conclude, that if
In the fecond place, we obferve, that oils do only thefe two great claffes of natural bodies differ chemi-
exid in the proximate principles of vegetables and ani- cally from each other, this difference proceeds only
mals ; that is, in thofe of their principles which enter from the quantities or proportions of their feveral prin-
immediately into their compofition, whert thofe prin* ciples and properties, and not from any thing didinct.
ciples have not been altered by further decompofitions, and peculiar ; nor is it fimilar to the manner in which,
and confequently when they dill preferve their animal both vegetable and animal fubdances differ from mine-
or vegetable character ; for by a natural putrefaflion rals, namely, by containing an oil, and poffdfing a fer-
continued during a long time, or by chemical opera- mentable quality. Befides, the degrees of the chemi-
tions, not only the materials of which animal and ve- cal differences betwixt thefe three great claffes of na-
getable bodies are formed may be deprived entirely of tural bodies are found.to be the fame,.in whatever man-
oil, but alfo this oil may itfelf be entirely dedroyed or ner we confider them or compare them together. Sec
decompofed. Thefe fubdances in that date contain C'hemjstrv,^/’
nothing by which they can be didinguifhed from mi¬
nerals. The earths, for example, of vegetables and
animals, when they are deprived, by a fufficient calci¬
nation of all inflammable matter, have been thought
KINGHORN, a parliament town in the county of
Fife in Scotland, on the Frith of Forth, dire&ly oppo-
fite to Leith. Here is a manufacture of thread-dock¬
ings knit by the women ; the men, being chiefly ma-
to become entirely fimilar to the calcareous and argil- riners, are employed in coading drips, in the fifli-
laeeous earths found within the globe, and which may cry, or the paffage boats from hence to Leith, from,
be confidered as mineral fubdances, although probably which the town of Kinghorn derives eonfiderable ad-
they have been formerly a part of animal and vegetable vantage. This place gives a fecond title to the earl of
bodies. See Bones. Strathmore.
Hence we conclude, that, when we confider natural KINGSBRIDGE,-a town of Devondiire,.2i7 miles,
bodies in a chemical view, we ought to divide them from London. It is a pretty place, with a harbour for
into two great claffes. The fird clafs is of fnbdances boats, a free fchool, a market, and a fair. This is a.
inanimate, unorganifed, and the principles of which chapel of eafe to Chefton, and has abridge over the
have a degree of fimplicity which is effential to them : Salcomb to Dodbrook.
thefe are minerals. The other clafs contains all rhofe KINGSCLERE, a pkafant town ofHampfliire, fi-.
bodies which not only have been didin&ly organifed, tuated on the Oxford road from Bafingdoke. It is,
but which alfo contain an oily matter, which is no 56 miles from London, and was once the feat of the,,
where to be found in fubdances which have not made Saxon kings. It has a market and two fairs.
part of animate bodies, and which, by combining with
all the other principles of thefe animate bodies, didin-
guifhes thefe principles from thofe of minerals by a
lefs degree of fimplicity. This fecond clafs contains
vegetables and animals. We ought alfo to remark.
KTNGSFERRY, in Kent, the common way from,
the main land into the ifle of Shepey; where a cable of
about 140 fathom in length, fadened at each end a-
crofs the water* ferves to get the boat over by hand.
For the maintenance of this ferry and keeping up the
that the oil contained in vegetable and animal fub- highway leading to it through the rnarihes for above
fiances, renders them fufceptible of fermentation, pro- one mile in length, and for fupporting a wall againff-
perly fo called, which cannot by any means take place the fea, the land-occupiers tax themfelves yearly one
in any mineral, penny £er acre for frefll marlh-land, and one penny for,
3 every.
K I N [ 47© 1 KIN
KlmrlWi. every io acres of-fait marfh-land. Here is a houfe for
^ v  the ferry-keeper, who is obliged to tow all travellers
over free, except on thefe four days, viz. Palm Mon¬
day, -Whit-Monday, St James’s-day, and Michaelmas-
day, when a horfeman pays two-pence and a footman
one penny. But on Sunday, or after eight o’clock at
night, the ferry keeper demands fix-pence of every
horftman, and two-pence of every footman, whether
ftrangers or the land-oecupiers.
KINGSTON UPON Thamps, a town of Surry in
England, fituated 13 miles from London. It takes
its name from' having been the r.°fidence of many of
our Saxon kings, fome of whom were crowned here
on a ilage in the market-place. It has a wooden bridge
of 20 arches over the Thames, which is navigable here
by barges. There is another bridge here of-brick, over
a dream that comes from a fpring i-n a cellar four
miles above the town, and forms fuch a brook as to
drive two mills not above a bow-4hot*from it and from
each other. It is generally the place for the fummer-
affizes of this county, there being a gallows on the
top of the hill that'overlooks it. It is a populous,
■ trading, well-built town, and in the reigns of King
Edward II. and III. fent members to parliament. It
has a free-fehool; an alms-houfe built in 1670 for fix
men and fix women, and endowed with lands to the
value of <8d1. a year ; and a charity-fchool for 30 boys,
who are all clothed. Tiere is a fpacious church with
eight bells, adjoining to which, on the north fide, was
formerly a chapel dedicated to St Mary, in which were
the pictures of three of the Saxon kings that were
. crowned here, and alfo that of King John, who gave
the inhabitants of -this town their fivft charter of incor-
, poration. But thefe were all deftroyed by the fall of
this chapel in 1730. Here is a good market for corn,
See. and three fairs.
JCiKGSTOtf upon Hull, a town in the eaft riding of
' Yorkfhire, 173 miles from London. Its common name
is limply Hull. It is fituated at the conflux of the ri¬
vers Hull and Humber, and near the place where
the latter opens into the German Ocean. It lies fo
low, that by cutting the banks of the Humber the
country may be laid under water for five miles round.
Towards the land it is defended by a wall and a ditch,
with the farther fortification of a caftle, a citadel, and
a block houfe. A dock was begun here, but after
great expence left unfinilhed.—A new cut has been
lately made to Hull by Weight on. The town is large
and populous, containing two churches, feveral meet¬
ing-houfes, a free-fehooi, a charity-fchool, and fome
hofpitals. Among the latter is one. called Trinity-
houfe, in which are maintained many diftreffed feamen,
troth of Hull and other places, that are members of
its port. It is governed by 12 elder brethren and fix
afiiHants ; out of the former are chofen annually two
wardens, and out of the younger brethren two ftew-
ards; they determine queftions between matters and Tea¬
men, and other fea matters. A handfome infirmary
has lately been ere&ed without the town to the north.
Here are alfo an exchange and a cuftom-houfe, and
over the Hull a ftone bridge confifting of 14 arches.
A good harbour was made here by Richard II. This
town has not only the moft confiderable inland traffic
of any pore in the' north of England, but a foreign
-.trade fuperior to any.in the kingdom, excepting the
ports of London, Brittol, Liverpool, and Yarmouth. K'-rg’ftijt
By means of the many large rivers -that fall into the
Humber, it trades to alnaott every part of Yorltlhire,
as well as to Lincolnfhire, Nottinghamfliire, Stafford-
fhire, Dcrbyfhire, and -Chefijire ; the commodities of
which counties are brought hither, and exported to
Holland, Hamburgh,-France, Spain, the Baltic, and
other parts of Europe. In return for thofi.-, are im¬
ported iron, copper, hemp, flax, canvas, Ruffia linen
and yarn, befides wine, oil, fruit, and other articles.
Such quantities of corn are alfo brought hither by the
navigable rivers, that Hull exports more of this com¬
modity than London. The trade of Hull with Lon¬
don, particularly for corn, lead, and butter, and with
Holland and Fiance, in times of peace,-for thofe com¬
modities, as well as -for cloth, kerfeys, and other manu-
fa&nres of Yorkfliire, is. fo confiderable as to employ
not only fingle veflels, but fleets; the Hull fleets to
London being generally from 50 to 60 fail, and in
time of war frequently 100 fail or upwards. The
mayor of Hull has two fwords, one given by King
Richard II. the other by Flenry VIII. but only one
is borne before him at a time; alfo a cap of mainte¬
nance, and an oar of lignum vitas as a badge of his ad¬
miralty jurifdidlion within the limits of the Kumber.
This town gave title of earl to Robert Pierpoint of
Holme Pierpointj vifeount Newark, created in the
4th of Charles I. Being unfortunately flain in croffing
the Humber in 1643,. he was fucceeded by his fon
Henry, created marquis of Dorchefter in 1645, only
for life ; who dying in 1680, without male iffue, was
fucceeded in the earldom by-Robert, grandfon of his
younger brother William Pierpoint of Thorefby ; who
dying unmartied in 1682, left this honour to William
his brother and heir ; and he alfo dying without ifiue
in 1690, it defeended to his brother Evelyn, wl^o was
further advanced to the honours of marquis' of Dor¬
chefter in 1706 and duke of Kingfton in 1715; and
dying in 1725 was fucceeded by his grandfon Evelyn
laft duke of Kingfton, who died in 1773, and the title
became extindl.
Kingston, a town of Ireland, in the province of
Leinfter and capital of King’s-county. W. Long. 7.
20. N. Lat. 53. 15. It is otherwife called Philips^
Town,
Kingston, a town of Jamaica, feated on the north fide
of the bay of Port-Royal. It was founded in the year
1693, when the repeated defolations by earthquake and
fire had driven the inhabitants from Port-Royal. It
extends a mile from north to fouth, and about as much
from .eaft to weft, on the harbour. It contains about
3000 houfes, befides negro-houfes and warehoufes.
The number of white_ inhabitants is about 8000 ; of
free people, of colour, 1500; and of Haves, about
14,000. It is the county-town, where the affizes are held,
in January, April, July, and October, and laft about
a fortnight. It is a place of good trade ; and is much
reforted to by merchants and feamen, becaufe moft of
the (hips come to load and unload their cargoes here.
W. Long. 76. 32. N- Lat. 17. 40.
KING 1 ON, or Kyneton, a pretty large town ia
Herefordfhite, 146 miles from London. It is fitua¬
ted on the river Arrow, and is inhabited chiefly by
clothiers, who drive a confiderable trade in narrow
cloth. It has a charity-fchool, a market, and three
fairs.
KIN [ 471 l
Hinnor fair*-. The markets on Wednefdiy before Eafter, the utmofl fafety.
Kii file Wkitfuntide, and Chriftmas, are fo confiderable for
t . corn,cattle, leather, home-made linen and woollen cloth,
and all forts of provukms, that they are more like
fairs.
KfNNOR, or Chinnor. See Gh in nor;
K I It
Within the haven on the weft fide 1
lies a great fhelf, which fhoots a great way off from ^
the land; but leaves an ample paffage by the fide of it, __
in which, as in all the reft of the harbour, it is many
fathoms deep. Lord Kinfale has the ancient privilege
of keeping his hat on in the king’s prefence. Kinfale
KINO, in the materia medica, a gum-rein). This gives the title of baron to the very ancient family of
drug wan firft recommended to the attention of medi¬
cal praftitioner§ by Dr Fothergiif, as being a very ufe-
ful vegetable aftringent; and in the hands of other
pra&itioners it has been-fo far found to anfwer the cha-
y*6!er he gave of it, that it is now in very common
itfe. It has a confiderable refemblance to the catechu;
Courcy, lineally defcended from John de Courcy earl
•of Ulfter, who from him have the privilege to be co¬
vered in the prefence of the king of England.
KINTORE, a royal borough of Aberdeenfhire in
Scotland, fituated on the river Don, in W. Long. 2. 5.
N. Lat. 57. 38. It gives the title of earl to a branch
but is much more of a refinous nature, and of a lefs of the noble family of Keith, but i-n other refpedls is
firm texture : it is alfn redder and more aftringent ; inconfiderable.
KINTYRE. See Cantire.
KlOF, or Ktow, a confiderable town of Poland^
and capital of the Ukrain in the palatinate of the fame
name, with an archbilhop’s fee and a caftle. It be*,
longs tm Rufiia, and carries on a confiderable trade.
It is divided into the Old and New Town, and feated
on the river Nieper, in E. Long. 31. 51. N. Lat 50.
12.
KIPPING (Henry), in Latin Kippingius, a leant*
s watery folutiotrmore decompofable by acids; and
its ink lefs permanent. Its colouring and aftringent
matter are more perfe&ly taken up by fpirit than by
water, though water readily enough extra&s a con¬
fiderable {hare of both. It is ufed as an allringent in
diarrhoea, haemorrhagies, &c. In proof-fpirit it forms
an elegant tindlure ; and it is a principal ingredient in
the pulvis Jlypticui, and fame other officinal compofi -
Irons.
KINROSS, the county-town of Kinrosihire in Scot- ed German Lutheran born at Bpftock ; where, after
land, fituated in W. Long. 3. 7. N. Lat. 56. 15. on having received the degree of mafter of arts, he was
the weft fide of Lochleven, a freih-water lake about i<j met by fome foldiers who prefled him into the fervice.
miles in compafs, abounding with pike, trout, perch, This, however, did not prevent his following his ftu-
and water fowl. The manufactures are linen and fome dies. One day while he was upon duty, holding his
cutlery ware. The houfe of Kinrofs, an elegant an- muiket in one. hand and the poet Statius in the other,
eient ftrudlure, Hands on the north fide of the town, a Swedifli counfellor, who perceived him in that atti»
Kinrofs fends a member to parliament by turns with tude, came upto him, entered into difcourfe with him,
Clackmannan. If) the lake are two iflands ; on one and then taking him to his houfe made him his librarian^,
of which appear the ruins of a priory, heretofore pof- and procured him-the under-reSorfh’p of the college
fefled by the Culdees ; the other is famous for the of Bremen, where he died in 1678. He wrote many
caftle in which Queen Mary was imprifoned by her re- works in Latin; the principal of which are, t. A
hellions fubjeils.
KINS ALE, a town of the county of Cork in Ire¬
land, fituated at the mouth of the river Bin or Ban-
don, 136 miles from Dublin. It is reckoried the third
treatife on the antiquities of the Romans. 2. Ano-
thtr on the works of Creation. 3. Several difiertations
on the-Old and New Teftament, &c.
KIRCH (Chriltian Frederic), of Berlin, a celebra*-
town in the kingdom, and inferior only to Cork in ted aitronomer, was born at Guben in 1694, and ap¬
point of trade. It is neat, well built, and wealthy ; quired great reputation in the obfervatories of Dant-
is governed by a fovereign and recorder, and returns zic and Berlin. Godfrey Kirch his father, and Mary
two members to parliament, patronage in the ’South- his mother, acquired confiderable reputation by their
well family. It is defended by a flrong fort built by aftronomical obfervations. This family correfponded
king Charles II. called Charles’1 Fort; and on the op- with alt the learned focieties of Europe, and their
pofite ftvore there are two well built villages, called aftronomical works are in high-repute.
Cove Scffly. In the town and liberties are 6 pa- KIRCHER .(Atbanafius), , a famous philofophe*-
rilhes, 30 plough-lands, and therein 6846 acres. The and mathematician, was born at Fulde in 1601. In
barracks hold 12; companies of foot, befides a regiment 1618 he entered into the fociety^of the Jefuits, and
at Charles’s fort. In the centre of the town is a good taught philofophy, mathematics, -the Hebrew and
market houfe. and near it a ftrong built prifon; and there Syriac languages, in the univerfity of Wirtfbnrg, with
are fcattered up and down the ruins of feveral monafteries great applaufe till the year 1631. He went to France
and religious houfes. It has two fairs. In time of war on account of the ravages committed by the Swedes
Kinfale is a place of much bafinefs, being then fre- in Franconia, and lived fome time-at Avignon. He
quented by rich homeward bound fleets and {hips of
war, fot which reafon moft of the houfes are then let
at double rents. The harbour is very commodious,
and perfe&ly fecure; fo large that the Engli/h and
Dutch Smyrna fleets have anchored in it at the fame
time. There is a dock and yard for repairing {hips of
war, and a crane and gun wharf for landing and {hip-
afterwards called to -Rome, where he taught ma?-
thematics in the Roman- college, colle&ed a rich ca¬
binet of machines and antiquities, and died in 1680.—
The quantity of his works is immenfe, amounting to
22 vols in folio, 11 in quarto, and 3 jn 8vo; enough
to employ a man for a great part of his life'even to
tranferibe them. Moft. of them are rather curious than
ping heavy artillery. Ships may fail into or out of this ufeful; many of them vifionary and fanciful; and if
harbour, keeping in-the middle of the channel, with they are not always accompanied with the greateft ex-
3 a&nefe ^
KIR t 472 ] KIR
llirchtnan aSnefs and precilion, the reader, it is prefumed, will
, Kltkby- not be aftoniflred. The principal of his works are, 1.
v Prelujivnes magnet tea. i. Primitia; gnomonica catoptric*-
3. Sirs magna lucis iff umbra. 4. Mufurgia univerfalis.
5. Obelifcus Pamphilius. 6. Oedipus JEgyptiacus, four
volumes, folio. 7. Itinerarium extaticum. 8. Obelifcus
JEgyptianus, in four volumes, folio, g. Mundus fub-
terrancus. 10. China illuf rata.
KIRCHMAN (John), an eminent German divine,
was born at Lubec in 1575. He ftudied in feveral
places of Germany; in 1602 was made profefibr of
poetry at Roftock, and in 1613 reftor of the uni-
' verfity at Lubec. He exercifed this Lift employment
-with an extraordinary application during the reft of
his life, and died in 1643. He wrote feveral works;
the moft efteemed of which are, 1. De funeribus Ro-
manorum. 2. De annvUs liber fngularis.
KIRIATHAIM, (anc. geog.), one of.the towns
built by the Reubenites; reckoned to the tribe of
Reuben (Jcftiua, xiii.), 12 miles to the weft of Midaba.
The ancient refidence of the giants called Emm.
KIRIATH arba. See Hebron.
Kiriath • Baal, or Cariath • baal, called alfo Ki-
riathjearim, “ the city of the woodsone of the
cities of the Gibeonites belonging to the tribe of Ju¬
dah, -nine miles from Aelia, in the road to Diufpolis.
It was alfo called Baala (Joihua). The ark of the
covenant, after its recovery from the Philiftines, ftood
for fome time in this city (1 Sam. vii).
KIRK, a Saxon term, fignifying the fame with
church.
KiRK-ScfJions, the name of a petty ecclefiaftical ju¬
dicatory in Scotland. Each parifti, according to its
extent, is divided into feveral particular diftrifts ;
every one of which has its own elder and deacon to
joveifee it. A confiftory of the minifters, elders, and
deacons of a parifti, form a kirk-felfion.—Thefe meet
once a week, the minifter being their moderator, but
without a negative voice. It regulates matters rela¬
ting to public worftiip, eleftions, catechifing, vifita-
tions, &c. It judges in matters of lefs fcandal; but
greater, as adultery, are left to the prefbytery; and
in all cafes an appeal lies from it to the prefbytery.
Kirk-feffions have like wife the care of the poor and
poor’s funds.
K1RKALDY, a town of the county of Fife in
Scotland, two miles to the north eaft of Kinghorn.
It is a royal boron ;h, the feat of a prefbytery, and
gives the title of baron to the earl of Melvill. The
town is populous, well built, and extends a mile in
length from eait to weft, enjoying a tolerable fhare of
trade by exporting its own produce and manufa&ures
of corn, coal, linen, and fait. W. Long. 2. o. N.
Lat. 56. 8.
KIRKBY Lonsdale, a town of Weftmoreland,
253 miles from London. It is a large place, with a
woollen manufaftory, and a market on Tuefday. It
has a free fchool well endowed, with three prefenta-
tions to Chrift’s college Cambridge. It has a large
church, and a good ftone bridge of three arches over
the Lon. From its churchyard and the banks of the
river, there is a very fine profpedl of the mountains
at a vaft diftance, as well as of the courfe of the ri¬
ver, which abounds with falmon, trout, &c. and pro-
vifions of all forts are very cheap here.
N0 *72.
Kirkby • Steven, or Stephen's-Church, a towS of Kfrkhjf
Weftmoreland, 257 miles from London, Rands on the ,11
river Eden near Sedbergh and Afgarth. The church
is a large building with a lofty tower; in it are feve- _
ral old monuments. Here is a good free fchool that
has two .exhibitions. The town is noted for the ma-
nufadfory of yarn-ftockings ; and it has a market and
a fair.
Kirnsr-Thore, a town of Weflmoreland, ftands al¬
fo on the river Eden, north-weft of Appleby, 267 miles
from London. A horn of a moofe-deer was found
here a few years fince, at the depth of four feet from
the furface of the earth ; and feveral other antiquities
have been dug up or taken out of a well, difeovered
at the end of the town near the bridge. Below it are
the vaft ruins of an ancient town, where Roman coins
and urns are frequently dug up. The people call it
Whely-caftle, 300 yards in length, and 150 in
breadth, with three entrances on each fide, with bul¬
warks before them. At a little diftance from thence
Roman urns are found containing bones and aftiea.
The old military-way runs through it, called the
Maiden way, becaufe it began at Maiden-caftle in
Stainmore in Yorkfhire, north riding,
KIRKCUDBRIGHT, beginning at the middle
of Dumfries-ftiire in Scotland, makes a confiderable
part of Galloway, of which the earls of Nithifdale
were hereditary ftewards. The face of the country
exhibits the appearance of one continued heath, pro¬
ducing nothing but pafture for iheep and frrtall black
cattle, which are generally fold in England; yet thefe
dufky moors are interfered with pleafant valleys, and
adorned with a great number of caftles belonging to
private gentlemen, every houfe being furrounded with
an agreeable plantation. It is watered by the river
Dee ; which, taking its rife from the mountains near
Carrick, runs through a traft of land about 70 miles
in length, and, entering the Irilh fea, forms the har¬
bour of Kirkcudbright, a fmall inconfiderable bo¬
rough, admirably fituated for the fiftrery and other
branches of commerce, which are almoft totally ne-
glefted through the poverty and indolence of the in¬
habitants. There is no other town of any confe-
quence in this ftewartry. Kirkcudbright gives title
of baron to the Maclellans, who formerly were a
powerful family in the county.
KIRKHAM, a town of Lancafliire, 221 miles
from London, ftands near the Ribble, fix miles from
the Iriftr fea, in that part of the county called the
Field-lands. It has a market and three fairs, and a
free fchool well endowed. By the late inland naviga¬
tion, it has a communication with the rivers Merfey,
Dre, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Hum¬
ber, Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation, including
its windings, extends above 700 miles, in the counties
of Lincoln, Nottingham York, Weftmoreland, Chef-
ter, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
KIRKOSWALD, a town of Cumberland on thtf
Eden, 291 miles from London It had formerly a caftle,
which was demoliihed above ico years ago. It has a
market and two fairs. Its church is a very irregular
old building; and the belfrey is placed diftant from
the church on the top of an hill, that the found of
the bells might be more eafily heard by the circumja¬
cent villages.
KIRK-
K I R
Kitkwall, KIRKWALL, the capital of the Orkneys, fitua-
flCirfttbim. tC(j ;n ;{land of Pomona, in W. Long. o. 25. N. Lat.
" 58. 33. It is built upon an inlet of the fea near the
middle of the ifland, having a very fafe road and har¬
bour for (hipping. It is a royal borough, governed
by a provoft, four bailiffs, and a common-council. It
was formerly poffeffed by the Norwegians, who be¬
llowed upon it the name of Crucoviaca. From king
C 473 ]
K. I S
MSS. editm, et ad verbum in Latiyium tranjlatus, in
folio. 2. De vero ufu et abufu Medicine. 3. Gram-
matica Arabica, folio. 4. Vitee quatuor Evangelist-
rum, ex antiquifmo codice MSS. Arabico erut/e, in folio.
5. Note in Evangelium S. Matthei, ex collatione textuum
Arabicorum, Syriacorum, JEgyptiacorum, Grecorum, &
Latinorum, in folio, &c.
He ought not to be confounded with George Ker~
Kirtle
II
Kifti.
James III. ofrfficotland they obtained a new charter Jlenius, another learned phyfician and naturalift, who
empowering them to cleft their own magiftrates year, was born at Stettin, and died in 1660) and alfo wrote
ly, to hold borough-courts, arreft, imprifon, make r 1 1 u:-L ft— j
laws and ordinances for the right government of the
town; to have a weekly market, and three fairs an¬
nually at certain fixed terms : he moreover granted
to them feme lands adjoining to the town, with
the cuftoms and (hore-dues, the power of a pit and
feveral works which are efteemed.
KIRTLE, a term ufed for a (hort jacket; alfo fot^
a quantity of flax about a hundred weight.
KIRTON, or Kikkton, a town of Lincolnfhire,
151 miles from London. It had its name from its
kirk or church, which is truly magnificent. It has a
gallows, and exempted them from the expence of market and two fairs. This place is famous for tjje
fending commiffioners to parliament. This charter
has been confirmed by fucceeding monarchs. At pre-
fent Kirkwall is the feat of juftice, where the fleward,
fheriff, and commiffary, hold their feveral courts of ju-
rifdiftion : Here is likewife a public grammar-fchool,
endowed with a competent falary for the mailer. The
pippin, which, when grafted on its flock, is called
the rennet. It gives names to its hundreds, in which
are four villages of the fame name.
KISSER, the ancient Colonia Affuras in Africa,
as appears from many infcriptions ftill to be mdt with
in the place. Here is a triumphal arch done in a very
town confifls of one narrow ftreet about a mile in good tafle : there is alio a fmall temple of a fquare fi-
length; the houfes are chiefly covered with flate,
though not at all remarkable for neatnefs and conve¬
nience.— The principal edifices are the cathedral
church and the bifhop’s palace. The former, called
St Magnus, from Magnus king of Norway, the fup-
pofed founder of the town, is a large Gothic ftruc-
tore: the roof is fupported by 14 pillars on each furas.
gure, having feveral inftruments of facrifice carved
upon it; but the execution is much inferior to the
defign, which is very curious. The town is fituated
in the kingdom of Tunis, on the declivity of a hill,
above a large fertile plain; which is ft ill called the
plain of Sur/o, probably from its ancient name Af-
fide, and the fpire is built upon four large columns.
The gates are decorated with a kind of Mofaic work,
of red and white ftones elegantly carved and flowered.
By the ruins of the king’s caftle or citadel, it ap¬
pears to have been a ftrong and ftately fortrefs. At
the north end of the town there is a fort of fortifica-
KISSING, by way of falutation, or as a token of
refpeft, has been praftifed in all nations. The Ro¬
man emperors faluted their principal officers by a kifs.
Kiffing the mouth or the eyes was the ufual compli¬
ment upon any promotion or happy event. Soldiets
kiffed the general’s hand when he quitted his joffice.
tion built by the Englifh in the time of Oliver Crocn- Fathers, amongft the Romans, had fo much delicacy,
well. It is furrounded with a ditch and rampart, that they never embraced their wives in the prefence
and ftijl mounted with fome cannon for the defence of of their daughters. Near relations were allowed to
the harbour.
KIRSTENIUS (Peter), profeffor of phyfic at
Upfal, and phyfician-extraordinary to the queen of
Sweden, was born at Breflaw in 1577. He ftudied
Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Syriac, natural philofophy,
anatomy, botany, and other fciences. Being told that
a man could not diftinguifh himfelf in phyfic unlefs
he underflood Avicenna, he applied himfelf to the
fludy of Arabic ; and not only to read Avicenna, but
alfo Mefue, Rha'lis, Abenzoar, Abukafis, and Aver-
kifs their female kindred on the mouth : but this was
done in order to know whether they fmelt of wine or
not; becaufe the Roman ladies, in fpite of a prohibi¬
tion to the contrary, were foundfometimes to have made
too free with the juice of the grape. Slaves killed their
mailers hand, who ufed to hold it out to them for
that purpofe. Kiffing was a cuftomary mode of falu¬
tation amongft. the Jews, as we may colleft from the
eircumftance of Judas approaching his Mafler with a
kifs. Relations ufed to kifs their kindred when dy-
He vifited Spain, Italy, England, and did ing, and when dead ; when dying, out of a ftrange
not return home from his travels till after feveii-years, opinion that they fhould imbibe the departing foul;
He was chofen by the magiftrates of Breflaw to have^ and when dead, By way of valediftory ceremony. They v
the direftion of their college and of their fchools. A eVen^kifled the corpfe after it was conveyed to the pile,
fit of ficknefs having obliged him to refign that diffi-" whenTP'fcad been feven or eight days dead,
cult employment, with which he was alfo muchjdif- KIST1, an Afiatic nation, which extends from the
gulled, he applied himfelf chiefly to the praftice of higneft ridge of Caucafus,'along the Sundfha rivulets-,
phyfic, and went with his family into Pruffia. Here According to Major Rennel*, they are boundecLto *-WWr
he obtained the friendfhip and efleem of the chancellor the weft by the little Cabarda, to the eaft by the Tar- a maP °£’
Oxenfliern, whom he accompanied into Sweden; tars and Lefguis, and to the fouth by the Lefguis
where he was made profeffor of phyfic in the univer- and Georgians. He imagines they may be the people ‘betweenlbe
fityof Upfal, and phyfician to the queen. He died whom Gaerber Calls the Taulinzi, i.e. “mountaineers,” ^^ Sca
in 1640. It is faid in his epitaph, that he underftood and to whom lie-attributes the following ftrange cn.and tb'Caf~
26 languages. He wrote many works; among which Horn :—“ When a gueft or ftranger comes to lodge^,‘",‘
are, 1. Liberfecundus Canonis Avicenna, typis Arabicis, with them, one of the hoft’s dauglr— - 1'' -
Vol. IX. Part II.
i daughters is obliged to
3 O receive
K I S L 474 1 KIT
Klfti. receive him, to unfaddle and feed his horfe, take care
of his baggage, prepare his dinner, pafs the night with
him, and continue at his difpofal during his (lay. At
his departure, (he faddles his horfe and packs up his
baggage. It would be very uncourtly to refufe any
of thefe marks of hofpitality.” The different tribes of
this reltlefs and turbulent nation are generally at va¬
riance with each other, and with all their neighbours.
Their diale&s have no analogy with any known lan¬
guage, and their hiftory and origin are at prefent ut¬
terly unknown.
Their diftriits,.as enumerated in Major Rennel’s Me¬
moir, are, i. Ingufhi, about 60 miles to the fouthward
of Mofdok, in the high mountains about the Kum-
belei. 2. Endery ; and, 3. Axai, on a low ridge be¬
tween the Sundfha and laxai rivers. In their terri¬
tories are the hotwells. 4. Ackinyurt, towards the
upper part of the Sundfha and Kumbelei. 5. Ardakli,
on the Rofhni that joins the Sundfha. 6. Wapi, near
the Offetin village Tfhim, towards the fource of the
Terek. 7. Angufht, on the upper part of the Kum¬
belei. 8. Shalkha, called by the Ruffians Maloi An-
gujlt. 9. Tfhetfhen, on the lower part of the Argun
river. 10. Atakhi, a fmall diftrift on the upper part
of the Argun. 11. Kulga, or Dfhanti, in the high
mountains. 12. Galgai, or Halha, about the fource of
the Afai, a Sundfha rivulet. 13. Tfhabrilo, and Sha-
bul, on the Sundfha. 14. Tfhifhni-Kabul, on the
Rofhni, a Sundfha rivulet. 15. Karaboulak, a wan¬
dering tribe, who have their little villages about the
fix uppermofl rivulets of the Sunfha, particularly the
Fortan. 16. Meefti, Meredfhi, Galafhka, and Duban,
are fmall tribes on the Axai.
The Ingufhi, or firft of the above tribes, fubmitted
to Ruffia in 1770. They are capable of arming about
5000 men; they call themfelves Ingufhi, Kifli, or Halha;
they live in villages near each other, containing about
20 or 30 houfes; are diligent hufbandmen, and rich
in cattle. Many of their villages have a ftone tower,
which ferves in time of war as a retreat to their women
and children, and as a magazine for their effedis.
Thefe people are all armed, and have the cuftom of
•wearing fhields.—Their religion is very fimple, but
has fome traces of Chriftianity : They believe in one
God, whom they call Daile, but have no faints or re¬
ligious perfons; they celebrate Sunday, not by any re¬
ligious ceremony, but by refting from labour; they have
a faft in fpring, and another in fummer; they obferve
no ceremonies either at births or deaths ; they allow of
polygamy, and eat pork. One kind of facrifice is
ufual among them : at certain times a fheep is killed
by a perfon who feems to be confideied as a kind of
prieft, as he is obliged to live in a ftate of celibacy.
His habitation is in the mountains, near an old ftone
church, which is faid to be adorned with various fta-
tues and infcriptions. Under the church is a vault
that contains certain old books, which, however, no
f JleiA, one ever attempts to approach. Mr Guldenftaedt j- was
vol. £ prevented by the weather from vifiting this church,
f. iso. The 6th, 7th, and 8th tribes, which were formerly
tributary to the Cabardean princes, fubmitted to Ruf¬
fia in 1770. The gth, Tthetfhen, is governed by its
own chiefs, who are related to the Avar-Khan. This
tribe is fo numerous and warlike, and has given the
Ruffians fo much Uouble, that its name is ufually given
by them to the whole Kifti nation. The chief village Kit,
of Tfhetfhen lies on the Argun, about 15 miles from
its mouth. Its other principal villages are Hadlhi-
aul and langejent, both on the Sundlha.
KIT, in mufic, the name of a fmall violin of fuch
form and dimenfion as to be capable of being carried
in a cafe or fheath in the pocket. Its length, mea-
furing from the extremities, is about 16 inches, and
that of the bow about 17. Small as this inftrument
is, its powers are coextenfive with thofe of the violin.
Kn-Kat Club, an affociation of above 30 noblemen
and gentlemen of diftinguifhed merit, formed in 1 703,
purely to unite their zeal, in favour of the Proteftant
fucceffion in the houfe of Hanover. Their name was
derived from Chriftopher Kat, a paftry-cook, near the
tavern where they met in King’s-ftreet, Weftminfter,
who often fupplied them with tarts. Old Jacob Ton-
fon was their bookfeller; and that family is in poffef-
fion of a pidture of the original members of this fa¬
mous club, painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller. The de-
fign of thefe gentlemen was to recommend and encou¬
rage true loyalty by the powerful influence of wit and
humour; and Sir Samuel Garth diftinguilhed himfelf
by the extempore epigrams he made on their toafts,
which were infcribed on their drinking glaflfes.
KITCHEN, the room in a houfe where the pro-
vifions are cooked.
Army Kitchen, is a fpace of about 16 or 18 feet
diameter, with a ditch furrounding it three feet wide;
the oppofite bank of which ferves as a feat for the men
who drefs the viftuals, The kitchens of the flank com¬
panies are contiguous to the outline of the camp ; and
the intermediate fpace is generally diftributed equally
for the remaining kitchens ; and as each tent forms a
mefs, each kitchen muft have as many fire-places as
there are tents in the company.
Kitchen Garden, a piece of ground laid out for
the cultivation of fruit, herbs, pulfe, and other vege¬
tables, ufed in the kitchen.
A kitchen-garden ought to be fituated on ope fide
of the houfe, near the ftables, from whence the dung
may be eafily conveyed into it; and after having built
the wall, borders (hould be made under them; which,
according to Miller, ought to be eight or ten feet
broad ; upon thofe borders expofcd to the fouth, ma¬
ny forts of early plants may be fown ; and upon thofe-
expofed to the north, you may have fome late crops,
taking care not to plant any fort of deep-rooting
plants, efpecially beans and peafe, too near the fruit-
tiees. You {hould next proceed to divide the ground
into quarters ; the beft figures for thefe is a fquare or
an oblong, if the ground will admit of it; otherwif
they may be of that ffiape which will be moft advaa
tageous to the ground : the fize of thefe quarters-
fhould be proportioned to that of the garden ; if they
are too fmall, your ground will be loft in walks, and
the quarters being inclofed by efpaliers of fruit-trees,
the plants will draw up flender, for want of a more
open expofure. The walks fliould alfo be proportion¬
ed to the f«e of the ground : thefe in a fmall garden-
{hould be fix feet broad, but in a large one ten ; and
on each fide of the walk there {hould be allowed a
border three or four feet wide between it and the
efpalier; and in thefe borders may be fown fome fmall
falads, or any other herbs that do not take deep root
©r
Kite
K L E [ 47* 3 . K.N A
or continue long; but thefe quarters fiiould not be ferved that prince at the beginning of the campaign of Kleift. T
fown or planted with the fame crop two years toge- 1759, when he was with him in Franconia, and in all
then In one of thefe quarters, fituated neareft to the the expeditions of that army, till he was detached with ■ ^ - <■
{tables, and beft defended from the cold winds, fltould the troops under general de Fink to join the king's
be the hot-beds, for early cucumbers, melons, &c. army. On the 12th of Auguft was fought the bloody
and to thefe there (hould be a pafiage from the {tables, battle of Kunerfdorf, in which he fell. He attacked
and a gate through which a fmall cart may enter, the flank of the Ruffians, and affifted in gaining three
The moft important points of general culture confifl batteries. In thefe bloody attacks he received twelve
in well digging and manuring the foil; and giving a pro- contufions ; and the two firft fingers of his right hand
per diftance to each plant, according to their different being wounded, he was forced to hold his fword in
growths: a$.alfo in keeping them clear from weeds ; the left. His poft of major obliged him to remain
for which purpofe, you ffiould always obferve to behind the ranks j but he no fooner perceived the
keep your dung-hills clear from them, otherwife their commander of the battalion wounded and carried away,
feeds will be conftantly brought in and fpread with than he inftantly put himfelf at the head of his troop,
the dung. He led his battalion in the midft of the terrible fire
KITE, in ornithology. See Falco, fp. 8. of the enemy’s artillery, againft the fourth battery.
K1TTIWAKE, in ornithology. See Larus. He called up the colours of the regiment; and, ta-
KIU-hoa. See Parthenium. king an enfign by the arm, led him on. Here he
KIUN-tcheou-fou. See H/n-Nan. received a ball in his left arm ; when, being no longer
KLEINPOVIA, in botany: A genus of the de- able to hold his fword in his left hand, he took it
candria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of again in the right, and held it with the two laft fingers
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the and his thumb. He ftill pulhed forward, and was
37th order, Co/«/nw//mf. The calyx is pentaphylldus; within thirty fteps of the battery, when his right leg
the petals five; the ne&arium campanulated and pe- was ffiattered by the wadding of one of the great guns j
dunculated, containing the {lamina ; the capfule is in- and he fell from his horfe, crying to his men, “ My
flated and five-feeded. boys, don’t abandon your king.” By the affift-
KLEIST (Edward Chriftian de), a celebrated ante of thofe who furrounded him, he endeavoured
German poet, and a foldier of diftinguifhed bravery, twice to remount his horfe ; but his ftrength forfook
was born at Zeblin, in Pomerania, in 1715- At him, and he fainted. He was then carried behind
nine years of age he was fent to purfue his ftudies at the line; where a furgeon, attempting to drefs his
Cron in Poland; and he afterwards ftudied at Dant- wounds, was {hot dead. The Coffacs arriving foon
zick and Koningfberg. Having finiffied his ftudies, he after, ftripped Mr Kleift naked, and threw him into
went to vifit his relations in Denmark, who invited a mirey place ; where fame Ruffian huffars found him
him to fettle there; and having in vain endeavoured in the night, and laid him upon feme ftraw near the
to obtain preferment in the law, at 21 years of age fire of the grand guard, covered him with a cloak, put
accepted of a poft in the Daniffi army. He then ap- a hat on his head, and gave him fome bread and wa-
plied himfelf to the ftudy of all the fciences that have ter. In the morning one of them offered him 3 piece
a relation to military affairs, with the fame affiduity of filver, which he refufed ; on which he toffed it up¬
as he had before ftudied civil law. In 1740, at the on the cloak that covered him, and then departed with
beginning of the reign of Frederic king of Pruffia, his companions. Soon after the Coffacs returned, and
Mr de Kleift went to Berlin, and was prefented to took all that the generous huffars had given him. Thus
his majefty, who made him lieutenant of his brother he again lay naked on the earth; and in that cruel
prince Henry’s regiment; and he was in all the cam- fituation continued till noon, when he was known by
paigns which diftinguiffied the five firft years of the a Ruffian officer, who caufed him to be conveyed in
king of Pruffia’s reign. In 1749 he obtained the poft a waggon tt> Frankfort on the Oder ; where he arri-
of captain ; and in that year publiffied his excellent ved in the evening, in a very weak ftate, and was in¬
poem on the Spring. Before the breaking out of the ftantly put into the hands of the furgeons. But the
laft war, the king chofe him, with fome other officers fra&ured bones feparating, broke an artery, and he
at Potfdam, companion to the young prince Frede- died by the lofs of blood. The city of Frankfort be-
ric-William of Pruffia, and to eat at his table. In ing then in the hands of the enemy, they buried this
the fiift campaign, in 1756, he was nominated major Pruffian hero with all military honours: the governor,
of Haufen’s regiment; which being in garrifon at a great number of the Ruffian officers, the magiftrates
Leipfic, he had time to finiffi feveral new poems, of the city, with the profeffors and the ftudents, form-
After the battle of Rofbach, the king gave him, by ed the proceffion, preceded by the funeral mufic. Mr
an order in hisown hand-writting, the infpeftionofthe Kleift’s poems, which are greatly admired, are ele-
grcat hofpital eftabliffied at Leipfic. And on this gantly printed in the German tongue, in 2 vo-
occafion has humanity was celebrated by the lick and lumts 8vo.
wounded of both parties, and his difintereftednefs was KNARESBOROUGH, a town in the Weft Ri-
equally admired by all the inhabitants of that city, ding of Yorkihire in England, 199 miles'from London,
In 1758, Prince Henry coming to Leipfic, Mr Kleift is an ancient borough by prefeription, called by fo-
defired to ferve in his army with the regiment of Hau- reigners the Torkjhire Spaw. It is almoft encompaffed
fen, which was readily granted. Opportunities of by the river Nid, which iffues from the bottom of
diftinguiftiing himfelf could not be wanting under that Craven-hills ; and had a priory, with a caftle, long
great officer, and he always communicated his cou- fince demoliffied, on a craggy rock, whence it took the
rage to the battalion under his command. He alfo name. The town is about three furlongs in length;
3 0* and
K N E [ 476 ] K N E
Knapdale and the parifh is famous for four medicinal fprings
H near each other, and yet of different qualities. i.The
. nee* . fweet fpaw, or vitriolic well, in Knarefborough foreft,
T three miles from the town, which was difcovered in
1620. 2. The {linking, or fulphureous fpaw, which is
ufed only in bathing. 3. St Mungo’s, a cold-bath, four
miles from the town. 4. The dropping-well, which
is in the town,] and the molt noted petrifying fpring
in England, fo called by reafon of its dropping from
the fpongy rock hanging over it. The ground which
receives it, before it joins the well, is, for 12 yards
long, become a folid rock. From the well it runs in¬
to the Nid, where the fpring water has made a rock
that ftretches fome yards into the river. The adjacent
fields are noted for liquorice, and a foft yellow marie,
which is rich manure. The town is governed by a
bailiff. Its baths are not fo much frequented fince
Scarborough Spaw came in vogue. It has a good market
and fix fairs. Here is a Hone bridge over the river,
near one end of which is a cell dug out of the rock,
and called St Robert’s chapel.
KNAPDALE, one of the divifions of Argylefltire
in Scotland. It is parted from Cowal on the eaft by
Lochfyn, borders with Kintyre on the fouth, with
Lorn on the north, by Braidalbin on the north-eaft,
and on the well by the Hebrides. Its length from
north to fouth does not exceed 20 miles, and the
breadth in fome places may amount to 13. It is
joined to Kintyre by a neck of land not above a mile
broad, over which the country people draw their boats,
to avoid failing round Kintyie. This part of Knap¬
dale abounds with lakes, fome of them containing lit¬
tle iflands, on which there are caftles belonging to dif¬
ferent proprietors. The grounds aje more adapted for
pallurage than grain ; but that on the fide of Lochow
is fruitful in both.
KNAPSACK, in a military fenfe, a rough leather
bag which a foldier carries on his back, and which
contains all his’ neceffaries. Square knapfacks are
moft convenient; and fhould be made with a divifion
to hold the {hoes, black-ball and brufhes, feparate from
the linen. White goat-lkins are the beft.
KNAVE, an old Saxon word, which, had at firft a
fenfe of fimplicity and innocence, for itfignified a boy :
Sax. cnapa, whence a knave-child, i. e. a boy, diftin-
guiflted from a girl, in feveral old writers; afterwards
it was taken for a fervant-boy, and at length for any
fervant-man. Alfo it was applied to a minifter or
officer that bore the Ihield or weapon of his fuperior ;
as jield-knapa, whom the Latins call armiger, and the
French efeuyer, 14 Edw. III. c. 3. And it was fome-
times of old made ufe of as a titular addition ; as Joan¬
nes C.Jilius WillielmiC. deDerby, knave, &c. 22 Hen. VIL
c. 37. The word is now perverted to the harddl mean¬
ing, viz. a falfe deceitfulfellow.
KNAVESHIP, in Scots law, one of the names of
the fmall duties payable in thirlagc to the miller’s fer-
vants, called fequels.
KNAUTIA, in botany : A genus of the monogy-
»ia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 48th
order, Aggregates. The common calyx is oblong, fimple,
quinqueflorous ; the proper one fimple, fuperior ; the
florets irregular; the receptacle naked.
KNEE, in anatomy, the articulation of the thigh
and leg bones'. See Anatomy, n° 59.
Knee, in a {hip, a crooked piece of timber, having
two branches or arms, and generally ufed to conneft
the beams of a {hip with her fides or timbers.
The branches of the knees form an angle of greater
or fmaller extent, according to the mutual fituation of
the pieces which they are defigned to unite. One
branch is fecurely bohed to one of the deck-beams,
whilft: the other is in the fame manner attached to a
corrcfponding timber in the {hip’s fide, as reprefented
by E in the plate of Mimmp-Frame.
Btfides the great utility of knees in conne&ing the
beams and timbers into one compadl frame, they con¬
tribute greatly to the ftrength and folidity of the {hip,
in the different parts of her frame to which they are
bolted ; and thereby enable her with greater firmneli
to refill the effects of a turbulent fea.
In fixing of thefe pieces, it is occafionally necefiary
to give an oblique dire&ion to the vertical or fide
branch, in order to avoid the range of an adjacent gun-
port, or becaufe the knee may be fo ftiaped as to require
this difpofition ; it being fometimes difficult to procure
fo great a variety of knees as may be neceffaiy in the
conftrudlion of a number of ffiips of war.
In France, the fcarcity of thefe pieces has obliged
their ffiip-wrights frequently to form their knees of
iron.
Knees are either faid to be lodging or hanging. The
former are fixed horizontally in the {hip’s frame, having
one arm bolted to the beam, and the other acrofs two
or three timbers, as reprefented in the Deck, Plate
CLVI. The latter are fixed vertically, as we have
deferibed above. See alfo SHip-Building, Deck, and
Mids hip- Frame.
Knee of the Head, a large flat piece of timber, fixed
edgeways upon the fore-part of a {hip’s flem, and fup-
porting the ornamental figure or image placed under
the bowfprit. See Saip-Building.
The knee of the head, which may properly be de¬
fined a continuation of the ftem, as being prolonged
from the Item forwards, is extremely broad at the
upper-part, and accordingly compofed of feveral pieces
united into one, YY (Pieces of the Hull, in Saip-Build-
ing Plates). It is let into the head, arid fecured to
the ffiip’s bows by ftrong knees fixed horizontally
upon both, and called the cheeks of the head. The heel
of it is fcarfed to the upper-end of the fore foot ; and
it is faftened to the Hem above by a knee, called a flan-
dard, exprefled by & in the plate.
Befides fuporting the figure of the head, this piece
is otherwife ufeful, as ferving to fecure the boom
or bumkin, by which the fore-tack is extended to wind¬
ward ; and by its great breadth, preventing the {hip
from falling to leeward when clofe-hauled fo much as
fhe would otherwife do. It alfo affords a greater fe-
curity to the bowfprit, by increafing the angle of the
bob-Hay, fo as to make it a A more perpendicularly on
the bowfprit.
The knee of the head is a phrafe peculiar to fhip-
wrights; as this piece is always called the cut-water
by feamen, if we except a few, who, affeAing to be
wifer than their brethren, have adopted this expreffion
probably on the prefumption that the other is a cant-
phrafe or vulgarifm.
Carling Knees, in a flap, thofe timbers which ex¬
tend from the ffiip to the hatch-way, and bear up the
deck on both fides.
KNELLER
Kneller
Knight.
• Virtu of
Society in
p. 46. ’
K N I [ 477 ] .K N I
KNELLER (Sir Godfrey), a painter, whofe fame
is well eflablillied in thefe kingdoms. He was born
at Lubeck in 1648 ; and received his 6rft inftru&ions
in the fchool of Rembrant, but became afterwards a
difciple of Ferdinand Bol. When he had gained as
much knowledge as that fchool afforded him, he tra¬
velled to Rome, where he fixed his particular attention
on Titian and the Caraccii. He afterwards vifited Ve¬
nice, and diftinguifhed himfelf fo elfe&ually in that
city by his hiftoricai pictures and portraits of the noble
families there, that his reputation became confiderable
in Italy. By the advice of fome friends he came at
laft to England, where it was his good fortune to gain
the favour of the duke of Monmouth : by his recom¬
mendation, he drew the pi&ure of King Charles II.
more than once ; who was fo taken with his Ikill in
doing it, that he ufed to come and fit to him at his
Loufe in Covent-garden piazza. The Death of Sir
Eeter Lely left him without a competitor in England,
and from that time his fottune and fame were tho¬
roughly eftablilhed. No painter could have more in-
ceffant employment, and no painter could be more
diftinguifhed by public honour. He was ftate-painter
to Charles li. James IE William III. Queen Anne,
and George I. equally efteemed and refpedted by them
all: the Emperor Leopold made him a knight of the
Roman empire, and King George I. created him a ba¬
ronet. Moft of the nobility and gentry had their like-
ntfles taken by him, and no painter excelled him in a
fure outline, or in the graceful difpofition of his figures :■
his works were celebrated by the beft poets in his time.
He built himfelf an elegant houfe at Whitton near
Hampton-court, where he fpent the latter part of his
life ; and died in 1726.
KNIFE is a well-known inftrument. made for cut¬
ting, and adapted in form to the ufes for which it is
defigned.
Knives are faid to have been firft made in England
in 1563, by one Matthews, on Fleet bridge, Lon¬
don. The importation of all forts of knives is pro¬
hibited.
KNIGHT (eques), among the Romans, a perfon
of the fecond degree of nobility, following immedi¬
ately that of the fenators. Stt Equestrian Order,
and Equites.
Knight, or Cnecht (Germ ), in feodal hittory, was
originally an appellation or title given by the ancient
Germans to their youth after being admitted to the
privileges of bearing arms.
The paffion for arms among the Germanic ftates,
as defcribed by Dr Stuart *, was carried to extremity.
It was amidft fcenes of death and peril that the young
were educated : It was by valour and feats of prowefs
that the ambitious fignalized their manhood. All the
honours they knew were allotted to the brave. The
fword opened the path to glory. It was in the field
that the ingenious and the noble flattered moft their
pride, and acquired an afcendancy. The ftrength of
their bodies, and the vigour of their counfels, fur-
rounded them with warriors, and lifted them to com¬
mand.
But, among thefe nations, when the individual felt
the call of valour, and wifned to try his ftrength
againft an enemy, he could not of his. own authority
take the lance and the javelin. The admiffion of their
4
youth to the privilege of bearing arms, was a matter Knight,
of too much importance to be left to chance or their —v~"
ow n choice. A form was invented by which they ifrire
advanced to that honour.
The council of the diftridf, or of the canton to
which the candidate belonged, was aiTembled. His
age and his qualifications were inquired into; and if
he was deemed worthy of being admitted to the pri¬
vileges of a foldier, a chieftain, his father or one of
his kindred adorned him with a ftiield and the lance.
In confequence of this folemnity, he prepared to diftin-
guifh himfelf; his mind opened to the cares of the pub¬
lic ; and the domeftic concerns, or the offices of the
family from which he had fprung, were no longer the
objefls of his attention. To this ceremony, fo Ample
and fo interefting, the inftitutlon of knighthood is in¬
debted for its rife.
Knighthood, however, as a fyeftm, known under
the denomination of Chivalry, is to be dated only
from the 11 th century. All Europe being reduced
to a ftate of anarchy and confufion on the decline of
the houfe of Charlemagne, every proprietor of a manor
or lordlhip became a petty fovereign; the manfion-
houfe was fortified by a moat, defended by a guard,
and called a cafile. The governor had a party of 700
or 800 men at his command; and with thefe he ufed
frequently to make excurfions, which commonly ended
in a battle with the lord of fome petty ftate of the -
fame kind, whofe caftle was then pillaged, and the
women and treafures borne off by the conqueror. Du¬
ring this flate of univerfal hoftility, there was no friend¬
ly commumcations between the provinces, nor any
high roads from one part of the kingdom to another :
the wealthy traders, who then travelled from place to
place with their merchandife and their families, were
in perpetual danger; the lord of almoft every caftle
extorted fomething from them on the road ; and at
laft, fome one more rapacious than the reft, feized up¬
on the whole of the cargo, and bore off t he women for
his own ufe.
Thus caftles became the .warehoufes of all kinds of >
rich merchandife, and the prifons of the diftreffed fe¬
males whole fathers or lovers had been plundered or
Ilain, and who being therefore feldom difpofed to
take the thief or murderer into favour, were in conti¬
nual danger of a rape.
But as fome are always diftinguilhed by virtue in
the m ft general defeftion, it happened that many
lords infenfibly affociated to reprefs thefe fallies of vio¬
lence and rapine, to fecure property, and proteft the
ladies. Among thefe were many lords of great fiefs 5
and the affociation was at length ftrengthened by a
folemn vow, and received the fanftion of a reJigioua
ceremony. As the firft knights, were men of the
higheft rank, and the largeft poffeffions, fuch having •
moft to lofe, and the leaft temptation to fteal, the fra¬
ternity was regarded with a kind of reverence, even
by thofe againft whom it was formed. Admiffion ihto
the order was deemed the higheft honour; many ex¬
traordinary qualifications were required in a candidate,
and many new ceremonies were added at his creation.
After having failed from fun-rife, confeffed himfelf,
and received the facrament, he was dteffed in a white
tunic, and placed by himfelf at a fide-table, where he
was neither to fpeak, to fmile, nor to eat ; while the
knights .
K N I r 478 ] K N I
Knight, knights and ladies, who were to perform the principal
» ■ parts of the ceremony, were eating, drinking, and
making merry at the great table. At night his ar¬
mour was conveyed to the church where the ceremony
was performed ; and here having watched it till the
morning, he advanced with his fword hanging about his
neck, and received the benediftion of the prieft. He
then kneeled down before the lady who was to put on
his armour, who being affifted by perfons of the firft
rank, buckled on his fpurs, put an helmet on his head,
and accoutred him with a coat of mail, a cuirafs, brace¬
lets, cuifles, and gauntlets.
Being thus armed cap-a-pee, the knight who dub¬
bed him (truck him three times over the (houlder with
the flat fide of his fword, in the name of God, St
Michael, and St George. He was then obliged to
watch all night in all his armour, with his fword gird¬
ed, and his lance in his hand. From this time the
knight devoted himfelf to the redrefs of thofe wrongs
which “ patient merit of the unworthy takesto
fecure merchants from the rapacious cruelty of bandit¬
ti, and women from raviflrers, to whofe power they
were, by the particular confufion of the times, conti¬
nually expofed.
From this view of the origin of chivalry, it will be
eafy to account for the caftle, the moat, and the
bridge, which are found in romances; and as to the
dwarf, he was a conftant appendage to the rank and
fortune of thofe times, and no caftle therefore could
be without him. The dwarf and the buffoon were
then introduced to kill time, as the card-table is at
prefent. It will alfo be eafy to account for the mul¬
titude of captive ladies whom the knights, upon fei-
zing a caftle, fet at liberty; and for the prodigious
quantities of ufelefs gold and filver vefiels, rich (tuffs,
and other merchandife, with which many apartments
in thefe caftles are faid to have been filled.
The principal lords who entered into the confrater¬
nity of knights, ufed to fend their fons to each other
to be educated, far from their parents, in the myftery
of chivalry. Thefe youths, before they arrived at the
age of 21, were called bachelors, or has chevaliers, in¬
ferior knights, and at that age were qualified to re¬
ceive the order.
So honourable was the origin of an inftitution,
commonly confidered as the refult of caprice and the
fource of extravagance ; but which, on the contrary,
rofe naturally from the date of fociety in thofe times,
and had a very ferious effedt in refining the manners
of the European nations. Valour, humanity, courtefy,
juftice, honour, were its charadterifties: and to thefe
were added religion ; which, by infufing a large por¬
tion of enthufiaftic zeal, carried them all to a roman¬
tic excefs, wonderfully fuited to the genius of the age,
and produdfive of the greateft and moft permanent ef-
fedts both upon policy and manners. War was carried
on with lefs ferocity, when humanity, no lefs than
courage, came to be deemed the ornament of knight¬
hood, and knighthood a diftindtion fuperior to royalty,
and an honour which princes were proud to receive
from the hands of private gentlemen: more gentle and
polilhed manners were introduced, when ccurtefy was
recommended as the moft amiable of knightly virtues,
and every knight devoted himfelf to the fervice of a
lady; violence and oppreffion decreafed, when it was
accounted meritorious to check and to puni/h them :
a fcrupulous adherence to truth, with the moft reli¬
gious attention to fulfil every engagement, but parti¬
cularly thofe between the fexes as more eafily violated,
became the diftinguiftiing charadter of a gentleman,
becaufe chivalry was regarded as the fchool of honour,
and inculcated the moft delicate fenfibility with refpedt
to that point; and valour, feconded by fo many mo¬
tives of love, religion, and virtue, became altogether
irrefiftible.
That the fpirit of chivalry fometimes rofe to an ex¬
travagant height, and had often a pernicious tendency,
muft however be allowed. In Spain, under the inflif-
ence of a romantic gallantry, it gave birth to a feries
of wild adventures which have been defervedly ridicu¬
led : in the train of Norman ambition, it extinguilhed
the liberties of England, and deluged Italy in blood;
and at the call of fuperftition, and as the engine of
papal power, it defolated Afia under the banner of the
crofs. But thefe ought not to be confidered as argu¬
ments againft an inftitution laudable in itfelf, and ne-
ceflary at the time of its foundation : and thofe who
pretend to defpife it, the advocates of ancient barba-
rifm and ancient rufticity, ought to remember, that
chivalry not only firft taught mankind to carry the ci¬
vilities of peace into the operations of war, and to
mingle politenefs with the ufe of the fword ; but rou-
fed the foul from its lethargy, invigorated the human
chara&er even while it foftened it, and produced ex¬
ploits which antiquity cannot parallel. Nor ought
they to forget, that it gave variety, elegance, and
pleafure, to the intercourfe of life, by making woman
a more eflential part of fociety; and is therefore in-
titled to our gratitude, though the point of honour,
and the refinements in gallantry, its more doubtful ef-
fefts, (hould be excluded from the improvement ef
modern manners. For,
To illuftrate this topic more particularly, we may
obferve, that women, among the ancient Greeks and
Romans, feem to have been confidered merely as ob-
jedts of fenfuality, or of domeftic conveniency : they
were devoted to a (late of feclufion and obfcurity, had
few attentions paid them, and were permitted to take
as little (hare in the converfation as in the general
commerce of life. But the northern nations, who paid
a kind of devotion to the fofter fex, even in their native
forefts, had no fooner fettled themfelves in the pro¬
vinces of the Roman empire, than the female charac¬
ter began to aflume new confequence. Thofe fierce
barbarians, who feemed to third only for blood, who
involved in one undiftinguifliing ruin the monuments
of ancient grandeur and ancient ingenuity, and who
devoted to the flames the knowledge of ages, always
forbore to offer any violence to the women. They
brought along with them the refpe&ful gallantry of
the north, which had power even to reftrain their fa-
vage ferocity ; and they introduced into the weft of
Europe a generofity of fentimcnt, and a complaifance
toward the ladies, to which the moft polifhed nations
of antiquity were ftrangers.—Thefe fentiments of ge¬
nerous gallantry were foftered by the inftitution of
chivalry, which lifted woman yet higher in the fcale
of life. Inftead of being nobody in fociety, (he be¬
came is primum mobile. Every knight devoting him¬
felf to danger, declared himfelf the humble fervant of
feme
Knight.
K N I
Knight, fome lady, and that lady was often the objeft of his
love. Her honour was fuppofed to be intimately con-
nefted with his, and her i'mile was the reward of his
valour : for her he attacked, for her he defended, and
for her he fhed his blood. Courage, animated by fo
powerful a motive, loft fight of every thing but enter-
prife: incredible toils were cheerfully endured, incre¬
dible adtions were performed, and adventures feeming-
ly fabulous were more than realifed. The effedf was
reciprocal. Women, proud of their influence, became
worthy of the heroifm which they had infpired : they
were not to be approached but by the high-minded
and the brave; and men then could only be admitted
to the bofom of the chafte fair, after proving their fi¬
delity and affeftion by years of perfeverance and of
peril.
Again, as to the change which took place in the ope¬
rations of war, it may be obferved, that the perfedt hero
of antiquity was fuperior to fear, but he made ufe of
every artifice to annoy his enemy: impelled by animo-
fity and hoftile paffion, like the favage in the American
woods, he was only anxious of attaining his end, with¬
out regarding whether fraud or force were the means.
But the true knight or modern hero of the middle ages,
who feems in all his rencounters to have had his eye on
the judicial combat or judgment of God, had an equal
contempt for ftratagem and danger. He difdained to
take advantage of his enemy: he defired only to fee
him, and to combat him upon equal terms, trufting^
that heaven would declare in behalf of the juft ; and
as he profeffed only to vindicate the caufe of religion,
of injured beauty, or oppreffed innocence, he was fur¬
ther confirmed in this enthufiaftic opinion by his own
heated imagination. Strongly perfuaded that the de-
cifion muft be in his favour, he fought as if under the
influence of divine infpiration rather than of ^military
ardour. Thus the fyftem of chivalry, by a lingular
[ 479 ]
K N I
combination of manners, blended the heroic and fane-1 K nghsf'
tified charafters, united devotion and valour, zeal and y—-•**
gallantry, and reconciled the love of God and of the
ladies.
Chivalry flouriihed mod during the time of the
croifades. From thefe holy wars it followed, that
new fraternities of knighthood were invented : hence
the knights of the Holy Sepulchre, the Hofpitallers,
Templars, and an infinite number of religious or¬
ders. Various other orders were at length inftituted
by fovereign princes: the Garter, by Edward III.
of England; the Golden Fleece, by Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy; and St Michael, by Louis XI. of
France. From this time ancient chivalry declined to
an empty name ; when fovereign princes eftabliihed
regular companies in their armies, knights-bannerets
were no more, though it was ftill thought an honour
to be dubbed by a great prince or vidtorious hero ;
and all who proftffed arms without knighthood affu-
med the title of efquire.
There is fcarce a prince in Europe that has not
thought fit to inftitute an order of knighthood ; and
the fimple title of knightt which the kings of Britain
confer on private fubjetts, is a derivation from ancient
chivalry, although very remote from its fource. See
Knight-Bachelor.
Knight-Service (fervitium militare, and in law:
French chivalry); a fpecies of Tenure, the origin
and nature of which are explained under the articles
Chivalry, znA Feodal Syjlem, n° 13 — 21.
The knights produced by this tenure differed moil
effentially from the knights deferibed in the pre¬
ceding article; though the difference, feems not to
have been accurately attended to by authors (a).
The one clafs of knights was of a high antiquity;
the other was not heard of till the invention of a
fee. The adorning with arms aad the blow of the
fword
(a) “The terms- knight and chivaler (Dr Stuart* obferves), denoted both the knight of honour and* Vieroof:
knight of tenure; and chivalry was ufed to exprefs both knighthood and knigbt-fervice. Hence, it has proceeded, Society in
that thefe perfons and thefe ftates have been confounded. Yet the marks of their difference are fo ftrong and £-urDP‘>
pointed, that one muft wonder that writers fhould miflake them. It is not, however, mean and common*’’
compilers only who have been deceived. Sir Edward Coke, notwithflanding his diftinguifhing head, is of
this number. When eftimating the value of the knight’s fee at L. 20 per annum, he appeals to the ftatute de
militibus, an. I Ed. II. and, by the fenfe of his illuftration, he conceives, that the knights alluded to there
ivere the fame with the poffeffors of knight’s fees : and they, no doubt, had knight’s fees; but a knight’s fee
might be enjoyed not only by the tenants in capite of the crown, but by the tenants of a vaffal, or by the te¬
nants of a fub-vaffal. Now, to thefe the ftatute makes no allufion. It did not mean to annex knighthood to
every land-holder in the kingdom who had a knight’s fee ; but to encourage arms, by requiring the tenants
in capite of the crown to take to them the dignity. He thus confounds knighthood and the knight’s fee. Coke
on Littleton, p. 69.
“ If I am not deceived, Sir William Blackftone has fallen into, the fame miftake, and has added to it.
Speaking of the knights of honour, or the equites aurati from the gilt fpurs they wore, he thus expreffes him-
felf: ‘ They are alfo called, in our law, milites, becaufe they formed a part, or indeed the whole, of the royal
‘ army, in virtue of their feodal tenures; one condition of which was, that every one who held a knight’s.
« fee (which in Henry II.’s time amounted to L. 20per annum), was obliged to be knighted, and attend the
' king in his wars, or fined for his noncompliance. The exertion of this prerogative, as an expedient to raife.
* money, in the reign of Charles I. gave great offence, though warranted by law, and the recent example of
* Queen Elizabeth : but it was, at the reftoration, together with all other military branches of the feodal law,
* abolifhed ; and this kind of knighthood has fince that time fallen into great difrepute.’ Book I. ch. 12.
“ After What has been faid, I need hardly obferve, that this learned and able writer, has confounded the
knight of honour and the knight of tenure ; and that the requifition to take knighthood was not made to every
poffeffor of h knight’s fee3 but to the tenants of knight’s fees held in capite of the crown, who had merely a
fufficienry
K N I r 48° ] K K r
Knight, fword made the of the creation of the ancient
**—   knight; the new knight was conftituted by an inveft-
ment in a piece of land. The former was the mem¬
ber of an order of dignity which had particular pri¬
vileges and diftinftions ; the latter was the receiver of
a feudal grant. Knighthood was an honour; knight-
fervice a tenure. The firft communicated fplendor
to an army; the laft gave it ftrength and numbers.
The knight of honour might ferve in any Ration what¬
ever ; the knight of tenure was in the rank of a fol-
dier.—It is true at the fame time, that every noble
and baron were knights of tenure, as they held thtir
lands by knight-fervice. But the number of fees they
pofleffed, and their creation into rank, feparated them
widely from the fimple individuals to whom they gave
out grants of their lands, and who were merely the
knights of tenure. It is no lefs true, that the fove-
reign, without conferring nobility, might give even a
Angle fee to a tenant; and fiich vaffals in capite of the
crown, as well as the vaflals of Angle fees from a fub-
jeft, were the mere knights of tenure. But the for¬
mer, in refpeft of their holding from the crown, were
to be called to take upon themfelves the knighthood
of honour; a condition in which they might rife from
the ranks, and be promoted to offices and command.
And as to the vaflals in capita of the crown who had
many fees, their wealth of itfelf fufficiently diftinguifli-
ed them beyond the flate of the mere knights of te¬
nure. In fa&, they poflefled an authority over men
who were of this lafl defcription ; for, in proportion
to their lands were the fees they gave out and the
knights they commanded.
By the tenure of knight-fervice, the greateft part
of the lands in England were holden, and that princi¬
pally of the king in capita, till the middle of the laft
century ; and which was created, as Sir Edward Coke
Blaclfl. exprefsly teftifles, for a military purpofe, viz. for de-
Comment. Gf tjle reaim by the king’s own principal fub-
jefts, which was judged to be much better than to
.truft to hirelings or foreigners. The defcription here
given is that of knight-fervice proper, which was to
attend the king in his wars. There were alfo fome
other fpecies of knight-fervice; fo called, though im¬
properly, becaufe the fervice or render was of a free
and honourable nature, and equally uncertain as to the
time of rendering as that of knight-fervice proper, and
becaufe they were attended with ftmilar fruits and con-
fequences. Such was the tenure by grand ferjeanty,
per magnum ferwitium, whereby the tenant was bound,
inftead of ferving the king generally in his wars, to do
fome fpecial honorary fervice to the king in perfon ;
as to carry his banner, his fword, or the like ; or be
his butler, champion, or other officer, at his corona¬
tion. It was, in moft other refpefts, like knight-fer¬
vice, only he was not bound to pay aid or efcuage ;
and when tenant by knight-fervice {paid Ave pounds
for a relief on every-knight’s fee, tenant by grand-
N° 172.
ferjeanty paid one year’s value of his land, were it Knighri
much or little. Tenure by carnage, which was to wind “V"—
a horn when the Scots or other enemies entered the
land, in order to warn the king’s fubjefts, was (like
other fervices of the fame nature) a fpecies of grand-
ferjeanty.
Thefe fervices, both of chivalry and grand-ferjean-
ty, were all perfonal, and uncertain as to their quan¬
tity or duration. But the perfonal attendance in
knight-fervice growing troublefome and inconvenient
in many refpe&s, the tenants found means of com¬
pounding for it, by flrft fending others in their ftead,
and in procefs of time making a pecuniary fatisfaftion
to the lords in lieu of it. This pecuniary fatisfa&ion
at laft came to be levied by afleflments, at fo much for
every knight’s fee ; and therefore this kind of tenure
was called fcutagium in Latin, or fervitium fcuti; feu-
turn being then a well-known denomination of money:
and in like manner it was called, in our Norman French,
efcuage ; being indeed a pecuniary inftead of a milita¬
ry fervice. The flrft time this appears to have been
taken, was in the 5 Hen. II. on account of his ex¬
pedition to Toloufe ; but it foon came to be fo uni-
verfal, that perfonal attendance fell quite into difufe.
Hence we find in our ancient hiftories, that, from
this period when our kings went to war, they levied
feutages on their tenants, that is on all the landhold¬
ers of the kingdom, to defray their expences and to
hire troops : and thefe afleflments in the time of Hen¬
ry II. feem to have been made arbitrarily, and at the
king’s pleafure. Which prerogative being greatly a-
bufed by his fucceffors, it became matter of national
clamour; and King John was obliged to confent, by
his rhagna carta, that no feutage ihould be impofed
without confent of parliament. But this claufe was
omitted in his fon Henry III.’s charter; where we
only find, that feutages or efcuage fhould be taken as
they were ufed to be taken in the time of Henry II.;
that is, in a reafonable and moderate manner. Yet
afterwards, by ftatute 2 5 Edw. I. c. 5. & 6. and ma¬
ny fubfequent ftatutes, it was ena&ed, that the king
fhould take no aids or talks but by the common aflent
of the realm. Hence it is held in our old books, that
efcuage or feutage could not be levied but by confent
of parliament; fuch feutages being indeed the ground¬
work of all fucceeding fubfidies, and the land-tax of
later times.
Since, therefore, efcuage differed from knight-fer¬
vice in nothing but as a compenfaticn differs from ac¬
tual fervice, knight-fervice is frequently confounded
with it. And thus Littleton muft be underftood,
when he tells us, that tenant by homage, fealty, and
efcuage, was tenant by knight-fervice : that is, that
this tenure (being fubfervient to the military policy of
the nation) was refpefted as a tenure in chivalry. But
as the adlual fervice was uncertain, and depended up¬
on emergencies, fo it was ncceflary that this pecuniary
com-
fufficiency to maintain the dignity, and were thence difpofed not to take it. The idea that the whole force
of the royal army confifted of knights of honour, or dubbed knights, is fo extraordinary a circumftance, that
it might have fhown of itfelf to this eminent writer the fource of his error. Had every foldier in the feu¬
dal army received the inveftiture of arms ? could he wear a feal, furpafs in iilk and <* efs, ufe enfigns-armorial,
and enjoy all the other privileges of knighthood? But, while I hazard thefe remarks, my reader will obferve,
that it is with the greateft deference I diflent from Sir William Blackftone, whole abilities are the objett of a
molt general and deferred admiration.”
K N I r 481 1 K N I
fcnight. cornpenfatlon fhould be equally uncertain, and de-
pend on the afleffnients of the legiflature fuited to
thofe emergencies. For had the efcuage been a fet¬
tled invariable fum, payable at certain times, it had
been neither more nor lefs than a mere pecuniary
rent; and the tenure, inllead of knight fervice, would
have then been of another kind, called socage.
By the degenerating of knight (ervice. or perfonal
military duty, into efcuage or pecuniary afleffments,
all the advantages (either promifed or real) of the feo-
dal conftitutions were deftroyed, and nothing but the
hardihips remained. Inftead of forming a national
militia compofed of barons, knights, and gentlemen,
bound by their intereft, their honour, and their oaths,
to defend their king and country, the whole of this
fyftem of tenures now tended to nothing elfe but a
wretched means of raifing money to pay an army of
occafional mercenaries. In the mean time the fami¬
lies of all our nobility and gentry groaned under the
intolerable burdens which (in confequence of the fiftion
adopted after the conqueli) were introduced and laid
upon them by the fubtlcty and fineffe of the Norman
lawyers. For, befides the fcutages to which they
were liable in defeft of perfonal attendance, which,
however, were aflefled by themfelves in parliament,
they might be called upon by the king or lord para¬
mount for aids, whenever his eldeft fon was to be
knighted, or his eldeft daughter married ; not to for¬
get the ranlbm of his own perfon. The heir, on the
death of his anceftor, if of full age, was plundered of
the firft emoluments arifing from his inheritance, by
way of relief and primer feifm; and if under age, of
the whole of his eftate during infancy. And then, as
Sir Thomas Smith very feelingly complains, “ when
he came to his own, after he was out of wardfhip, his
woods decayed, houfes fallen down, flock wafted and
gone, lands let forth and ploughed to be barren,,r to
make amends, he was yet to pay half a year’s profits
as a fine for fuing out his livery ; and alfo the price or
value of his marriage, if he refufed fuch wife as his
lord and guardian had bartered for, and impofed upon
him ; or twice that value, if he married another wo¬
man. Add to this, the untimely and expenfive ho¬
nour of knighthood, to make his poverty more com¬
pletely fplendid. And when, by thefe dedu&ions,
in's fortune was fo fhattered and ruined, that perhaps
he was obliged to fell his patrimony, he had not even
that poor privilege allowed him, without paying an
exorbitant fine for a licence of alienation.
A flavery fo complicated and fo extenfive as this,
called aloud for a remedy in a nation that boafted of
her freedom. Palliatives were from time to time ap¬
plied by fucceffive ads of parliament, which afluaged
fotne temporary grievances. Till at length the huma¬
nity of King James I. confented, for a proper equiva¬
lent, to abolilh them ail, though the plan then pro¬
ceeded not to effed ; in like manner as he had formed
a fcbeme, and began to put it in execution, for remo¬
ving the fcodal-grievance of heritable jurifdidions in
Scotland, which has fince been purfned and effeded
by the ftatute 20 Geo. II. c. 43. King James’s plan
for exchanging our militaty tenures feems to have been
nearly the fame as that which has been fince purfued ;
only with this difference, that by way of compen-
fation for the lofs which the crown and other lords
Vol. IX. Part II,
would fuftain, an annual fee-farm rent ftiould be fet- Knights,
tied and infeparably annexed to the crown, and affu- v—~
red to the inferior lords, payable out of every knight’s
fee within their refpedive feignories. An expedient,
feemingly much better than the hereditary excife
which was afterwards made the principal equivalent
for thefe conceffions. For at length the military te¬
nures, with all their heavy appendages, were deftroy¬
ed at one blow by the ftatute 12 Car. II. c. 24.
which enads, “ that the court of ward or liveries,
and all wardfhips, liveries, primer feifins, and oufterle-
mains, values and forfeitures of marriages, by reafon
of any tenure of the king or others, be totally taken
away. And that all fines for alienations, tenures by
homage, knights-fervice, and efcuage, and alfo aid*
for marrying the daughter or knighting the fon, and
all tenures of the king in capite, be likewife taken
away. And that all forts of tenures, held of the king
or others, be turned into free and common foccage ;
fave only tenures in frankalmoign, copyholds, and the
honorary fervices (without the fiavifh part) of grand-
ferjeanty.” A ftatute which was a greater acquifi-
tion to the civil property of this kingdom than even
magna carta itfelf: fince that only pruned the luxu¬
riances that had grown out of the military tenures,
and thereby preferved them in vigour; but the fta¬
tute of King Charles extirpated the whole, and demo-
lilhed both root and branches.
Knights-Errant. During the prevalence of chi¬
valry, the ardour of redrefling wrongs Seized many
knights fo powerfully, that, attended by efquires,
they wandered about in fearch of ctje&s whofe mif-
fortunes and mifery required their affiftance and fuc*
cour. And as ladies engaged more particularly their
attention, the relief of unfortunate damfels was the
atchievement they moft courted. This was the rife
of knights-errant, whofe adventures produced ro¬
mance. Thefe were originally told as they happened.
But the love of the marvellous came to interfere;
fancy was indulged in her wildeft exaggerations ; and
poetry gave her charms to the moft monftrous fiftions,
and to feenes the moft unnatural and gigantic. See
Knight.
KNiGHT-Bachelor. See Bachelor.
KNiGHT-Baronet. See Baronet.
Knights of the Shire, or Knights of Parliament, are
two gentlemen of worth, cholen on the king’s writ
in plena camitatu, by fuch of the freeholders of every
county as can expend 40 s. per annum, to reprefent fuch
county in parliament. Thefe, when every man who
held a knights-fee in capite of the crown was cutloma-
rily conttrained to be a knight, were of neceffity to
be milites gladio cindi, for fo the writ runs to this
day; but now cuftom admits efquires to be chofen to
this office. They muft have at leaft 5001. per annum;
and their expences are to be defrayed by the county,
though this be feldom now required.
Knight-Marjhal, an officer in the king’s houfe-
hold, who has jurifdiftion and cognizance of any tranf-
greffion within the king’s houfehold and verge; as alfo
of contrafts made there, whereof one of the houfe is
party.
Knights, in a ffiip, two ffiort thick pieces of wood,
commonly carved like a man’s head, Laving feu? ftii-
vers in each, three for the halyards, and one for the
3 P ' top
K N I [48.
}ght» top to run in : one of them Hands faft bolted on the
>od, beams abaft the foremaft, and is therefore called the
ghtlow. fore_^n^}jt. and tbe other. Handing abaft the main-
* maH, is called the main-knight.
KNIGHTHOOD, a military order or honour,
or a mark or degree of ancient nobility, or reward of
perfonal virtue and merit.
There are four kinds of knighthood ; military, re¬
gular, honorary, and focial.
Military Knighthood, is that of the ancient knights,
who acquired it by high feats of arms. They are call¬
ed milites, in ancient charters and titles, by which they
were diHinguilhed from mere bachelors, &c. Thele
knights were girt with a fword, and a pair of gilt fpurs;
whence they were called equites aurati.
Knighthood is not hereditary, but acquired. It
does not come into the world with a man like nobility;
nor can it be revoked. The fons of kings, and kings
themfelves, with all other fovereigns, heretofore had
knighthood conferred on them as a mark of honour.
They were ufually knighted at their baptifm or mar¬
riage, at their coronation, before or after a battle, &c.
Regular Knighthood, is applied to all military or¬
ders which profefs to wear fome particular habit, to
bear arms againH the infidels, to fuccour and affiH pil¬
grims in their paflage to the Holy Land, and to ferve
in hofpitals where they fhould be received ; fuch were
the knights templars, and fuch Hill are the knights of
Malta, &c.
Honorary Knighthood, is that which princes confer
on other prinqes, and even on their own great mini-
fters and favourites ; fuch are knights of the Garter,
Bath, St Patrick, Nova Scotia, Thifile, &c. See
thefe articles; and for a reprefentation of their different
infignia, fee Plate CCLVIII.
Social Knighthood, is that which is not fixed nor con¬
firmed by any formal inHitution, nor regulated by any
lading Hatutes; of which kind there have many orders
been ere&ed on occafion of fa&ions, of tilts and tour¬
naments, mafquerades, and the like.
The abbot Bernardo JuHiniani, at the beginning of
bis Hifiory of Knighthood, gives us a complete cata¬
logue of the feveral orders : according to this compu¬
tation, they are in number 92. Favin has given us
two volumes of them under the title of Theatre d’Hon¬
our £3° de Chevalerie. Menenius has publifiied Deliche
Equejlrium Ordinum, and A ndr. Mendo has written De
Ordinihus Militaribus. Beloi has traced their original;
and Geliot, in his Armorial Index, has given us their
inHitutions. To thefe may be added. Father Mene-
ftrier de la Chevalerie Ancienne 1$ Mederne. Michieli’s
Trefor Militaire, CaramueTs ‘Iheologia Regolare, Mi-
rteus’s Origines Equejlrium Jive Militarium Ordinum: but
above all, Juffinian’s HJlorie Chronologiche dell’Origine
de gl Ordine Militari, e di tutte le Religione Cavalerefche}
the edition which is fulleff is that of Venice in 1692,
in two vols. fol.
KMIGHTLOW Hill, or Cross, which gives name
to a hamlet in Warwickfhire, Hands in the road from Co¬
ventry to London, at the entrance of Dunfmore-Heath..
About 40 towns in this hamlet, which are fpecified by
Dugdale, are obliged, on the forfeiture of 30 s. and a
white bull, to pay a certain rent to the lord of the
hamlet, called ‘Wroth-money, or fwarf-pcnny ; which muff
i ] K N O
be depofited every Martinmas-day in the morning at Knighton
this crofs before fun-rife ; when the party paying it II
muff go thrice about the crofs, and fay the wroth- Knotg• ,
money, and then lay it in the hole of the faid crofs be- *
fore good wittrefs.
KNIGHTON, a well built town of Radnorfhire in
South Wales, 135 miles from London. It is plea-
fantly fituated on an elevation rifing from a fmall river,
which divided this part of Wales from Shropfhire. It
carries on a confiderable trade, and has a market and
a fair.
KNIGHTSBRIDGE, a village of Middltfex, and
the firH village from London in the great weflern road.
It lies in the parilhes of St Margaret’s Weffminder,
and St George by Hanover-Square ; and has a chapel,
which is neverthelefs independent. At the entrance
of it from London Hands that noble infirmary for lick
and wounded, called St George's Hofpital, eredted and
maintained by the contributions of our nobility and
gentry, of whom there are no lefs than 300 governors.
In the centre of this village, there is a fabric lately k
erefted, where is carried on one of the moff cpnfider-
able manufa&ures in England for painting Hoot-cloths,
&c.
KNOCTOPHER, a borough and market town of
Ireland in the county of Kilkenny and province of
Leinfler, 63 miles from Dublin. It returns two mem¬
bers to parliament; patronage in the families of Lan-
grifhe and Ponfonby.
KNOLL, a term ufed in many parts of the king¬
dom for the top of a fmall hill, or for the hill itfelf.
KNOLLES (Richard), was born in Nothampton-
Ihire, about the middle of the 16th century, and educa¬
ted at Oxford, after which he was appointed mafler of
the free-fchool at Sandwich in Kent. He compofed
Grammatica Latina, Graca, et Hcbraica, compendium, cum
radicibus, London 1606 ; and fent a great number of
well grounded fcholars to the univerfities. He alfo
fpent 12 years in compiling a hiffory of the Turks;
which was firH printed in 1610, and by which he hag
perpetuated his name. In the later editions it is call¬
ed, The geheral hijlory of the Turks, from the firjl begin-
ning of that nation to the rifing of the Ottoman family, dec.
He died in 1610, and this hiffory has been fince con¬
tinued by feveral hands: the beff continuation is that
by Paul Ricaut confulat Smyrna, folio, London 1680.
Knolles wrote alfo, “ The lives and conqueffs of the Ot¬
toman kings and emperors to the year 1610 ;” which
was not printed till after his death in 1621, to which
time it was continued by another hand ; and laltly,
‘r A brief difeourfe of the greatnefs of the Turkiih
empire, and wherein the greatnefs of the Hrength there¬
of coniiffeth, &c.”.
KNOT, a part of a tree, from which fhoots out
branches, roots, or even fruit. The ufe of the knots
is, to flrengthen the Hem; they ferve alfo as fearces,
to filtrate, purify, and refine the juices raifed up for
the nourifhment of the plant.
Knots of a Rope, among feamen, are diflinguifhed
into three kinds, viz. whole-knot, that made fo with
the lays of a rope that it cannot flip, ferving for
Iheets, tacks, and Hoppers: bow-line knot, that fo
firmly made and faffened to the cringles of the fails,
that they muff break or the fail fplit before it flips:
K N O [ 4*3 1 K N O
Xnots and flieep-fhank knot, that made by ftiortening a rope
II without cutting it, which may be prefently loofened,
ni>x' and the rope not the worfe for it.
Knots of the Log-line, at fea, are the divifions of it.
See the article Log.
Knot, in ornithology. See Tringa.
KNOT-Graft, or Biftort. See Polygonum.
Knot (Edward), born in Northumberland in Eng¬
land, entered among the Jefuits at the age of 26,
being already in prieft's orders. This happened in
the year 1606. He taught a long time at Rome in
the Englilh college; and was afterwards appointed
fub-provincial of the college of England, and was fent
provincial thither. He was twice honoured with that
employment. He was prefent as provincial at the
general affembly of the order of the Jefuits held at Rome
in 1646, and was chofen definitor. He died in 1696.
He publifhed feveral pieces; among the reft, Mercy
and Truth, or Charity maintained by the Catholics ;
againft Dr Potter, who had charged the church of
Rome with wanting charity, becaufe (he afferts that
a man cannot be faved in the Proteftant communion.
KNOTTESFORD, a town of Chefhire, near the
Merfey, 184 miles from London, is divided into the
upper and lowef towns by a rivulet called Bicken. In
the former is the church; and in the latter is a chapel
©f eafej the market and town-houfe. It has a market
and three fairs.
KNOTTINGLEY, a town in the weft riding of
Yorkftiire, on the Aire near Ferrybridge, is noted for
its merchandize in lime. The (tones of which it is made
are dug up plentifully at Elmet, and here burnt; from
whence it is conveyed at certain feafons in great quan¬
tities to Wakefield, Sandal, and Standbridge, for fale,
and fo carried into the weftern parts of the county for
manure. ■
KNOUT, the name of a punilhment inflidted in
Ruffia, with a kind of whip called knout, and made of
a long (trap of leather prepared for this purpofe. With
this whip the executioners dexteroufly carry off a flip
of (kin from the neck to the bottom of the back laid
bare to the waift, and repeating their blows, in a little
while rend away all the (kin off the back in parallel
ftrips. In the common knout the criminal receives the
ladies fufpended on the back of one of the execution¬
ers : but in the great knout, which is generally ufed on
the fame occafions as racking on the wheel in France,
the criminal is raifed into the air by means of a pully
fixed to the gallows, and a cord faftened to the two
wrifts tied together ; a piece of wood is placed between
his two legs alfo tied together ; and another of a cru¬
cial form under his bread. Some times his hands are
tied behind over his back ; and when he is pulled up in
this pofition, his (boulders are diflocated. The execu¬
tioners can make, this punifhment moreor.lefs cruel:
and it is faid, are fo dexterous, that when a criminal is
condemned to die, they can make him expire at plea-
fure either by one or feveral ladies.
KNOWLEDGE, is defined by Mr Locke to be
the perception of the connexion and agreement or
difagrrement and repugnancy of our ideas. See Me¬
taphysics and Logic.
KNOX (John), the hero of the reformation in
Scotland, was born in 1505, at Gifford near Hadding¬
ton in Eaft Lothian ; and educated at the univerfity of
St Andrew’s, where he took a degree in arts, and Knesr.
commenced teacher very early in life. At this time the -y”““
new religion of Martin Luther was but little known in
Scotland ; Mr Knox therefore at fit ft was a zealous
Roman-catholic : but attending the fermons of a certain
black friar, named GuiaUiam, he began to waver in his
opinions ; and afterwards converfing with the famous
Wifhart, who in 1544 came to Scotland with the
commiffioners fent by Henry VIII. he renounced the
Romilh religion, and became a zealous reformer. Be¬
ing appointed tutor to the fans of the lairds of Ormi-
ftoun and Langniddery, he began to inftruft them in
the principles of the Proteftant religion ; and on that
account was fo violently perfecuted by the bifhop of
St Andrew’s, that with his two pupils he was obliged
in the year 1547 to take Ihelter in the caftle of that
place. But the caftle was befieged and taken by 21
French galleys. He continued a prifoner on board a
galley two years, namely, till the latter end of the
year 1549; when being fet at liberty, he landed in
England, and having obtained a licence, was appointed
preacher, firft at Berwick, and afterwards at New-
caftle. Strype conjedlures that in j 552 he was appointed
chaplain to Edward VI. He certainly obtained an an¬
nual penfion of 40 1. and was offered the living of All¬
hallows in London ; which he refufed, not choofing to
conform to the liturgy.
Soon after the acceflion of Queen Mary, he retired
to Geneva ; whence, at the command of John Calvin,
he removed to Francfort, where he preached to the
exiles : but a difference arifing on account of his refu-
fing to read the Englifti liturgy, he went back to Ge¬
neva ; and from thence in 1555 returned to Scotland,
where the reformation had made confiderable progrefs
during his abfence. He now travelled from place to
place, preaching and exhorting the people with unre¬
mitting zeal and refolution. About this time (1556),
he wrote a letter to the queen regent, earneftly in¬
treating her to hear the Proteftant dodrine ; which
letter the treated with contempt. In the fame year
the Engliflr Calvinifts at Geneva invited Mr Knox to
refide among them. He accepted their invitation.
Immediately after his departure from Scotland, the
biftiop fummoned him to appear, and he not appear¬
ing, condemned him to death for herefy, and burnt
his effigy at the crofs of Edinburgh.
Our reformer continued abroad till the year IJ59,
during which time he publifhed his “ Firft blaft againft
the monftrous regiment of women.” Being now re¬
turned to Scotland, he refumed the great work of re¬
formation with his ufual ardour, and was appointed
minifter at Edinburgh. In 1561 Queen Mary arrived
from France. She, it is well known, was bigotted
to the religion in w’hich (he had been educated ; and
on that account was expofed to continual infults from
her reformed fubjedb. Mr Knox himfelf frequently
infulted her from the pulpit; and when admitted to
her prefence, regardlefs of her fex, her beauty, and
her high rank, behaved to her with a mod unjuftifiable
freedom. In the year 1571 our reformer was obliged
to leave Edinburgh, on account of the confufion and
danger from the oppofition to the eatl of Lenox, then
regent; but he returned the following year, and re-
fumed his paftoral functions. He died at Edinburgh
in November 1572, and was burud in the church-yard
3,r * of
K N U [ 484 ] K O E
Knox of St Giles’s in that city.-—His Hiflory of the Refor-
r W mation was printed with his other works at Edin-
. nutzen‘, burgh in 1584, 1586, 1644, 1732. He publifhed
many otheT pieces ; and feveral more are preserved in
Calderwood’s Hiitory of the Church of Scotland. He
left alfo a coniiderable number of manufcripts, which
in 1732 were in the pofieffion of Mr Woodrow, mini-
fier of Eaftwcod.
As to his charafter, it is eafily underftood, notwith-
flanding the extreuie diflimilitude of the two portraits
drawn by Popiih and Calvinidical pencils. According
to the firil, he was a devil; in the ideas of the latter,
an angel. He was certainly neither. The following
character is drawn by Dr Robertfon. “ Zeal, intre¬
pidity, difmtereftednefs, were»virtues that he poflefled
in an eminent degree. He was acquainted too with
the learning cultivated in that age; and excelled in
that fpecies of eloquence which is calculated to roufe
am) to inflame. His maxims, however, were often too
fevere, and the impetuofity of his temper excefiive.
Rigid and uncomplying, he fhowed no indulgence to
the infirmities of others. Regardlefs of the diftinc-
tionsof rank and charafter, he uttered his admonitions
with an acrimony and vehemence more apt to irritate
than to reclaim ; and this often betrayed him into in¬
decent expreffions, with refpeft to Queen Mary’s per-
fon and conduct. Thofe very qualities, however, which
now render his character lefs amiable, fitted him to be
the inftrument of Providence for advancing the refor¬
mation among a fierce people, and enabled him to face
dangers, and to furmount oppofition, from which a
perfon of a more gentle fpirit would have been apt to
fhrink back. By an unvf'earied application to ftudy
and to bufinefs, as well as by the frequency and fervour
of his public difeourfes, he had worn out a conftitu-
tion naturally ftrong. During a lingering illnefs, he
difeovered the utmoft fortitude; and met the approach
of death with a magnanimity infeparable from his cha-
ra&ei. He was conftantly employed in a£ts of devo¬
tion, and comforted himfelf with thofe profpefts of
immortality, which not only preferve good men from
defponding, but fill them with exultation in their la(l
moments. The earl of Morton, who was prefent at
his funeral, pronounced his eulogium in a few words,
the more honourable for Knox, as they came from one
whom he had often cenfured with peculiar feverity ;
** Here lies he who never feared the face of man.”
KNOXIA, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 47th order,
Stellate, The corolla is monopetalous, and funnel-
fhaped ; there are two furrowed feeds; the calyx has
one leaf larger than the reft.
KNUTZEN (Matthias), a native of Holftein, the
only perfon on record who openly profefled and taught
atheifm. It is faid he had about 1000 difciples in
different parts of Germany. They were called Con-
fcienciaries, becaufe they afferted there is no other
God, no other religion, no other lawful magiftracy,
but confcitnee, which teaches every man the three
fundamental principles of the law of nature :—To hurt
nobody, to live honeftly, and to give every one his
due. Several copies of a letter of his from Rome
were fpread abroad, containing the fubftance of his
fyftem. It is to be found entire in the laft edition of Koedoc
Mioraelius. H
KOEDOE. See Capra. Koempfcr.
KOEI-tcheou, a province of China, and one of J’ Y *
the fmalleft in the kingdom. On the fouth it has
Quang-fi, on the eaft Hou-quang, on the north Se-
tchuen, and Yun nan on the weft. The whole coun¬
try is almoft a defert, and covered with inacceffible
mountains ; it may juftly be called the Siberia of Chi¬
na. The people who inhabit it are mountaineers, ac-
cuftomed to independence, ami who feem to form a fe-
parate nation : they are no lefs ferocious than the fa-
vage animals among which they live.—The mandarins
and governors who ate fent to this province are fome-'
times difgraced noblemen, whom the emperor does not
think proper to difeard entirely, either on account of
■their alliances, or the fervices which they have render¬
ed to the ttate : numerous garrifons are entrufted to
their charge, to over-awe the inhabitants of the coun¬
try ; but thefe troops are found infufficient, and the
court defpairs of being ever able thoroughly to fubdue
thefe untra&able mountaineers.—Frequent attempts
have been made to reduce them to obedience, and new
forts have from time to time been ere&ed in their
country ; hut the people, who are not ignorant of
thofe defigns, keep themfelves fhut up among their
mountains, and feldom iffue forth but to deftroy the
Chinefe works or ravage their lands.— Neither filk-
fluffs nor cotton cloths are manufaftured in this pro¬
vince; but it produces a certain herb much refembling
our hemp, the cloth made of which is ufed for fummer
dreffes. Mines of gold, filver, quickfilver, and copper,
are found here; of the laft metal, thofe fmall pieces
of money are made which are in common circulation
throughout the empire—Koei-tcheou contains 10 ci¬
ties of the firft clafs, and 38 of the fecond and third.
KOEMPFER (Engelbert), was born in 1651 at
Lenogow in Weftphalia. After ftudying in feveral
towns, he went to Dantzick, where he gave the firft
public fpecimen of his proficiency by a differtation
De majejlatis diviftone. He then went to Thorn ; and
from thence to the univerfity of Cracow, where he took
his degree of doctor in philofophy; after which he
went to Koningfberg in Pruffia, and ftaid there four
years. He next travelled into Sweden, where he foon
began to make a figure, and was appointed fecretary
of the embaffy to the fophi of Perfia. He fet out from
Stockholm with the prefents for that emperor; and
went through Aaland, Finland, and Ingermanlandr
to Narva, where he met Mr Fabricius the ambaffador,
who had been ordered to take Mofcow in his way.
The ambaffador having ended his negotiations at the
Ruffian court, fet out for Perfia. During their ftayv
two years, at Ifpahan, Dr Koempfer, whofe curious
and inquifitive difpofition fuffered nothing to efcape
him unobferved, made all the advantages poffible of
fo long an abode in the capital of the Perfian empire.
The ambaffador, towards the clofe of 1685, preparing
to return into Europe, Dr Kcempfer chofe rather to
enter into the fervice of the Dutch Eaft India com¬
pany, in quality of chief furgeon to the fleet, then
cruiting in the Perfian Gulph. He went aboard the
fleet, which, after touching at many Dutch fettlements,
came to Batavia in September 1689. Dr Kcempfer
here
Plate CCLYIII.
EIGHTH0*0X> .
?
K O N [ 485 1 K O N
^ampferia liere applied Sumfelf ch/tfly to natural hi (lory. Hence and other reductions, the expence, which was before Korig,
II he fet out for Japan, in quality of phyfician to the eftimated at 57^0 1. per month, now amounts to.onlyK)
embafly which the Dutch Eaft India company fends 44001. or about 5 2,bool, per annum. Yet even with ~''
once a year to the Japanefe court. He quitted Japan this diminution the expences generally equal, and fome-
to return to Europe in 1692. In 1694 he took his times exceed, the profits. Government, therefore,
degree of doftor of phyfic attLeyden ; on which oc- draws no other advantage from thefe mines, than by
cafion he communicated, in what are called Inaugural giving employment to fo many perfons, who would
'Thefes, ten very Angular and curious obfervations be otherwife incapable of gaining their livelihood, and
- made by him in foreign countries. He intended to by receiving a certain quantity of fpecie, which is
digeft his memoirs into proper order; but was pre- much wanted in the prefent exhaufted (late of the fi-
vented, by being made phyfician to the count de nances in Denmark. For fuch is the deficiency of
Lippe. He died in 1716. His principal works are, fpecie, that even at Kongfberg itfelf change for a
I. Amanitates Exotica, \n 4X.0 \ a work which includes bank note is with difficulty obtained. The miners
many curious and ufeful particulars in relation to the are paid in fmall bank notes, and the whole expences
civil and natural hiftory of the countries through which are defrayed in paper currency. The value of 13,000
he paffed. 2. Herbarium Ultra-Gangeticum. 3. The rix-dollars, or 2600!. in block filver is annually fent
hiftory of Japan, in German, which is very curious and to Copenhagen ; the remainder of the ore is coined in
much efteemed; and for which the public is indebted the mint of Kongfoerg, and transferred to Copenha-
to the late Sir Hans Sloane, who purchafed for a con- gen. The largeft piece of money now iiruckat Kong-
fiderable fum of money all our author’s curiofities, fberg is only eight {killings or four pence,
both natural and artificial, as like wife all his drawings KONIG (George Matthias), a learned German,
and manufeript memoirs, and prevailed with the late born at Altorf in Franconia in i6t6. He became
learned Dr Scheuchzer to tranflate the Japanefe hi- profeflbr of poetry and of the Greek tongue there,
ilory into Engliffi. and librarian to the univerfity; in which lalt office he
KjEMPFERIA. See Kempferia. fucceeded his father. He gave fevcral public fpeci-
KOENIG (Samuel), a learned philofopher and mens of his learning; but is principally known fora
mathematician, was profeffor of philofophy at Frane- Biograghical Di&ionary, intitled, Bibliotheca vetus et
ker, and afterwards at the Hague, where he became wua, 410, Altorf, 1674: which, though it is very de¬
librarian to the Stadtholder, and died there in 1757. feftive, is ufeful to biographers. He died in 1699.
He wrote feveral works which are efteemed. Konig (Emanuel), a learned phyfician of Bafil,
KOENIGIA, in botany; a genus of the trigynia born in that city in 1658, whofe medicinal works
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants. The were fo efteemed in Switzerland, that he was confider-
calyx is triphyllous; there is no corolla; and but one edas a fecond Avicenna. He died at Bafil in 1731.
4>vate and naked feed. KONINGSBERG, a town of Poland, and capital
KONGSBERG, a town of Norway, belonging to of Regal Pruffia, with a magnificent palace, in which
Denmark, and celebrated for its filver mines, whofe is a hall 274 feet long and 59 broad without pillars
produce has been confiderably exaggerated by moft of to fupport it, and a handfome library. It is about
the travellers that have publilhed on this fubjeft. The five miles in circumference ; and including the garri-
town, which ftretches on both fides the river Lowe, fon of ycoo men contains 60,000 inhabitants. The
contains about 1000 houfes, and including the miners town-houfe, the exchange, and the cathedral church,-
6000 inhabitants. The mines, which lie about two are all very fine ftru&ures. The tower of the caftle is
miles from the town, were firft difeovered and worked exceeding high; and has 284 fteps to go to the top,,
during the reign of Chriftian IV. ; and of their prefent from whence there is a very diftant profpeft. There
ftate the following account is given byMrCoxe-l-. are 18 churches in all; of which 14 belong to the
Into 'pelanit There are 36 mines now working ; the deepeft where- Lutherans, three to the Calvinifls, and one to the Pa-
ice. vol. v.’ of called Segen-Gottes in der North, is 652 feet perpen- pifts. It Hands on the Pregel, a navigable river which
p. 134. dicular. The matrix of the ore is the faxum of Lin- flows from the north-weftern provinces of Poland, and
nasus. The filver is extra&ed according to the ufual here falls into the eaftern extremity of the Frifche Haf,
procefs, either by fmelting the ore with lead or by an inlet of the Baltic. No (hips drawing more than
pounding. The pure filver is occafionally found in feven feet water can pafs the bar and come up to the
fmall grains and in fmall pieces of different fizes, fel- town; fo that the large veffcls anchor at Pillau, a fmall
dom weighing more than four or five pounds. Some- town on the Baltic, which is the port of Konigfberg ;
times, indeed, but extremely rare, maffes of a confi- and the merchandife is fent in fmaller veffels to this
derable bulk have been difeovered; and one in parti- place. Its trade is veiy confiderable. — Konigfberg con-
eular which weighed 409 marks, and w as worth 3000 tains an univerfity founded by Albert of Brandenburgh.
rix-dollars, or 6001. This piece is ftiil preferved in According to the original endowment there were 40
the cabinet of curiofities at Copenhagen. Formerly profeffors; but their number is now reduced to 16.
thefe mines produced annually 350,000 rix-dollars, or Each profeffor receives a falary of about 50I. per annum,
70,000!.; and in 1769, even 79,000!; at prefent they which may be increafed by private ledlures. In 1775,
feldom yield only from 50,000!. to 54,0001. Former- the univerfity contained 800 ftudents, of whom 200
ly above 4000 men were neceffary for working the are lodged and boarded at the expence of the crowm
mines, fmelting and preparing the ore ; but a few There are three public libraries in the town, the royal
years ago 2400 miners were removed to the cobalt or univerfity library, the town library, and the Wal-
works lately eftablifhed at Foffum and to other mines, lenrodt library, fo called becaufe it was given by Martien
and the number is now reduced to 2500. By thefe von Wallenrodt,.in 1650. E. L. 21. 35. N.L. 54. 43.
5 KORAN
K O T t 486 ] K O U
Koran KORAN, or Alcoran. See Alcoran and Ma- him feized, fet on the pillory, and baniflied the cm* Kou-chu1®
II HOMKTANISM. peror’s dominions. Upon this he went to Lufatia, II
Kotterua. KOREKI, the country of the Koriacs. See the and there lived unmolelted till his death, which hap* ou c
next article. pened in 1647.
KORIACS, a people inhabiting the northern part KOU-chu, a Chinefe (hrub, which bears a great
of Kamtchatka, and all the coaft of the Eallern Ocean refemblance to the fig-trfee both in the make of its
from thence to the Anadir.—They are divided into
the Rein-deer or Wandering Koriacs, and the Fixed
Koriacs. The former lead an erratic life, in the tra&
bounded by the Penfchinfka fea to the fouth-eaft, the
river Kowyma to the weft, and the river Anadir to
the north. They wander from place to place with
their rein-deer, in fearch of the mofs, the food of thofe
animals, which are their only wealth. They are fqua-
lid, cruel, and warlike; the terror of the Fixed Ko¬
riacs as much as the Tfchutfki are of them. They
never frequent the fea, nor live on fifh. Their habita¬
tions are jourts, or places half funk in the earth ; and
they never ufe balagans or fummer-houfes elevated on
polls like the Kamtchatkans. They are in their per-
fbns lean, and very Ihort; have fmall heads and black
hair, which they {have frequently: their faces are oval;
-thdir nofe is Ihort; their eyes are fmall; their mouth
is large; and their beard black and pointed, but often
eradicated.—The fixed Koriacs are likewife Ihort ;
but rather taller than the others, and ftrongly made:
the Anadir is alfo their boundary to the north, the
ocean to the eaft, and the Kamtchatkans to the fouth.
They have few rein-deer, which they ufe in their
fledges; but neither of the tribes of Koriacs are civi¬
lized enough to apply them to the purpofes of the
dairy. Each fpeak a different dialedt of the fame
language : but the Fixed in moll things refemble the
Kamtchatkans; and, like them, live almofl entirely on
filh. They are timid to a high degree, and behave to
their wandering brethren with the utmoft fubmiffion ;
who call them by a name which fignifies theirJlaves.
Thefe poor people feem to have no alternative ; for,
by reafon of the fcarcity of rein deer, they depend on
thefe tyrants for the effential article of cloathing.—
Thefe two nations Mr Pennant fuppofes, from their
features, to be the offspring of Tartars, which have
ipread to the call, and degenerated in fize and ftrength
by the rigour of the climate, and often by fcarcity of
food.
KOS, in Jewifh antiquity, a meafure of capacity,
Containing about four cubic inches : this was the cup
uf blcffing out of which they drank when they gave
thanks after folemn meals, like that of the paffover.
KOTTERUS (Chriftopher), was one of the three
fanatics whofe vihons were publilhed at Amfterdam in
1657, with the title of Lux in tenebris. He lived
at Sprotta in Silefia, and his vrfions began in 1616.
He fancied he faw an angel under the form of a man,
who commanded him to go and declare to the magi-
ftrates, that, unlefs the people repented, the wrath of
God would make dreadful havock. The eleftor pala¬
tine, w hom the Pioteftants had declared king of Bo¬
hemia, was introduced in thefe vifions. Kotterus
waited on him at Breflaw in December 1620, and in¬
formed him of hts commiffion. He went to feveral
other places, and at laft to the court of Brandenburg.
As mod of thtfe predi&ions promifed felicity to the
eledlor palatine, and unhappinefs to his imperial ma-
jefty, the emperor’s fifcal in Silefia and Lufatia got
branches and the form of its leaves. From its root c r ,
feveral twigs or {hoots generally fpring up, which form chiita,\o\.\
a kind of bulh ; but fometimes it confifts of only one p. 486.
fhoot. The wood of the branches of the kou-chu is
foft and fpongy, and covered with bark like that of
the fig-tree. Its leaves are deeply indented, and
their colour and the texture of their fibres are exactly
the fame as thofe of the fig-tree ; but they are larger
and thicker, and much rougher to the touch.
This tree yields a kind of milky juice, which the
Chinefe ufe for laying on gold-leaf in gilding. They
make one or more incifions in the trunk, into which
they infert the edges of a fhell, or fomething elfe of
the fame kind, to receive the fap. When they have
extra died a fufficiency, they ufe it with a fmall bruflr,
and delineate whatever figures they intend for the de¬
coration of their work. They then lay on the gold-
leaf, which is fo ftrongly attracted by this liquor, that
it never comes off.
KOUANIN, in the Chinefe language, the name of
a tutelary deity of women. The Chinefe make great
numbers of the figures of this deity in white porce¬
lain, and fend them to all parts of the world, as well
as keep them in their own houfes. The figure repre-
fents a woman with a child in her arips- The women
who have no children pay a fort of adoration to thefe
images, and fuppofe the deity they reprefent to have
power to make them fruitful. The ftatue always re-
prefents a handfome woman very modeftly attired.
KOUC, or Koeck (Peter), an excellent painter in
the 16th century, was born at Aloft, and was the dif-
ciple of Bernard Van Orley, who lived with Raphael.
He went to Rome ; and by ftudying the beautiful
pieces which he found there, formed an excellent tafte,
and became a very correct defigner. On his return to
his own country, he undertook the office of directing
the execution of fome taped ry work after the defigns
of Raphael. He was afterwards perfuaded by fome
merchants of Bruffels to undertake a voyage to Con-
flantinople ; but when he came there, finding that the
Tyrks were not allowed by their religion to draw any
figure, and that there was nothing for him to do but
to draw defigns for tapellry, he fpent his time in de-
figning the particular profpects in the neighbourhood
of Conftantinople, and the manner of the Turks li¬
ving ; of which he has left many wooden cuts, that
alone fuffice to give an idea of his merit. After his
return from Conttantinople he fettled at Antwerp,
where he drew feveral pictures for the emperor Cha. V.
He was alfo a good architeft ; and, in the latter part
of his life, wrote A Treatife of Sculpture, Geometry,
and PerfpeCtive; and tranflated Vitruvius and Serliv
into the Flemilh tongue. He died in 1550.
KOULI khan (Phamas), or Schah Nadir, was
not the fon of a (hepherd, as the authors of the Eng-
liffi Biographical Didtionary affert; his father being
chief of a branch of the tribe of Affchars, and gover¬
nor of a fortrefs ere&ed by that people againft the
Turks. Upon his father’s death, his uncle ufurped
K O U f 4*7 1 K O U
Kowli-khan, Ms government, under the pretext of taking care of
Koumifs. ;t during the minority of Kouii-Khan ; or, more pro-
* * perly, young Nadir. Diigult at this affront made
him commence adventurer. He entered into the fer-
vice of Begletberg, governor of Mufchada, in the
Khorafan; who, difcovering in him itrong marks of a
military genius, promoted him to the command of a
regiment of cavalry. In 1720, the Ufbec Tartars ha¬
ving made an irruption into the Khorafan with 10,000
men, Beglerberg, whofe whole force confided only of
4000 horfe and 2000 infantry, called a council of
war, in which it was declared imprudent to face the
enemy with fuch an inferior force : but Kauli-Khan
propofed to march againit the enemy, and engaged to
conduit the expedition, and to be anfwerable for the
fuccefs of it. He was accordingly made general} de¬
feated the Tartars, and took their commander prifo-
ner. Hoffein Beglerberg received him at his return
with marks of diitinition : but growing jealous of his
rifing fame, initead of obtaining him the rank of lieu¬
tenant-general of the Khorafan, as he had promiftd,
obtained it for another ; which fo exafperated Kouli
Khan, that he publicly complained of the governor’s
ingratitude and perfidy ; who thereupon broke him,
and ordered him to be punifhed with the baltinado fo
feverely, that the nails of his great toes fell off. This
affront occafioned his flight, and his joining a ban¬
ditti of robbers (not his Healing his father’s or his
neighbour’s fheep). The relt of his adventures are
too numerous to be inferted in this work. In 1729
he was made general of Perfia by Schah Thamas, a»d
permitted to take his name Thamas, and that of Khuli,
which fignifies Jlave : his title therefore was, Thejlave
•f Thamas; but he was ennobled by the addition of
Khan. In 1736, he fomented a revolt againtt his
mafter, for having made an ignominious peace with
the Turks; and having the army at his command, he
procured his depofition, and his own advancement to
the throne. In 1739 he conquered the Mogul em¬
pire ; and from this time growing as cruel as he was
ambitious, he at length met with the ufual fate of
tyrants, being affalfinated by one of his generals, in
league with his nephew and fuccdfor, in 1747, aged
fixty.
KOUMISS, a fort of wine made in Tartary, where
it is ufed by the natives as their common beverage
during the feafon of it, and often ferves them inilead
of all other food. It is faid to be fo nourifhing and
falutary, that the Bafchkir Tartars, who towards the
end of winter are much emaciated, no fooner return
in fummer to the ufe of koumifs, than they become
Hrong and fat. The author of “A hiftorical defcriplion
of all the nations which compofe the Ruffian empire,”
fays, fpeaking of Koumifs, Elle ejlfort nourijfante, et
prut tenir lieu de tout autre aliment. Les Bafchkirs s’en
trouvent tres lien, elle les rend bienportans et gais ; elle leur
donne de lyembonpoint, et de bonnes ceuleurs. From the Tar¬
tars it has been borrowed by the Ruffians who ufe it Koumifc
medicinally. It is made with fermented mares-milk, v—
according to the following recipe communicated by Dr
Grieve in the Edin. Phil. Tranf. * as he obtained it . .
from a Ruffian nobleman, who went into that part ofp
Tartary where it is made, for the fake of ufing it me¬
dicinally.
“ Take of fteffi mare’s milk, of one day, any
quantity; add to it a fixth part of water, and pour
the mixture into a wooden vefiel; ufe then, as a fer¬
ment, an eighth part of the foureft cow’s milk that
can be got ; but at any future preparation, a fmall
portion of old koumifs will better anfwer the purpofc
of fouring ; cover the veffel with a thick cloth, and
fet it in a place of moderate warmth ; leave it at reli
24 hours, at the end of which time the milk will
have become four, and a thick fubftance will be ga¬
thered on the top ; then with a flick made at the lower
end in the manner of a churn-ftaff, beat it till the thick
fubftance above mentioned b,e blended intimately with
the lubjacent fluid. In this fituation, leave it again
at relt for 24 hours more ; after which pour it into a
higher and narrower veffel, refembling a churn, where
the agitation mutt be repeated as before, till the liquor
appear to be perfectly homogeneous; and in this itate
it is called koumifs, of which the tafte ought to be
a plcafant mixture of fweet and four. Agitation muff
be employed every time before it be ufed.”—To this
detail ot the procefs the nobleman fubjoined, that in
order to obtain milk in fufficient quantity, the Tar¬
tars have a cuftom of feparating the foal from the
mare during the day, and allowing it to fuck during
the night: and when the milk is to be taken from the
mare, which is generally about five times a day, they
always produce the foal, on the fuppofition that Ihe
yields her milk more copioufly when it is prefent.
To the above method of making koumifs, our
author has added lome particulars taken from other
communications with which he was favoured by Tar¬
tars themfelves. According to the account of a Tartar
who lived to the fouth-eall of Orenbourg, the pro¬
portion of milk and fouring ought to be the fame as a-
bove ; only, to prevent changing the veffel, the milk
may be put at once into a pretty high and narrow
veffel j and in order to accelerate the fermentation,
fome warm milk may be added to it, and, if neceffary,
more fouling.—From a Tartar whom the Doftor met
with at the fair of Macarieff upon the Volga, and from
whom he purchafed one of the leathern bags (a) which
are ufed by the Kalmucks for the preparation and car¬
riage of their koumifs, he learned that the procefs may b«
much fhortened by heating the milk before the fouring
be added to it, and as foon as the parts begin to fepa-
rate, and a thick fubftance to rife to the top, by agi¬
tating it every hour or oftener. In this way he made
fome in the Do&or’s prefence in the fpace of 12 hours.
Our author learned alfo,that it was common among fom*
Tar-
(a) This bag was made of a horfe’s hide undreffed, and by having been fmoked had acquired a great de¬
gree of hardnefs. Its fhape was conical, but was at the fame time fomewhat triangular, from being compofedr
of three different pieces, fet in a circular bafe of the fame hide. The futures, which were made with tendons,
■were fecured by a covering on the outiide, with a doubling of the fame fkin, very clofely fecured. It had a
dirty appearance, and a very difagreeable fmell. On being afked the reafon of this, he faid, “ The remain;*
•f the old koumifs were left, in older to fupply a ferment to the new milk.”
K O U [ 488 ] K R A
Tartars to prepare it in one day during fummer, and that
with only two or three agitations ; but that in winter,
when, from a deficiency of mares milk, they are ob
liged to add a great proportion of that of cows, more
agitation and more time are neceffary. And though
it is commonly ufed within a few days after the pre¬
paration, yet when well fecured iir clofe veflels, and
kept in a cold place, that it may be preferved for three
months, or even more, without any injury to its qua¬
lities. He was told farther, that the acid fermenta¬
tion might be produced by four milk as above, by a
four pafte of rye-flour, by the rennet of a lamb’s do-
mach, or, what is more common, by a portion of old
koumifs ; and that in fome places they faved much
time, by adding the new milk to a quantity of that
already fermented ; on being mixed with which, it very
foon undergoes the vinous change.
It was according to the procefs firll mentioned,
however, that all the koumifs which the Do&or em¬
ployed in medicine was prepared.— It has been found
ferviceable in hedtics and in nervous complaints ; and
our author relates fome very linking cafes which the
trie of it had completely cured. All thofe who drank
it, our author informs us, agreed in faying, that during
its ufe, they had little appetite for food ; that they
drank it in very large quantities, not only without dif-
guft, but with pleafure ; that it rendered their veins
turgid, without producing languor; that, on the con¬
trary, they foon acquired from it an uncommon
degree of fpn'ghtlinefs and vivacity ; that even in cafes
of fome excefs it was not followed by indigeftion, head-
ach, or any of the fymptoms which ufually attend the
abufe of other fermented liquors.
The utility, however, of this preparation as a me¬
dicine, fuppofing it completely afeertained, would a-
mong us, as our author obferves, be greatly circum-
feribed by the fcarcity of mares milk in this country.
4‘ Hence (fays he) inquiries will naturally be made,
whether other fpecies of milk admit of a fimilar vinous
fermentation, and what proportion of fpirit they con¬
tain. As thefe have never been the objett, however,
of my attention, I will here give the fubftance of what
I have been able to learn from others refpe&ing that
which is the moft common, the milk of cows.
“ Dr Pallas, in the work above quoted, fays, that
cows milk is alfo fufceptible of the vinous fermentation,
and that the Tartars prepare a wine from it in winter,
when mares milk fails them ; that the wine prepared
from cows milk, they call alren ; but that they always
prefer koumifs when it can be got, as it is more agree¬
able, and contains a greater quantity of fpirit; that
koumifs on diftillation yields of a weak fpirit one third,
but that airen yields only two ninth parts of its whole
quantity, which fpirit they call arika.
“ This account is confirmed by Oferetfkowfky, a
Ruffian, who accompanied Lepechin and other acade¬
micians, in their travels through Siberia and Tartary.
He publifhed lately a differtation on the ardent fpirit
to be obtained from cows milk.
“ From his experiments it appears, that cows milk
may be fermented with, or even without, fouring, pro¬
vided fufficient time and agitation be employed; that
no fpirit could be produced from any one of its confti-
tuent parts taken feparately, nor from any two of them,
unlefs inafmuch as they were mixed with fome part of
N0i7$.
the third 5 that the milk with all its parts in their natu- Krakes,
ral proportion was the moll productive of it 5 that —-v—^
the elofer it was kept, or, which is the fame thing, the
more difficultly the fixed air is allowed to efcape during
the fermentation (care being taken, however, that we
do not endanger the burfting of the veffel), the more ry
fpirit is obtained. He alfo informs us, that it bad a
fourer fmell before than after agitation ; that the quan¬
tity of fpirit was increafed, by allowing the fermented
liquor to repofe for fome time before difiillation ; that
from fix pints of milk, fermented in a clofe veffel, and
thus fet to repofe, he obtained three ounces of ardent
fpirit, of which one was confunaed in burning ; but
that from the fame quantity of the fame milk ferment¬
ed in an open veflel, he could fcarcely obtain an
ounce.”
KRAKEN, in zoology, a mod amazing large fea
animal, faid to be feertiingly of a crab-like form ; the
credit of whole exiltence reds upon the evidence pro¬
duced by hilltop Pontoppidan, in his Natural hitlory of
Norway.
As a full grown kraken has never been feen in all its
parts and dimen fions, an accurate furvey of which mu ft
employ fome time, and not a little motion, it is im-
poffible to give a complete defeription of one. Ne-
verthelefs, we (hall fubmit the probability of, its exif-
tence on the bed information our author could colled,
which feems to have fixed his own belief of it ; though
at the fame time he acknowledges the account is very
defedive, and fuppofes a farther information concern¬
ing the creature may be referved for poderity.
Our filhermen, fays the author, unanimoufly and in¬
variably affirm, that when they are feveral miles from
the land, particularly in the hot fummer days, and by
their didance, and the bearings of fome points of land,
expeCl from eighty to a hundred fathoms depth, and
do not find but from twenty to thirty ; and more efpe-
cially if they find a more than ufual plenty of cod and
ling, they judge that the kraken is at the bottom ; but
if they find by their lines that the water in the fame
place dill (hallows on them, they know he is rifing to
the furface, and row off with the greated expedition
till they come into the ufual foundings of the place ;
when lying on their oars, in a few minutes the monfter
emerges, and (hows himfelf fufficiently, though his
whole body does not appear. Its back or upper part,
which feems an Englilh mile and a half in circumfe¬
rence (fome have affirmed more), looks at fird like a
number of fmall iflands, furrounded with fomething
that floats like fea-weeds ; at lad feveral bright points
of horns appear, which grow thicker the higher they
emerge, and fometimes dand up as high and large as
the mads of middle-fized velfels. In a Ihort time it
(lowly finks, which is thought as dangerous as its rifing ;
as it caufes fuch a fwell and whirlpool as draws every
thing down with it, like that of Maledrom. The bi-
Ihop judly regrets the omillion of probably the only
opportunity that ever has or may be prefented, of fur-
veying it alive, or feeing it entire wheto dead. This,
be informs us, once did occur, on the credit of the re¬
verend Mr Friis, ruinider at Nordland, and vicar of the
college for promoting Chridian knowledge ; who in¬
formed him that in 1680, a kraken (perhaps a young
and carelefs one, as they generally keep feveral leagues
from l?nd) came into the waters that run between the
rocks
K R A £ 4$9 1 K R A
Kraten. rocks and cliffs near Alftahoug ; where, m turning
about, fome of its long horns caught hold of fome ad¬
joining trees, which it might eafily have [torn up, but
that it was alfo entangled in fome clifts of the rocks,
whence it could not extricate itfelf, but putrefied on
the fpot. Our author has heard of no perfon deftroy-
ed by this monfter, but relates a report of the danger
of two fifhermen who came upon a part of the water
full of the creature’s thick flinvy excrements (which lie
voids for fome months, as he feeds for fome other);
they immediately drove to row off, but were not quick
enough in turning to fave the boat from one of the
kraken’s horns, which fb crufhed the head of it that
it was with difficulty they laved their lives on the wreck,
though the weather was perfe&ly calm; the monfter
never appearing at other times. His excrement is faid
to be attra&ive of other fifh on which he feeds ; which
expedient was probably neceffary, on account of his
(low unwieldy motion to his fubfiftence ; as this flow
motion again may be neceffary to the fecurity of flops
©f the greateft force and burden, which muft be over¬
whelmed on encountering fuch an immenfe animal, if
his velocity was equal to hi? weight ; the Norwegians
fuppofing, that if his arms, on which he moves, and with
■which he takes his food, were to lay hold of the largefl
man of war, they would pull it down to the bottom.
In confirmation of the reality of this animal, our
Jearned author cites Debes’s-defcription of Faroe, for
■the exiftence of certain iflands which fuddenly appear
and as fuddenly vanifh. Many feafaring people, he
adds, give accounts of fuch, particularly in the north
fea ; which their fuperftition has either attributed to
•the delufion of the devil, or confldered as inhabited by
•evil fpirits. But our honeft hiftorian, who is not for
wronging the devil himfelf, fuppofes fuch miftaken
.iflands to be nothing but the kraken, called by fome
the foe trolden, or fea mifchief; in which opinion he
■was greatly confirmed by the following quotation of
■Dr Hierne, a learned Swede, from baron Grippen-
■hielm ; and which is certainly a very remarkable paf-
fage, viz. “ Among the rocks about Stockholm, there
is fometimes fecn a trad of land, which at other times
difappears, and is feen again in another place. Burasus
has placed it as an ifland in^his map. The pea-
fants, who call it gummars ore, fay, that it is not always
feen, and that it lies out In the open fea, but I could
never find it. Oi.e Sunday, when I was out amongft
the rocks founding the coaft, it happened, that in one
place I faw fomething like three points of land in-the
fea, which furprifed me a little, and I thought I had
inadvertently puffed them over before. Upon this 1
.called to a .peafant, to enquire for gummars ore ; but
when he came, we could fee nothing of it : upon which
the peafant faid all was well, and that this prognofti-
cated a ftorm or a great-quantity of fifh.” To which
.©ur author fubjoins, “ who cannot difeover that this
gummars ore, with its points and prognoftications of
ftfh, was the kraken, miftaken by Buraeus for an ifland,
who may keep himfelf about that fpot where he
rifes?” He takes the kraken, doubtlefs, from his nu¬
merous tcntaculi, which ferve him as feet, to be of the po¬
lype kind; and the contemplation of its enormous bulk
1 led him to adapt a paffage from Ecclefiafticus, xliii 31,
32. to it. Whether by it may be intended the dragon
that is in the fea, mentioned Ifaiah xxvii. 1. we refer
Vol. IX. Part II.
to the conjecture of the reader. After paying but a Krsbsa,
juft refpedt to the moral' chara&er, the reverend func- Kr‘mtzius'';
tion, and diligent inveftigations of our author, we muft v f
admit pofiibility of its exiftence, as it implies no
contradiction ; though it feems to encounter a general
prepofftfiron of -the whale’s being the lafgell animal
on or in our globe; and the eradication of any long
prepoffeffion is attended with fomething irkfome to
us. But were we to fuppofe a falrnon or a fturgeon
the larged -fifh any number of perfons had feen or heard
of, and the whale had difeovered hlmftif as feldom,
and but in part, as the kraken, it is eafy to conceive
that the exiftence of the whale had been as indigeftiblc
to fuch pei fens then as that of the kraken may be to
others now. Some may incline to think fuch an ex-
tenfive monfter would encroach on the fymmetry of
•nature, and be over proportionate to the fize of the
globe itielf; as a little retrofpeftion will inform us,
that the breadth of what is feen of him, fuppofing him
nearly round, muft be full 2600 feet (if more oval, or
crab-like, full 2000), and his thicknefs, which may
rather be called altitude, at leaft three hundred ; our
author declaring he has chofen the leaft circumference
mentioned of this animal for the greater certainty.
Thefe immenfe dimenfions, neverthelefs, we apprehend
will not argue conclufively againft the exiftence of the
animal, though confiderably againft a numerous in-
creafe or propagation of it. In fad, the great fcarci- »
ty of the kraken, his confinement to the north fea,
and perhaps to equal latitudes in the fouth ; the fmall
number propagated by the whale, who is viviparous;
and by the largeft land animals, of whom the elephant
is faid to go irear two years with young ; all induce
us to conclude from analogy, that this creature is not
nymerous ; which coincides with a paffage in a manu-
feript aferibed to Sven.- king of Norway, as it is cited
by Ol. Wofmius, in his Mufeum, p. 280, in Latin,
which we (hall exaftly tranflate. “ There remains one
kind, which they call hafgufe, whofe magnitude is un¬
known, as it is feldom feen. Thofe who affirm they have
feen its body, declare, it is more like an ifland than a
beaft, and that its careafe was never found ; whence
fome imagine there are but two of the kind in na¬
ture.” Whether the vanirtiing ifland Lemair, of which
Captain Rodney went in fearch, was a kraken, we fub-
mit to the fancy of our readers. In fine, if the ex¬
iftence of the creature is admitted, it will feem a fair
inference, that he is the fcarceft as well as largeft in
our world ; and that if there are larger in the univerfe,
they probably inhabit fome fphere or planet more ex¬
tended than our own. Such we have no pretence to
limit; and that fidfion can devife a much greater than
this is evident, from the cock of Mahomet, and the
whale in the Bava Bathra of the Talmud, which ^ere
intended to be credited ; and to either of which our
kraken is a very ftirimp in dimenfions.
KRANTZIUS (Albertus), a native of Hamburgh,
and a famous hiftorian, who travelled over feveral parts
of Europe, and was made reftor of the univerlity of
Roftoch in 1482. He went from thence to Ham¬
burgh in. 1508, where he was eleded dean of the chap¬
ter in the cathedral He did many good fei vices to
that church and city ; and was fo famed for his abili¬
ties and ,prudence, that John king of Denmark and
Frederic duke of Holftein did not fcruple to make him
3 Q, umpire
K U S I 4go 3 -K Y P
Kraut umpire ifl a difpute they had with the Ditmarfi. He
v II wrote feveral good hiftorical works; the moft con-
11 cr' , fiderable of which is an Ecclefiaftical Hiftory of Saxo¬
ny, intided Metropolis, in folio ; the bed. edition is that
cfFrancfort. He died in 1517.
KRAUT, or Grout. See Grout.
- KUBESHA. See Lesguis.
KUHNIUS (Joachim), a learned German critic,
was born at Gripfwalde in Pomerania, in 1647. He
was in 1669 made principal of the college at Oetin-
gen in Suabia : in 1676, he was elefted Greek pro-
fefibr in the principal college at Strafburg ; and after
acquitting himfelf with honour for ten years in this
capacity, was made Greejc and Hebrew profeffor in
the fame univerfity. His uncommon flcill in the Greek
language drew a great number of fcholats about Kim
from very diftant places ; and he publilhed fome claflic
authors with very learned notes both explanatory and
critical He died in 1697.
KUNCKEL (John), a celebrated Saxon chemift,
born in the duchy of Slefwick, in 1630. He became
chemift to the eledlor of Saxony, the eleftor of Bran-
denburgh, and Charles II king of Sweden, who gave
him the title of counfellor in metals, and letters of no¬
bility, with the furname of Louwenjleing. He em¬
ployed 50 years in chemiftry ; in which, by the help
of the furnace of a glafs-houfe which he had under
bis care, he made feveral excellent difcoveries, parti¬
cularly of the phofphorus of urine. He died in Swe¬
den in 1702 ; and left feveral works, fome in Ger¬
man, and others in Latin: among which, that in-
titled Obfervationes Chemica, and the “ Art of making
Glafs,” printed at Paris in 1752, are the. moft
efteemed. .
KURIL or Kurilski Isles, extending from N.
Lat. 51. to 4;. which probably once lengthened the pe-
ninfula of Kamtcbatka before they were covulfed from
it, are a feries of iflands running fouth from the low
promontory Lopatka, between which and Shoomfka the
moft northerly is only the diftance of one league. On
the lofty Paramoufer, the fecond in the chain, is a high-
peaked mountain probably volcanic; and on the fourth,
called Araumakutan, is another volcsmo. On Urufs there
is another; on Storgu there are two; and on Kunatir,
or Kaunachir, there is one. Thefe three make part of
the group which pafs under the name of the land of jfefo.
Japan abounds with volcanoes ; fo that there is a feries
of fpiracles from Kamtchatka to Japan, the laft great
link of this extenfive chain.—The Ruffians foon an¬
nexed thefe i{lands to their conquefts. The fea a-
bounded with otters, and the land with bears and
foxes; and fome of the ifles ftieltered the fable : temp¬
tations fufficient for the Ruffians to invade thefe ifiands;
■ but the rage after the furs of the fea otters has been fo
great, that they are become extremely fcarce both here
and in Kamtchatka.
KUSTER (Ludolf), a very learned writer in the
t.8th century, was born at Blomberg in Weftphaiia.
When very young, he was upon the recommendation
baron Spanheim appointed tutor to the two funs
of the count de Schwerin, prime minifter of the king Kufttr,
of Pruffia, who, upon our author’s quitting that fta- Kypho-
tion, procured him a penfion of 400 livres. He was 11 ,
promifed a profeflbrlhip in the univerfity of Joachim ; "v " '
and till this Ihould be vacant, being then but 25, he
refolved to travel. He read leftures at Utrecht; went
to England; and from thence to France, where he
collated Suidas with three MSS. in the king’s library,
which furniftred him with a great many fragments
that had never been publiflred. Pie was honoured
with the degree of do&or by the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge, which made him feveral advantageous offers
to continue there: but he was called to Berlin, where
he was inftalled in the profefforftiip promifed him.
Afterward he went to Antwerp ; and being brought
over to the Catholic religion, he abjured that of the
Proteftants. The king of France rewarded him with
a penfion, and ordered him to be admitted fupernu-
merary affociate of the academy of inferiptions. But
he did not enjoy this new fettlement long; for he
died in 1716, aged 46. He was a great mafter of
the Latin tongue, and wrote well in it; but his chief
excellence was his /kill in the Greek language, to
which he almoft entirely devoted himfelf. He wrote
many works; the principal of which are, 1. Hijloria
critic a Homeri. 2. Jamblicus de vita Pythagorte. 3. An
excellent edition of Suidas, in Greek and Latin, three
volumes, folio. 4. An edition of Ariftophanes, in
Greek and Latin, folio. 5. A new Greek edition
of the New Teftament, with Dr Mills’s Variations,
in folio.
KYPHONISM, Kyphonismus, or Cyphonifmus,
an ancient punilhment which was frequently undergone
by the martyrs in the primitive times; wherein the
■body of the perfon to fuffer was anointed with honey,
•and fo expofed to the fun, that the flies and wafps
might be tempted to torment him. This was per¬
formed in three manners : fometimes they only tied
the patient to a flake ; fometimes they hoifted him
up into the air, and fufpended him in a bafleet; and
fometimes they ftretched him out on the ground with
his hands tied behind him. The word is originally Greek,
and comes from *v^v, which fignifies either the Jlale
to which the patient was tied, the collar fitted to his
neck, or an ir.ftrument wherewith they tormented him :
the fcholiaft on Ariftophanes fays, it was a wooden
lock or cage; and that it was called fo from x-vtfuv,
“ to crook or bend,” becaufe it kept the tortured in
a crooked, bowing pofture ; others take the for
a log of wood laid over thp criminal’s head, to prevent
his {landing upright: Hefychius deferibes the
as a piece of wood whereon criminals were ftretched
and tormented. In effe&, it is probable the word
might fignify all thefe feveral things. It was a generi-
cal name, whereof thefe were the fpecies.
Sufdas gives us the fragment of an old law, which..
punifhed thofe who treated the laws with contempt
with kyphonifm for the fpace of twenty days; after
which they were to be precipitated from a rock, dreffed
in womens, habit.
I A B
C 491 ]
LAB
L.
LA ftnu-vowel, or liquid, making tlic eleventh
’ letter of the alphabet.
It was derived from the old Hebrew Lamed, or^Greek
Lambda It is founded by intercepting the breath
between the top of the tongue and forepart of. the pa¬
late, with the mouth open ; and makes a fweet found,
with fomething of an afpiration ; and therefore the
Britons and Spaniards ufually doubled it, or added an
h to it, in the beginning of words, as in Uan, or than,
“a temple,” founding nearly likeJl,Scc. In Englifh words
of one fyllable it is doubled at the end, as tell, bell, knell,
&c. but in words of more fyllables than one it is Angle
at the end, as evil, general, conjlituttonal, &c. It is
placed after moft of the confonants in the beginning of
words and fyllables, as black, glare, ad-le, ea-gle, &c.
but before none. Its found is clear in Abel, but ob-
fcurc in able, &c.
Asa numeral letter, L denotes 50; and with a
dafh over it, thus, E, 5000. Ufed as an abbrevia¬
ture, L Hands for Lucius; and L. L. S. for a fefterce.
See Sesterce.
LA, the fyllable by which Guido denotes the laft
found of each hexachord ; if it begins in C, it anfwers
to our A ; if in G, to E ; and if in F, to D.
LABADIE (John), a famous French enthufiaft,
fon of John Charles Labadie, governor of Bburges
and gentleman in ordinary of the bed-chamber to the
French king, was born in 1610. He entered young
into the Jeuiits college at Bourdeaux ; which, by his
own account, he afterwards quitted, but by other ac¬
counts was expelled for his peculiar notions, and for
hypocrify. He became a popular preacher ; but being
repeatedly detected in working upon female devotees
with fpiritual inftru&ions for carnal purpofes, his lofs
of character among the Catholics drove him among
the Proteitants. A reformed jefuit being thought a
great acquifition, he was precipitately accepted as a
paftor at Montauban, where he officiated for eight
years; but, attempting the chaftity of a young lady
whom he could not convert to his purpofe, and quar¬
relling with the Catholic prieft about the right of in¬
terring a dead body, he was at length banifhed that
place. The ftory of his affair with the lady, as re¬
lated by Mr Balye, may here be given as a fpecimen
of his miniftry. Having diredted this damfel to the
fpiritual life, which he made to confiil in internal
recollection and mental prayer, he gave her out a cer¬
tain point of meditation ; and having flrongly recom¬
mended it to her to apply herfelf entirely for fome
hours to fuch an important objedt, be went up to her
when he believed her to be at the height of her recol-
ledtion, and put his hand into her breaft. She gave
him a hafty repulfe, expreffed a great deal of furprife
at the proceeding, and was even preparing to rebuke
him, when he, without being in the leaft difconcerted,
and with a devout air, prevented her thus: I fee
plainly, my child, that you are at a great diftance
from perfe&ion ; acknowledge your weaknefs with an
humble fpirit; afk forgivenefs of God for your having
given fo little -attention to the mytteries upon which
you ought to have meditated. Had you bellowed all
necefTary attention upon thefe things, you would not
have been fenfible of what was doing about your breaft.
But you are fo much attached to fenfe, fo little con¬
centered with the Godhead, that you were not a mo¬
ment in difcoveiing that I had touched you. I wanted
to try whether your fervency in prayer had raifed you
above the material world, and united you with the
Sovereign Being, the living fource of immortality and
of a fpiritual flate ; and I fee, to my great grief, that
you have made very fmall progrefs, and that you only
creep on the ground. May this, my child, make you
afhamed, and for the future move you to perform the
duties of mental prayer better than you have hitherto
done.” The young lady, who had as much good
fenfe as virtue, was no lefs provoked at thefe words
than at the bold actions of her ghoftly inftru&or; and
could never afterwards bear the name of fuch an holy
father. Labadie being driven out of Montauban, went
to feek an afylum at Orange: but not finding himfelf fo
fafe there as he imagined, he withdrew privately to
Geneva, where he impofed on the people by his de¬
vout preaching and< carriage; and from thence was
invited to Middleburg, where his fpirituality made
him and his followers confidered as fo many faints,
diftinguilhed by the name of Labadijls. They in-
creafed fo much, that he excited the attention of the
other churches, whofe authority he difputed, till he
was formally depofed by the fynod of Dort. Inftead
of obeying, he procured a tumultuous fupport from a
crowd of his devotees; and at length formed a little
fettlement between Utrecht and Atnfterdam, where
he erefted a printing-prefs, which fent forth many of
his works. Here he was betrayed by fome deferters,
who expofed his private life, and informed the public
of his familiarities with his female difciples, under pre¬
tence of uniting them more particularly to God ; and
was finally obliged to retire to Altena in Holftein,
where he died in 1674.
LABADISTS, a fe& of religionifts in the 17th
century, followers of the opinions of John Labadie, of
whom an account is given in the preceding article.
Some of their opinions were, i. That God could, and
did deceive men. 2. That, in reading the Scriptures,
greater attention fitould be paid to the internal infpi-
ration of the Holy Spirit than to the words of t)ie
text 3. That baptifm ought to be deferred till ma¬
ture age. 4. That the good and the wicked entered
equally into the old alliance, provided they defcended
from Abraham; but that the new admitted only fpi¬
ritual men. 5. That the obfervation of Sunday was
a matter of indifference. 6. That Chrift would .come
and reign 1000 years on earth. 7/That the eucharift
was only a commemoration of the death of Chrift ; and
that, though the fymbols were nothing in themfelves,
yet that Chrift was fpiritually received by thofe who
partook of them in a due manner. 8. That a'contem-
plative life was a ftate of grace, and of divine union du¬
ring-this life, the fummit of perfe&ion, &c. 9. That
the man whofe heart was perfe&ly content and calm,
half enjoys God, has familiar entertainments with him,
and fees all things in him. 10. That this ftate was to be
3 Qjs come
m
lab r 492
Labamm comeat by an entire felf-abnegation, by the mortifica-
, II tion of the fenfes and their obje£ts,'and by the exercife
Labaanum. r ^ ,
. or mfintal prayer.
LAB A RUM, the banner or ftandard borne before
the Roman emperors in the wars. The labarum con¬
fided of a long lance, with a ftaff a-top ; eroding it at
right angles; from which hung a- rich dreamer, of a
purple colour, adorned with precious dones-. Till the
tjime of Condantine it had an eagle painted on it; but
✓that emperor, in lieu thereof, added a crofs with a ci¬
pher expredxng the name of Jefus.
This dandard the Romans took from the Germans,
Dacte, Sarmat 4, Pannonians, &c. whom they had
overcome. The name labarum was not known before
the time of Condantine ; but the dandard itfelf, in the
form we have deferibed it, abating the fymbols of
Chridianity, was ufed by all the preceding ^emperors.
Some derive the word from labor, as if this dnifhed
their labours; fome from «< reverence, piety
others from n to take and others from
hztpvpa, “ fpoils.”
LABAT (John Baptid), a celebrated traveller, of
the order of St Dominic, was born at Paris, taught
philofophy at Nancy, and in 1693 went to America
in quality of a mifiionary. At his return to France
in 1705, he was fent to the chapter of his order at
Bologna to give an account of his million, and daid
feveral years in Italy. He died at Paris in 1738.
His principal works are, 1. A new voyage to the
American iflands, 6 vols i2mo. 2. Travels in Spain
and Italy, 8 vols izmo. 3. A new account of the
wedern parts of Africa, 5 vols 12 mo.: Father Labat
was not in Africa, and therefore was not a witnefs of
what he relates in that work. He alfo publilhed the
Chevalier des Marchais'i voyage to Guinea, in 4 vols
J2mo. ; and uin hijlorical account of the lueflern parts of
/Ethiopia, tranllattd from the Italian of Father Cavaz-
zi, 5 vols 12 mo.
LABBE* (Philip), born at Bourges in France, in
1607 ; profefled philofophy, divinity, and the lan¬
guages, with great applaufe ; and died in 1667, aged
70. He was a laborious writer, and a good critib ;
and wrote, 1. Nova Bibliotheca MS. librorum, in two
volumes folio. 2. De By%antince hifloria Scriptoribus.
3. Galeni vita.. 4. Bibliotheca bibliothecarum. 5. Con-
cordantia chronologica, &c. He began the lad edition
of “ The councils,” and died while the 9th volume
was printing; they were finilhed in 17 volumes by
father Coffart.
LABDANUM, or Ladanum, in the materia me-
dica, a refinous juice, which exfudes from a tree of
the cidus kind. It is faid to have been formerly col-
lefted from the beards of goats who bropfed the leaves
of the cidus at prefent, a kind of rake, with feveral
ftraps or thongs of fleins fixed to it, is drawn lightly
over the fhrub, fo as to take up the un&uous juice,
which is afterwards feraped off with knives. It is
rarely met with pure, even in the places which pro¬
duce it ;.the dud, blown upon the plant by the wind,
mingling with the tenaceous juice : the inhabitants are
alfo faid to mix with it a certain black fand. In the
(hops two forts are met with. The bed (which is ve¬
ry rate) is in dark-coloured almod black maffes, of
the confidence of a foft plader, which grows dill foft-
er upon being handled j of a very agreeable fmell, and
1 LAB
of alight pungent bitterifh tade. The other fort isLabdanom*
harder, not fo dark coloured, in long rolls coiled up : II
this is of a much weaker fmell than the fird, and has La^°ra'
a large admixture, of a fine land, which in the lada- «
num, examined By the French academy, made up
three-fourths of the mafs.
In medicine it is ufed externally, to attenuate and
difeufs tumors ; internally, it is more rarely ufed, but.
is greatly extolled by fome againft' catarrhs and in-
dyfenteries. Reftrfied fpirit of wine almod' entirely
diffolves pure ladanum, leaving only a fmall portion of.
gummy matter which has no tafte or fraell : and hence
this refin may be thus excellently purified for internal’
purpofes. It is an ufeful ingredient in the domachtG-
plader, which is now indeed dyled the emplajlrum ladani.
LABEL, a long, thin, brafs rule, with a fmalf
fight at one end, and a centre-hole at the other ; com¬
monly ufed with a tangent-line on the edge of a cir¬
cumferentor, to take altitudes, &c.
Labul, in law, is a narrow dip of paper, or parch*
ment, affixed to a deed or writing, in order to hold'
the appending feaL—Any paper annexed by way of
addition or explication, to any will or tedament, is
alfo called a label or codicil. .
Label, in heraldry, a fillet ufuaily placed in the
middle along the chief of the coat, without touching
its extremities. Its breadth ought to be a ninth part
of the chief. It is adorned with pendants.; and when
there are above three of thefe, the number mud be
fpecified in blazoning;.
It is ufed on the arms of- elded fdns while the fa¬
ther is alive, to didinguidi them from the younger 5
and is edeemed the mod honourable of all differences.
See Heraldry, p. 445. col. 1.
LABIAL letters, thofe pronounced chiefly by.
means of the lips..
LABIATED f-loweus, monopetalous flowers,,
confiding of a narrow tube with a wide mouth, di¬
vided into two or more fegments.
LABIAU, a fmall town of Ducal Pruffia, in a
circle of the fame name, feated at the mouth of the
river Deime, with a drong cadle, two iides of which,
are furrounded with water, and the other defended by
a wall and ditch. E. Long. 19. 56. N. Lat. 55. 17.
LABORATORY, or Elaboratory, the chemids
work houfe, or the place where they perform, their o-
perations, where the furnaces are built, their veffels
kept, &c. and in general the term laboratory is applied
to any place where phyfical experiments in pharmacy^ ,
chemidry, pyrotechny, &c. are performed.
As laboratories mud be of very different kinds, ac¬
cording to the nature of the operations to be perform¬
ed in them, it is impoffible that any ditedlions can bfc
given which will anfwer for every one. Where the
purpofes are, merely experimental, a fingte furnace or
two of the portable kind will be fufficient. It is fcarce
needful to add, that (helves are neceffary for holding
veffels with the produ&s of the different operations r
and that it is abfoliitely neceffary to avoid confufibn
and difdrder, as by thefe means the produdls of the
operations might be lod or midaken for one another*
Mprtars, filters, levigating dones, &c. mud alfo bq
procured^ but from a knowledge of the methods of
performing the different chemical operations will eafily
be derived the knowledge of a proper place to perform
them
Plate OCL3X.
LAB t 493 1 LAB
,al>era them in ; for which fee the articles Chemistry, Me-
t0jy taelurgy, and Furnace.
burnum. Laboratory, in military affairs, fignifies that place
where all forts of fire-works are prepared, both forac-
tual fervice and for pleafure, viz. quick matches, fa¬
zes, port-fires, grape-fhot, cafe-fhot, carcaffes, hand-
grenades, cartridges, fhells filled, and fuzes fixed, wads,
icc. &c.
LABOUR, in general, denotes a clofe application
to work or bufxnefs.—Among feamen a fhip is faid to
be in labour when fhe rolls and tumbles very much,
either ahull, under fail, or at.anchor,—It is alfo fpoken
ef a woman in travail of child birth ; fee Midwifery,
LABOURER, generally fignifies one that does the
molt flaviih and lefs artful part of a laborious work, as
that ofhufbandiy, mafonry, &c.
LABOUREUR (John Is), almoner to the king of
France, and prior of Juvigne,, was born at Montmo¬
rency near Paris in 16*3. At the age of 1 8, he di-
flinguifhed himfelf by publifhing “ A colledfion of the
monuments of illufhious perfons buried in the church,
of the Celeftines at Paris, with their elegies, genealo¬
gies, arms,, and mottoes,” qto. He afterwards pub-
liflred an excellent edition of The Memoirs of Michael
de Cafttlnatt, with feveral other genealogical hiitories t
and died in 1675.—a brother, Louis k La-
boureur, bailiff of Montmorency, author of feveral pieces
of poetry ; and an uncle, Dom. Clauile It Laboureur,
provoft of the abbey of L’ifle Barbe, of which abbey
he wrote a hiftory, and publifhed notes and corredlions
upon the breviary of Lyons, with fome other things.
LABRADOR, the fame with Ncw-Biutain, or
the country round Hudson’s Bay. See thefe articles.
LABRADORE stone, a curious fpeeies of felt-
fpar. which exhibits all the colours of a peacock’s tail.
See the article Felt-Spar.
LAB RUM, in antiquity, a greattub which flood at
the entrance of the temples, containing water for the.
prielts to wafh themfelves in previous to their facri-
fices. It was alfo the name of a bathing tub ufcd
in the baths of the ancients.
LABRUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifhes be-
longing to the order of thoracici. The chara&ers are
as follow : The covers of the gills fcaiy ; the branchi-
oftegous rays unequal in number; teeth conic,, long,
and blunt at their ends ; one tuberculated bone in the
bottom of the throat; two above, oppofite to the o-
ther ; one dorfat fin reaching the whole length of the
back.; a /lender fkin extending beyond each ray, with
a rounded tail. There are 41 fpecies of this genus,
which vary from each other, even thofe of the fame
fpecies, almoft infinitely in colour; fome of them be¬
ing of a.dirty red mixed with a certain dufkinefs; o-
thers moft beautifully ftriped, efpecially about the head,
with the richeft colours, fuch as blue,, red, and yel¬
low. Care muft therefore,be taken not to multiply
the fpecies from thefe accidental teiuts, but.to attend
to the form, which never varies. Mr Pennant men¬
tions his having feen a fpecies of labrus taken about
the Giant’s Caufeway in Ireland, of a moll beautiful
vivid green, fpotted with fcarlet; and others at Ban-
dporan in the county, of Sligo of a pale green. To
this genus belongs the fifh called by the Englifh the
tld-wifc.
LABURNUM, in botany. Sac Cytisus.
LABYRINTH, among the ancients, was a large I^byrlatK,
intricate edifice cut out into various aifles and meanders
running into each other, fo as to render it difficult to
get out of it.
There is mention made of feveral of thofe edifices
among the ancients ; but the mod celebrated are the
Egyptian and the Cretan labyrinths.
That of Egypt, according to Pliny, was the oldefl
of all the known labyrinths, and was fubfifting in his
time after having (food 3600 years. He fays it was
built by king Petefucus, or Tithoes; but Plerodotus
makes it the work of feveral kings : it flood on the
banks of the lake Moeris, and confifled of 12 large
contiguous palaces, contmning 301.0 chambers, 1500
of which were under ground.—Strabo, Diodorus Si¬
culus, Pliny, and Mela, fpeak of this monument with
the fame admiration as Herodotus: but not one of
them tells us that it was conftrufted to bewilder thofe
who attempted to go over it; though It is manifeft
that,, without a guide, they would be in danger of lo-
fing their way.
It was this danger, no doubt, which introduced a
new term into the Gieek language. The word laby¬
rinth, taken in the literal fenfe, fignifies a circumfcri-
bed fpace, interfe&ed by a number of paffages, fome
of which crofs each other in every direftion like
thofe in quarries and mines, and others make larger
or fmaller circuits round the place from which they
depart like the fpiral lines we fee on certain fhells.
In the figurative fenfe, it was applied to obfcure and
captious quefiions, to indireft and ambiguous anfwersi
and to thofe difcuffions which, after long digreffions,
bring us back to the point from which we fet out.
The Cretan labyrinth is the moft famed in hiftory
or fable ; having been rendered particularly remark¬
able by the ftory of the Minotaur, and of Thefeus
who found his way through all its windings by means
of Ariadne’s clue. On Plate CCLIX. is exhibited a
fuppofed plan of it, copied after a draught given by
Meurlius taken from an ancient ftone.—But what/« Cn?#.
was the real nature of this labyrinth, merits a more KL ca]*$»
particular inquiry. a*
Diodorus Siculus relates as a conjedlure, and Pliny
as a certain fadl, that Daedalus conftru&ed this laby¬
rinth on the model of that of Egypt, though on a lefs
fcale. They add, that it was formed by the command
of Minos, who kept the Minotaur fhut up in it; and
that in their time it no longer exifted, having been ei¬
ther deftroyed by time, or purpofely demolifhed. Dib^
dorns Siculus and Pliny, therefore, confidered this la¬
byrinth as a large edifice ; while other writers repre-
fent it limply as a cavern hollowed in the rock, and
full of winding paffages. The two former authors,
and the writers laft mentioned, have tranfmitted to us
two different traditions ; it remains for us to choofe
that which is moft probable.
If the labyrinth of Crete had been conftrufted by
Daedalus under Minos, whence is it that we find no
mention of it, neither in Homer, who more than once
fpeaks of that prince and of Crete ; nor in Herodotus,
who defcribes that of Egypt, after having faid that
the monuments of the Egyptians are much fuperior tb
thofe of the Greeks; nor in the more ancient geogra¬
phers ; nor in any of the writers of the ages when 1
Greece .fiourifhed l
TH« -
fcabyrinth.
^travels of
jinacharfts,
yi. 441.
pofary with thofe two authors. The Cretans, there¬
fore, then believed that they pofleffed the labyrinth.
“ I would requeft the reader (continues the Abbe
Barthelemif, from whom thefe observations are ex¬
tracted) to attend to the following paffage in Strabo;
t A B t 494 J 1, A C
This work was attributed to DtedaluS, whofe name cities ; and that, in more ancient times, they ferved'LrbyrlntS
is alone fufficient to diferedit a tradition. In fa£t, his for a habitation or afylum to the inhabitants of a di- H
name, like that of Hercules, had become the refource ftriCtr expofed to frequent incurfions. In the journey acca’ ^
of ignorance, whenever it turned its eyes on the early of Anacharfis through Phocis, I have fpoken of two
ages. All great labours, all works which required great caverns of Parnaflus, in which the neighbouring
more ftrength than ingenuity, were attributed to Her- people took refuge ; in the one at the time of the de-
cules; and all thofe which had a relation to the arts, luge of Deucalion, and in the other at the invafion of
•and required a certain degree of intelligence in the ex- Xerxes. I here add, that, according to Diodorus Si-
ecurion, were aferibed to Dtedalus. , cuius, the moft ancient Cretans dwelt in the caves of
The opinion of Diodorus and Pliny fuppofes, that Mount Ida. The people, when inquiries were made
in their time no traces of the labyrinth exited in on the fpot, faid that their labyrinth was originally
Crete, and that even the date' of its deftruftion had only a prifon. It may have been put to this ufe ; but
been forgotten. Yet it is faid to have been vifned by it is difficult to believe that, to prevent the efcape of
the difciples of Apollonius of Tyana, who was cotem- a few unhappy wretches, fuch immenfe labours would
have been undertaken.’'
Labyrinth of the Ear. See Anatomy, p. 764.
LAC, mit.k, among phylicians. See Mit.it.
Lac, Gum. See Lacca. .
LACA11RY (Giles), a learned Jcfuit of the 17th
At Napulia, near' the ancieht Argos, (fays that ju- century, was born in the diocefe of Caftres, in Lan-
dicious writer), are ftill to be feen vail caverns, in guedoc, in 1605. He taught philofophy. theology,
tvhich are conftru&ed labyrinths that are believed to and the holy Scriptures in his fociety ; was reftor of
be the work of the Cyclops: the meaning of which is, the college of Cahors ; and became well Ikilled in hi-
that the labours of men had opened in the rock paf- ftory. He wrote many works ; the principal of which
fages which croffed and returned upon themfelves, as are, Hijl. Galliarum fub PrafeEils Pratorii Gallia'-
is done, in quarries. Such, if I am not miltaken, is rum^ 410. a work which is much efte'emed, and ex-
the idea we ought to form of the labyrinth of Crete. tends from the reign of Conffantine to that of Juili-
“ Were there feveral labyrinths in that ifland An- nian. 2, Htfloria Romana a Julio Ctefare ad Coit/lan-
fcient authors fpeak only of one, which the greater tinum Magnum^ per numifmata & marmora antiqua, an
part place at Cnoflus; and fome, though the number excellent work. 3. Epitome h[ft or ice Reg Francia, eri
is but fmall, at Gortyna. Dionyfio Petavio. cxcerpta, alfo much efteemed. 4. Art
“ Belon and Tournefort have given us the deferip- edition of Velleius Paterculus, with learned notes,
tion of a cavern ntuated at the foot of mount Ida, on LAGCA, Lac, or Gum-Lac is a kind of wax, of
the fouth fide of the mountain, at a fmall dillance which a fpecies of infefts form cells upon trees, like
from Gortyna. This was only a quarry according to honeycqjnbs. See the article Coccus, fpec. 5. la¬
the former, and the ancient labyrinth according to thefe cells remain fome of the dead infefts, which give
the latter; whofe opinion I have followed, and abrid- a red colour to the whole fubftance of the lac. That
ged his account. Thofe who have added critical notes called flick-lac is the wax adhering to fome of the fmall
to his work, befides this labyrinth, admit a fecond at branches of the tree, and which is unprepared. This
Cnoflus, and adduce as the principal fupport of this lac, when feparated from the adhering flicks, and grofs-
Opinion the coins of that city, which reprefent .the ly powdered, and deprived of its colour by digeftion
plan of it, according as the artifts conceived it. For with menffruums, for the fake of the dyes and other
6n fome of thefe it appears of a fquare form, on purpofes, is called feed-lac ; when the flick-lac is freed
others round: on fome it is only Iketched out; on from impurities by melting it over a gentle fire, and
o- hers it has, in the middle of it, the head of the formed into cakes, it is called lump-lac; and laftly,
Minotaur. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Belles that called fhell-lac is the cells liquified, {trained, and
Lettres, I have given an engraving of one which ap- formed into thin tranfparent laminm in the following
pears to me to be of about the 5th century before Chrift; manner. Separate the cells from the branches, break^
and on which we fee on one fide the figure of the Mi- them into fmall pieces, throw them into a tub of water^,,,* 0j ^
notaur, and on the other a rude plan of the labyrinth, for one day, wafh off the red water and dry the cells, G«m Ucca,
It is therefore certain, that at that time the Cnoflians and with them fill a cylindrical tube of cotton cloth two1} phl1
believed they were in poffefiion of that celebrated ca- feet long, and one or two inches in diameter; tie both^p' Vg-
vern ; and it alfo appears that the Gortynians did not ends, turn the bag above a charcoal fire; as the lac&c< *
pretend to conttft their claim, fince they have never liquifies twift the bag, and when a fufficient quantity
given the figure of it on their money. has tranfuded the pores of the cloth, lay it upon a
The place where I fuppofe the labyrinth of Crete fmooth junk of the plantain-tree (Musa Paradiftaca,
to have been fituated, according to Tournefort, is but Linncei), and with a flrip of the plantain leaf draw it
one league diltant from Gortyna ; and, according to into a thin lamella; take it off while flexible, for in
Strabo, it was diflant from Cnoflus fix or feven leagues, a minute it will be hard and brittle. The value of
All we can conclude from this is, that the territory of fhell-lac is according to its tranfparency.
the latter city extended to very near the former. The lac infedt is one of the moft ufeful of that tribe
“ What was the ufe of the caverns to which the yet difeovered, particularly to the natives of the
name of labyrinth was given? I imagine that they countries where it is found. They confume a great
were firft excavated in part by nature; that in fome quantity of fhell-lac in making ornamental rings, paint-
places ftones were extraded from them for building ed and gilded in various taftes, to decorate the arms of
• the
LAC [ 495 1 L A C
I^acca- the ladles; and it is formed into beads, fpiral and
—v—-^ linked chains for necklaces, and other female orna-
ments.^-The following are recipes for various purpofes
to which this fubftance is applied by them.
r. For fealing wax. Take a llick, and heat one
end of it upon a charcoal fire ; put upon it a few.leaves
of the fneU-lac foftened above the fire ; keep alternate¬
ly heating and adding more fliell-lac until you have
got a mafs of three or four pounds of liquified {bell-
lac upon the end of your Hick (in which manner
lump-lac is formed from feed-lac). Knead this upon
a wetted board with three ounces of levigated cinna¬
bar ; form it into cylindrical pieces; and to give them
a polifh, rub them while hot with a cotton cloth.
2. For japanning. Take a lump of fuell-lac, pre¬
pared in the manner of fealing-wax, with whatever co¬
lour you pleafe, fix it upon the end of a flick, heat
the poliihed wood over a charcoal fire, and rub it over
with the half melted lac, and polifh by rubbing it even
with a piece of folded plantain leaf held in the hand ;
heating the laquer and adding more tac as occafion re¬
quires. Their figures are formed by lac, charged with
various colours in the fame manner.
3. For Varnifh. In ornamenting their jmages.and
religious houfes, &c. they make ufe of very thin beat
lead, which they cover with various varnifhes, made
of lac charged with colours. The preparation of them
is kept a fecret. The leaf of lead is laid upon a fmooth
iron heated by fire below while they fprtad the varnilh
upon it.
_ 4. For Grindftones. Take of river fand three parts,
of feed-lac wafhed one part, mix them over the fire
in a pot, and form the mafs into the fhape of a grind-
ftone, having a fquare hole in the centre, fix it on an
. axis with liquified lac, heat the ftone moderately, and
by turning the axis it may eafily be formed into an
exad orbicular fhape. Poiilhing grindftones are made
only of fuch fand as will pafs eafily through fine inuf-
lin, in the proportion of two parts fand to one of lac.
This fand is found at Ragjmaul. It is compofed of
fmall angular cryftalline particles tinged red with iron,
two parts to one of black magnetic fand. ' The ftone-
cutters, inflead of fand, ufe the poilvder of a very hard
granite called corune- Thefe grindftones cut very faft.
When they want to increafe their power, they throw
fand upon them, or let them oceafionally touch the
edge of a vitrified brick. The fame compofitipn is
formed upon flicks, for cutting ftones, ftieils, &c. by
the hand.
5. For Painting. Take one gallon of the red li¬
quid from the fir,ft waftring for flrelUac, flrain it thro’
a cloth, and let it boil for a fhort time, then ?dd half
an ounce of foap earth (foftil alkali) ; boil an hour
ptore, and add three ounces of powdered load (bark of
a tree) ; boil a fhort time, let it (land all night, and
flrain next day. Evaporate three quarts of milk with¬
out cream to two quarts upon a flow fire, curdle it
with four milk, apd let it ftand for a day or two; then
mix it with the red liquid above mentioned; flrain
them through a cloth, add to the mixture one ounce
and an half of alum, and the juice of eight or ten le¬
mons: mix the whole and throw it into a cloth-bag
ftrainer. The blood of the infetft forms a coagulum
with the cafeous part of the milk; and jremains in the
bag, while a limpid acid water drains from it. The
cpagulum is dried in the (hade, and is ufed as a red
colour in painting and colouring..
6. For Dyeing. Take ope gallon of the red liquid
prepared as before without milk, to which add three
ounces of alum. Boil three or four ounces of tama¬
rinds in a gallon of water, and (train the liquor. Mix
equal parts of the red liquid apd tamarind water over
a brifk fire. In this mixture dip and wring the lilk
alternately until it has received a proper quantity 0/
the dye. To increafe the colour, increafe the propor¬
tion of the red liquid, and let the filk boil a few mi¬
nutes in the mixture. To make the filk hold the co¬
lour, they boil a handful of the bark called load in wa¬
ter, ftrain the deco&ioq, and add cold water to it ;
dip the dried filk into this liquor feveral times, and
then dry it. Cotton cloths are dyed in this manner-;
but the dye is not fo lafting as in fiik.
The lac colour is preferved by the natives upop
flakes of cotton dipped repeatedly into a ftrong folu-
tion of the lac infe£t in water, and then dried.
Among us lac is alio ufed in various arts; being
employed in the preparation of fpirit-varpifoes, for the
making of fealing-wax, apd as a colouring material-
for Bying fcarlet; fee Varnish, Wax, &c. It is un-
foluble in water ; and difikultiy-foluble in (pint of wipe,
which for that purpofe muft be well dephlegmated.
.According to Neumann, 16 ounces of feed-lac, dif-
tilled in an open fire, yielded nine ounces pnd fig
drams of a butter or thick oil, one ounce fix. drams of
a watery liquor neither acid nor alkaline, and a refi-
.dupm weighing two ounces and a half. The colour
given by lac is lefs beautiful, but more durable, than
that given by cochineal. To render the colouring
matter.pf the lac diffufible in water, fo as to be ap¬
plied to the fluffs to be dyed, Mr Hellot dire&s the
following procefs: Let fpme powdered gum-lac be di-
gefted during two hours in a decodiion of comfry root,
by which a fine crimfon. colour is given to the water,
and the gum is rendered pale or ftraw-coloured. Tp
this tindfure, poured off clear, let a folution of plum
be added ; and when the colouring matter has fub-
fided, let it be feparated from the clear liquor and
dried. It will weigh about 4th of the quantity pf
lac employed. This dried fecuia is to be difiblved or
diffufed in warm water, and fome folution of tin is
to be added to it, by which it acquires ;a vivid fcarlet
colour. This liquor is to be added to a folutipp
of tartar in boiling water ; and thus the dye is prepa¬
red.
The method of obtaining the fine red ]?.c ufed by
painters from this fubftance, is by the following fimple
procefs. Boil the flick-lac in water, filtte the de?
co&ion, and evaporate the clear liquor to a drynefs
over a gentle fire. The cccafion of this eafy repara¬
tion is, that the beautiful red colour here feparated,
adheres only {lightly to the outfides of the flicks brol$e
off the trees along with the gum-lac, and readily com¬
municates itfelf to boiling water. Some of ibis flick¬
ing matter alfo adhering to the gum itfelf, it is prp-
per to boil the whole together; for the gum floes npt
at all prejudice the colour, nor diffolve in boiling-wa¬
ter : fo that after this operation the gum is as fit for
making fealing-wax as before, and for all other ufta
which do not require its colour.
Lac is like wife employed for medicinal purpofee.,
Xhr
LAC [ 496 ] LAC
The ftick-lac is the fort ufed. It is of great efteem cafes proper. The golden coverine-may be in fome parts Xaee,
in Germany, and other countries, for laxity and fpon- worn off; or the bafe metal, with which it had been Lace<i*'
^ginefs of the gums proceeding from cold or a fcor- iniquitoufly alloyed, may be corroded by the air, fo tnon‘
tutic habit: for this ufe the lac is boiled in water, as to leave the particles of the gold difunited ; while 'r“
with the addition of a little alum, which promotes its the filver underneath, tarniflied to a yellow hue, may
•folution ; or a tin&ure is made from it with reftified continue a tolerable colour to the whole : in which
‘fpirit. This tinfture is recommended alfo internally cafes it is apparent, that the removal of the tarnifit
■in the fluor albus, and in rheumatic and fcorbutic dif- would be prejudicial to the colour, and make the lace
•orders: it has a grateful fmell, and not unpleafant, or embroidery lefs like gold than it was before. A
’bitterifh, aftringent tafte. piece of old tarnifhed gold-lace, cleaned by fpirit of
The gum-lac has been lately ufed as an eleftric, in- wine, was deprived, with its tarnifh, of the greateft part
ftead of glafs, for ele&rical machines. See Lacquer, of its golden hue, and looked now almoft like filver-lace.
Lake, and Varnish. _ Method of feparating the Gold and Silver from Lack
Artificial Lacca, ox Laeqne, is alfo a name given to •without burning it. Cut the lace in pieces, and (ha-
a coloured fubflance drawn from feveral flowers; as 'ving feparated the thread from it by which it was few-
•the yellow from the flower of thejuniper, the red from ed to the garment) tie it up in a linen cloth, and boil
the poppy, and the blue'from the iris or violet. The it in foap ley, diluted with water, till you perceive it
'tin&ures of tfeefe .flowers are extrafted by digefting is diminHhed in bulk; which will take up but a little
-them fever&Ltirnes in aqua-vitse, or by boiling them time, unlefs the quantity of lace be very confiderable.
over a ftove fire in a lixivium of pot-afhes and alum. Then take out the cloth, and wafh it feveral times in
An artificial lacca is alfo made of Brafil wood, boil- cold water, fqueezing it pretty hard with your foot,
ed in a lixivium of the branches of the vine, adding a or beating it with a mallet, to clear it of the foap-leyt
•'little cochineal, turmeric, calcined alum, and arfpnic, then untie the cloth, and you will have the metallic
incorporated with the bones of the cuttle-fifh pulve- part of the lace pure, and nowhere altered in colour or
•vized and made up into Httle cakes and dried. If it dimimfhed in weight.
•be to be very red, they add the juice of lemon to it ; This method is abundantly more convenient and
to make it brown, they add oil of tartar. Dove-co- lefs troublefome than the common way of burning;
•loured or columbine lacca is made with Brafil of and as a fmall quantity of the ley will be fufficient, the
Fernambuc, fteeped in diftilled vinegar for the fpace expence will be trifling, efpecially as the fame ley may
of a month, and mixed with alum incorporated in be ufed feveral times, if cleared of the filky calcination,
cuttle-fifh bone. For oiher procefles, fee Colour- It may be done in either an iron or copper veffel.
.Making. The ley may be had at the foap-boilers, or it may
LACE, in commerce, a work compofed of many be made of pearl alh and quick-lime boiled together
threads of gold, filver, or fil'k, interwoven the one with in a fufficient quantity of water.
•the other, and worked upon a pillow with fpindles ac- The reafon of this fudden change in the lace will be
cording to the pattern defigned. The open work is evident to thofe who are acquainted with chemiftry:
•formed with pins, which are placed and difplaced as the for fiik, on -which all our laces are wove, is an animal
fpindles are moved. The importation of gold and filver fubflance, and all animal fubftances are foluble in al-
dace is prohibited. kalies, efpecially when rendered more cauftic by the
Method of Cleaning Gold-Lack and Embroidery when addition of quicklime ; but the linen you tie it in, be-
,iarnijhed.— Yax this purpofe alkaline liquors are by no ing a vegetable, will remain unaltered,
means to be ufed ; for while they clean the gold, they JBlond-LACE, a lace made of fine linen thread or fiik,
corrode the filk, and change or difeharge its colour, much in the fame manner as that of gold and filver.
Soap alfo alters the fhade, and even the fpecies of cer- The pattern of the lace is fixed upon a large round pil-
-tain colours. But fpirit of wine may be ufed without low, and pins being ftuck into the holes or openings
any danger of its injuring either the colour or quality in the patterns, the threads are interwoven by means
of the fubjeft ; and in many cafes proves as effedlual, of a number of bobbins made of bone or ivory, each
for reftdring the luftre of the gold, as the corrofive de- of which contains a fmall quantity of fine thread, in
tergents. A rich brocade, flowered with a variety of fuch a manner as to make the lace exa&ly referable
-colours, after being difagreeably tarnilhed, had the the pattern. Tliere are feveral towns in England, and
luftre of the gold perfedlly reftored by walhing it with particularly in Buckinghamflrire, that carry on thisma-
a foft bruftr dipt in warm fpirit of wine ; and fome nufafture; but vaft quantities of the fineft lace have
of the colours of the fiik, which were likewife foiled, been imported from Flanders.
Became at the fame time remarkably bright and lively. LACEDAEMON (fab. hid.), a fon of Jupiter and
Spirit of wine feems to be the only material adapted Tayget the daughter of Atlas, who married Sparta the
to this intention, and probably the boafted fecret of daughter of Europa, by whom he had Amyclas and
certain artifts is no other than this fpirit difguifed. A- Eurydice the wife of Acrifius. He was the firft who
mong liquids, Dr Lewis fays, he does not know of any introduced the worlhip of the Graces in Laconia, and
other that is of fufficient a&ivity to difeharge the foul who firft. built them a temple. From Lacedxmon and
-matter, without being hurtful to the fiik : as to pow- his wife, the capital of Laconia was called Lacedamon
-ders, however fine, and however cautioufly ufed, they and Sparta.
fcratch and wear the gold, which here is only fuperfi- Lacedaemon, a noble city of Peloponnefus, cal-
.eial and of extreme tenuity.
But tho’ fpirit cf wine is the moft innocent material
•that cap be employed for this .purpofe, it is not in all
2
led alfo Sparta -, thefe names differing in this, that
the latter is the proper and ancient name of the
city, the former of the country, which afterwards
came
Lacedae¬
mon
II
Plates
CCLX. &
CCLXI.
LAC [ 497 ] LAC
came to be applied to the city (Strabo, Stephanus.) were two feet and two inches long; the paws, from Laeerta.
Homer alfo makes this diftin&ion ; who calls the coun- the joint to the extremity of the longed claws, were “Y—“■*
try Ao/y, becaufc encompafled with mountains. It has above nine inches. They were divided into four toes ;
alfo been feverally known by the name of Lelegia, of which three were armed with larjre claws, the long-
from the Leleges the fird inhabitants of the country, or ed of which was an inch and a half, and feven lines and
from Lelex one of their kings ; and Oebalia, from a half broad at the root. The fourth toe was without
Oebalas the fixth king from Eurotas. It was alfo a nail, and of a conical figure ; but was covered with
called Hecatompolis, from too cities which the whole a thick Ikin like fhagreen leather. Thefe toes were
province once contained. This city was the capital of united with membranes like thofe of ducks, but much
Laconia, fituated on the right or welt fide of the Euro- thicker.
tas : it was lefs in compafs than, however equal, or even The fore-legs had the fame parts and conformation
fuperior, to Athens in power. Polybius makes it 48 as the arms of a man, both within and without; but
dadia, a circuit much inferior to that of Athens. Le- they were fomewhat fhorter than thofe behind. The
lex is fuppofed to have been the fird king of La- hands had five fingers, the two lad of which had no
cedsemon. His defcendants, 13 in number, reigned nails, and were of a conical figure, like the fourth toe
fucceffively after him, till the reign of the fans of on the hind paws. The head was long, and had a
Oredes, when the Heraclidae recovered the Pelopon- little rifing at the top ; but the red was flat, and efpe-
nefus about 80 years after the Trojan war. Procles daily towards the extremity of the jaws. It was cover-
and Euryfihenes, the defcendants of the Heraclidas, ed with a fkin, which adhered firmly to the Ikull and
ufurped the crown together ; and after them it was to the jaws. The Ikull was rough and unequal in feve-
decreed that the two families flrould always fit on the ral places; and about the middle of the forehead there
throne together. The monarchial power was abo- were two bony creds, about two inches high. They
lifhed, and the race of the Heraclidce extinguifhed were not quite parallel, but feparated from each other
at Sparta about 219 years before Chrid. Lacedae- in proportion as they mounted upwards,
mon in its flourilhing date remained without walls, The eye was very fmall in proportion to the red of
the bravery of its citizens being indead of them (Ne- the body ; and was fo placed within its orbit, that the
pos). At length in Caflander’s time, or after, when outward part, when fhut, was only a little above an
the city was in the hands of tyrants, didruding the de- inch in length, and run parallel to the opening of the
fence by arms and bravery, a wall was built round it, jaws.
at fird flight, and in a tumultuary, or hady manner ; The nofe was placed in the middle of the upper jaw,
which the tyrant Nabis made very drong (Livy> Ju- near an inch from its extremity, and was perfectly
din). Paufanias afcribes the fird walls to the times of round and flat, being . two inches in diameter, of a
Demetrius and Pyrrhus, under Nabis. The walls of black, foft, fpongy fubdance, not unlike the nofe of a
the city were pulled down t88 years before Chrid by dog. The nodtils were in the form of a Greek capi- ‘
Philopcemen, who was then at the head of the Achaean tal 2 ; and there were two caruncles which filled and
league, and Laconia fome time after became a Roman clofed them very exaftly, and which opened as often
province when reduced by Mummias. See Sparta, as he breathed through the nofe. The jaws feemed to
—The prefent city is called Mifitra, fituated in E. fhut one within another by means of feveral apophyfes.
Long. 23. o. N. Lat. 36. 55. which proceeded from above downwards, and frombe-
LACERNA, a coarfe thick garment worn by the low upwards, there being cavities in the oppofite jaw
Romans over their gowns like a cloak, to keep off the to receive them. They had 27 dog-teeth in the up-
rain and cold. It was fird ufed in the camp, but after- per jaw and 15 in the lower, with feveral void fpaces
wards admitted into the city. The emperors wore the between them. They were thick at the bottom, and
lacerna of a purple dye. The lacerna was at fird very fharp at the point; being all of different fizes, except
fhort, but was lengthened after it became fafhionable, ten large hooked ones, fix of which were in the lower
which was not till the civil wars and the triumvirate ; jaw, and four in the upper. The mouth was 15 inches
before this time it was confined to the foldiers. Sena- in length, and eight and a half in breadth tfhere
tors were forbidden wearing it in the city by Valen- broaded ; and thediflanceof the two jaws, when open-
tinian and Theodofius. Martial makes mention of ed as wide as they could be, was 15 inches and a half,
lacemae worth 10,000 federces. Some confound this The fkull, between the two creds, was proof againd a
garment with the penula ; but it feems rather to have mufket-ball, for it only rendered the part a little white
refembled the chlamys and birrus, that it ftruck againd.
LACERTA, the lizard, in zoology, a genus of The colour of the body was of a dark brown on the
amphibious animals, belonging to the order of reptilia, upper part, and of. a whitifh citron below, with large
the chara&ers of which are thefe : The body is naked, fpots of both colours on the fides. From the flioul-
with four feet, and a tail. There are 49 fpecies : the ders to the extremity of the tail he was covered with
mod remarkable are, large fcales of a fquare form, difpofed. like parallel
1. The crocodylus, or crocodile, has a compreffed girdles, and were 52 in number; but thofe near the
jagged tail, five toes on the fore and four on the tail were not fo thick as the red. In the middle of
hind-feet This is the larged animal of the lizard each girdle there were four protuberances, which be¬
hind. One that was differed at Siam, an account of came higher as they approached'rhe end of the tail,
which was feat to the Royal Academy at Paris, was and compofed four rows; of which the two in the
18 feet and a half long, of which the tail was no lefs middle were lower than the remaiuing two, forming
than five feet and a half, and the head and neck above three channels, which grew deeper the nearer they
two and a half. He was four feet and nine inches in came to the tail, and were confounded with each other
circumference where thicked. - about two feet from.its extremity.
The hinder legs, including the thigh and the paw, The fltin was defended with a fort of armour
Vox., IX. Part II. 3R which
LAC C 498 ] LAC
Laeerta. which, however, was not proof again(l a muflcet-ball,
1 ^ contrary to what has been commonly faid. How¬
ever, it muft be acknowledged, that the attitude in
which it was placed might contribute not a little there¬
to ; for probably, if the ball had flruck obliquely a-
gainft the (hell, it would have flown off. Thofe parts
of the girdles underneath the belly were of a whitifli
• colour, and were made up of fcales of divers fhapes.
They were about one fixth of an inch in thicknefs,
and were not fo hard as ihofe on the back.
This creature is, however, faid to grow to a ftill
larger fize than that above mentioned, fome having
been known to meafure 25 feet in length. They
have no tongue; but in place of that organ there is a
fort' of toerobrane attached by its edges to the two
fides of the under jaw.
The crocodile lays eggs, which fire covers over with
fand, and leaves to be hatched by the heat of the fun.
They are to be- met with in the rivers Nile, Niger, and
Ganges, befides molt other large rivers in the fouthern
parts of Afia, Africa, and America.
Mr Haflelquitt informs us, that the crocodile fwal-
lows flones to aflitl digellion, after the manner of feed¬
eating birds, which commit to the ftortiach the work
of mailicatioh as well as cOricoftion, being deftitute
of the inftruments adapted to that purpofe. The
Egyptians fay, that his excrements do hot pafs by the
anus: this feems to be confirmed by the flhr&ufe of
the gut, which is near the pylorus; for it cannot eafily
be conceived that excrements fhouid pafs through fuch
a narrow paffagC, feemingly deftined for the convey¬
ance of the chyle only ; but the ftrudture of the parts,
and the gut being fo near the pylorus, feem to indicate
that the excrements pafs through it into the ventricle,
and are vomited up. The inhabitants above Cairo fay
they fee this daily ; and obferve, that the croebdile is
obliged to come oh fhore as often as he has occaflort
to eafe himfelf. There is a folliculus, of the bigneft of
a hazel-nut, under the fhoulders of the old crocodiles,
which contains a thick matter fmelling like mufk. The
Egyptians are very anxious to get this when they kill
a crocodile, it being a perfume much efteemed by the
grandees. When the male copulates with the female,
he turns her with his fnout on her back. The Egyp¬
tians ufe the fat againft the rheumatifm and ftiffnefs of
the tendons, efteeming it a powerful remedy outward¬
ly applied. They fay the gall is good for the eges 5
they make ufe of it as a certain remedy for bar-
rennefs in women, taking about fix grains internally,
and outwardly they apply a peffus made of cotton and
the gall of a crocodile. The eyes of the crocodile are
the beft aphrodifiacs of any known by the Arabs; who
prefer them to all confeftions, dea-fatyrii, hyacinthi,
&c. and even to ambergris.
The crocodile is a very dangerous and terrible ani¬
mal in fome countries. It does a great deal of mif-
chief among the common people of Upper Egypt, of¬
ten killing and devouring women who come to the
river to fetch water, and children playing on the fhore
or fwimming in the river. In the flomach of one dif¬
fered before Mr Barton the Englifli conful, they
found the bones of the legs and arms of a woman,
v/ith the rings which they wear in Egypt as ornaments.
Thefe animals are feen in fome places lying for whole
hours, and even days, ftretched in the fun and mo-
tionlefs; fo that one not ufed to them might mitlake
them for trunks of trees covered with a rough and dry Tacerta.
bark : but the miftake would foon be fatal; for the  V“"
feemingly torpid animal, at the near approach of any
living creature, inftantly darts upon it, and carries it
to the bottom. In the times of an inundation they
fomeiimes enter the cottages of the natives, where they
feize the hrfi. animal they meet with. There have been
feveral examples of their taking a man out of a canoe
in the fight of his companions, without their being
able to lend him any affiftance. The crocodile, how¬
ever, except when preffed with hunger, or with a view
of depofiting its eggs, fddom leaves the water. Its
ufual method is to float along upon the furface, and
feize whatever animals come within its reach ; but
when this method fails, it then goes fclofer to the
bank. There it waits in patient eXpeftation of fome
land animal that comes to drink ; the dog, the bull,
the tiger, or man himfelf. Nothing is to be feen as
the animal approaches, nor is its retreat difeovered
till it is too late for fafety. It feizes the Vi&im with
a fpring, and goes at a bound much falter than fuch
an unwieldy animal could be fuppofed to do ; then ha¬
ving fecured the creature both with teeth and claws, it
drags it into the water, infiantly finks with it to the
bottom, and in this manner quickly drowns it. Some¬
times it happens, that the creature wounded by the
crocodile makes its efcape; in which cafe, the latter
puff ties with great celerity, and often takes it a fecond
time. In thefe depredations, however, this terrible
animal often feizes on another as formidable as itfelf,
and meets with a defperate refiftance. We are told
of frequent combats between the crocodile and the
tiger. All creatures of the tiger kind are continual¬
ly oppreffed by a parching thiril, that keeps them in .
the vicinity of great rivers, whither they defeend to
drink very frequently. On thefe occafions they are
feized by the cfocodile; upon whom they inftantly
turn with the greateft agility, arid force their claws in¬
to his eyes, while he plunges with his fierce antago-
nift into the river. There they continue to ftruggle
for fome time, till at laft the tiger is drowned. Not-
withftanding all this, however, we are aflured by La-
bat, that a negro, with no other weapon than a knife
in his right hand, and his left arm wrapped round
with a cow-hide, ventures boldly to attack. this ani¬
mal in its own element. As foon as he approaches
the crocodile, he prefents his left arm, which the ani¬
mal fwallows moft greedily: but as it flicks in his
throat, the negro has time to give it feveral ftabs be¬
low the chin, where it is eafily vulnerable; and the wa¬
ter alfo getting in at the mouth, which is held involun¬
tarily open, the creature is foon bloated up as big as a
tun, and expires.
The natives of Siam feem particularly fond of the
capture of all the great animals with which their coun¬
try abounds. The crocodiles are taken by throwing
three or four ftrong nets acrofs a river, at proper di-
ftances from each other; fo that if the animal breaks
through the firft, it may be caught by one of the reft.
When it is firft taken, it employs the tail, which is the
grand instrument of ftrength, with great force ; but af¬
ter many unfuccefsful ftruggles, the animal’s ftrength
is at. laft exhaufted. Then the natives approach their
prifoner in boats, and pierce him in the moft tender
parts till he is weakened by lofs of blood. When he
has done ftirring, they begin by tying up his mouth.
LAC [ 499 ] LAC
Lacerta, ppd with the fame cord tie his head to his tail, which
“"V"* Jail they bend back like a bow. However, they are
not yet perfectly fecure from his fury; but for their
greater fafety they tie his fore feet, as well as thofe
behind, to the top of his back. Thefe precautions are
not ufelefs ; for if they were to omit them, the croco¬
dile would foon recover ftrength enough to do a great
deal of mifchief. When thus brought into fubjefti n,
or when taken young and tamed, this formidable ani¬
mal is ufe’d to divert and entertain the great men of
the eaft. It is often managed like an horfe ; a curb is
put into its mouth, and the rider diredtsdt as he thinks 1
proper. Though aukwardly formed, it does not fail
to p 'f need with fome degree of fwiftnefs; and is
thought to move as fall as fome of the moil unwieldy
of our own animals, the hog or the cow. Some in¬
deed afiert, that no animal could efcape it but for its
flownefs in turning; which, however, feems very im¬
probable, as its back bone is full of articulations, and
feemingly as flexible as that of other large animals.
AH crocodiles breed near frefh waters ; and though
they are fometimes found in the fea, yet that may be
confidered rather as a place of excuriion than abode.
They produce their young by eggs, as was faid above ;
and for this purpofe, the female, when (he comes to lay,
choofes a place by the fide of a river, or fome frelh-
water lake, to depofit her brood in. She always
pitches upon an extenfive fandy fhore, where fhe may
dig a hole without danger of dete&ion from the ground
being frefh turned up. The fhore mufl: alfo be gentle
and ihelving to the water, for the greater convenience
of the animal’s going and returning ; and a convenient
place muft be found near the edge of the ftream, that
the young may have a fhorter way to go. When all
thefe requifites are adjufted, the animal is feen cau-
tioufiy Healing up on fhore to depofit her burden. The
prefence of a mam a beaft, or even a bird, is fufficient
to deter her at that time; and if fhe peikeives any
creature looking on, fhe infallibly returns. If, how¬
ever, nothing appears, (lie then goes to work, fcratch-
ing up the land with her fore-paws, and making a
hole pretty deep in the fhore. There fhe depofits from
So to too eggs, of the fize of a tennis-ball, and of
the fame figure, covered with a tough white flcin like
parchment. She takes above an hour to perform this
talk ; and then covering up the place fo artfully that
it can fcarceiy be petceived, file goes back to return
again the next day. Upon her return with the fame
precaution as before, fire lays about the fame number
of eggs ; and the day following alfo a like number.
Thus having depofited her whole quantity, and having
covered them clofe up in the land, they are foon vivi¬
fied by the heat of the fun ; and at the end of 30 days
the young ones begin to break open the (hell.. At this
time the female is inftin&ivdy taught that her young
ones want relief; and fhe goes upon land to fcratch
away the fand and fet them free. Her brood quickly
avail theinfelves of their liberty ; a part run unguided
to the water ; another part afcend the back of the fe¬
male, and are carried thither in greater fafety. But
the moment they arrive at the water, ail natural con¬
nection is at an end; when the female has introduced
her young to their natural element, nor only fhe, but
the male, become amongft the number of "their moft
formidable enemies, and devour as many of them as
they can. The whole brood fcatters into different parts
at the bottom; by far the greateft number are de- Lacerta.
ftroyed, and the reft find fafety in their agility or mi- —■’“W**
nu’enefs.
But it is not the parent alone that is thus found to
thin their numbers ; the eggs of this animal are not
only a delicious feaft to the favage, but are eagerly
fought after by every beaft and bird of prey. The
ichneumon was erefted into a deity among the ancients
for its fuccefs in deftroying the eggs of thefe mon-
fters: at prefent that fpecies of the vulture called the
gallinazo is their moft prevailing enemy. All along
the banks of great rivers, for thoufands of miles, the
1 crocodile is feen to propagate in numbers that would
foon over-run the earth, but for the vulture, that
feems appointed by Providence to abridge its fecunditv.
Thefe birds are ever found in great numbers where the
crocodile ig moft numerous ; and hiding themfelves
within the thick branches of the trees that (hade the
banks of the, rivet, they watch the female in filence,
and permit her to lay all her eggs without interruption.
Then when fhe hag retired, they encourage each other
with cries to the fpoil; and flocking all together up¬
on the hidden treafure, tear up the eggs, and devour
them in a much fhorter time than they were depofited.
Nor are they lefs diligent in attending the female while
fhe is carrying her young to the water ; for if any one
of them happens to drop by the way, it is fure to re¬
ceive no mercy.
Such is the extraordinary account given us by late
travellers of the propagation of this animal; an ac¬
count adopted by Linnteus and the moft learned natu-
ralifts of the age. Yet if one might argue from the
general analogy of nature, the crocodile’s devouring
her own young when flie gets to the water feems
doubtful. This may be a ftory raifed from the general
idea of this animal’s rapacious cruelty; when in faft
the crocodile only feems more cruel than other animals,
becaufe it has more power to do mifchief. It is pro¬
bable that it is not more diverted of parental tender-
nefs than other creatures; and we are the more led to
think fq, from the peculiar, formation of one of the
crocodile kind, called,
2. The open-bellied crocodile ; which Is furnifhed
with a falfe belly like the,.op(>flu!n, where the young
creep out and in as their dangers or neceffitics re¬
quire. The crocodile, thus furnifhed at leaft, can¬
not be faid to be an enemy to her own young, fince
fhe thus gives them more than parental prdteftion. It
is probable alfo that this open bellied crocodile is vivi¬
parous, and forters her young that are prematurely
excluded in this fecond womb until they come to pro¬
per maturity.
This crocodile is a fpecies that was not deferi-
bed by Linnaeus; but has been inferted in the Sy-
Jlema Naluree fince his death, under the name of
Lacerta gangetica. Mr Edwards tells us, that three
of thefe creatures were fent from Bengal about the
year 1747, to the late Dr Mead phyfician in ordi¬
nary to the king. Two of them the Doctor prefer-
ved in his collection, and prefented the third to the
late curious Mrs Kennon; and fince the deceafe of
thefe worthy perfons, they became the property of Mr
James Lemon of London, who obliged our author
with one of them to produce to the royal fociety.
The narrownefs of the beak is the moft extraordinary
circumftance in this crocodile, which appears like
3 R * the
LAC [ 500 ] L A C
X,»«em. the bill of the bird called goofeaudcr. It has (mail 4. The Cayman, 01; Antilles crocodile, which has by Laeerta.
{harp teeth. Another peculiarity is a paunch or open different authors been confounded with the two pre-  x 1
puri'e in the middle of the under fide of the belly, ceding fpecies, is evidently different from both ; and
which feems to be naturally formed with round hips, has accordingly been properly diftinguifhcd by the
and hollow within, to receive its young in time of dan- Abbe Bonnacerre in the Encyclopedic Methodrque jy'oyez Ef
ger, as it appears in the American animal called opof- See our figure, where the differences are fo apparent,
fum. Dr Parfons gave it as his opinion, that the as to require no detail.—The greateft ftrength of this ansladi- -
opening in the belly was really natural, it having no animal, according to M. Merian, confifts in its teeth
appearance of being cut or torn open. In other re- of which there are two rows crofiing one another, by Natiuelle
fpe&s it hath all the marks common to alligators or means of which it grinds with the greateft eafe what-p. 35.
crocodiles. The beak was finely creafed tranfverfely. ever it feizes upon. But it muft not be underftood
The animal appeared in the fpirits all over of a yel- from this that there is a double row of teeth,, as Se-
lowilh olive colour, the under fide lighter than the up- ba pretends, on each fide of the under jaw: but on-
per, the latter having fome dufky marks and fpots. ly that there are two rows on each juw, one .-»>i the
This fpecies inhabits the banks of the Ganges; and right and the other on the left fide.—The Cayman is fo
it is very ftrange that they (hould never have beeri de- called from fome fmall ifies of that name among the
fevibed before, as our India company have been fo Antilles, where thefe creatures are faid to be very nu-
long fettled' there, and the animal is at full growth merous. They are of exceeding ftrength, and equally
nearly, if not altogether, as large as the common cro- the dread both of men and animals ; for they live on
codile. land as well as in the water, and devour every creature
How long the crocodile lives we are not certainly in- they meet with.—Another figure is added, reprefent-
formed: if we may believe Ariftbtle, it lives the age ing an egg with the young one at the time of break-
of a man ; but the ancients fo much amufed themfelves ing the fhell. See the Plates.
in inventing fables concerning this animal, that even 5. The caudiverbera, has a depreffed pinnatifid tail,
truth from them is fufpicious. What we know for and palmated feet. It is larger than the common
certain from the ancients is, that among the various green lizard, is found in Peru, an:’, has got its name
animals that were produced to fight in the amphitheatre from its beating the ground with its tail,
at Rome, the combat of the crocodile was not want- 6. The fttllio has a verticillated tail, and dentated
ing. Marcus Scaurus produced them living in his un- feales. It is a native of Africa, and the warm parts
rivalled exhibitions; and the Romans confidered him of Afia. It frequents the ruinous walls of Natolia,
as the beft citizen, becaufe he furniihed them with the Syria, and Paleftine. The Arabs call it hardun. The
moft expenfive entertainments. Turks kill it; for they imagine, that, by declining
3. The alligator, or American crocodile, has a vaft the head, it mimics them while they fay their prayers,
mouth, furnifiied with fharp teeth; from the back to 7. The agilis, has a pretty long vertieiilated tail,
the end of the tail, ferrated ; flein tough and brown, with (harp feales, and a fcaly collar. This is the com-
and covered on the fides with tubercles. This dread- mon green lizard, and is a native both of Europe and
ful fpecies, which grows to the length of 17 or 18 feet, India. This fpecies is extremely nimble : in hot wea¬
ls found in the warmer parts of North America; and -ther it bafles on the fides of dry banks or old trees ;
moil; numerous as we approach the fouth, and the but, on being obferved, immediately retreats to its
more fierce and ravenous. Yet in Carolina it never de- hole. The food of this fpecies, as well as of all the
vours the human fpecies, but on the contrary (buns other Britifh lizards, is infects; and they themfelves
mankind; it will, however, kill dogs as they fwim are devoured by birds of prey. They are all perfe<5t-
the rivers, and hogs which feed in the fwamps. It is ly hatmlefs; yet their fi rm (trikes one with difguft,
often feen floating like a log of wood on the furface and has occafioned great obfeurity in their hi dory,
of the water, and is miftaken for fuch by dogs and Mr Pennant mentions a lizard killed in Worcellerfhire
other animals, which it feizes and draws under water in the year 1714. which was two feet fix inches long,
to devour at its leifure. Like the wolf, when preffed and four inches in girth. The fore-legs were placed
by long hunger, it will fwallow mud, and even Hones eight inches from the head; the hind-legs five-inches
and pieces of wood. They often get into the wears beyond thofe: the legs were two inches long; the feet
in purfuit of filh, and do much mifehief by breaking divided into four toes, each furniflied with a fharp
them to pieces. They are torpid during the winter in claw. Another of the fame kind was afterwards kill-
Carolina ; and retire into their dens, which they form ed in that county ; but whether thefe large lizards
by burrowing far under ground. It makes the en- were natives of other countries and imported into
trance junder water, and works upwards. In fpring it England, or whether they were of Britifh growth, is
quits its retreaf, and reforts to the rivers, which it uncertain.
fwitns up and down; and chiefly feeks its prey near 8. The chamseleon has a crooked cylindrical tail,
the mouth, where the water is brackifh.—It roars and The head of a large chamaeleon is almofl: two inches
makes a dreadful noife at its firft leaving its den, and long, and from thence to the beginning of the tail it
againft bad weather. It lays a vaft. number of eggs is four inches and-a half. The tail is five inches long,
in the fand, near the banks of lakes and rivers, and and the feet two and a half. The thicknefs of the
Laves them to be hatched by the fun : multitudes are body is different at different feafons; for fometimes
deftroyed as foon as hatched either by their own fpe- from the back to the belly it is two inches, and fome-
u’es or by fifh of prey. In South America the car- times but one ; for he can blow himfelf up and con-
i ,"n vulture is the inftrument of Providence to deftroy traft himfelf at pleafure. This fwelling and contrac-
multitudes; by that means preventing the country tion is not only of the back and belly, but alfo of the
from being rendered uninhabitable. legs and tail.
i
TJtefe
LAClMtTA.
Plate CCLX.
sm
LAC [ 501 1 LAC
Thefe different motions are not like thofe of other
animals, which proceed from a dilatation of the breaft
in breathing, and which rifes and falls fucceffively;
but they are very irregular, as in tortoifes and frogs.
The chamseleon has continued as it were blown up
for two hours together, and then he would grow lefs
and lefs infenfibly ; for the dilatation was always more
quick and vifible than the contra&u n. In this laft.
ftate he appeared extremely lean, and the fpine of the
back was fharp, and all his ribs might be tftld ; like-
wife the tendons of the arms and legs might be fe£n
very diftinftly.
The fkin ■ is very cold to the touch ; and notwith-
ftanding he feems fo lean, there is no feeling the beat¬
ing of the heart. The 'fur face of the fie in is unequal,
and has a grain not unlike fhagreen, but very foft. be
caufe each eminence is as fmooth as if it was polifh-
ed. Some of thefe are as large as a middling pin’s
head on the arms, legs, belly, and tail ; but on the
fhoulders and head they are of an oval figure, and a
little larger. Thofe under the throat are ranged in
the form of a chaplet, from the lower lip to the brtafl.
Some on tl>e head and back are amaffed together in
clutters, with fpaces between them, on which arc al-
moft imperceptible'fpots of a pale red and yellow co¬
lour, £^s well as the ground of the fkin itfelf, which
plainly appears between thefe clutters. This ground
changes colour when the animal is dead, becoming of
a greyifh brown, and the fmall fpots are whitifh.
The colour of all ihofe emiBences, when the cha¬
mseleon is at reft in a fhady place, is of a bluifti
grey, except on the claws, where it is white with a
little yellow ; and the fpaces between the clutters is
of a pale red and yellow, as was before bbferved. But
when he is in the fun, all part^ of the body which are
affected with the light become of a greyifh brown, or
rather of a tawney. That part of the fkin which the
fun does not fhine on, changes into feveral brighter
colouis, which form fpots of the fize of half one’s fin¬
ger. Some of thefe defcend from the fpine half way
on the back; and others appear on the fides, arms,
and tail. They are all of an Ifabella colour, from a
mixture of a pale yellow and of a bright red, which
is the colour of the ground of the fkin.
The head of a chamseleon is not unlike that of a
fifh, it being joined to the breaft by a very fhort neck,
covered on each fide with cartilaginous membranes re-
fembling the gills of fifties. There is a crett direftly
on the top of the bead, and two others on each fide
above the eyes, and between thefe there are two ca¬
vities near the top of the head. The muzzle is blunt,
and not much unlike that of a frog ; at the end there
is a hole on each fide for the noftrils; but there are
no ears, nor any fign of any.
The jaws are furnifhed with teeth, or rather with
a bone in the form of teeth, which he makes little or
no ufe of, becaufe he lives upon fwallowing flies and
other infe&s without chewing them ; and hence
arofe the vulgar notion of his living upon air, becaufe
he was never feen to eat. The tongue, which Lin¬
naeus fays refembles an earthworm, is of confiderabie
length, and is enlarged and foraewhat flattened at the
end. From this member there continually oozea out
a very glutinous liquor, by means of which it catches
fuch infe&s as come within its reach, and it is furpri-
frog to fee with what quicknefs it retra&s its tongue
the inilant it has arrefted any prey* The form, flruc-
ture, and motion of the eyes, have fomething very
particular; for they are very large, being almoft half
an inch in diameter They are of a globous figure ;
which may be eafily feen, becaufe they ftand out of
the head. They have a Angle eye lid like a cap, with
a fmall hole in the middle, through which the fight
of the eye appears, no bigger than a pin’s head, and
of a fliining brown, encircled by a little ring of a gold
colour. This eye-lid has a grain like filagreen, as,
well as the other parts of the fkin ; and when the reft
of the body changes colour, and affumes fpots of dif¬
ferent fhapes, thofe on the lid always keep the fame
form, though they are tinftured with the fame colour
as the fkin. But the moft extraordinary thing relating
to the eyes is, that this animal often moves one when
the other is entirely at reft; nay, fometimes one eye
will feem to look dire£fly forward and the other back¬
ward, and one will look up to the Iky when the other
regards the earth.
That part of the body which is called the trunk,
and comprehends the thorax and the belly in a cha-
maeleon, is almoft all thorax, with little or no belly.
The four feet are all of a length ; and the only dif¬
ference between them is, that thofe before are turned
backwards, and thofe behind forwards. There are
five toes pn each paw, which have a greater refem-
blance to hands than feet. They ate all divided into
two, which gives the appearance of two hands to each
arm, and two feet to each leg ; and though one of
thefe parts have three toes, and the other but two, yet
they feem to be all of the fame fize. Thefe toes lie
together under the fame fldn as in a mitten; however,
their fhape might be feen through the fkin. With
thefe paws the chamseleon can lay hold of the fmall
branches of trees in the fame manner as a parrot.
When he is about to perch, he parts his toes different¬
ly from birds, becaufe he puts two behind and two
before. The claws are little, crooked, very fharp, and
of a pale yellow, proceeding but half way out of the
fkin, while the other half is hid beneath it. His walk
is flower than that of a tortoife, and he feems to move
along with an affeCfation of gravity. He feems to
feek for a proper place to fet his feet upon; and when
he climbs up trees, he does not truft to his feet like
fquirrels, but endeavours to find out clefts in the bark,
that he may get a furer hold.
His tail is like that of a viper when it is puffed up
and round ; for otherwife the bones may be feen in-
the fame manner as on the back tie always w’raps
his tail round the branches of trees, and it ferves him
as it were inftead of a fifth hand. He is a native of
Africa and Alia. Mr Haffclquift is of opinion, that
the change of colour in the chamseleon is owing to its-
being exceedingly fufcjeft to the jaundice, which par¬
ticularly happens either when it is expofed to the fun
or when it is made angry. The mixture of the bile
with its blood is then very perceptible, and, as the
fkin is tranfparent, makes it fpotted with , green and
yellow. He never faw it coloured with red, blue, or
purple; and does not believe that ever it affumes thefe
colours.
9. The gecko, has a cylindrical tail, concave ears,.
and a warty body. It is the Indian falamander of
Bontius. “ This animal is very frequent in Cairo
(fays Haffelquift), both in the houfes and without,
them. The poifon of this animal is-very fingular, as
it exhales from the _lobuli of the toes. The animal
fetks
LAC [ 502 ] LAC
feeks all places and things impregnated with fea-falt,
" and, palling over them feveral times, leaves this very-
noxious poifon behind it. In July 1750, 1 faw
two women and a girl in Cairo at the point of death,
from eating cheefe new falted, bought in the mar¬
ket, and on which this animal had dropt its poi¬
fon. Once at Cairo, I had an opportunity of ob-
ferving how acrid the exhalations of the toes of this
animal are, as it ran over the hand of a man who en¬
deavoured to catch it; there immediately rofe little
puftules over all thofe parts the animal had touched ;
thefe were red, inflamed, and fmarted a little, greatly
refembling thofe occafioned by the flinging of nettles.
It emits an odd found, efpecially in the night, from
its throat, not unlike that of a frog.”
10. The feint us has a cylindrical tail compreffed at
the point, and blunt marginated toes. This animal is
foundjn Arabia Petrasa near the Red Sea, and in Up¬
per Egypt near the Nile. It is much ufed by the in¬
habitants of the eafl as an aphrodiliac, but not at
this time by the Europeans. The flefli of the ani nal
is given in powder, with fome {Emulating vehicle ;
broth made of the recent flefh is likewife ufed by the
Arabs. It is brought from Upper Egypt and Ara¬
bia to Alexandria, whence it is carried to Venice and
Marfeilles, and from thence to all the apothecaries
ftiops of Europe.
11. The nilotica has a long tail with a triangular
edge, and four lines of feales on the back. It is met
with in the moifl places of Egypt near the Nile. The
Egyptians fay that this lizard proceeds from the eggs
of the crocodile laid in the fand, but that the croco¬
dile proceeds from thofe laid in the water. Mr Haf-
felquifl hathdete&ed the fallacy of this account.
12. The paluftris has a lanceolated tail, and four
toes on the fore-feet, and inhabits the ftagnating waters
of Europe. It has a flow and crawling/ pace. Mr Pen¬
nant mentions his having more than once fourid, under
Hones and old logs, fome very minute lizards that had
much the appearance of this kind: they were perfedtly
formed, and had not the leaft veftiges of fins; which
circumftance, joined to their being found in a dry
place remote from water, feems to indicate, that they
had never been inhabitants of that element, as it is
-certain many of our lizards are in their firfl flate. At
that period they have a fin above and below their tail;
that on the upper part extends along the back as far
as the head ; but both drop off as foon as the animal
takes to the land, being then no longer of any ufe.
Mr Ellis has remarked certain pennated fins at the gills
of one very common in moll of our flagnating waters,
and which is frequently obfei ved to take a bait like a
fifh.
13. The falamandra, or falamander, has a Ihort cy¬
lindrical tail, four toes on the fore-feet, and a naked
porous body. This animal has been faid, even in the
Philofophical Tranfadlions, to live in the fire ; but
this is found to be a miftake. It is found in the
fouthern countries of Europe. The following ac¬
count of this fpecies is extracted from the Count de
la Cepede’s Natural Hiftory of Serpents. V/hilft the
hardeff bodies cannot refitt the violence of fire, the
world have endeavoured to make us believe that a
fmall lizard can not only withfland the flames, but
even extinguilh them. As agreeable fables readi¬
ly gain belief, every one has been eager ta adopt Lacerta.v
that of a fmall animal fo highly privileged, fo fnpe-1 v—
rior to the moft powerful agent in nature, and which
could furnilh fo many objefts of comparifon to poe¬
try, fo many pretty emblems to love, and fo many
brilliant devices to valour. The ancients believed this
property of the falamander, wifning that its origin
might be as furpriling as its power : and being defi-
rous of realizing the ingenious fi&ions of the poets,
they have pretended that it owes its exiftence to the
pureft of elements, which cannot confume it; and they
have called it the daughter of fire, piving it however
a body of ice. The moderns have followed the ridicu¬
lous tales of the ancients; and as it is difficult to flop
when one has paffed the bounds of probability, fome
have gone fo far as to think that the moft violent fire
could be exUnguilhed by the land falamander. Quacks
fold this fmall lizard, affirming, that when thrown in¬
to the greateft conflagration, it would check its pro-
grefs. It was very neceffary that philofophers and na-
turalifts Ihould take the trouble to prove by fails
what realon alone might have demonftrated ; and it
was not till after the light of fcience was diffufed a-
broad, that the world gave over believing in this won¬
derful property of the falamander. This lizard, which
is found in fo many countries of the ancient world, and
even in very high latitudes, has been however very
little noticed, becaufe it is feldom feen out of its hole,
and becaufe for a long time it has infpired much ter¬
ror. Even Ariftotle fpeaks of it as of an animal with
which he was fcarcely acquainted.
One of the largeft of this fpecies, preferred in the
French king’s cabinet; is feven inches five lines in
length, from the end of the muzzle to the root of the
tail, which is three inches eight lines. The ikin does
not appear to be covered with feales, but it is furnifh-
ei with a number of excrefcences like teats, contain¬
ing a great many holes, ftveral of which may be very *-
plainly diftinguifhed by the naked eye, and through
which a kind of milk oozes, that generally fpreads it-
felf in fuch a manner as to form a tranfparent coat of
varnifn above the Ikin of this oviparous quadruped, na¬
turally dry.
The eyes of the falamander are placed in the upper
part of the head, which is a little flatted ; their orbit
projects into the interior part of the palate, and is
there almoit furrounded by a row of very fmall teeth,
like thofe in the jawbones: thefe teeth eftablilh a
near relation between lizards and fifties; many fpecies
of which have alfo fevetal teeth placed in the bottom
of the mouth. The colour of this lizard is very dark :
upon the belly it has a bluilh call, intermixed with
pretty large irregular yellow fpots, which extend over
the whole body, and even to the feet and eye-lids;
fome of thefe fpots are befprinkled with fmall black
fpecks ; and thofe which are upon the hack often touch
without interruption, and form two long yellow bands.
The colour muft, however, be fubj.-Cl to vary ; and
it appears that fome falamanders are found in the ^
marftiy forefts of Germany, which are quite black
above and yellow below. To this variety we muft 4
refer the black falamander, found by Mr Eaurenti in
the Alps, which he confidered as a diftindt fpecies.
The falamander has no ribs ; neither have frogs,
to which it has a great refemblance in the general form
of
LAC [ 503 ] LAC
Lacerts. of the anterior part of its body. When touched, it advances without turning afide ; however, as no ani- Lacerta.
—' fuddenly covers itfelf with that kind of coat of which mal is deprived of that fentiment neceflary for its pre- '-—v—
we have fpoken, and it can aifo very rapidly change its fervation, it fuddenly compreffes its ikin, as is faid,
fkin from a ftate of humidity to a ftate of drynefs. when tormented, and fpurts forth upon thofe who at-
The milk which iffues from the fmall holes in its fur- tack it that corrofive milk which is under it. If beat,
face is very acrid; when put upon the tongue one it begins to raife its tail: afterwards it becomes mo-
feels as it were a kind of fear at the part which it tionlefs, as if ftunned by a kind of paralytic ftroke ; for
touched. This milk, which is confidered as an ex- we muft not, with fome naturalifts* aferibe to an ani-
cellent fubftance for taking off hair, has fome refem- mal fo devoid of inftinft, fo much art and cunning as
blance to that which diltils from thofe plants called to counterfeit death. It fhort, it is difficult to kill it;
efula and euphorbium. When the falamander is ernfh- but when dipped in vinegar, or furrounded with fait
ed, or when it is only preffed, it exhales a bad fmell, reduced to powder, it expires in convulfions, as is the
which is peculiar to it. cafe with feveral other lizards and worms.
Salamanders are fond of cold damp places, thick It feems one cannot allow a being a chimerical qua-
fhades, tufted woods, or high mountains, and the lity, without refufing it at the fame time a real pro¬
banks of ftreams that run through meadows : they perty. The cold falamander has been confidered as au
fometimes retire in great numbers to hollow trees, animal endued with the miraculous power of relifting,
hedges, and below old rotten flumps; and they pafs and even of extinguifhing, fire; but at the fame time,
the winter in places of high latitude, in a kind of bur- ic has been debafed as much as elevated by this fingu-
rows, where they are found colle&ed, feveral of them lar property. It has been made the moft. fatal of ani-
being joined and twifted together. The falarhandtr mals: the ancients, and even Pliny, have devoted it
being deftitute of claws, having only four toes on each to a kind of anathema, by affirming that its poifon is
of the fore feet, and no advantage of conformation the moft dangerous of all. They have written, that
making up its deficiencies, its manner of living muft, infefting with its poifon almofl all the vegetables of a
as is indeed the cafe, be very different from that of large country, it might caufe the dellruition of whole
other lizards. It walks very flowly ; far from being nations. The moderns aifo for a long time believed the
able to climb trees with rapidity, it often appears to falamander to be very poifonous; they have fatd, that
drag itfelf with great difficulty along the furface of the its bite is mortal, like that of the viper ; they have
earth. It ftldom goes far from the place of fhelter fought out and preferibed remedies for it; but they have
which it has fixed on ; it paffes its life under the earth, at length had recourfe to obfervations, by which they
often at the bottom of old walls during fummer ; it ought to have begun. The famous Bacon wifhed natura-
drtads the heat of the fun, which would dry it; and liftswouldendeavotirto afeertain the truthrefpedting the
it is commonly only when rain is about to fall that it poifon of the falamander- Gefner proved by experi-
comes forth from its fecret afylum, as if by a kind of ments that it did not bite, whatever means were ufed to
meceffity, to bathe itfelf, and to imbibe an element to irritate it; and Wurfbainus (bowed that it might fafe-
which it is analogous. Perhaps it finds then with ly be touched, and that one might without danger
greateft facility thofe infetts upon which it feeds. It drink the water of thofe wells which it inhabited. M.
lives upon flies,beetles,fnails,and earth-worms; when it de Maupertuis ftudied aifo the nature of this lizard,
repofes, it rolls up its body in feveral folds like ferpents. In making refearches to difeover what might be its
It can remain fome time in the water without danger, pretended poifon, he demonftrated experimentally,
and it calls a very thin pellicle of a greeniffi grey co- that fire a£ted upon the falamander in the fame man-
lour. Salamanders have even been kept more than fix ner as upon all other animals. He remarked, that it
months in the water of a well without giving them was fcarcely upon the fire, when it appeared to be ca-
any food ; care only was taken to change the water vered with the drops of its milk, which rarified by the
often. heat, iffued through all the pores of the (kin, but in
It has been remarked, that every time a falaman- greater quantity from the head and dugs, and that it
der is plunged into the water, it attempts to raife immediately became hard. It is needlefs to fay, that
its noftrils above the furface as if to feek for air, which this milk is not fufficiently abundant to extinguiffi
is a new proof of the need that all oviparous quadru- even the fmalleft fire. M. de Maupertuis, in the
peds have to breathe during the time they are not coiirfe of his experiments, in vain irritated feveral
in a (late of torpor. The falamander has apparent- falamanders: none of them ever opened their mouths;
ly no ears,‘and in this it refembles ferpents. It has he was obliged to open them by force. As the
even been pretended that it does not hear, and on this teeth of this lizard ar e very fmall, it was very dif-
account it has got the name ofyoarJ in fome provinces ficult to find an animal with a (kin fufficiently fine
of France. This is very probable, as it has never been to be penetrated by them : he tried without fuc-
heavd to utter any cry, and filence in general is coupled cefs to force them into the flefli of a chicken dripped
with deafnefs. of its feathers ; he in vain prefled them againft the
Having then perhaps one fenfe lefs than other ani- Hein : they were difplaced, but they could not enter,
mals, and being deprived of the faculty of communi- He however made a falamander bite the thigh of a
eating its fenfations to thofe of the fame fpecies, even chicken, after he had taken off a ftnall part of the fkin.
by imperff ft founds, it muft be reduced to a much in- He made falamanders newly caught bite aifo the tongue
ferior degree of inftinft: it is therefore very ftupid; and lips of a dog, as well as the tongue of a turkey ;
and not bold, as has been reported: it does not brave but none of thefe animals received the leaft injury,
danger, as is pretended, but it does not perceive it. M. de Maupertuis afterwards made a dog and a turkey
Whatever geftures one makes to frighten it, it always fwallow falamanders whole, or cut into pieces ; and yet
5 neither
LAC t 5°4 1 LAC
neither of them appeared to be fenfible of the leaft un-
eafinefs.—Mr Laurenti fince made experiments with
the fame view : he forced grey lizards to fwallow the
milk proceeding from the falamander, and they died
very fuddenly. The milk, therefore, of the falaman¬
der, taken internally, may hurt, and even be fatal
to certain animals, efpecially thofe which are fmall;
but it does not appear to be hurtful to large ani¬
mals.
It was long believed that the falamander was of no
fex ; and that each individual had the power of engen¬
dering its like, as feveral fpecies of worms. This is
not the molt abfurd fable which has been imagined
with refpedf to the falamander; but if the manner in
which they come into the world is not fo marvellous
as has been written, it is remarkable in this, that it dif¬
fers from that in which molt other lizards are brought
forth, as it is analogous to that in which the chalcide
and the feps, as'well as vipers and feveral kinds of
ferpents, are produced. On this account the fala
mander merits the attention of naturalifts much more
than on account of the falfe and brilliant reputation
which it has fo long enjoyed. M. de Maupertuis ha¬
ving opened fome falamanders, found eggs in them, and
at the fame time fome young perfe&ly formed ; the
eggs were divided into two long bunches like grapes, and
the young were enclofed in two tranfparent bags ; they
were equally well formed as the old ones, and much
more aftive. The falamander, therefore, brings forth
-young from an egg hatched within its belly as the viper ;
and her fecundity is very great-: naturalifts have long
written that Ihe has forty or fifty at one time ; and M.
de Maupertuis found 42 young ones in the body of a
female falamander, and 54 in another.
The young falamanders are generally of a black co¬
lour, almoft without fpots ; and this colour they pre-
ferve fometimes during their whole lives in certain
countries, where they have been taken for a diftindt
fpecies, as we have faid. Mr Thunberg has given, in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Sweden, the deferip-
tion of a lizard, which he calls the Japanefe lizard, and
which appears not to differ from our ialamander but
in the arrangement of its colours. This animal is al¬
moft black, with feveral whitifti and irregular fpots,
both on the upper part of the body and below the
paws; on the back there is a ftrip of dirty white,
which becomes narrower to the point of the tail. This
whitifh ftripe is interfperfed with very fmall fpecks
which form the diftinguilhing charadteriftic of our land
falamander. We are of opinion, therefore, that we
may confider this Japanefe lizard, deferibed by Mr
Thunberg, as a variety of the fpecies of our land fala¬
mander, modified a little, perhaps, by the climate of
Japan. It is in the largeft ifland of that empire, na
med Niphon, that this variety is found. It inhabits
the mountains there, and rocky places. The Japa¬
nefe confider it as a powerful ftimulant, and a very
adfive remedy ; and on this account, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Jedo, a number of thefe Japanefe fala¬
manders may be feen dried, hanging from the cieling of
the (hops.
'14. The bafililkus, has a long cylindrical tail, a ra¬
diated fin on the back, and a creft on the throat. It
is a native of the Indies. It is a very harmlefs creature ;
and altogether deftitute of thofe wonderful qualities
N° f7i-
which have been attributed to the fabulous animal of Lacerta.
the fame name. See the article Baslisk.  /-—*
15. The fex-lineata, or lion-lizard, is about fix in¬
ches long; the body of a grey colour, marked length-
wife on each fide with three whitifti lines: the legs
are long ; and it has a very long tail, which it curls up,
looking fierce at the fame time, whence probably it has
received its Engliftr name. It inhabits South Carolina
and the greater Antilles. It is very inoffenfive, and re¬
markably agile ; but is a prey t</rapacious birds.
16. The green lizard of Carolina is fo denominated
from its colour. This fpecies is very flender; the tail
is near double the length of the body, and the whole
length about five inches. It inhabits Carolina ; where
it is domeftic, familiar, and harmlefs. It fports on
tables and windows, and amufes with its agility in
catching flies. Cold affe&s the colours: in that un¬
certain climate, when there is a quick tranfition in the
fame day from hot to told, it changes inftantly from
the moft brilliant green to a dull bnown. They are a
prey to cats and ravenous birds They appear chiefly
in fummer ; and at the approach of cold weather
they re ire to their'winter receffes, and lie torpid in
the hollows and crevices of rotten trees. It frequently
happens that a few warm funfhiny days fo invigorate
them, that they will come out of their holes and ap¬
pear abroad ; when on a fudden the weather changing
to cold, fo enfeebles them, that they are unable to re¬
turn to their retreats, and will die of cold.
17. The iguana, or guana, with the top of the
back and tail ftrongly ferrated, and the gullet ferrated
in the fame manner, is fometimes found to be five feet
long. It has fmall teeth, and will hire hard. It in¬
habits the rocks of the Bahama iflands, and lurks in
cliffs or hollow trees. It feeds entirely on vegetables
and fruits 5 and the fat of the abdomen affumes the
colour of that which it has laft eaten. It is flow of
motion, and has a moft difgufting look ; yet it is
efteemed a moft delicate and wholefome food, noxious
only to venereal patients, according to Lunnasus. It
is not amphibious, yet on neceffity will continue long
under water; it fwims by means of the tail, keeping
its legs clofe to the body. Guanas are the fupport of
the natives of the Bahama iflands, who go in their
{loops from rock to rock in fearch of them. They
are taken with dogs trained for the purpofe; and as
foon as caught, their mouths are fewed up, to prevent
them from biting. Some are carried alive for fale to
Carolina; others falted and barrelled for home-con-
fumption.
18. The bullaris, or green lizard of Jamaica, is a-
bout fix inches long, of a ftiining grafs-green colour.
Ii is common in Jamaica, frequenting hedges and
trees. When approached to, thefe animals, by filling
their throat with wind, fwell it into a globular form
with a fcarlet colour; which, when contra&ed, the
fcarlet difappears, and the part returns to the colour
of the reft of the body. The figure reprefents the ani¬
mal with its throat thus inflated- This fwelling adtion
feems to proceed from menacing, or deterring one from
coming near them, though they are very inoffen¬
five.
19. The muricata, or prickly lizard, has a long
rounded tail; its body, which is of a brownifti grey
colour, is covered with {harp-pointed feales, and the
whole
LACftP^TA .
Plate OCLXT.
LAC [ 505 1 LAC
Laches whole upper part marked with tranfverfe dufky bars.
H The fcales are furnifhed with a prominent line on the
Lator5ma"uPPer furface> and toward the back part of the head
■ almoft run into a fort of weak fpines.
20. The laticauda, or broad-tailed lizard, has a flat¬
tened lanceolate tail, fomewhat fpiny on the margin.
It is about four inches and a half in length. The head
is difproportionably large. The upper furface of the
body is of a dufley grey colour, and befet with fmall
tubercles, which in fome parts fharpen to a point.
The colour of the under furface of the body is pale,
or almoft white. This and the preceding fpecies are
inhabitants of New South Wales.
There are above 60 other fpecies of this genus; two
of which, the feps and chalcides, being very different
from the other fpecies, and approaching in form to the
ferpent tribe, figures of them are added in the Plates.
A fimilar fpecies is the lipes, transferred to this genus,
in the laft edition of the Syftema Naturas, from the
Anguis of former editions, where it was called the anguis
bipes. See Anguis.
LACHES, (from the French lafcher, i. e. laxare,
or lafche, ignavus), in the Engliih law fignifies flack-
nefs or negligence, as it appears in Littleton, where
laches of entry is a negleft of the heir to enter. And
probably it may be an old Englifti word : for where
we fay there is laches of entry, it is all one as if it
were faid there is a lack of entry ; and in this iignifi-
cation it is ufed. No laches fhall be adjudged in the
heir within age ; and regularly, laches fhall not b.ar in¬
fants or femme coverts for not entry or claim, to avoid
defcents; but laches fhall be accounted in them for
non-performance of a condition annexed to the ftate
of the land.
LACHESIS, in mythology, one of the Parcas.
Her name is derived from to meafure out by lot.
She prefided over futurity, and was reprefented as
fpinning the thread of life, or, according to others,
holding the fpindle. She generally appeared covered
with a garment variegated with ftars, and holding
fpindles in her hand.
LACHISH, (anc. geog.) a city fouthward of the
tribe of Judah. Eufebius and St Jerom tell us, that
in their time there was a village called Lachi/h, feven
miles from Eleutheropolis, fouthward. Sennacherib
befieged Lachifh, but did not take it. From thence
it was that he fent Rabfhakeh againft Jerufalem. Here
King Amaziah was flain by his rebel fubje&s.
LACHNEA, in botany: A genus of the monogy-
nia order, belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 31ft or¬
der, Veprecula. There is no calyx ; the corolla is qua-
drifid with the limb unequal; there is one feed a little
refembling a berry.
LACHRYMAL, in anatomy, an appellation gi¬
ven to feveral parts of the eye. See Anatomy, p. 766.
col. I.
LACHRYMATORY, in antiquity, a veffel where¬
in were collected the tears of a deceafed perfon’s
friends, and preferved along with the allies and urn.
They were fmall glafs or earthen bottles, chiefly in the
form of phials. At the Roman funerals, the friends
of the deceafed, or the prcefca, women hired for that
purpofe, ufed to fill them with their tears, and depofit
them very carefully with the afhes in teftimony of their
Vol. IX. Part II.
forrow, imagining the manes of the deceafed were Lacmium
thereby greatly comforted. Many fpecimens of them .
are preferved in the cabinets of the curious, particu- . ,
larly in the Britifti Mufeum.
LACINIUM (anc. geog.), a noble promontory of
the Brutii in Italy, the fouth boundary of the Sinus
Tarentinus and the Adriatic ; all to the fouth of it be¬
ing deemed the Ionian Sea: it was famous for a rich
temple of Juno, furnamed Lacinia, with a pillar of fo-
lid gold ftanding in it; which Hannibal intending to
carry off, was, according to Cicero, diffuaded by a
dream. Now Capo delle Colonne, from the columns of
Juno’s temple ftill ftanding on the north-eaft coaft of
the Calabria ultra.
LACK of Rupees, is 100,000 rupees; which,
fuppofing them ftandard, or ficcas, at 2 s. 6d. a-
mounts to 12,500!. Sterling.
LACONIA, or Laconica, a country on the
fouthern parts of Peloponnefus, having Argos and
Arcadia on the north, Meffenia on the weft, the Me¬
diterranean on the fouth, and the bay of Argos at the
call. Its extent from north to fouth was about 50
miles. It was watered by the river Eurotas. The ca¬
pital was called Sparta, or Lacedsemon ; (See Lace¬
daemon and Sparta.) The brevity with which the
Laconians always expreffed themfelves is now become
proverbial; and by the epithet of Laconic, we under-
ftand whatever is concife, and is not loaded with un-
neceffary words.
LACONICUM, (whence our term laconic), a fhort
pithy fententious fpeech, fuch as the Lacedemonians
were remarkable for: Their way of delivering them¬
felves was very concife, and much to the purpofe. See
ihe preceding article.
LACQUERS, are varnifties applied upon tin, brafs,
and other metals, to preferve them from tarnifliing,
and to improve their colour. The balls of lacquers is
a folution of the refinous fubftance called Zac, in
fpirit of wine. The fpirit ought to be very much
dephlegmated, in order to diffolve much of the lac.
For this purpofe, fome authors dire&ly dry potafh to
be thrown into the fpirit. This alkali attra&s the
water, with which it forms a liquid that fubfides di-
ftin&ly from the fpirit at the bottom of the veffel.
From this liquid the fpirit may be feparated by de¬
cantation. By this method the fpirit is much de¬
phlegmated ; but, at the fame time, it becomes im¬
pregnated with part of the alkali, which depraves its
colour, and communicates a property to the lacquer
of imbibing moifture from the air. Thefe inconve¬
niences may be prevented by diftilling the fpirit; or,
if the artift has not an opportunity of performing that
procefs, he may cleanfe the fpirit in a great meafure
from the alkali, by adding to it fome calcined alum;
the acid of which uniting with the alkali remaining
in the fpirit, forms with it a vitriolated tartar, which,
not being foluble in fpirit of wine, falls to the bot¬
tom together with the earth of the decompofed alum.
To a pint of the dephlegmated and purified fpirit,
about three ounces of powdered Ihell-lac are to be
added; and the mixture to be digefted during fame
day with a moderate heat. The liquor ought then
to be poured off, drained, and cleared by fettling.
This clear liquor is now fit to receive the required
colour from Certain refinous colouring fubftances, the
3 S principal
LAG [ 506 ] LAC
J.aiftacjo. principal of which are gamboge and annotto ; the for-
 mcr of which gives a yellow, and the latter an orange
colour. In order to give a golden colour, two parts
of gamboge are added to one of annotto ; but thefe
colouring fubftances may be feparately diffolved in the
tin&ure of lac, and the colour required may be adjuft-
ed by mixing the two folutions in different propor¬
tions. When filver leaf or tin are to be lacquered,
a larger quantity of the colouring materials are re-
quifne than when the lacquer is intended to be laid
on brafs;
Mutheriys LACTATIO, Lactation, among medical wri-
Medual terS) denotes the giving fuck. The mother’s breaft, if
1 unary. {hou]d be allowed the child, at lealt during
the firft month ; for thus the child is more peculiarly
benefited by what it fucks, and the mother is prefer-
ved from more real inconveniences than the falfely
delicate imagine they would fuffer by compliance here¬
with : but if by reafon of an infirm conftitution, or
other caufes, the mother cannot fuckle her child, let
dry nurfing under the mother’s eye be purfued.
When women lofe their appetite by giving fuck,
both the children and themfelves are thereby injured ;
wet nurfes are to be preferred, who, during the time
they give the breaft, have rather an increafed ap¬
petite, and digeft more quickly; the former are apt
to wafte away, and fometimes die confumptive. In
fhort, thofe nurfes with whom la&ation may for a
while agree, fhould wean the child as foon as their
appetite leffens, their ftrength feems to fail, or a ten¬
dency to hyfteric fymptoms are manifed.
When the new-born child is to be brought up by
the mother’s bread, apply it thereto in ten or twelve
hours after delivery; thus the milk is fooner and more
eafily fupplied, and there is lefs hazard of a fever than
when the child is not put to it before the milk begins
to flow of itfelf.
If the mother does not Cuckle her child, her breafts
fhould be fo kept warm with flannels, or with a hare-
fkin, that a condant perfpiration may be fupported;
thus there rarely will arife much inconvenience from
the milk.
The child, notwithdanding aH our care in dry nur-
fing, fometimes pines if a bread is not allowed. In
this cafe a wet nurfe fhould be provided, if poffible
one that hath not been long delivered of a child. She
fliould be young, of a healthy habit, and an aftive
difpofition, a mild temper, and whofe breads are well
filled with milk. If the milk is good, it is fweetifh to
the tade, and totally free from faltnefs; to the eye it
appears thin, and of a bluifh cad. That the woman
hath her menfes, if in other refpefts obje&ions are not
made, this need not be any; and as to the cudom
with many, of abdaining from venery while they con¬
tinue to fuckle a child, it is fo far without reafon to
fupport it, that the truth is, a rigorous chadity is as
hurtful, and often more pernicious, than an immode¬
rate ufe of venery. Among d the vulgar errors, is that
of red-haired women being improper for wet nurfes.
If the menfes do not appear during the fird months,
but after fix or eight months fuckling they begin to
defcend, the child fhould be weaned.
Wet nurfes fliould eat at lead one hearty meal of
animal-food every day ; with this a proper quantity of
vegetables fhould be mixed. Thin broth or milk are
4
proper for their breakfafts and their flippers; and if Laflantius'
the drength fhould feem to fail a little, a draught of II.
good ale fhould now and the'- be allowed : but fpiri- j
tuous liquors mud in general be forborne; not but a .
fpoonful of rum may be allowed in a quart of milk and
water, (i. e. a pint of each), which is a proper com¬
mon drink.
Though it is well obferved by Dr Hunter, that the
far greater number of thofe women who have cancers
in the bread or womb are old maids, and thofe who
refufe to give fuck to their children ; yet it is the un-
happinefs of fome willing mothers not to be able : for
indance, thofe with tender conditutions, and who are
fubjeft to nervous diforders ; thofe who do not eat a
fufficient quantity of folid food, nor enjoy the benefit
of exercife and air: if children are kept at their breads,
they either die whild young, or are weak and fickly af¬
ter childhood is pad, and fo on through remaining life.
LACTANTIUS, (Lucius Ccelius Firmianus), a
celebrated author at the beginning of the 4th century,
was, according to Baronius, an African; hut, accord¬
ing to others, was born at Fermo in the marquifate of
Ancona, from whence it is imagined he was called
Firmianus. Fie ftudied rhetoric under Arnobius; and
was afterwards a profefibr of that fcience in Africa and
Nicomedia, where he was fo admired, that the empe¬
ror Condantine chofe him preceptor to his fon Crifpus
Ctefar. La&antius was fo far from feeking the plea-
fures and riches of the court, that he lived there in po¬
verty, and, according to Eufebius, frequently wanted
neceflaries. His works are written in elegant Latin.
The principal of which are, 1. De ira div'ma. 2. De
operilus Dsi, in which he treats of the creation of man,
and of divine providence. 3. Divine Inditutions, iu
feven books. This is the mod confiderabie of all his
works: he there undertakes to prove the truth of the
Chridian religion, and to refute all the difficulties that
had been raifed againd it; and he folidly, and with
great drength, attacks the illufions of paganifm. His
dyle is pure, clear, and natural, and his expreffions
noble and elegant, on which account he has been called
the Cicero of the Chriftians. There is alfo attributed
to him a treatife De rnorte perfecutorum.; but feveral
of the learned doubt its being written by Laflantius*
The molt copious edition of La&antius’s works is that
of Paris in 1748, 2 vols 4to.
LACTEALS, or Lacteal Vessels, a kind of
long flender tubes for the conveyance of the chyle
from the intedines to the common refervatory. See
Anatomy, n° 105.
LACTIFEROUS, an appellation given to plants
abounding with a milky juice, as the fow-thiille and*
the like. The name of laQiferous, or laftefcent, is gi¬
ven to all thofe plants which abound with a thick-co¬
loured juice, without regarding whether it is white or
not. Mod lactiferous plants are poifonous, except
thofe with compound flowers, which are generally of
an innocent quality.
Of the poifonous laftefcent plants the mod remark¬
able are fumach, agaric, maple, burning thorny plant,
caffada, celandine, puccoon, prickly poppy, and the
plants of the natural order contorta, as iwallovv wortr
apocynum, cynanchum, and cerbera.
The bell-fliaped flowers are partly noxious, as car¬
dinal flower; partly innocent, as campanula.
Among
LAC [ 507 ] LAD
lia&uca. Among the la&efcent plants with compound flowers
““"-v"—that are innocent in their quality, mav be mentioned
dandelion, picris, hyoferis, wild lettuce, t-um-fuccory,
hawk-weed, baftard hawk-weed, hypochoeris, goat’s-
beard, and moft fpecies of lettuce: we fay moil fpe-
cies, becaufe the prickly fpecies of that genus are faid
to be of a very virulent and poifonous nature ; though
Mr Lightfoot denies this, and affirms that they are a
fafe and gentle opiate, and that a fyrup made from the
leaves and ftaiks is much preferable to the common
diacodium.
LACTUCA, in botany : A genus of the polygamia
aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking - under the
49th order, Cempojitte.. The receptacle is naked; the
calyx imbricated, cylindrical, with a membranaceous
margin ; ,the pappus is Ample, ftipated, or llalked.
There are feveral fpecies, moft of which are plants of
no ufe, and never cultivated but in botanic gardens
for variety. Thofe commonly cultivated in the kit¬
chen-garden for uGe, are, 1. The common of gar¬
den lettuce. 2. Cabbage lettuce. 3. Silefia lettuce.
4. Dutch brown lettuce. 5. Aleppo lettuce. 6. Im¬
perial lettuce. 7. Green capuchin lettuce. 8. Ver-
failles or upright white Cos lettuce. 9. Black Cos.
10. Red Cos. 11. Red capuchin lettuce. 12. Ro¬
man lettuce. 13. Prince lettuce. 14. Royal lettuce.
15. Egyptian Cos lettuce.
Culture, &c. The flrft of thefe forts is very common
in all gardens, and is commonly fown for cutting very
young, to mix with other falad herbs in fpring; and
the fecond, or cabbage lettuce, is only this mended by
culture. It may be fowm at all times of the year, but
in the hot months requires to be fown in fliady borders.
The cabbage-lettuce may alfo be fown at different fea-
fons, to have a continuation of it through the fummer.
The firft crop fhould be fown in February, in an open
fituation ; the others at three weeks dittance; but the
later ones under covert, but not under the drippings of
trees. The Silefia, imperial, royal, black, white, and
upright Cos lettuces, may be firft fown in the latter
end of February or the beginning of March, on a
warm light foil, and in an open fituation; when the
plants are come up, they mull be thinned to 15 inches
diftance every way, they will then require no farther
care than the keeping them clear of weeds; and the
black Cos, as it grows large, fhould have its leaves tied
together to whiten the inner part. Succeeding crops
of thefe fhould be fown in April, May, and June ; and
toward the latter end of Auguft they may be fown
for a winter crop, to be preferved under glafles, or in
a bed arched over with hoops and covered with mats.
The moft valuable of all the Englifh lettuces are the
white Cos or the Verfailles, the Silefia, and the black
Cos. The brown Dutch and the green capuchin are
very hardy, and may be fown late under walls, where
they will Hand the winter, and be valuable when no
others are to be had. The red capuchin, Roman, and
prince lettuce, are very early kinds, and are fown for
variety; as are alfo the Aleppo ones for the beauty of
their (potted leaves.
Properties. The feveral forts of garden lettuces are
very wholefome, emollient, cooling falad herbs, eafy
of digeftion, and fomewbat loofening the belly. Moft
writers fuppofe that they have a narcotic quality ; and
indeed in many cafes they contribute to procure reft ; I).
this they effea by abating heat, and relaxing the fibres., La1(ler-
The feeds are in the number of the four lefler cold feeds.
The virofa, or ftrong-fcented wild lettuce, which is
indigenous in Britain, and grows in fdme places in
confiderable abundance, differs very effentially in its
qualities from the garden lettuce. Although it has
not been introduced into any of the modern pharma¬
copoeias, yet it has of late been highly extolled for
fome purpofes in medicine. It fmells ftrongly of opi¬
um, and refembles it in fome of its effefts; and its
narcotic power, like that of the poppy heads, refides
in its milky juice. An extratft from the expreffed
juice is recommended in fmall dofes in dropfy. la
dropfies of long (landing, proceeding from vifceral
obftru&ions, it has been given to the extent of half an
ounce a-day. It is (aid to agree with the ftomach, to
quench third, to be gently laxative, powerfully diure¬
tic, and fomewhat diaphoretic. Plentiful dilution is
allowed during its operation. Dr Collin of Vienna af-
ferts, that out of 24 dropfical patients, all but one
were cured by this medicine.
LACUNiE, among anatomifts, certain excretory
canals in the genital parts of women.
LACUNAR, in architedture, an arched roof or
ceiling, more efpecially the planking or flooring above
porticos or piazzas.
LACYDES, a Greek philofopher, born at Cyrene,
was the difciple of Arcefilaus, and his fucceffor in the
academy. He taught in a garden given him by At¬
tains king of Pergamus; but that prince fending for
him to court, he replied, “ That the pictures of kings
(hould be viewed at a diftance.” He imitated his
mafter in the pleafure he took in doing good with¬
out caring to have it known : he had a goofe which
followed him every where by night as well as by day ;
and when (he died, he made a funeral for her, which
was as magnificent as if it had been for a fon ora
brother. He taught the fame do&rine as Arcefilaus;
and pretended that we ought to determine nothing, but
always to fufpend our opinion. He died 2 12 B. C.
LADDER, a frame made with a number of fteps,
by means of which people may afeend as on a (lair to
places otherwife inaccelfihle.
Scaling Ladders, in the military art, are ufed in
fealing when a placers to be taken by furprife. They
are made feveral ways: here we make them of flat
ftaves, fo that they may move about their pins, and
(hut like a parallel ruler, for conveniently carrying
them : the French make them of feveral pieces, fo a$
to be joined together, and to be made of any neceffary
length: fometimes they are made of Angle ropes, .
knotted at proper diftances, with iron hooks at each
end, one to fallen them upon the wall above, and the
other in the ground ; and fometimes they are made
with two ropes, and ftaves, between them, to keep the
ropes at a proper diflance, and to tread upon. When
they are ufed in the action of fealing walls, they
ought to be rather too long than too fliort, and to be
given in charge only to the (touted of the detach¬
ment. The foldiers (hould carry thefe ladders with
the left arm paffed through the fecond ftep, taking
care to hold them upright clofe to their (ides, and
3 $ 2 very
*
LAD [ 508 ] LAD
very fliort below, to prevent any accident in leaping
into the ditch.
The firft rank of each divifion, provided with lad¬
ders, fhould fet out with the reil at the fignal, march¬
ing tefolutely with their firelocks flung, to jump into
the ditch ; when they are arrived, they fhould apply
their ladders againft the parapet, obferving to place
them towards the falient angles rather than the middle
of the curtain, becaufe the enemy have lefs force there.
Care muft be taken to place the ladders within a foot
of each other, and not to give them too much nor too
little flope, fo that they may not be overturned or broke
with the weight of the foldiers mounting upon them.
The ladders being applied, they who have carried
them, and they who comex after, Ihould mount up,
and rulh upon the enemy fword-in hand: if he who
goes firft, happens to be overturned, the next Ihould
take care not to be thrown down by his comerade ;
but, on the contrary, immediately mount himfelf, fo as
not to give the enemy time to load his piece.
As the foldiers who mount firft may be eafily tum¬
bled over, and their fall may caufe the attack to fail,
it would perhaps be right to proteft their breafts with
the fore-parts of cuiraffes; becaufe, if they can pene¬
trate, the reft may eafily follow.
The fuccefs of an attack by fcaling is infallible, if
they mount the four fides at once, and take care to
fliower a number of grenades amongft the enemy,
.fpecially when fupported by fome grenadiers and
picquets, who lhare the attention and fire of the
enemy.
LADEN, in the fea-language, the ftate of a (hip
when fire is charged with a weight or quantity of any
fort of merchandifes, or other materials, equal to her
tonage or burden. If the cargo with which Ihe is
laden is extremely heavy, her burden is determined by
the weight of the goods; and if it is light, ftie car¬
ries as much as flie can Jlowt to be fit for the purpofes
of navigation. As a ton in meafure is generally efti-
mated at 2000 lb. in weight, a velfel of 200 tons ought
accordingly to carry a weight equal to 400,00c lb.
when the matter of which the cargo is compofed is fpe-
cifically heavier than the water in which ihe floats;
or, in other words, when the cargo is fo heavy that ihe
cannot float high enough with fo great a quantity of
it as her hold will contain.
Laden in Bulk, the ftate of being freighted with a
cargo which is neither in calks, boxes, bales, nor cafes,
but lies loofe in the hold; being defended from the
moifture or wet of the hold, by a number of macs and
a quantity of dunage. Such are ufually the cargoes of
corn, fait, or fuch matetials.
LADENBURG, a town of Germany in the Palati¬
nate of the Rhine, feated on the river Neckar, in
E. Long. 8. 42. N. Lat. 49. 27. It belongs to the
biihopric of Worms, and the ele&or Palatine.
LADISLAUS, the name of feveral kings of Poland.
See Poland.
LADOGA, a town of the Ruffian empire, feated
on a great lake of the fame name, which has a com¬
munication with the gulf of Finland, by the river
Nieva; and it abounds in filh, particulary falmon.
E- Lon. 33. 29. N. Lat. 60. o.
LADOGNA, or lacedogna, a town of Italy,
in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Capitanata,
with a biihop’s fee. E. Long. 15. 12. N. Lat.
41. 16.
LADON (anc. geog.) a river of Arcadia falling in¬
to the Alpheus. The metamorphofis of Daphne into a
laurel,andof Syrinx into a reed happened near its banks.
LADRONE or Marian iflands, a clufter of twelve
iflands lying in the Pacific Ocean, in about 145° 0f
eaft longitude, and between the 1 ith and 21ft degree
of north latitude. They were firft difcovered by Ma¬
gellan, who failed round the world through the Straits
which bear his name. He gave them the name of
Ladrone IJlands, or the IJlands of Thieves, from the
thieviih difpofition of the inhabitants. At the time
thefe iflands were difcovered by the Europeans, the
natives were totally unacquainted with any other
country befides their own ; and having no traditionary
accounts of their own origin, they imagined that the
author of their race was formed of a piece of the rock
of Funa, one of their fmalleft iflands. Many things
looked upon by us as abfolutely neceflary to our exift-
ence, were utterly unknown to thefe people. They
had no animals of any fort; and would not even have
had any idea of them, had it not been for the birds;
and even of them they had but one fpecies, fomewhat
like the turtle dove, which they never killed for
eating, but only tamed them, and taught them to
fpeak. They were much aftoniftied on feeing a horfe
which a Spanifh captain left among them in 1673,
and could not for a long time be fatisfied with ad¬
miring him. But what is moft furprifing and incre¬
dible in their hiftory is, that they were utterly unac¬
quainted with the element of fire till Magellan, pro¬
voked by their repeated thefts, burned one of their
villages. When they faw their wooden houfep blazing,
they firft thought that the fire was a bead which fed
upon the wood ; and fome of them who came too near,
being burnt, the reft flood at a diftance, left they ftiould
be devoured or poifoned by the breathings of this ter¬
rible animal.
The inhabitants of the Ladrones are olive-coloured,
but not of fuch a deep dye as thofe of the Philippine
iflands ; their ftature is good, and their limbs well
proportioned. Though their food confifts entirely of
filh, fruits, and roots, yet they are fo fat, that to
ft rangers they appear fwelled, but this does not render
them lefs nimble and adlive. They often live to roo
years or more, yet retain the health and vigour of men
of 50. The men go ftark naked, but the women are
covered. They are not ill-looked, and take great
care of their beauty, though their ideas on that fub-
jedt are very different from ours. They love black teeth
and white hair. Hence one of their principal occu¬
pations is to keep their teeth black by the help of
certain herbs, and to whiten their hair, fprinkling up¬
on it a certain water for this purpofe. The women
have their hair very long; but the men generally fliave
it clofe, except a Angle lock on the crown of the head,
after the manner of the Japanefe. Their language
much refembles that of the people called Tagales in
the Philippine iflands. It is agreeable to the ear, with
a foft and eafy pronunciation. One of its chief graces
confifts in the facility of tranfpofing words, and even
all the fyllables of one word ; and thus furnifhing a va¬
riety of double meanings, with which thefe people are
greatly delighted. Thaugh plunged in the deepeft
ignorance.
Lsdo*i
Ladronc^
LAD [
Ladrone, ignorance, and deftitute of every thing valued by the
, Lady- reit of mankind, no nation ever fliowed more prefump-
* tion, or a greater conceit of themfelves, than thefe
iflanders, looking on their own nation as the only wife,
fenfible, and polifhed one in the world, and beholding
every other people with the greateft contempt. Though
they are ignorant of the art* and fciences, yet, like
every other nation, they have their fables which ferve
them for hiftory, and feme poems which they greatly
admire. A poet is with them a charafter of the firft
eminence, and greatly refpe&ed.
We neither know at what time nor from what place
the Ladrone iflands were firft peopled. As Japan lies
within fix or feven days fail of them, fome have been
induced to believe, that the firft inhabitants of the
Ladrones came from Japan. But from their greater
refemblance to the inhabitants of the Philippine ifianda
than to the Japanefe, it is more probable that they
came from the former than the latter. Formerly
moft of the iflands were inhabited; and about 90 years
ago, the three principal iflands, Guam, Tinian, and
Rota, are faid to have contained 50,000 "people ; but
fince that time, Tinian hath been entirely depopula¬
ted, and only 200 or 300 Indians left at Rota to cul¬
tivate rice for the ifland of Guam, which alone is in¬
habited by Europeans, and where the Spaniards have a
governor and a garrifon: here alfo the annual Manilla
fhip touches for refreftiments in her paffage from A-
capulco to the Philippines. The ifland of Tinian af¬
forded an afylum to Commodore Anfon in 1742 ; and
the mafterly manner in which the author of that voy¬
age paints the natural beauties of the country, hath gi¬
ven a degree of eftimation not only to this ifland, but
to all the reft, which they had not before. Commo¬
dore Byron, in 1765, continued nine weeks at Ti¬
nian, and anchored in the very fpot where the Centu¬
rion lay ; but gives a much lefs favourable account of
this climate and country than the former navigator.
The water, he fays, is brackifti, and full of worms;
many of his men were fiezed with fevers, occafioned
by the intenfe heat; the thermometer, which was kept
on board the ihip, generally flood at 86°, which is but
1 o or it degrees lefs than the heat of the blood at.the
heart; and had the inftrument been aftiore, he ima¬
gines it would have flood much higher than it did. It
was with the greateft difficulty that they could pene¬
trate through the woods; and when they had fortu¬
nately killed a bull, and with prodigious labour drag¬
ged it through the forefts to the beach, it flunk, and
was full of fly-blows by the time it reached the fhore.
The poultry was ill-tafied ; and within an hour after it
was killed, the flefh became as green as grafs, and
fwarmed with maggots. The wild hogs were very
fierce ; and fo large, that a carcafe frequently weighed
200 pounds. Cotton and indigo were found on the
ifland. Captain Wallis continued here a month in
1767, but makes no fuch complaints.
LADY. This title is derived from two Saxon
words, which fignify loaf-day, which words have in
time been con trade d* into the prefent appellation. It
properly belongs only to the daughter of earls, and all
of higher rank; but cuftom has made it a word of
complaifance for the wives of knights and of all emi¬
nent women.
As to the original application of this expreifion, it
509 ] LAE
may be obferved, that heretofore it was the fafhion for
thofe families, whom God had blefled with affluence,
to live conftantly at their manfion-houfes in the coufi-
try, and that once a-week, or oftener, the lady of the
manor diftributed to her poor neighbours, 'with her
oivn hands, a certain quantity of bread ; but the prac¬
tice, which gave rife to this title is now as little
known as the meaning of it; however, it may be from
that hofpitable cuftom, that to this day the ladies in
this kingdom alone ferve the meat at their own table.
Ladt's Bedjlraiv. See Gallium.
Lady's Mantle. See Alchemilla.
Lady's Smock. See Cardamine.
Lady's Slipper. SeeCypripedium.
Lady's Traces. See Ophrys.
LADY-Day, in law, the 25th of March, being the an¬
nunciation of the Holy Virgin. See Annunciation.
LiELIUS (Caius), a Roman conful and great ora¬
tor, furnamed the Wife, diftinguifhed himfelf in Spain
in the war againft Viriathus the Spanifh general. He
is highly praifed by Cicero, who gives an admirable
defeription of the intimate friendfhip which fubfifted
between Laelius and Scipio Africanus the Youngey.
His eloquence, his modefty, and his abilities, ac¬
quired him a great reputation; and he is thought to
have affifted Terence in his comedies. He died about
126 B. C.
LiENA, in antiquity, was a gown worn by the
Roman augurs, and peculiar to their office. In this
gown they covered their heads when they made their
obfervations on the flight of birds, &c. See Augur.
LAER. See Bamboccio.
LuESTRYGONES, the moft. ancient inhabitants
of Sicily. Some fuppofe them to be the fame as the
people of Leontium, and to have been neighbours to
the Cyclops. They fed on human flefh; and when
Ulyfles came on their coafts, they funk his {hips and
devoured his companions. They were of a gigantic
ftature, according to Homer’s defeription. A colony
of them, as fome fuppofe; pafled over into Italy with
Lamus at their head, where they built the town of
Formiae, whence the epithet of Laf rygonia is often
ufed for that of Formiana.
LAET (John de), a writer in the 17th century,
born at Antwerp, was dire&or of the Weft India com¬
pany. He acquired great fkill in the languages, in
hiftory, and geography ; and had the management of
Elzevir’s edition of A Defeription of moft Kingdoms
in the World, printed in Latin. He wrote in French,
A Defeription of the Eaft Indies, and other works;
and died in 1649.
LAET1A, in botany ; A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The corolla is pentapetalous,
or none ; the calyx is pentaphyllous ; the fruit unilocu¬
lar and trigonal; the feeds have a pulpy arillus or
coat. There are two fpecies, both natives of Americai
One of them, the apetala, or gum wood, Dr Wright
informs us, is very common in the woodlands and copfes
of Jamaica, where it rifes-to a confiderable height and
thicknefs. The trunks are fmooth and white; the
leaves are three inches long, a little ferrated, and
fomewhat hairy. The ftamina are yellow, without
petals; the fruit is as large as a plum ; and when ripe,.
opens
Lady
II '
Laetia.
LAG L 510 ] LA I
Laevlnus opens, and fhows a number of fmall feeds in a reddifh
M pulp. Pieces of the trunk or branches, fufpendecl in
, agoor1, the heat of the fun, difcharge a clear turpentine or
balfam, which concretes into a white reftn, and which
feems to be the fame as gum fandarach. Pounce is
there made of it ; and our author is of opinion, that
it might be ufeful in medicine like other gums of the
fame nature.
LiEVINUS (Torrentinus), commonly called Van-
der Bekin, or Torrentin, -was a native of Ghent, and
* bred in the uniyerfity of Louvain. He afterwards
made the tour of Italy, where his virtues obtained him
the friendfhip of the moft illuftrious perfonages of his
time. On his return to the Low Countries ; he was
made canon of Leige, and vicar-general to Erneft de
Baviere, bifhop of that fee. At length, having exe¬
cuted a fuccefsful embaffy to Philip II. of Spain, he
was rewarded with the biihopric of Antwerp ; from
whence he was tranflated to the metropolitan church
of Mechlin, and died there in 1595. He founded a
college of Jefuits at Louvain, to which he left his li¬
brary, medals, and curiofities. He wrote feveral poems
that procured him the charafttr of being, after Ho¬
race, the prince of the lyric poets.
LiEVIUS, a Latin poet. It is not well known
when he lived, but probably he was more ancient
than Cicero. He made a poem intitled Erotopagnia,
i. e. love games. Aulus Gellius quotes two lines of
it. Apuleius alfo quotes fix lines from the fame poet ;
but he does not tell from what work he borrowed
them. Lasvius had alfo compofed a poem intitled The
Centaurs, which Feftus quotes under the title of Pa¬
ir arum.
LAGAN, or Lagon. See Flotsom.
LAGEMAN (lagammannus), homo habeas legem, or
homo legalis feu legitimus; fuch as we call now “good men
of the jury.” The word is frequently ufed in Domef-
day, and the laws of Edward the Confelfor, cap. 38.
LAGEN (lagena), in ancient time, was a mea-
fure of wine, containing fix fextarii: whence probably
is derived ourflagon. The lieutenant of the tower has
the privilege to take unam lagenam vini ante malum &
retro, of all wine fliips that come upon the Thames ;
and Sir Peter Leicefter, in his Antiquities of Chelhire,
interprets lagena vim, “ a bottle of wine.”
LAGERSTROEMIA, in botany ; a genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs
of plants. The corolla is hexapetalous, and curled;
the calyx fexfid, and campanulated ; there are many
ftamina, and of thefe the fix exterior ones thicker than
the reft, and longer than the petals.
LAGNY, a town of the ifle of France, with a fa¬
mous benedi&ine abbey. It is feated on the river
Marne, in E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 48. 50.
LAGOEC1A, in botany ; a genus of the mono¬
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants. The involucrum is univerfal and partial; the
petals bifid ; the feeds folitary, inferior.
LAGOON island, one of the new difcovered
iflands in the South Sea, lying in S. Lat. 18. 47. W.
Long. 139. 28. It is of aaovalform, with a lake in
the middle, which occupies much the greateft part of
it. The whole ifland is covered with trees of different
growth. It is inhabited by a race of Indians, tall, of
a copper colour, with long black hair. Their wea¬
pons are poles or fpikes, which are twice as long as Lagopu*
themfelves. Their habitations were feen under fome Jl
clumps of palm-trees, which formed very beautiful ^,airc^ti*
groves. This ifland was difcovered by Captain Cook v "~"
in April 1769.
LAGOPUS, in ornithology. See Tetrao.
LAGOS, a fea-port town of Portugal, in the
province of Algarva, with a caftle near the fea, where
there is a good harbour, and where the Englifti fleets
bound to the Straits ufually take in frefti water. W.
Long. 8. 5. N. Lat. 36. 45.
LAGUNA, or San Chriftoval de Laguna, a confi-
derable town in the ifland of Teneriff, near a lake of
the fame name, on the declivity of a hill. It has very
handfome buildings, and a fine fquare. W. Long.
16. 24. N. Lat. 28. 30.
LAGUNES of Venice, are marlhes or lakes in
Italy on which Venice is leated. They communicate
with the^fea, and are the fecurity of the city. There
are about 60 iflands in thefe Lagunes, [which together
make a bilhop’s fee. Eurano is the moft confiderable,
next to thof? on which Venice (lands.
LAGURUS, in botany : A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the triandria clafs of plants ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 4th order,
Gramina. The calyx is bivalved, with a villous awn ;
the exterior petal of the corolla terminated by two
awns, with a third on its back retorted.
LAHOLM, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the
province of Gothland, and territory of Holland, feat¬
ed near the Baltic Sea, with a caftle and a harbour, ia
E. Long. 13. 13. N. Lat. 56. 35.
LAHOR, a large town of Afia, in Tndoftan, and
capital of a province of the fame name, and one of
the moft confiderable in the Mogul’s dominiotjs. It
is of a vaft circumference, and contains a great num¬
ber of mofques, public baths, caravanferas, and pa-
gods. It was the refidence of the Great Mogul; but
finceAhe removal of the court, the fine palace is going
to decay. There is a magnificent walk of ftiady trees,
which runs from .this to Agra, that is upwards of 300
miles. Here they have manufadlures of cotton cloths
and fluffs of all kinds, and they make very curious
carpets. E. Long. 75. 55. N. L&t. 31.40.
LAINEZ (James), a Spaniard, companion of Ig¬
natius of Loyola, fecond general of the Jefuits, and
a man of a more daring and political chara&er. Ha¬
ving procured from pope Paul IV. the perpetual ge-
neralfnip of the new order of Jefuits, after the death
of Ignatius, he got the following privileges ratified by
that pontiff, which (how that he was in faft the foun¬
der of the word part of their inftitution; 1. The right
of making all forts of contra&s (without the privity
of the community) veiled in the generals and their
delegates. 2. That of giving authenticity to all com¬
ments and explanations of their conftitutions. 3. The
power of making new, and altering the old : this o-
pened the door to their bloody political tenets, not to
be attributed to Loyola- 4. That of having prifons
independent of the fecular authority, in which they
put to death refraftory brethren. Lainezdiedin 1565,
aged 53.
LAIRESSE (Gerard), an eminent Flemifti paint¬
er, born at Leige in 1640. He received the principal
part of his inilruction from his father Rcni ex e de
Lairefle,
LAI [5
Lais. Lalreffe, though he is alfo accounted a difciple of Bar-
— tolet. He fir It fettled at Utrecht, where he lived In
diftreffed circumitances; but an accidental recommen¬
dation carrying him to Amfterdam, he foon exchan¬
ged want and obfcurity for affluence and reputation.
He was a perfedt matter of hitlory ; his deiigns are
dillingui(hcd by the grandeur of the compofition ; and
the'back-grounds, wherever the fubjedis required it,
are rich in architecture, which is an uncommon cir-
eumftance in that country. He had the unhappinefs
to lofe his fight feveral years before his death, which
happened in 1711 ; fo that the treaiife on defign and
colouring, which paffes uhder his name, was not wrote
by him, but colkdted from bis obfervations after he
was blind, and publiftied after his death. He had
three tons, two of whom were painters ; and alfo three
brothers, Erneft, James, and John : Ernelt and John
painted animals, and James was a flower-painter. He
engraved a good deal in aquafortis : his works confilt
of 256 plates, above half of which were done with his
own hand. He wrote an excellent book on the art,
which has been tranllated into Englilh, and printed at
London both in 4to and 8vo.
LAIS, a celebrated courtezan, daughter of Timan-
dra the millrefs of Aleibiades, born at Hyccara in
Sicily. She was carried away from her native Greece,
when Nicias the Athenian general invaded Sicily. She
firlt' began to fell her favours at Corinth for 10,000
drams, and the immenfe number of princes, noble¬
men, philofophers, orators, and plebeians which courted
her embraces, (how how much commendation is owed
to her perfonal charms. The expenfes which attended
her pleafures, gave rife to the proverb of Non cuivis
homini contingit adire Corinthum. Even Demoithenes
himfelf vifited Corinth for the fake of Lais ; but when
he was informed by the courtezan, that admittance to
her bed was to be bought at the enormous fum of a-
bout. 2cc 1. Englifli money, the orator departed, and
obferved that he would not buy repentance at fo dear
a price. The charms which had attrafted Demofthe-
nes to Corinth, had no influence upon Xenocrates.
When Lais faw the philofopher unmoved by her beauty,
fhe vifited bis houfe herfelf; but there (he had no rea-
foa to boaft of the licentioufnefs or eafy fubmiflion of
Xenocrates. Diogenes the cynic was one of her
war melt admirers, and though filthy in his drefs and
manners, yet he gained her heart and enjoyed her moll
unbounded favours. The fculptor Mycon alfo folicited
the favours of Lais, but he met with coldnefs: he,
however, attributed the eaufe of his ill reception to the
whitenefs of his hair, and dyed it of a brown colour,
but to no purpofe : “ Fool that thou art (faid the
courtezan) to alk what I refufed yefterday to thy fa¬
ther.” Lais ridiculed the aufterity of philofophers,
and laughed at the weaknefs of thofe who pretend to
have gained a fuperiority over their pafiions, by ob-
ferving, that the fages and philofophers of the age were
not above the reft, of mankind, for fire found them at
her door as often as the reft of the Athenians. The fuc-
cefs which her debaucheries met at Corinth encoura¬
ged Lais to pafs into Theflaly, and more particularly
to enjoy the company of a favourite youth called Hip*-
poftratus. She was however difappointed : the women
of the place, jealous of her charms, and apprehenfive
ef her corrupting the fidelity of their hufbands, aflat.
II l L A K
finated her in the temple of Venus, about 340 years Laity,
before the Chriftian era. Some fuppofe that there, Lake.
were two perfons of this name, a mother and her ^ v
daughter.
LAITY, the people as diftinguifhed from the cler¬
gy; (fee Clergy). The lay parr of his majefty’s
fubjedts is divided into three diftindft ftates; the civil,
the military, and the maritime. See Civil, Mili¬
tary, Maritime.
LAKE, a colleftion of waters contained in feme
cavity in an inland place, of a large extent, furround-
ed with land, and having no communication with the
ocean. Lakes may be divided into four kinds. 1. Such
as neither receive nor fend forth rivers. 2. Such as
emit rivers, without receiving any. 3. Such as receive
rivers, without emitting any. And, 4. Such as both
receive and fend forth rivers. Of the firft kind, fome
are temporary and others perennial. Moft of thofe that
are temporary owe their origin to the rain, and the
cavity or deprefiion of the place in which they arc
lodged : thus in India there are feveral fuch lakes made
by the induftry of the natives, of which fome are a
mile, and fome two, in circuit; thefe are furrounded
with a ftone-wall, and being filled in the rainy months,
fupply the inhabitants in dry feafons, who live at a
great diftance from fprings or rivers. There are alfo
feveral of this kind formed by the inundations of the
Nile and the Niger ; and in Mufcovy, Finland, and
Lapland, there are many lakes formed, partly by the
rains, and partly by the melting of the ice and fnow:
but m«ft of the perennial lakes, which neither receive
nor emit rivers, probably owe their rife to fprings at
the bottom, by which they are conftantly fupplied.
The fecond kind of lakes, which emit without recei¬
ving rivers, is very numerous. Many rivers flow from
thefe as out of ciflerns; where their fprings being fi-
tuated low within a hollow place, firft fill the cavity
and make it a lake, which not being capacious enough,
to hold all the water, it overflows and forms a river:
of this kind is the Wolga, at the head of the river
Wolga; the lake Odium, at the head of the Tanais ;
the Adac, from whence one branch of the river Ti¬
gris flows ; the Ozero, or White lake, in Mufcovy, is
the fource of the river Shakfna. The great lake *
Chaamay, which emits four very large rivers, which
water the countries of Siam, Pegu, &c. to'z. the
Menan, the Afa, the Caipoumo, and the Laquia, &c.
The third fpecies of lakes, which receive rivers but
emit none, apparently owe their origin to thofe ri¬
vers which, in their progrefs from their fource, fall¬
ing into fome extenfive cavity, are colle&ed together,
and form a lake of fuch dimenfions as may l«fe as
much by exhalation as it continually receives from thefe
fources: of this kind is that great lake improperly
called the Cafpian Sea; the lake Afphaltices, alfo
called the Dead Sea ; the lake of Geneva, and feveral.
others. Of the fourth fpecies, which both receive and
emit rivers, we reckon three kinds, as the quantity
they emit is greater, equal or lefs, than they receive.
If it he greater, it is plain that they muft be fupplied
by iprings at the bottom ; if lefs, the furplus of the
water is probably fpent in exhalations; and if it be e-
qual, their fprings juft fupply what is evaporated by
the fun.
Lakes are alfo divided into thofe of frelh water and
thole
Lake,
Handmaid
to the Arts
vol. I.
p.j6i, &c.
L A K [ Ji* 1 L A K
thofe of fait. Dr Halley is of opinion, that all great afhes in two quarts of water, and filtre the liquor thro*
perennial lakes are faline, either in a greater or lefs paper ; add to this folution two more quarts of water
degree ; and that this faltnefs increafes with time : and a pound of clean fcarlet (hreds, and boil them in a
and on this foundation he propofes a method for de- pewter boiler till the fhreds have loft their fcarlet co-
termining the age of the world. lour; take out the {hreds and prefs them, and put the
Large lakes anfwer the moft valuable purpofes in coloured water yielded by them to the other: in the
the northern regions, the warm vapours that arife from
them moderating the pinching cold of thofe climates;
and what is ftill a greater advantage, when they are
placed in warmer climates at a great diftance from the
fea, the exhalations raifed from them by the fun caufe
the countries that border upon them to be refrefhed
fame folution boil another pound of the {hreds, pro¬
ceeding in the fame manner ; and likewife a third and
fourth pound. Whilft this is doing, diflblve a pound
and a half of cuttle-fifli bone in a pound of ftrong
aquafortis in a glafs receiver; adding more of the bone
if it appear to produce any ebullition in the aquafortis;
ith frequent {howers, and confequently prevent their and pour this {trained folution gradually into the other;
being barren defarts.
Lake, or Laque, a preparation of different fubftan-
ces into a kind of magiftery for the ufe of painters.
but if any ebullition be occafioned, more of the cuttle-
fi{h bone muft be diffolved as before, and added till no
ebullition appears in the mixture. The crimfon fedi-
One of the fineft and firft invented of which was that ment depofited by the liquor thus prepared is the lake:
of gvm-lacca or lacque; from which all the reft, as
made by the fame procefs, are called by the common
name lacques. See Lacca.
pour off the water; and ftir the lake in two gallons
of hard fpring water, and mix the fediment in two
gallons of frefti water ; let this method be repeated
The method of preparing thefe, in general, may be four or five times. If no hard water can be procured,
known by the example of that of the curcuma-root of or the lake appears too purple, half an ounce of alum
the {hops, called turmeric root; the procefs for the ma¬
king of which is this: Take a pound of turmeric-
root in fine powder, three pints of water, and an ounce
of fait of tartar ; put all into a glazed earthen veffel,
ftiould be added to each quantity of water before it be
ufed. Having thus fufficiently freed the lake from
the falts, drain off the water through a filtre, covered
with a worn linen doth. When it has been drained
and let them boil together over a clear gentle fire, till to a proper drynefs, let it be dropped through a pro-
the water appears highly impregnated v/ith the root, per funnel on clean boards, and the drops will become
and will ftain a paper to a beautiful yellow. Filtre fmall cones or pyramids, in which form the lake
this liquor, and gradually add to it a ftrong folution muft be fuffered to dry, and the preparation is com-
of roch alum in water, till the yellow matter is all pieted.
curdled together and precipitated; after this pour
the whole into a filtre of paper, and the water will run
^ t i  a.* 
Lake may be prepared from cochineal, by gently
boiling two ounces of cochineal in a quart of water;
off and leave the yellow matter behind. It is to be filtering the folution through paper, and adding two
waftied many times with frefti water, till the water ounces of pearl-afhes diffolved in half a pint of warm
comes off infipid, and then is obtained the beautiful water and filtered through paper. Make a folution of
yellow called lacque of turmeric, and ufed in paint-
ing.
In this manner may a lake be made of any of the
tinenne fubftances that are of a fomewhat ftrong tex-
b b ,, i j  - r., 
cuttle-bone as in the former procefs; and to a pint of
it add two ounces of alum diffolved in half a pint of
water. Put this mixture gradually to that of the
cochineal and pearl-afties, as long as any ebullition
ture, as madder, logwood, &c. but it will not fucceed appears to arife, and proceed as above.—A beautiful
in the more tender fpecies, as the flowers of rofes, vio¬
lets, &c. as it deftroys the nice arrangement of parts
in thofe fubje&s on which the colour depends.
A yellow lake for painting is to be made from
1 „ • .1 r ii :   i c
lake may be prepared from Brazil wood, by boiling
three pounds of it for an hour in a felution of three
pounds of common fait in three gallons of water, and
filtering the hot fluid through paper ; add to this a
broom flowers in the following manner: Make a ley of folution of five pounds of alum in three gallons of wa-
pot-afhes and lime reafonably ftrong ; in this boil, at a ter. Diffolve three pounds of the beft pearl-aflies in
gentle fire, frefti bloom flowrers till they are white, the a gallon and a half of water, and purify it by filter-
ley having extradfed all their colour ; then take out tering ; put this gradually to the other, till the whole
the flowers, and put the ley to boil in earthen veffels of the colour appear to be precipitated, and the fluid
over the fire ; add as much alum as the liquor will dif- be left clear and colonrlefs. But if any appearance of
folve*; then empty this ley into a veffel of clean water, purple be feen, add a frefti quantity of the folution of
and it will give a yellow colour at the bottom. Let alum by degrees, till a fcarlet hue be produced. Then
all fettle, and decant off the clear liquor. Wafh this purfue the directions given in the firft procefs with re¬
powder, which is found at the bottom, with more wa- gard to the fediment. If half a pound of feed lac be
ter, till all the falts of the ley are waftied off; then fe- added to the folution of pearl afties, and diffolved in it
i ii . .   1 .3• &. ' /L —1 „ Ta. 1- _C ra „  C. ~V... 4-L £ 1 J a    i r*
parate the yellow matter, and dry it in the {hade. It
proves a very valuable yellow.
Lake is at prefent feldom prepared from any other
fubfta.nce than fcarlet rags, cochineal, and Brafil wood.
The beft of what is commonly fold is made from the
’’colour extra&ed from fcarlet rags, and depofited on
the cuttle-bone ; and this may be prepared in the fol-
before its purification by the filtre, and two pounds of
the wood, and a proportional quantity of the common
lalt and water be ufed in the coloured folution, a lake
will be produced that will ftand well in oil or water,
but is not fo tranfparent in oil as without the feed-lac.
The lake with Brafil wood may be alfo made by add¬
ing half an ounce of anotto to each pound of the wood;
lowing manner : Diffolve a pound of the beft pearl- but the anqtto muft be diffolved in the folution of
H°i73. * pearl-
LAM [ 513 ] LAM
pearl-aflies. There is a kind of beautiful lake brought
J from China; but as it does not mix well with either
water or oil, though it diflblves entirely in fpirit of
wine, it is not of any ufe in our kinds of painting.
This has been erroneoufly called Jafflonuer.
Orange Lake, is the tinging part of anottO precipi¬
tated together with the earth of alum. This pigment,
which is of a bright orange colour and fit for varnifh
painting, where there is no fear of flying, and alfo for
putting under cryftal to imitate the vinegar garnet,
may be prepared by boiling four ounces of the belt
anotto and one pound of pearl-afhes half an hour in a
gallon of water; and ftraining the folution through
paper. Mix gradually with this a folution of a pound
and a half of alum in another gallon of water ; defift-
ing when no ebullition attends the commixture. Treat
the fediment in the manner already direfted for other
kinds of lake, and dry it in fquare bits or round lo¬
zenges.
LAMA, a fynonyme of the camelus pacos. See
Camelus.
Lama, the fovereign pontiff, or rather god, of the
Afiatic Tartars, inhabiting the country of Barantola.
The lama is not only adored by the inhabitants of the
country, but alfo by the kings of Tartary, who fend
him rich prefents, and go in pilgrimage to pay him
adoration, calling him lama congiu, i. e. “ god, the
everlafting father of heaven.” He is never to be feen
but in a fecret place of his palace, arnidfl. a great num¬
ber of lamps, fitting crofs-legged upon a cufhion, and
adorned all over with gold and precious {tones; where
at a diftance they proftrate themfelves before him, it
not being lawful for any to kifs even his feet. He is
called the great lama, or lama of lamas; that is, “ prieft
of priefts.” The orthodox opinion is, that when the
grand lama feems to die either of old age or infirmity,
his foul in fadt only quits a crazy habitation to look for
another younger or better; and it is difeovered again in
the body of fome child, by certain tokens known only
to the lamas or priefts, in which order he always ap¬
pears.
The following account of the ceremonies attending
the inauguration of the infant lama i» Thibet is ex-
trafted from the fir ft volume of the Afiatic Refearches.
The emperor of China appears on this occafion to
have aflumed a very confpicuous part in giving tefti-
mony of his refpeft and zeal for the great religious fa¬
ther of his faith. Early in the year 1784, he difmiffed
ambafladors from the court of Pekin to Teefhoo Loom-
boo, to reprefent their fovereign in fupporting the dig¬
nity of the high prieft, and do honour to the occafion
of the affumption of his office. Dalia Lama and the
viceroy of Lafla, accompanied by all the court, one of the
Chinefe generals ftationed at Lafla with a part of the
troops under his command, two of the four magiftrates
of the city, the heads of every monaftery throughout
Thibet, and the emperor’s ambaffadors, appeared at
Teefhoo Loomboo. to celebrate this epocha in their
theological inftitut/ons. The 28th day of the feventh
moon, correfpond'ng nearly, as their year commences
with the vernal equinox, to the middle of Oftober
j 784, was chofen as the moft aufpicious for the ce-
emony of inauguration : a few days previous to which
b e lama was conduced from Terpaling, the mona¬
ftery in which he had palled his infancy, with every
Von. IX. Part. II.
mark of pomp and homage that could be paid by an
enthufiaftic people. So great a concourfe as afiembled
either from curiofity or devotion was never feen before,
for not a perfon of any condition in Thibet was abfent
who could join the fuite. The proceffion was hence
neaeffarily con drained to move fo flow, that though
Terpaling is fituated at the diftance of ao miles only
from Ttefhoo Loomboo, three days expired in the per¬
formance of this fhort march. The firft halt was made
at Tfondue ; the fecond at Summaar, about fix miles
off, whence the moft fplendid parade was referred for
the lama’s entry on the third day, the account of
which is given by a perfon who was prefent in the
proceffion. The road, he fays, was previoufly prepa«.
red by being whitened with a wafh, and having piles
of ftones heaped up with fmall intervals between on
either fide. The retinue palled between a double row
of priefts who formed a ftrect extending all the way
from Summaar to the gates of the palace. Some of
the priefts held lighted rods of a perfumed compofition
that burn like decayed wood, and emit an aromatic
fmoke ; the reft were furnifhed with the different mu-
fical inftruments they ufe at their devotions, fuch as
the gong, the cymbal, hautboy, trumpets, drums, and
fea-fuells, which were all founded in union with the
hymn they chanted. The crowd of fpe&ators wete
kept without the ftreet, and none admitted on the
high road but fuch as properly belonged to or had a
preferibed place in the proceffion, which was arranged
in the'following order.
The van was led by three military commandants or
governors of diftri&s at the head of 6000 or 7000 horL-
men armed with quivers, bows, and matchlocks. In
their rear followed the ambaffador with his fuite, car¬
rying his diploma as is the cuftom of China, made up
in the form of a large tube, and faftened on his back.
Next the Chinefe general advanced with the troops un¬
der his command, mounted and accoutered after their
way with fire-arms and fabres; then came a very nu¬
merous group bearing the various ftandards and infig-
nia of ftate ; next to them moved a full band of wind
and other fonorous inftruments; after which were led
two horfes richly caparifoned, each carrying two large
circular ftoves difpofed like panniers acrofs the horfe’s
back and filled with burning aromatic woods. Thefe
were followed by a fenior prieft, called a lama, who
bore a box containing books of their form of prayer
and fome favourite idols. Next nine fumptuary horfes
were led loaded with the lama’s apparel ; after which
came the priefts immediately attached to the lama’s
perfon for the performance of daily offices in the
temple, amounting to about 700; following them
were two men each carrying on his fhoulder a large
cylindrical gold infignium embofled with emblematical
figures (a gift from the emperor of China). The Du-
hunniers and Soopoons, who were employed in com¬
municating addreffes and diftributing alms, immediate¬
ly preceded the lama’s bier, which was covered with
a gaudy canopy, and borne by eight of the 16 Chinefe
appointed for this fervice. On one fide of the bier at¬
tended the regent, on the other the lama’s father. It
was followed by the heads of the different monafteries,
and as the proceffion advanced, the priefts who formed
the ftreet fell in the rear and brought up the fuit,
which moved at an extremely flow pace, and about
3 T noon
LAM l SH 1 LA M
l^ama, noon was reciived with In the confines of the monaftery,
Lan*h‘ amidft an amazing difplay of colours, the acclamations
of the crowd, folemn mulic, and the chanting of their
priefts.
The lama being fafely lodged in the palace, the re¬
gent and Soopoon Choorhboo went out, as is a cufto-
-mary compliment paid to vifitors of high rank on their
pear approach^ to meet and conduit Dalai Lama and
the viceroy of Laffa who were on the way to Teefhoo
Loomboo. Their retinues enaountered the following
morning at the foot of Painom caftle, and the next day
together entered the monaftery of Teefhoo Loomboo,
in which both Dalai Lama and the viceroy were ac¬
commodated during their flay.
The following morning, which was the third after
Teefhoo Lama’s arrival, he was carried to the great
temple, and about noon feated upon the throne of his
progenitors ; at which time the emperor’s ambaftador
delivered his. diploma, and placed the prefents with
which he had been charged at the lama’s feet.
The three next enfuing days, Dalai Lama met Tee¬
fhoo Lama in the temple, where they were affifted by
all the priefts in the invocation and public worfhip of
their gods. The rites then performed, completed, as
we underftand, the bufinefs of inauguration. During
this interval all who were at the capital were entertain¬
ed at the public expence, and alms were diftributed
without referve. In conformity likewife to previous
notice circulated every where for the fame fpace of
t.ime^univerfal rejoicings prevailed throughout Thibet.
Banners were unfurled on all their fortreffes, the pea-
fantry filled up the day with mufic and feftivity, and
the night was celebrated by general illuminations. A
long period was afterwards employed in making pre¬
fents and public entertainments to the newly indufted
lama, who, at the time ofhis acceffion to the Mufnud,
or if we may ufe the term, pontificate of Teefhoo Loom¬
boo, was not three years of age. The ceremony was
begun by Dalai Lama, whofe offerings are faid to have
amounted to a greater value, and his public entertain¬
ments to have been more fplendid than the reft. The
fecond day was dedicated to the viceroy of Laffa. The
third to the Chinefe general. Then followed the cu/-
hong or magiftrates of Laffa, and the reft of the prin¬
cipal perfons who had accompanied Dalai Lama. Af¬
ter which the regent of Teefhoo Loomboo, and all
that were dependent on that*government, were feverally
admitted, according to pre-eminence of rank, to pay
their tributes of obeifance and refpeft. As foon as
the acknowledgements of all thofe were received who
were admiffible to the privilege, Teefhoo Lama made
in the fame order fuitable returns to each, and the con-
fummation lafted 40 days.
Many importunities were ufed with Dalai Lama to
prolong his flay at Teefhoo Loomboo; but he excu-
fed himfelf from encumbering the capital any longer
with fo numerous a concourfe of people as attended on
his movements, and deeming it expedient to make his
abfence as fhort as poffible from the feat of his autho¬
rity, at the expiration of 40 days he withdrew with
all his fuite to Laffa, and the emperor’s ambaffador re¬
ceived his difmiffion to return to China, and thus ter¬
minated this famous feftival.
LAMB, in zoology, the young of the fheep kind.
See Oris,
A male Iamb of the firft year is called a foeMer-hog, Lamb
and the female a ewe-hog} the fecond year it is called t]
a wedder, and the female aJbeave. If a lamb be fiok, amt>ei ^
mare’s milk with water may be given it; and by blow¬
ing into the mouth, many have been recovered, after
appearing dead. The beft feafon for weaning them
is when they ate 16 or 18 weeks old ; and about
Michaelmas the males fhould' be feparated from the
females, and fuch males as are not defigned for rams,
gelded. “ Lamb (fays Dr Cullen) appears a more
fibrous kind of meat, and upon that account is lefseafily
foluble-than veal. In Scotland, houfe-larnb is never
reared to advantage.”
Scythian Lams, a kind of mofs, which..grows about
the roots of fern in fome of the northern parts of Eu¬
rope and Alia, and fometimes affumes the form of a qua¬
druped ; fo called from a fuppofed refemblance in (hape
to that animal. It has fomething like four feet, and its
body is covered with a kind of down. Travellers re¬
port that it will fuffer no vegetable to grow within a
certain diftance of its feat. Sir Hans Sloan read a me¬
moir upon this plant before the Society; for which
thofe who think it worth while may confult their Tranf-
aftions, N°245, ?• Mr1 Bell, in his “ Account,
of a Journey from St Peterfburgh to Ifpahan,” in¬
forms us that he fearched in vain for this plant in the
neighbourhood of Aftrachan, when at the fame time the:
more fenfible and experienced amongft the Tartars treat¬
ed the whole hiftory as fabulous. See Plate CCL1X.
LAMBECIUS (Peter), born at Hamburg in 1628,
was one of the moll learned men of his time. He went
very young to ftudy in foreign countries, at the ex¬
pence of his uncle the learned Holftenius. He was
ehofen profeffor of hiftory at Hamburg in 1652, and’
reftor of the college of that city in 1660. He had ta¬
ken his degree of doftor of law in France before. He
fuffered a thoufand vexations in his own country; be¬
cause his enemies charged him with atheifm, and cen-
fured his writings bitterly. He married a rich lady,
but who was fo very covetous, that he left her in dif-
guft within a fortnight. He went to Vienna, and’
from thence to Rome, where he publicly profeffed the
Catholic religion. He returned to Vienna in 1662,
where he was kindly received by the emperor, who
appointed him his fublibrary-keeper, and afterwards
his principal librarian, with the title of counfellor and
hi/loriographer ; in which employment he continued till
his death, and gained a great reputation by the works
he publifhed, viz. 1. jin EJay on Aulus Gellius. 2. The
Antiquities of Hamburg. 3. Remarks on Cadmus's Ah-
tiquities of Conjlantinople, &c.
LAMBERT of Afchaffenburg, a Benedi&ine
monk, in the nth century, wrote feveral works;
among which is a hiftory of Germany, from the year
1050 to 1077, which is efteemed.
Lambert (John), general of the parliament’s for¬
ces in the civil wars of the laft century, was o£a good
family, and for fome time ftudied the law in one of the
inns of court; but upon the breaking out of the re¬
bellion, went into the parliament-army, where he foon
rofe to the rank of colonel, and by his conduA and
valour performed many eminent fervices. But when
Cromwell feemed inclined to affume the title of king,
Lambert oppofed it with great vigour, and even refu-,
fed to take the oath required by the affembly and
council
LAM [ Si* 1 L A M
.STL&mbert, council to be faithful to the government ; on which and acquired great flcill in polite literature. He lived Lamech
'Jjambin. Cromwell deprived him of his commifiion, but grant- for a long time at Rome ; and at his return to Paris Lam]!nta,
ed him a penfion of 2000 1. a-year. This was an a& was made royal profeflTor of the Greek language. He tions. *
of prudence rather than of generofny; as he well knew, died in 1572, aged 56, of pure grief at the death of—^
that fuch genius as Lambert’s, rendered defperate by his friend Ramus, who was murdered at the maffacfe
poverty, was capable of attempting any thing. on St Bartholomew’s day. He wrote commentaries
Lambert being now divefted of all employment, re- on Piautus, Lucretius, Cicero, and Horace, and other
tired to Wimbleton-houfe ; where turning florift, he works. His commentary on Horace is more particu-
had the fineft tulips and gillifiowers that could be got larly efteeme 1.
for love or money. Yet amidit thefe amufements he LAMECH, of the race of Cain, was the fon of
{till nourifhed his ambition : for when Richard Crom- Methufael, and father of Jabal, Jubal, Tubal-cain*
well fucceeded his father, he acted fo effe&ually with and Naamah. Gen. iv. i3, 19, 20, &c. Lamech is
'Fleetwood, Defborough, Vane, Berry, and others, celebrated in fcripture for his polygamy, whereof he
that the new protector was obliged to furrender his is thought to be the firft author in the world. He
authority ; and the members of the long-parliament, married Adah and Zillah. Adah was the mother of
who had continued fitting till the 20th of April 1653, Jabal and Jubal; and Zillah of Tubal-cain, and Naa-
when Oliver difmiffed them, were reftored to their mah his filter. One day Lamech faid to his wives,
feats, and Lambert was immediately appointed one of “ Hear me, ye wives of Lamech ; I have flain a man
the council of Hate, and colonel of a regiment of horfe to my wounding, and a young man to my hurt. If
and another of foot. For this fervice the parlia- Cain lhall be avenged feven fold, truly Lamech feventy
ment prefented him 10001 to buy a jewel; but he and feven fold.” Thefe words are an unintelligible
diftributed it among his officers. This being foon riddle. The reader may confult the commentators,
known to the parliament, they concluded that he in- There is a tradition among the Hebrews, that Lamech
tended to fecure a party in the army. They therefore growing blind, ignorantly killed Cain, believing him
courteoufly invited him to come to London ; but re- to be fome wild bead ; and that afterwards he flew his
folved, as foon as he fhould arrive, to iecure him from own fon Tubal-cain, who had been the catife of this
doing any further harm. Lambert, apprehenfive of murder, becaufe he had dire&ed him to (hoot at a cer-
'this, delayed his return, and even refufed to refign his tain place in the thickets where he had feen fomething
-commiffion when it was demanded of him and of eight ftir. See Cain.
of the other leading officers; and, marching up to Lon- Several other fuppofitions are produced in order to
don with his army, diflodged the parliament by force explain this paffage concerning Lamech, and all almoft
in Oflober 1659. He was then appointed, by a equally uncertain and abfurd.
-council of the officers, major-general of the army, and Lamech, the fon of Methufelah, and father of
one of the new council for the management of public Noah. He lived a hundred fourfcore and two years
affairs, and fent to command the forces in the north, before the birth of Noah, (Gen. v. 25, 31.) ; and af-
But general Monk marching from Scotland into Eng- ter that, he lived five hundred and ninety-five years
land to fupport the parliament, againft which Lam- longer: thus the whole time of his life was feven hun-
bert had adied with fuch violence, the latter, being dred feventy-feven years, being born in the year of the
deferted by his army, was obliged to fubmit to the world 874, and dying in the year of the world 1651.
parliament, and by their order was committed prifoner LAMELLAE, in natural hiftory, denotes very
to the tower; whence efcaping he foon appeared in thin plates, fuch as the fcales of fillies are compofed of.
arms with four troops under his command, but was LAMENTATIONS, a canonical book of the Old
defeated and taken prifoner by colonel Ingoldfby. Teftament, written by the prophet Jeremiah, accord-
At the Refloration he was particularly -excepted ing to archbilhop Ufher and fome other learned men,
out of the aft of indemnity. Being brought to his who follow the opinion of Jofephus and St Jerom, on
trial on the 4th of June 1662, for levying war agnind -occarion of Jofiah’s death. But this opinion does not
the king, this daring general behaved with more fub- feem to agree with the fubjeft of the book, the la-
milfion than the meanell of his fellow-prifoners, and mentation compofed by Jeremiah on that occafion be-
was by his majefty’s favour reprived at the bar, and ing probably loll. The fifty-fecond chapter of the
confined during his life in the ifland of Guernfey. book of Jeremiah was probably added by Ezra, as a
Lambert (Anna Therela de Marguenat deCour- preface or introduftion to the Lamentations: the two
celles, marchionefs of), an elegant moral writer, was firft chapters are employed in defcribicg the calami-
the only daughterof Stephen Mirguenat lord of Cour- ties of the fiege of J era! a Em : in the third the au-
celles. In 1666 Ihe married Henry de Lambert, who thor deplores the perfecutions he himfelf IjSH fuffered :
at his death was lieutenant-general of the atmy ; and the fourth treats of the defolation of the city and tem-
Ihe afterwards remained a widow with a fon and a pie, and the misfortune of Zedekiah : the hfih chap*
daughter, whom (he educated with great care. Her ter is a prayer for the Jews in their difperfion and cap-
houfe was a kind of academy, to which perfons of tivity : and at the clofe of all he fpeaks of the cruelty
diftinguiftied abilities regularly reforted. She died at of the Edomites, who had infulted Jerufalem in her
Paris in 1733, aged 86. Her works, which are writ- mifery. AH the chapters of -this book, except the
ten with much tafte, judgment, and delicacy, are laft, are in metre, and digefted in the order of the al-
printed in two volumes. The advice of a mother to phabet; with this difference, that in the firft, fecond,
her fon and daughter are particularly efteemed and fourth chapters, the firft letter of every verfe fol-
LAMBIN (Dennis), an eminent claffical com- lows the order of the alphabet ; but in the third the
mentator, was born at Montreuil-fur-Mer, in Picardy, fame initial letter is continued for three verfes toge-
3 T 2 ther,
L A M [ 51
Lamia then This order was probably adopted, that the book
Lamium he more eafily learnt and retained. The fub*
, jedt of this book is of the moft moving kind ; and the
: ir^ ttyle throughout lively, pathetic, and affedting.' In
this kind of writing the prophet Jeremiah was a great
mailer, according to the charadler which Grotius gives
of him, Mirus in affeftibus concitandis.
LAMIA (anc. geog.) a town of the Phthiotis,
a diftridt of Theffaly. Famous for giving name to the
BAlum Lamiacum, waged by the Greeks on the Mace¬
donians after Alexander’s death.
LAMIACUM bellum happened after the death
of Alexander, when the Greeks, and particularly the
Athenians, incited by their orators, refolved to free
Greece from the garrifons of the Macedonians. Leof-
thenes was appointed commander of a numerous force,
and marched againft Antipater, who then prefided
oyer Macedonia. Antipater entered Theflaly at the
head of 13,000 foot and 600 horfe, and was beaten by
the fuperior force of the Athenians and of their Greek
confederates. Antipater after this blow fled to Lamia,
where he refolved, with all the courage and fagacity
of a careful general, to maintain a fiege with about 8000
or 9000 men that had efcaped from the field of battle.
Leofthenes, unable to take the city by ftorm, began to
make a regular fiege. His operations were delayed by
the frequent fallies of Aotipater ; and Leofthenes be¬
ing killed by the blow of a Hone which he received,
Antipater made his efcape out of Lamia, and foon af¬
ter, with the afiiftance of the army of Craterus brought
from Afia, he gave the Athenians battle near Cranon ;
and though only 500 of their men were flain, yet
they became fo difpirited, that they fued for peace
from the conqueror. Antipater at laft with difficulty
confented, provided they railed taxes in the ufual man¬
ner, received a Macedonian garrifon, defrayed the ex-
pences of the war, and, laftly, delivered into his hands
Demofthenes and Hyperides, the two orators whofe
prevailing eloquence had excited their countrymen a-
gainft him. I'hefe difadvantageous terms were ac¬
cepted by the Athenians, yet Demofthenes had time
to efcape and poifon himfelf. Hyperides was carried
before Antipater, who ordered his tongue to be cut
off, and afterwards to be put to death.
LAM1.<?E, a fort of demons who had their exiftence
in the imaginations of the heathens, and were fuppo-
fed to devour children. Their form was human, re-
fembling beautiful women. Horace makes mention of
them in his Art of Poetry. The name, according to
fome, is derived from lanio “ to tear or according
to others, is a corruption of a Hebrew word fignifying
to devour. They are alfo called Larva or Lemu-
res.
LAMINiE. in phyfiology, thin plates, or tables,
whereof any thing confifts ; particularly the human
Jkull, which are two, the one laid over the other.
LAMINIUM, (anc. geog.), a town of the Carpe-
tani in the Hither Spain ; at the diftance of feven
miles from the head of the Anas or Guadiana : Now
Month!, a citadel of New Caftile; and the territory
called Jlger Laminiianus, is now el Campo de Month),
(Clufius.)
LAMIUM, DEAn-Nettle, in botany : A genus of
the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia
ciafs of giants; and in the natural method ranking
3,
6 ] LAM
under the 42ft order, Verthillata. The upper lip of Lammas
the corolla is entire, arched, the under lip bilobous ; II
the throat with a dent or tooth on each fide the mar- an>p‘
gin. There are eight fpecies ; of which only two,
viz. the albumj white archangel or dead-nettle, and
the purpureum or red archangel, deferve notice. The
firlt grows frequently under hedges and in wafte places;
the fecond is very common in gardens and corn-fields.
The flowers of the firft, which appear in April and
May, have been particularly celebrated in uterine
fluors and other female weaknefles, and alfo in diforders
of the lungs ; but they appear to be of very weak
virtue ; and they are at prefent fo little ufed in Bri¬
tain as to have now no place in our pharmacopoeias.
The young leaves of both fpecies are boiled and eaten
in fome places like greens.
LAMMAS day, the firft of Auguft ; fo called, as
fome will have it, becaufe lambs then grow out of fea-
fon, as being too big. Others derive it from a Saxon
word, fignifying “ loaf-mafs,” becaufe on that day
our forefathers made an offering of bread made with
new wheat.
On this da-y the tenants who formerly held lands of
the cathedral church in York, were bound by their te¬
nure to bring a lamb alive into the church at high-
mafs.
LAMOIGNON (Chretien Francis de) marquis of
Baville, and prefident of the parliament of Paris, was
born in 1644. His father would not trull the educa¬
tion of his Ion to another, but took it upon himfelf,
and entered into the minuteft particulars of his firft;
ftudies: the love of letters and a folid tafte were the
fruits the fcholar reaped from this valuable education.
He learned rhetoric in the Jefuit’s college, made the
tour of England and Holland, and returned home the
admiration of thofe meetings regularly held by per-
fons of the firft merit at his father’s houfe. The fe-
veral branches of literature were however only his a-
mufement: the law was his real employ ; and the elo¬
quence of the bar at Paris owes its reformation from
bombaft and affe&ed erudition to the plain and noble
pleadings of M. Lamoignon. He was appointed the
king’s advocate general in 1673 5 which he difcharged
until 1698, when the prefidentffiip of the parliament
was conferred on hirs. This poll he held nine years,
when he was allowed to refign in favour of his eldeft
fon : he was chofen prefident of the royal academy of
infcriptions in 1705. The only work he fuffered to
fee the light was his Pleader, which is a monument of
his eloquence and inclination to polite letters. He
died in 1709.
LAMP, a veffel containing oil, with alighted wick.
Lamps were in general ufe amongll the Jews,
Greeks, and Romans. The candleftick with feven
branches, placed in the fanftuary by Mofes, and thofe
which Solomon afterwards prepared for the temple,
weie cryftal lamps filled with oil, and fixed upon the
branches. The lamps or candlefticks made ufe of by
the Jews in their own houfes were generally put into
a very high Hand on the ground. The lamps fuppofed
to be ufed by the fooliffi virgins, &c. in the gofpel,
were of a different kind—According to critics and anti¬
quaries, they were a fort of torches, made of iron or
potter’s earth, wrapped about with old linen, and
moillened from time to time with oil. Matth. xxv.
1,2 i„
Plate
; ecux.
LAM [51
1,2. The lamps of Gideon’s foldiers were of the fame
kind. The ufe of wax was not unknown to the Ro¬
mans, but they generally burnt lamps; hence the pro¬
verb Tempus et oleum perdidi, “T have loll my labour.”
Lamps were fometimes burnt in honour of the dead,
both by Greeks and Romans.
Dr St Clair, in the Philof. Tranf. n° 245, gives the
•defctiption of an improvement on the common lamp.
He propofes that it fliould be made two or three inches
deep, with a pipe coming from the bottom almoll as
high as the top of the veffel. Let it be filled fo high
with water that it may cover the hole of the pipe at
the bottom, that the oil may not get in at the pipe
and fo be loti. Then let the oil be poured in fo as to
fill the veffel almoft brim-full; and to the veffel muff be
adapted a cover having as many holes as there are to
be wicks. When the veffel is filled and the wicks light¬
ed, if water falls in by drops at the pipe, it will al¬
ways keep the oil at the fame height or very near it 5
the weight of the water being to that of the oil as
20-rr to (9, which in two or three inches makes no
great difference. If the water runs fafter than the oil
vvaftes, it will only run over at the top of the pipe, and
what does not run over will come under the oil, and
keep it at the fame height-
From experiments made in order to afeertain the
expence of burning chamber oil in lamps, it appears,
that a taper lamp, with eight threads of cotton in the
wick, confumes in one hour Vg-g- oz, of fpermaceti oil,
at 2S. 6d. per gallon ; fo that the expence of burning
12 hours is 4.57 farthings. This lamp gives as good
a light as the candles of eight and ten in the pound ;
it feldom wants fnuffing, and cafts a ilrong and Heady
light. A taper, chamber, or watch lamp, with four
ordinary threads of cotton in the wick, confumes
0.1664 oz. of fpermaceti oil in one hour ; the oil at
2s. 6d. per gallon, makes the expence of burning 12
hours only 2 34 fat things.
Perpetual Lamts. The teftimonies of Pliny, St
Autlin, and others, have led many to believe that the
ancients had the invention of perpetual lamps ; and
fome moderns have attempted to find out the fecret,
but hitherto in vain. Indeed it feems no eafy matter
to find out either a perpetual wick or a perpetual oil.
The curious may read Dr Plot’s conjedlures on the
fubjedt in the Philof. Tranf. n° 166 ; or in Lowthorp’s
abridgment, vol. iii. p. 636. But few, we believe,
will give themfelves the trouble of fearching for the,
fecret, when they confider that the credulity of Pli¬
ny and of St Aullin wasfuch, that their tedimony does
not feem a fufficient inducement to us to believe that
a lamp was ever formed to bum 1500 or 1000 years
much lefs is it credible that the ancients had the fecret
of making one burn for ever.
Rolling Lamp : A machine A B, with two moveable
circles D E, F G, within it; whofe common centre of
motion and gravity is at K, where their axes of mo¬
tion crofs one another. If the lamp K C, made precty
heavy and moveable about its axis H I, and whofe
centre of gravity is at C, be fitted within the inner cir¬
cle, the common centre of gravity of the whole machine
will fall between K and C; and by reafon of the pi¬
vots A, B, D, E, H, I, will be always at liberty to de-
£cend : hence, though the whole machine be rolled a-
7 ] LAM
long the ground, or moved in any manner, tire flame
will always be uppermoft, and the oil cannot fpill.
It is in this manner they hang the compafs at fea;
and thus fhould all the moon-lanterns be made, that
are carried before coaches, chaifes, and the like.
ylrgatid’s Lamp. This is a very ingenious contri¬
vance, and the greateft improvement in lamps that has
yet been made. It is the invention of a citizen of
Geneva ; and the principle on which the fuperiority
of the lamp depends, is the admiflion of a larger quan¬
tity of air to the flame than can be done in the com¬
mon way. This is accompliflred by making the wick
of a circular form ; by w'hich means a current of air
rufhes through the cjUnder on which it is placed with
great force; and, along with that which has accefs to
the outfide, excites the flame to fuch a degree that
the fmoke is entirely confumed. Thus both the light
and heat are prodigioufly increafed, at the fame time,
that there is a very confiderable faving in the expence
of oil, the confumption of the , phlogifton being ex¬
ceedingly augmented by the quantity of air admitted
to the flame ; fo that what in common lamps is difli»
pated in fmoke is here converted into a brilliant flame.
This lamp is now very much in ufe; and is applied
not only to the ordinary purpofes of illumination, but
alfo to that of a lamp furnace for chemical operations*
in which it is found to ,exceed every other contrivance
yet invented. It confifls of two parts, viz. a refer voir
for the oil, and the lampkitfelf. The refervoir is ufually.
in the form of a vafe, and has the lamp proceeding
from its fide. The latter confifts of an upright metal¬
lic tube about one inch and fix-tenths in diameter,
three inches in length, and open at both ends. With¬
in this is another tube about an inch in diameter, and
nearly of an equal length; the fpace betwixt the two
being left clear for the paffage of the air. The inter¬
nal tube is clofed at the bottom, and contains another
fimilar tube about half an inch in diameter, which is-
foldered to the bottom of the fecond. It is perforated-
throughout, fo as to admit a current of air to pafir-
through it; and the oil is contained in the fpace be¬
twixt the tube and that which furrounds it. A par¬
ticular kind of cotton cloth is ufed for the wick, the
longitudinal threads of which are much thicker than
the others, and which nearly fills the fpace into which
the oil flows; and the mechanifm of the lamp is fuch,
that the wick may be raifed or depreffed at pleafure.
When the lamp is lighted, the flame is in the form of
a hollow cylinder ; and by reafon of the ftrong influx-
of air through the heated metallic tube, becomes ex¬
tremely bright, the fmoke being entirely confumed for
the reafons already mentioned. The heat and light
are Hill farther increafed, by putting over the whole a
glafs cylinder nearly of the fixe of the exterior tube.
By diminilhing the central aperture, the heat and light
are propertionably diminiihed, and the lamp begins to
fmoke. The accefs of air both to the external and in¬
ternal furfaoes of the flame is indeed fo very necefl’ary,
that a ftnfible difference is perceived when the hand is
held even at the dillance of an inch below the lower
aperture of the cylinder; and there is alfo a certain
length of wick at which the efTed of the lamp is
ftrongelt. If the wick be very ftrort, the flame, tho’
white and brilliant, emits a difagreeable and gale kind
LAM l s'
jLatnp. of light; and if very long, the upper part becomes
t-'~v brown, and fmoke is emitted.
The faving of expence in the ufe of this inftrument
for common purpofes is very confiderable. By fome
experiments it appears that the lamp will continue to
burn three hours for the value of one penny ; and the
following was the refult of the comparifon between
•the light emitted by it and that of a candle. The lat¬
ter having been fuffered to burn fo long without fnuf-
fing, that large lumps of coally matter were formed
upon the wick, gave a light at 24 inches diltance e-
qual to the lamp at 129 inches; whence it appeared
that the light of the lamp was equal to 28 candles in
this Hate. On fnuffing the candle, however, its light
was fo much augmented, that it became neceffary to
remove it to the diftance of 67 inches before its light
became equal to that of the lamp at 129 inches; whence
it was concluded that the light of the lamp was fome-
what lefs than that of four candles frefli fnuffed. At
another trial, in which the lamp was placed at the dif-
tance of 131:4 inches, amd a candle at the dillance of
■55 inches, the lights were equal. In thefe experiments
the candles made ufe of were, xo^ inches long, and 2Tg-
inches in diameter. When the candle was newly fnuff-
ed, it appeared to have the advantage ; but the lamp
foon got the fuperiority; and on the whole it was con¬
cluded, that the lamp is at lead equivalent to half a
dozen of tallow candles of fix in the pound ; the ex-
pencc of the one being only two pence halfpenny, and
the other eight pence in feven hours.
The beft method of comparing the two lights to-
•gether feems to be the following Place the greater
Tight at a conliderable dillance from a white paper, the
fmaller one being brought nearer or removed farther
off as occafion requires. If an angular body be held
before the paper, it will projeft two fhadows: thefe
two fliadows can coincide only in part; and their an¬
gular extremities will, in all pofitions but one, be at
fome didance from each other; and being made to
coincide in a certain part of their bulk, they will be
bordered by a lighter lhadow, occafioned by the ex-
clufioh of the light from each of the two luminous bo¬
dies refpe&ively. Thefe lighter fhadows, in fa£t, are
fpaces of the white paper illuminatedJ by the different
luminous bodies, and may eafily be compared together,
becaufe at a certain point they actually touch one ano¬
ther. If the fpace illuminated by the fmaller light ap¬
pear brighteft, the light muft be removed farther off,
but the contrary if it appear more obfcure.
On cutting open one of Argand’s wicks longitudi¬
nally, and thus reducing the circular flame to a ftraight
lined one, the lights appeared quitp equal in power;
but the circular one had by far the greatelt efte£t in
dazzling the eyes; though when the long flame was
made to (bine on the paper, not by the broadfidc, but
in the diredion of its length, it appeared more dazzling
than the other. On placing this long flame at right
angles to the ray of Argand’s lamp, it proje&ed no
fliadow ; but when its length was placed in the direc¬
tion of the ray, it. gave a (hadow bordered with two
broad, well defined, and bright lines.
The broad-wicked lamp feems to have the advantage
of the other, as requiring lefs apparatus ; and indeed
by this contrivance we may at the moll trifling expencc
have a lamp capable of giving any degree of light we
i8l LAM
pleafe. The only difad vantage attending either the Lampabry
one or the other is, that they cannot eafily be carrie4 H .
from one place to another; and in this refpedl it does Lam[iyns*.
not feem pofiible by any means to bring lamps to an ’ -
equality-with candle*.
LAMt-Black, among colourmen. See Coiovn-Ma-
king, n° 18, 19.—Subftances painted with lamp-black
and oil, are found to refill the effedls of ele&ricity to
■a fuprifing degree ; fo that in many cafes even light¬
ning itfelf feems to have been repelled by them. See
Lightning; Thunder; Chemistry, n° 700. and
Electricity, p. 478. col. c.
LAMPADARY, an officer 'n the ancient church
of Conflantinople, fo called from his employment,
which was to- take care of the lamps, and to carry a
taper before the emperor or patriarch when they went
to church or in proceffion.
LAMPAS, in farriery. See there, $ xxxv.
LAMPREY. See Petromyzon.
LAMPRIDIUS (jElius), a Latin hillorian, who
lived under the emperors Dioclefian and Conftantine
the Great We have, of his writing, the lives of four
emperors, Antoninus, Commodus, Diadumenus, and
Heliogabalus. Some attribute the life of Alexander
Severus to him ; but the MS. in the palatine library
afcribe^ it to Spartian.
Lampridius (BenediT), of Cremona, a celebrated
Latin poet of the > 6th century. He taught Greek
and Latin at Rome and at Padua, until he was invited
to Mantua by Frederic Gonzaga to undertake the tui¬
tion of his fon. We have epigrams and lyric verfes
of this writer, both in Greek and Latin, which were
printed feparately, as well as among the Delicia of the
Italian poets.
LAMPSACUS, or Lampsacum, (anc. geog.), a
confiderable city of Myfia; more anciently called Pilyeat
(Homer), becaufe abounding in pine trees, a circum-
flance confirmed by Pliny ; fituated at the north end or
entrance of the Hellefpont into the Propontis, with a
commodious harbour, oppofite to Callipolis in the
Thracian Cherfonefus. It was afligned by Artaxerxes
to Themiftocles, for furnifliing his table with wine, in
which the country abounded. It was faved from the
ruin threatened by Alexander becaufe in the intereft of
Perfia, by the addrefs of Anaximenes the hiflorian,
fent by his fellow-citizens to avert the king’s difplea-
fure ; who hearing of it, folemnly declared he would
do the very reverfe of, Anaximenes’s requeft, who
therefore begged the king utterly to deftroy it, which
he could not do becaufe of his oath. Lampfacius the
epithet, denoting lafcivus, the character of the people i
flill called Lampfaeus. E. Long. 28°. N. Lat. 40. 12.
LAMPYRIS, the fire-fly, a genus of infedls be¬
longing to the coleoptera order ; the charafters of
which are : The antenna; ate filiform ; the elytra are
flexible ; the thorax is flat, of a femiorbicular form,
furrounding and concealing the bead. The fegment*
of the abdomen terminate in papilla;, which are turn¬
ed up towards the elytra, and partly fold one over the
other. The females in general are apterous.
There are 18 fpecies; of which the moll remarhable
is the noililuca. The male of this infeift is lefs than
the female: its head is fliaped exaflly in the fame
manner, and covered likewffe by the plate of the tho- Plate
rax, only it appears rather longer than that of the fe- CCLYIIT.
male.
fcampyris mate. Both the head and antennae are black. The
II . thorax of the male, which is fmaller and fhorter than
Lancarim. ^at q£ ^ femajCj ^,as foldj antj papillae on its
~'f~~ fides much lefs remark able : but the greateft difference
that is found between the two fexes is, that the male
is covered with brown elytra, fhagreened and marked
with two lines longitudinally. The elytra are longer
than the abdomen, and under them lie the wings.
The two laft rings of the abdomen are not fo bright
as thofe of the female, only there appear four luminous
points, two upon each of the two laft rings.
Ba>but »n The in fed! called glow-worm, and which is frequent-
'injegt. ly met with towards evening, in the month of June,
in woods and meadows, is the female belonging to this
fpecies. By the fhining light which it emits, it at¬
tracts the male ; a wonderful inftatice of the divine
providence. It is apparent that their fhining light
depends on a liquor placed at the lower extremity of
the infedt, which when in motion, the light is more
lively and fhining, and of a finer green. This light
the infedt withdraws .at pleafure, either by unfolding
or contracting itfelf. As a proof that the light de¬
pends on a phofphorous matter, you may crufh the
animal, which, though dead and bruifed, leaves a lu¬
minous fubltance on the hand, that only lofes its luftre
when dried.
The perfeft infeCt flies about during the evening in
autumn, and frequents the graffy plantations of juni¬
per trees.
LAMY, or LAMij (Bernard)* was born at Mons
in 1640, and ftudied there under the fathers of the
oratory ; with whofe way of life he was fo pleafed,
that he went to Paris in 1658, and entered into the
inftitution. He had a great tafte for the fciences, and
ftuditd them all; he entered into the priefthood in
1667, and taught philofophy at Saumur and Angiers;
which latter place he was obliged to quit by an order
procured from court fer adopting the new philofophy
infiead of that of Ariftotle. In 1 676 he w ent to Gre¬
noble, where cardinal Camus was then bifhop ; who
conceived fuch an etteem for him, that he retained him
near his perfon, and derived confiderable fervices from
him in the government of his diocefe. After conti¬
nuing many years there, he went to refide at Rouen,
where he died in 17*5. He wrote fevcral fcientifical
works, befides others in divinity.
LANCARIM spring, the name of a medicated
water of Glamorganfliire. It has its name from a town
near which it rifes; and has been very long famous in
the place for the cure of the king’s evil. The body
of water is about an ell broad, and runs between two
hills covered with wood. About 12 yards from this
fpring the rill falls from a rock of about eight or nine
feet high, with a confiderable noife. The fpring is
very clear, and rifes out of a pure white marie. The
cures that have been performed there, are proofs of a
real power in the water; but there is feme queftion
whether the water, or its motion and coldnefs, does
the good ; for the. people who come for relief always
drink of the fpring, and bathe the part afterward in
the fall below. It is generally fuppofedthat the lime-
ftone rocks communicate a virtue to it by which it
cures internally ; but it has been often found, that the
holding a limb difordered with the evil in. the flroag
current of a mill tail has cured it, and there is the l-anr^.ire,
fame advantage in the fall of this water. Y
LANCASHIRE, a large maritime province of
England, wathed by the Iriih fea on the well, border¬
ing on the north with part of Cumberland and WetL
moreland ; bounded, on the call by the Well Riding
of Yorklhire, and on the weft by Chelhire ; extending
73 miles in length and 41 in breadth, comprehending
6 hundreds, 63 paiilhes, 27 market-towns, 894 villages,
about 43,000 houfes, and about 260,000 inhabitants.
The taftern parts of the province are rocky, and in
• the northern dittridls we fee many Angle meuntains re¬
markably high, fuch as Ingleborough-hill, Clough-
bokill, Pendle-hill, and Longridge-hill. Nor is there
any want of wood in this country, either for timber or
fuel; witnefs Wierfdale foreft and Bowland foreft to
the northward, and Simon’s wood in the fouthern part
of Lancafhire.
This country is well watered with rivers and lakes.
Among the lakes or meres of Lancalhire, we reckon
the Winander-mere, and the Kiningfton mere, which,
though neither fo large nor fo well ftored with filh, yet
affords plenty of excellent char. There was on the
fonth fide of the Ribble another lake called Marton,-
feveral miles in circumference, which is now drained,
and converted into pafture ground. In this operation,
the workmen found a great quantity of fifli, together
with eight canoes, refembling thofe of America, fup-
pofed to have been ufed by the ancient Britifh filher-
men. Befides thefe meres or lakes, this county abounds
with moraffes and moffes, from which the inhabitants
dig excellent peat or turf for fuel, as well as marie for
manuring the ground, and trunks of old fir-trees,
fuppofed to have lain there fince the general deluge.
Some of thefe are fo impregnated with turpentine, that
when divided into fplinters, they burn like candles,
and are ufed for that purpofe by the common people.
There is a great variety of mineral waters in this coun¬
ty, fomerperiodical fprings, and one fnftance of a vio¬
lent eruption of water at Kirky in Fournefs. The
moft remarkable chalybeate fpaws are thofe of Latham,
Wigan, Stockport, Burnley, Bolton, Plumpton, Mid¬
dleton, Strangeways, Lancafler, Larbrick, and Chor-
ly. At AnclifF, in the neighbourhood of Wigan, is
a fountain called the Burning Well, from whence a bi¬
tuminous vapour exhales, which being fet on fire by a
candle burns like brandy, fo as to produce a heat that
will boil eggs to a hard confiftence, while the water
itfelf retains its original coldnefs*. There is at Barton * See Su>-*\
a fountain of fait-water, fo ftrongly impregnated with*"-?
the mineral, as to yield fix times as much as can be ex-
tra&ed from the fame quantity of fea-water. At Rog-
ham, in Fournefs, there is a purging faline fountain ;
and in the neighbourhood of Raifal, where the ground
is frequently overflowed by the fea, a ftream defeends
from Hagbur hills, which in the fpace of feven years
is faid to convert the marie into a hard freeftone fit for
building. The air of Lancaihire is pure, healthy, and
agreeable, except among the fens and on the fea-fhore,
where the atmofphere is loaded with putrid exhala¬
tions, producing malignant and intermitting fevers,
feurvy, rheumatifm, dropfy, and confumption. The
foil is various in different parts of the county, poor
and rocky on the hills, fat and fertile in the vallevs
aatL.
L A
iLaacaftvire. and champaign country.
-w—v—/ w}jjt6j grey, or black, according to the nature of the
compofition and the degree of putrefa&ion which the
ingredients have undergone. There is a bituminous
earth about Ormfldrk, that fmells like the oil of am-
N [ 520 1 LAN
The colour of the peat is ears are faluted by the fongs of merriment from either I-ancafhir t:
fex, who thus beguile their labours in the mine. You Lancaftei\ [
have no fooner reached the head of the works, than a ’
new fcene opens to your view. There you behold men
and women almoft in the primitive ftate of nature,
her, and indeed yields an oil of the fame nature, both toiling in different capacities, by the glimmering of a
In its fcent and medicinal effeds, which moreover re- dim taper, fome digging coal out of the bowels of the
duces raw flefh to the confidence of mummy ; this earth; fome again loading it in little waggons made
earth burns like a torch, and is ufed as fuch by the for the purpofe ; others drawing thofe waggons to the
country people. The metals and minerals of this county boats. To perfed this canal, without impeding the
confift of lead, iron, copper, antimony, black lead, public roads, bridges are built over it, and where the
lapis calaminaris, fpar, green vitriol, alum, fulphur,
pyrites, freellone, and pit and cannel coal.
The level country produces plenty of wheat and
barley, and the fkirts of the hills yield good harvells
earth has been raifed to preferve the level, arches are
formed under it : but what principally ftrikes every
beholder, is a work raifed near Barton-bridge, to
convey the canal over the river Merfey. This is dofle
of excellent oats: very good hemp is raifed in divers by means of three ftone arches, fo fpacious and lofty
parts of the province ; and the pafture which grows in as to admit veffels failing through them ; and indeed
the valley is fo peculiarly rich, that the cattle which nothing can be more fingular and pleafing, than to ob-
feed upon it are much larger and fatter than in any ferve large vdfels in full fail under the aqueduft, and
other part of England. There is not any part of the at the fame time the duke of Bridgewater’s vefiels fail-
world better fupplied than Lancalhire with provifions ing over all, near fifty feet above the navigable river,
of all kinds at a very reafonable rate ; fuch as beef. By this inland navigation communication has been
veal, mutton, lamb, pork, poultry, and game of all made with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe,
forts, caught upon the moors, heaths, and commons, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
in the hilly part of the (hire. Befides the fea-fow! &c. which navigation, including its windings, extends
common to the (hires of England, fuch as ducks, ea- above 500 miles in the counties of Lincoln, Netting-
_ llerlings, teal, and plover, many uncommon birds are
obferved on the coaft of Lancafhire, the fea-crow, va¬
riegated with blue and black, the puffin, the cormo¬
rant, the curlew, the razor bill, the copped wren, the
red-lhanks, the fwan, the tropic bird, the king’s-
fifher, &c.
ham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, Chefter, Staf¬
ford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
Lancalhire was eredted into a county-palatine by
Edward III. who conferred it as an appendage on hisfon
John of Ghaunt, thence called duke of Lancafler: but
the duchy contained lands that are not in Lancaffiire,
The chief manufa&ures of this county are woollen and among other demefnes, the palace of the Savoy,
and cotton cloths of vaiious kinds, tickings, and cot- and all that dillridf in London, which indeed belong
ton velvets, for which Manchefter is particularly fa- to it at this day. The revenues of this duchy are ad-
mous. The principal rivers are the Merfey, which miniftered by a court which fits at Weftminfter, and a
parts Chelliire and this county; and the Ribble, which chancery-court at Prefton, which has a feal diftinft
rifes in Yorklhire, and enters this county at Clithero, from that of the county-palatine. The title of Lan-
running fouth weft by Prefton into the Irilh fea. Be- cafter diftinguilhed the pofterity of John of Ghaunt
Tides thefe there are many Idler ftreams. The navi- from thofe of his brother, who fucceeded to the duchy
gation made by his grace the duke of Bridgewater in of York, in their long and bloody conteft for the
this county, is highly worthy of notice. This was crown of England.—Lancaffiire fends two members to
begun fo lately as about 20 years ago f it bears veffels parliament for the county ; and 12 for the fix boroughs
of 60 t^ns buiden, and is carried over two rivers, the ot Lancafter, Prefton, Newton, Wigan, Clitheroe, and
Merfey and the Irwell. The fough, or adit, which Liverpool.
was neceffary to be made, in order to drain the water
from the coal-mines, is rendered navigable for boats
of 6 or 7 tons burden, and forms a kind of fubterra-
neous river, which runs about a mile and a half under
ground, and communicates with the canal, i his river
leads to the head of the mines, is arched over with
brick, and is juft wide enough for the paffages of the
boats : at the mouth of it are two folding doors, which
are clofed as foon as you enter, and you then proceed
by candle-light, which calls a livid gloom, ferving
only to make darknefs vifible. But this difmal gloom
is rendered ftill more awful by the folemn echo of this
fubterraneous water, which returns various and difeor-
dant founds. One while you arc ftruck with the gra¬
ting noife of engines, which by a curious contrivance
let down the coals into the boats ; then again you hear
the ffiock of an explofion, occafioned by the blowing
up the hard rock, which will not yield to any other
force than that of gunpowder; the next_minute your
No 173-
LANCASTER, the capital of the county of Lan¬
caffiire in England, is pleafantly fituated on the fouth
fide of the river Lun, over which there is a handfeme
llone-bridge. It is an ancient town, and is fuppofed
to have been the I.ongovicum of the Romans. Ring
John confirmed to the burgeffes all the liberties he had
granted to thofe of Briftol; and Edward HI, granted
that pleas and ftffions ffiould be held here, and no
where elfe in the county. It is governed by a mayor,
recorder, 7 aldermen, 2 bailiffs, 12 capital burgeffes,
12 common burgeffes, a town-clerk, and 2 ferjeants
at mace. The affixes are held in the caftle, where is
alfo the county gaol. It trades to America with hard¬
ware and woollen manufactures in veffels of 70 tons.
There is a market on Wednelday by grant, and ano¬
ther on Saturday by prefeription, befides one every
other Wednefday throughout the year for cattle ; and
three fair's, in May, July, and OCtober. The callle is
not large, but neat and ftrong. Not very long ago.
LAN [ 521 J L A N
l^vatc }n digging a cellar, there were found feveral Roman
11 utenfils and veffels for facrrfices, as alfo the coins of
Laiicti. j^Dman emperorg; fo that it is fuppofed there was here
a Roman fortrefs. On the top of the caftle is a fquare
tower, called John of Gaunt’s chair, whence there is
a charming profpeft of the adjacent country, and efpe-
cially towards the fea, where is an extenlive view even
to the Ifle of Man. There is but one church, a fine
Gothic building. It is placed on the fame elevation,
and from fome points of view forms one group, with the
caftle, which gives the mind a moft magnificent idea
of this important place. The late confiderable addi¬
tional new ftreets and a new chapel, with other im¬
provements, give an air of elegance and profperity to
the town ; and the new bridge of 5 equal elliptical
arches, in all 549 feet in length, adds not a little to
the embellilhments and conveniency of the place. Ad¬
joining to the caftle, the new gaol is eredted on an
improved plan. On the fide of the hill below it,
hangs a piece of a Roman wall, called t IVery-wall.
Here is a cuftom-houfe. By the late inland naviga¬
tion, it has communication with the rivers Merfey,
Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Hum¬
ber, Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation, inclu¬
ding its windings, extend above 500 miles in the coun¬
ties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Weftmoreland,
Chefter, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Wor-
cefter, &c. For its peculiar government, fee Duchy-
Court.
LANCE, Lancea, a fpear ; an offenfive weapon
worn by the ancient cavaliers, in form of a half pike.
The lance confifted of three parts, the lhaft or handle,
the wings, and the dart. Pliny attributes the invention
of lances to the'-zEtolians. But Varro and Aulus
Gellius fay the word lance is Spanifti; whence others
conclude the ufe of this weapon was borrowed by the
people of Italy from the Spaniards. Diodorus Siculus
derives it from the Gaulilh, and Feftus from the Greek
which fignifies the fame..
Lance, in ichthyology. See Ammodytes.
LANCEOLATED leaf. See Botany, p.442.
LANCET, a chirurgical inftrument, ftiarp-pointed
and two-edged, chiefly ufed for opening veins in the
operation of phlebotomy or bleeding; alfo for laying
open abfctffes, tumors, &c.
LANCH, a peculiar fort of long boat, ufed by the
French, Spanifti, and Italian ftiipping, and in general
by thofe of other European nations when employed
in voyaging in the Mediterranean fea.
A lanch is proportionably longer, lower, and more
flat-bottomed than the longboat; it is by confe-
quence lefs fit for failing, but better calculated for
rowing and approaching a flat ftiore. Its principal
fuperiority to the long-boat, however, confifts in being
by its confttuflion much fitter to under-run-the cable ;
which is a very neceffary employment in the harbours
of the Levant fea, where the cables of different ftiips
are faftened acrofs each other, and frequently render
this exercife extremely nectffary.
Lanch, is alfo the movement by which a ftu'p or
boat defeends from the ftiore, either when ftie is at firft
built, or at any time afterwards.
To facilitate the operation of lanching, and pre¬
vent any interruption therein, the (hip is fupported by
two ftrong platforms, laid with a gradual inclination
Vol. IX. Part II.
to the water, on the oppofite fides of her keel, to Eancit
which they are parallel. Upon the furface of this de- II
clivity are placed two correfponding ranges of planks, L''nc'fii
which compofe the bafe of a frame called the cradle, * *
whofe upper part envelopes the (hip’s bottom, whereto
it is fecurely attached. Thus the lower furface of the
cradle, conforming exadlly to that of the frame below,
lies flat upon it lengthwife, under the oppofite fides
of the fnip’s bottom ; and as the former is intended to
Aide downwards upon the latter, carrying the (hip a-
long with it, the planes or faces of both are well daub¬
ed with foap and tallow.
The neceffary preparations for the lanch being made,
all the blocks and wedges, by which the (hip was for¬
merly fupported, are driven out from under her keel,
till her whole weight gradually fubfides upon the plat¬
forms above deferibed, which are accordingly called
the ways. The (hores and ftanchions, by which (he is
retained upon the ttocks till the period approaches for
lanching, are at length cut away, and the ferews ap¬
plied to move her if neceffary. The motion ufually
begins on the inftant when the ftiorcs are cut, and the
(hip Aides downward along the ways, which are gene¬
rally prolonged under the furface of the water, to a
fufficient depth to float her as foon as (he arrives at the
fartheft end thereof.
When a fhip is to be lanched, the enfign, jack, and
pendant, are always hoifted, the laft being difplayed
from a ftaff ere&ed in the middle of the ftiip.
Ships of the firft; rate are commonly conftrudted in
dry docks, and afterwards floated out, by throwing
open-the flood gates, and fuffering the tide to enter as
foon as they are finilhed.
LANCE ROTA, one of the Canary iflands, fub»
jedt to Spain, and fituated in W. Long. 13. 5. jq.
Lat. 28. 40. It is about 32 miles in length and 22"
in breadth. The ancient inhabitants were negroes,
very ftrong, a&ive, and fwift of foot. There is a ridge
of hills runs quite through it, on which are fed a good
number of flieep and goats. They have but few black
cattle, ft ill fewer camels, and a very few fmall horfes.
The valleys are dry and fandy, yet they produce a
fmall quantity of wheat and barley. This ifland was
firft difeovered in 1417. In 1596 it was taken by the
Engliftr under the command of the earl of Cumber¬
land ; after which it was better fortified than before.
There is in this iffand a city called alfo Lancerota,
which, at the time the earl of Cumberland was there”
confifted only of about 100 houfes, all poor buildings]
generally of one ftory, and covered with reeds or llraw
laid upon a few rafters, and over all a coat of dirt
hardened by the fun. -There was alfo a church which
had no windows in it, and was fupplied with light only
by the door.
LANCIANO, a confiderable town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Hither Abruzzo, with
an archbiftiop’s fee ; famous for its fairs, which are
held in July and Auguft. It is feated on the river
Felttino near that of Sangor. E. Long. xy. r. N.
Lat. 42. 12.
LANCISI (John Marca), an eminent Italian phy-
fician, was born at Rome in 1654. From his earlieft
years he had a turn to natural hiftory; and fludied
botany, chemiftry, anatomy, and medicine, with great
vigour. In 1688 Pope Innocent XI. appointed him
3 U his
i I.ancret
II
Land.
LAN [522] LAN
his phyfician and private chamberlain, notwithftanding
his youth ; and cardinal Altieri Camerlinga made him
his vicar for the inftallation of doftors in phyfic, which
Pope Clement XI. gave him as long as he lived, as
well ss continued to him the appointments conferred
on him by his predecefibr. He died in 1710, after
giving his fine library of more than 20,000 volumes to
the hofpital of the Holy Ghoft for the ufe of the public.
This noble benefa&ion was opened in 1716, in the
prefence of the pope and moft of the cardinals. He
wrote many works which are efteemed. the principal of
which were colle&ed together, and printed at Ge¬
neva in 1718, in two volumes quarto.
LANCRET (Nicholas), a French painter, born at
Paris in 1690. He was the difciple of Watteau and
Gillot, and painted converfations. He was indefati¬
gable in his profeffion, executed with great truth after
Nature, grouped his figures well, and handled a light
pencil. He died in 1743-
LANCRINCK (Profper Henry), a painter of com
fiderable note, born in 1628, and educated in the
fchool at Antwerp. He ftudied principally after Ti¬
tian and Salvator Rofa ; and met with encouragement
in England fuitable to his merit. His landfcapes fhow
a good invention, good colouring, and harmony : they
are chiefly of rough rude country, with broken ground
and uncommon fcenery. He gave way too much to
pleafure, and died in 1692.
LAND, in a general fenfe, denotes terra Jirma, as
diftinguilhed from fea.
Land, in a limited fenfe, denotes arable ground.
See Agriculture.
Land, in the fea-language, makes part of feveral
compound terms ; thus, land-laid, or, to lay the land,
is juft, to lofe fight of it. Land-locked, is when land
lies all round the Ihip, fo that no point of the com-
pafs is open to the fea. If Ihe is at anchor in fuch a
place, fhe is faid to ride land-locked, and is therefore
concluded to ride fafe from the violence of the winds
and tides. Land mark, any mountain, rock, fteeple,
tree, &c. that may ferve to make the land known at
fea. Land isJhut in, a term ufed to fignify that an¬
other point of land hinders the fight of that from
which the fliip came. Land-to, or the flrip lies land-
to; that is, Ihe is fo far from Ihore, that it can only
juft be difcerned. Land-turn is a wind that in almoft
all hot countries blows at certain times from the Ihore
in the night. To fet the land; that is, to fee by the
compafs how it bears.
Land-Tux, one of the annual taxes railed upon the
fubjedl. See Tax.
The land tax, in its modern ftiape, has fuperfeded
all the former methods of rating either property or
perfons in refpedf of their property, whether by tenths
or fifteenths, fubfidies on land, hydages, fcutages, or
talliages; a Ihort explication of which will, however,
greatly afiift us in underftanding our ancient laws and
hiftory.
Tenths and fifteenths were temporary aids ifluing
out of perfonal property, and granted to the king by
parliament. They were formerly the real tenth or
fifteenth part of all the moveables belonging to the
fubjeft; when fuch moveables, or perfonal eftates,
were a very different and a much lefs confiderable
tbipg than what they ufually are at this day. Tenths
are faid to have been firft granted under Henry II,
who took advantage @f the fafhionable zeal for croi- '
fades to introduce this new taxation, in order to de¬
fray the expence of a pious expedition to Paleftine,
which he really or feemingly had projected againft Sa-
ladine emperor of the Saracens, whence it was origi¬
nally denominated the Saladine tenth. But afterwards
fifteenths were more ufually granted than tenths.
Originally the amount of thefe taxes was uncertain,
being levied by affeffments new-made at every frelh
grant of the commons, a commifiion for which is pre-
ferved by Matthew Paris: but it was at length redu¬
ced to a certainty in the eighth year of Edward III.
when, by virtue of the king’s commiffion, new taxa¬
tions were made of every townlhip, borough, and city
in the kingdom, and recorded in the exchequer; which
rate was, at the time, the fifteenth part of the value oF
every townfhip, the whole amounting to about 29,000!.
and therefore it ftill kept up the name of a jifteentb,
when, by the alteration of the value of money and the
increafe of perfonal property, things came to be in a
very different fituation. So that when, of later years,
the commons granted the king a fifteenth, every parifli
in England immediately knew their proportion of it;
that is, the fame identical fum that was affeffed by
the fame aid in the eighth of Edward III. ; and then
raifed it by a rate among themfelves, and returned it
into the royal exchequer.
Ths other ancient levies were in the nature of a mo¬
dern land-tax: for we may trace up the original of
that charge as high as to the introduction of our mili¬
tary tenures ; when every tenant of a knight’s fee was
bound, if called upon, to attend the king in his army
for 40 days in every year. But this perfonal attend¬
ance growing troublefome in many refpetfs, the te¬
nants found means of compounding for it, by firft
fending others in their Head, and in procefs of time
by making a pecuniary fatisfa&ion to the crown in lieu
of it. This pecuniary fatisfa&ion at laft came to be
levied by affeffments, at fo much for every knight’s
fee, under the name of fcutages ; which appear to
have been levied for the firft time in the fifth year of
Henry II. on account of his expedition to Touloufe,
and were then (Sir Wm. Blackllone apprehends) mere
arbitrary compofitions, as the king and the fubject
could agree. But this precedent being afterwards a-
bufed into a means of oppreffion (by levying fcutages
on the landholders by the king’s authority only, when¬
ever our kings went to war, in order to hire mercenary
troops and pay their contingent expences), it became
thereupon a matter of national complaint; and King
John was obliged to promife in his magna carta, that
no fcutage fhould be impofed without the confent of
the common council of the realm.
Of the fame nature with fcutages upon knights-fees
were tire affeffments of hydage upon all other lands,
and of talliage upon cities and burghs. But they all
gradually fell into difufe, upon the introduftion of
fubfidies, about the time of King Richard II. and
King Henry IV. Thefe were a tax, not immediately
impofed upon property, but upon perfons in refpedl of
their reputed ellates, after the nominal rate of 4s, in
the pound for lands, and 2 s. 6d. for goods; and for
thole of aliens in a double proportion. But this affefs-
mem was alfo made according to an ancient valuation;
wherein
LAN r 523 J LAN
Laiu*. wherein the computation was fo very moderate, and the
“ ' * rental of the kingdom was fuppofed to be fo exceeeding
low, that one fubfidy of this fort did not, according
to Sir Edward Coke, amount to more than 70,006!.
whereas a modern land tax at the fame rate produces
two millions. It was anciently the rule never to grant
nfore than one fubfidy and two fifteenths at a time :
but this rule was broke through for the firft time on a
very preffing occafion, the Spanifii invafion in 1588 ;
when the parliament gave Queen Elizabeth two fubfi-
dies and four fifteenths. Afterwards, as money funk
in value, more fubfidies were given ; and we have an
inilance, in the firft parliament of 164c, of the king’s
defiring 12 fufidies of the commons, to be levied in
three years ; which was looked upon as a ftartling pro-
pofal: though Lord Clarendon tells us, that the fpeak-
er, ferjeant Glanvile, made it manifeft to the houfe,
how very inconfiderable a fum 12 fubfidies amounted
to, by telling them he had computed what he was to
pay for them ; and when he named the fum, he being
known to be poffefled of a great eftate, it feemed not
worth any farther deliberation. And, indeed, upon
calculation, we ftiall find, that the total amount of
thefe 12 fubfidies, to be railed in three years, is lefs
than what is now raifed in one year by a land-tax of 2 s.
in the pound.
The grant of fcutages, talliages, or fubfidies by the
, commons, did not extend to fpiritual preferments;
thofe being ufually taxed at the fame time by the cler¬
gy themfelves in convocation : which grants of the
clergy were confirmed in parliament; otherwife they
were illegal, and not binding; as the fame noble wri¬
ter obferves of the fubfidies granted by the convoca¬
tion, which continued fitting after the diffolution of
the firft parliament in 1640. A fubfidy granted by
the clergy was after the rate of 4 s. in the pound, ac¬
cording to the valuation of their livings in the king’s
books; and amounted. Sir Edward Coke tells us, to
about 20,0001. While this cuftom continued, con¬
vocations were wont to fit as frequently as pailia-
ments : but the laft fubfidies, thus given by the cler¬
gy, were thofe confirmed by ftatute 15 Car. II. c. 10.
fince which another method of taxation has generally
prevailed, which takes in the clergy as well as the lai¬
ty : in recompenfe for which, the beneficed clergy have
from that period been allowed to vote at the eledion of
knights of the flrire ; and thenceforward alfo the prac¬
tice of giving ecclefiaftical fubfidies hath fallen into to¬
tal difufe.
The lay-fubfidy was ufually raifed by commiflioners
appointed by the crown, or the great officers of ftate :
and therefore in the beginning of the civil wars be¬
tween Charles I. and his parliament, the latter, having
no other fufficient revenue to fupport themfelves and
their meafures, introduced the praftice of laying
weekly and monthly aflefiments of a fpecificfum upon
the feveral counties of the kingdom ; to be levied by
a pound-rate on lands and perfonal eftates: which
were occafionally continued during the whole ufurpa-
tion, fometimes at the rate of 120,0001. a month,
fometimes at inferior rates. After the Reftoration, the
ancient method of granting fubfidies, inftead of fuch
monthly afleffments, was twice, and twice only, re¬
newed ; viz. in 1663, when four fubfidies were granted
by the temporality and four by the clergy; and in
1670, when 800,0001. was raifed by way of fubfidy,
which was the laft time of railing fupplies in that
manner. For the monthly aflelTments being now
eftablilhed by cuftom, being raifed by commiffioners
named by parliament, and producing a more certain
revenue ; from that time forwards we hear no more of
fubfidies, but occafional afleffinents were granted as the
national emergencies required. Thefe periodical af-
fefiments, the fubfidies which preceded them, and the
more ancient fcutage, hydage, and talliage, were to
all intents and purpofes a land-tax ; and the afieffments
were fometimes exprefsly called fo. Yet a popular
opinion has prevailed, that the land-lax was firft in¬
troduced in the reign of King William III.; becaufe
in the year 1692 a new affelfment or valuation of
eftates was made throughout the kingdom : which,
though by no means a perfeft one, had this effedt,
that a fupply of 500,000!. was equal to 1 s. in the
pound of the value of eftates given in. And, accord¬
ing to this enhanced valuation, from the year 1693 to
the prefent, a period of near a century, the land-tax
has continued an annual charge upon the fubjedt;
about half the time at 4 s. in the pound, fometimes at
3 s. fometimes at 2 s. twice at is. but without any total
intermiffion. The medium has been 3s. 3d. in the
pound; being equivalent to 23 ancient fubfidies, and
amounting annually to more than a million and a half
of money. The method of raifing it is by charging a
particular fum upon each county, according to the va¬
luation given in, A. D. 1692 ; and thiYfum isaflefied
and raifed upon individuals (their perfonal eftate, as
well as real, being liable thereto), by commiffioners ap¬
pointed in the adt, being the principal land holders in
the county and their officers.
An adt pafles annually for the raifing, in general,
z>°37>627l- 9s- io4-d. by the above faid tax at 43.
in the pound ; whereof there fhall be raifed in the fe¬
veral counties in England, according to the propor¬
tions expreffed in the adt, 1,989,673!. 7 s. lo^d.;
and in Scotland, 47,954!. is. 2d. by an eight months
cefs of 5994I. 5 s. i^-d. per menfem, to be raifed out of
the land-rent, and to be paid at four terms, as fpecified
in the adf, by two months amount each time.
Land-Waiter, an officer of the cuftom-houfe, whofe
duty is, upon landing any merchandife, to examine,
tafte, weigh, meafure them, &c. and to take an account
thereof. In fome ports they alfo execute the office of
a coaft-waiter. They are likewife occafionally ftyled
fearchers, and are to attend and join with the patent
fearcher in the execution of all cockets for the fhip-
ping of goods to be exported to foreign parts ; and in
cafes where drawbacks on bounties are to be paid to
the merchant on the exportation of any goods, they,
as well as the patent fearchers, are to certify the Ihip-
ping thereof on the debentures.
LANDAFF, a town or village of Glamorganftiire
in South Wales, with a biftiop’s fee, and on that ac¬
count has the title of a city. It is feated upon an
afcent on the river Taff, or Tave, near Cardiff; but
the cathedral (lands on a low ground, and is a large
(lately building. The original flru&ure was built
about the beginning of the 12th century. The build¬
ing now. ufed as the cathedral includes part of the
3 U 2 body
LAN [ 524 ] LAN
Landau body of the ancient one; but is in other refpe&s as
1 anden mo^trn as l^e prefent century, about the middle of
j,/- ' 1 which the old church underwent fuch reparation as
was aimed equivalent to rebuilding. The ruins are
at the weft end of the modern church, and confid of
the original wellern door-way, and part of the north
and fotuh fides. The arch over the door is circular,
and has a well carved epifcopal datue immediately
Over it. On the upper part of the front under v'hich this
door dands is a whole length figure of the Virgin-Mary,
with a crofs on the apex of the buijdihg. In this
front are two rows of neat-pointed Arches for win¬
dows ; and on the north and fouth fides above men¬
tioned are two circular door-cafes half funk in the
earth. Thefe ruins exhibit an afpedl very different
from the prefent cathedral, the new part of which the
architeft formed principally on the Roman model,
without confidering how incongruous this dyle of
architefture is with the plan, purfued in the ancient
part.—Landaff is a place of but fmall extent, and
has no market. It- is a port town, however, and carries
on a good trade, as it has a very tolerable harbour
that opens into the Severn river about four miles di-
flant. The ruins of the bilhop’s palace fhow it to
have been cadellated. It was built in 1120, and was
deftroyed by Henry IV. W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat.
51-33-
LANDAU, an ancient, handfome, and very drong
town of France, in Lower Alfaoe. It was formerly
imperial, and belonged to Germany, till the treaty of
Munder, when it was given up to France. It is feated
on the river Zurich, in a pleafant fertile country..
E. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat. 49. 12.
LANDEN, a town of the Audrian Netherlands,
in Brabant, famous for a battle gained over the French
by the allies, in July 1693, when 20,000 men were
killed. It is feated on the river Beck, in E. Long. 5. 5.
N. Lat. 52* 45.
LANDEN (John, F. R. S.) an eminent mathe¬
matician, was born at Peakirk, near Peterborough in
Northamptond ire, in January 1719. He became very
early a proficient in the mathematics, for we find him
a very refpeftable contributor to the Ladies Diary in
1744 ; and he was foon among the foremod of thofe
who then contributed to the fupport of that fmall but
valuable publication, in which almoft every Englidi ma¬
thematician, w-ho has arrived at any'degree of eminence
for the lad half century, has contended for fame at one
time of his life or other. Mr Landen continued his
contributions to it at times, and under one fignature or
other, till within a few years of his death.
It has been frequently obferved, that the hidories of
literary men confid chiefly of an hidory of their wri¬
tings, and the obfervation was never more fully verified
than it will be in this article concerning Mr Landen.
In the 48th volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions
for the year 17-54, Mr Landen gave “ An invedigation
of fome theorems which fugged feveral very remark¬
able properties of the circle, and are at the fame time
of confiderable ufe in refolving fraftions, the denomi¬
nators of which are certain multinomicils into more
fimple ones, and by that means facilitate the compu¬
tation of fluents.” This ingenious paper was handed
to the Society by that eminent mathematician the late
Thomas Simpfon of Woolwich, a circumffance 'Vhich I-anden.
will convey to thofe who are not themfelves judges of »
it fome idea of its merit. In the year 1755, he pub-
liflied a volume of about 160 pages, intitled “ Mathe¬
matical Lucubrations.” The title to this publication
was made choice of qs a means of informing the world,
that the Audy of the mathematics was at that time
rather the purfuit of his leifure hours than his princi¬
pal employment ; and indeed it continued to be fo the
greated part of his life, for about the year 1762 he was
appointed agent to the right honourable the earl Fitz-
william, and refigned that employment only two years
before his de'&th. Had it been otherwife, it feems
highly probable he would have extended his refearches
in the mathematics, to which he was mod enthufiadi-
tally devoted, much farther than any other perfon has
done. His lucubrations contain a variety of trails re¬
lative to the reitification of curve lines, the funma-
tion of feries, the finding of fluents, and many other
points in the higher parts of the mathematics. About
the latter end of the year 1757, or the beginning of
1758, he publifhed propofals for printing by fubferip-
tion “ The Refidual Analyfis, a new branch of the Al¬
gebraic art:” and in 1758 he publilhed a fmall trail
in quarto, intitled “ A Difcourfe on the Reiidual
Analyfis,” in which he refolved a variety of problems,
to which the method of fluxions had been ufually
applied by a mode of reafoning entirely new ; com¬
pared thofe folutions with folutions of the fame pro¬
blems, invedigated by the fluxionary method ; and
(bowed that the folutions by his new method were, in
general, more natural and elegant than the fluxlonaty
ones.
In the 5 id volume of the Philofophical Tranfailions
for the year 1760, he gave “ A new method of com¬
puting the fums of a great number of infinite feries.”
This paper was alfo prefented to the fociety by his in¬
genious friend the late Mr Thomas Simpfon. In
1764, he publiftied the fird book of “ The Refidual
Analyfis,” in a 410 volume of 218 pages, with feveral
copperplates. In this treatife, befides explaining
the principles which his new analyfis was founded
on, he applied it to drawing tangents and finding the.
properties of curve-lines; to deferibing their involutes
and evolutes, finding the radius of curvature, their
greated and lead ordinates, and points of contrary
fluxure ; to the determination of their cufps, and the
drawing of affymptotes : and he propofed in a fecond
book to extend the application of this new analyfis to
a great variety of mechanical and phyfical fubjefts.
The papers which were to have formed this book lay
long by him ; but he never found leifure to put them
in order for the prefs.
Gn the i6th of January 1766, Mr Landen was
elefted a fellow of the Royal Society, and admitted
on the 24th of April following. In the 58th volume
of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions for the year 1768,
he gave a “ Specimen of a new method of comparing
curvilineal areas ; by means of which many areas did
not appear to be comparable by any other method
a circumdance of no fmall importance in that part of
natural jihilofophy which relates to the dodlrine of
motion. In the 60th volume of the fame work forv
the year 1770, he gave “ Some new theorems for
com-
LAN [525] LAN
tanden. computing tfie whole areas of curve lines, where the
V—ordinates are expreffed by fractions of a certain form,”
in a more concife and elegant manner than had been
done by Cotes, De Moivre, and others who had con-
fidered the fubjeft before him. In the 61ft volume
for 1771, he has inveftigated feveral new and ufeful
theorems for computing certain fluents, which are af-
fignable by arcs of the conic fe&ions. This fubjedi
had been conlidered before both' by Mr Maelaurin
and Mr D’Alembert; but feme of the theorems
which were given by thefe celebrated mathematicians,
being in part exprefled by the difference between an
arc of an hyperbola and its tangent, and that dif¬
ference being not dire&ly attainable when the arc
and its tangent both become infinite, as they will do
when the whole fluid is wanted, although fuch fluent
be finite ; thefe theorems therefore fail in thofc cafes,
and the computation becomes impracticable without
farther help. This defedt Mr Landen has removed
by afiigning the limit of the difference between the hy¬
perbolic arc and fts tangent, while the point of con-
ta£t is fuppofed to be removed to an infinite diftance
frotnlthc vertex of the curve. And he concludes the
paper with a curious and remarkable property relating
to pendulous bodies, which is deducible from thofe
theorems. In the fame year he publiihed, “ Animad-
vtrfions on Dr Stewart’s computation of the fun’s
dillance from the earth.”
In the 65th volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions for 1775, he gave the inveltioation of a general
theorem, which he had promifed in 1771, for findfng
the length of any-arc of a conic hyperbola by means of
two elliptic arcs ; and obferves, that by the theorems
there invelligated, both the elaftic curve and the curve
of equable recefs from a given point, may be coa-
flrudled in thofe cafes where Mr Maclaurin’s elegant
method fails. In the 67th volume for 1777, he gave
“ A new theory of the motion of bodies revolving
about an axis in free fpace, when that motion is dif-
turbed by fome extraneous fotce, either percuffive or
accelerative.” At this time he did not know that the
fubjedt had been handled by any perfon before him ;
and he confidered only the motion of a fphere’s.fphe-
roid and cylinder. The publication of this paper,
however, was the caufe of his being told, that the doc¬
trine of rotatory motion had been confidered by M.
D’Alembert; and purchafmg that author’s Opufcules
Mathematiques, he there learned that M.. D’Alembert
was not the only one who had confidered the matter
before him ; for M. D’Alembert there fpeaks of fome
mathematician, though he does not mention his name,
who, after reading what had been written on the fub-
jeft, doubted whether there be any fohd whatever,
hefide the fphere, in which any line, palling through
its centre of gravity, will be a permanent axis of rota¬
tion. In confequence of this, Mr JLanden took up
the fubjeCt again ; and though he did not then give a
folution to the general problem, vix, “ To determine
the motions of a body of any form whatever, revolving
without reftraint about any axis palling through its
centre of gravity,” he fully removed every doubt of
the kind which had been ftarted by the perfon alluded
to by M. D’Alembert, and pointed out feveral bodies,
which, under certain dimenlions, have that remakable
propei ty. This paper is given, among many others
equally curious, in a volume of Memoirs which he pub-
lifhed in the year 1 780. But what renders that vo¬
lume yet more valuable, is a very extenfive appendix,
containing “ Theorems for the calculation of fluents.”
The tables which contain thefe theorems are more
complete and extenfive than any which are to be found
in any other author, and are chiefly of his own invefti-
gating; being fuch as had occurred to him in the
courfe of a long and ciofe application to mathematical
ftudies in almolt every branch of thofe fciences. In
1781, 1782, and 1783, he publifhed three little trads
on the fummation of converging feries, in which he ex¬
plained and fhowed the extent of fome theorems which
had been given for that- purpofe by M. de Moivre,
Mr Sterling, and his old friend Thomas Simplon, in
anfwer to fome things which he thought had been
wiitten to the difparagement of thofe excellent ma¬
thematicians. It was the opinion of fome, that Mr
Landen did not flrow lefs mathematical fkiil in explain¬
ing and illuftrating thefe theorems, than he has done
in his writings on original fubjeds ; and that the au¬
thors of them were as little aware of the extent of their
own theorems as the rell of the world were before
Mr Landen’s ingenuity made it obvious to all.
About the beginning of the year 1782, Mr Landen
had made fuch improvements in his theory of rotatory
motion, as enabled him, he thought, to give a folution
of the general problem fpecified above; but finding the
refult of it to differ very materially from the refult of
the folution which had been given of it by M D’A¬
lembert, and being not able to fee clearly where that
gentleman had erred, he did not venture to make his
own folution public. In the courfe of that year, ha¬
ving procured the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy for
1757, which contain M. Euler’s folution of the pro¬
blem, he found that this gentleman’s folution gave the
fame refult as had been deduced by M. D’Alembert;
but the perfpicuity of M. Euler’s manner of writing
enabled him to difeover where he had erred, which
the obfeurity of the other did not do. The agreement,
however, of two writers of fuch tftablilhed reputa:ion
as M. Euler and M. D’Alembert made him long du¬
bious of the truth of his own folution, and induced
him to revife the procefs again and again with the ut-
moft circumfpection.; and being every time more con¬
vinced that his own folution was right and theirs
wrong, he at length gave it to the public in the 75th
volume of the Philofqphical Traofadions for 1785.
The extreme difficulty of theTubjea, joined to the
concife manner in which Mr Landen had been obliged
to give his folution in order to confine it within pro¬
per limits for the Tranfa&ions, rendered it too difficult,
or at lealt too laborious, a piece of bufinefs for moil
mathematicians to read it; and this circumftance, join¬
ed to the dtablifhed reputation of Euler, induced many
to think that his filiation was right and Mr Landen’s
wrong ; and there did not want attempts to prove it.
But notwithftanding thei'e attempts were manifeftly
wrong, and that every one who p-rufed them faw it,
they convinced Mr Landen that there was a neceffity
for giving his folution at greater length, in order to
render it more generally underftood. About this time
alfo he met by chance with the late P. Frifx’s Cofma~
graphic Ph-jfice et Mathematica:; in the fecond part of'
wiuefi there is a folutiou of this problem, agreeing in
the.:
LAN [ 526 ] LAN
Landen the refult with thofe of M. Euler and D’Alembert,
tl which is not furprifing, as P. Frifi employs the fame
principle that they did. Here Mr Landen learned
that M. Euler had revifed the folution which he had
given formerly in the Berlin Memoirs, and given it
another form and at greater length in a volume pub-
Jilhed at Gryphifwell in 1765, intitled, Theoria Motus
corporum folulorum feu rigidorum. Having therefore
procured this book, Mr Landen found the fame prin¬
ciples employed in it, and of courfe the fame conelufion
refulting from them that he had found in M. Euler’s
former folution of the problems ; but as the reafoning
was given at greater length, he was enabled to fee
more dillin&ly how M. Euler had been led into the
miftake, and to fet that miilake in a ftronger point of
view. As he had been convinced of the neceffity of
explaining his ideas on the fubjeA more fully, fo he
now found it neceflary to lofe no time in fetting about
it. He had for feveral years been feverely affli&ed
with the (lone in the bladder, and toward the latter
part of his life to fuch a degree as to be confined to his
bed for more than a month at a time: yet even this
dreadful diforder did not abate his ardour for mathe¬
matical ftudies; for the fecond volume of his Memoirs,
juft now publiftied, was written and revifed during the
intervals of his diforder. This volume, befide a folu¬
tion of the general problem concerning rotatory mo¬
tion, contains the refolutionof the problem concerning
the motion of a top; an inveftigation of the motion of
the equinoxes, in which Mr Landen has firft of any
one pointed out the caufe of Sir Ifaac Newton’s mi-
, ftake in his folution of this celebrated problem; and
fome other papers of confiderable importance. He
juft lived to fee this work finilhed, and received a copy
of it the day before his death, which happened on the
15th of January 1790, at Milton, near Petet borough,
in the 71ft year of his age.
LANDERNEAU, a town of France, in Lower
Bretagne, feated on the river Elboro, 20 miles eaft of
Bred. In an inn here is a well which ebbs and flows
like the fea, but at contrary times. E. Long. 4. 13.
N. Lat. 48. 25.
LANDGRAVE (formed of the German land
“ earth,” w\& grajf ox grave, “judge” or “count”);
a name formerly given to thofe who executed juftice
in behalf of the emperors, with regard to the internal
policy of the country. The title does not feem to
have been ufed before the 1 ith century. Thefe judges
were firft appointed within a certain diftrift of Ger¬
many : in procefs of time the title became hereditary,
and thefe judges affumed the iovereignty of the feveral
diftriAs or countries over which they prefided. Land¬
grave is now applied by way of eminence to thofe fo-
vereign princes of the empire who poflefs by inheritance
certain eftates called landgravates, and of which they
receive the inveftiture of the emperor. There are four
princes who have this title, viz. thofe of Thuringia,
Heflia, Alface, and Leuchtenberg. There are alfo
other landgraves who are not princes but counts of the
empire. See Count.
LANDGKAVIATE, or Landgravate, the of¬
fice, authority, jurifdidtion, or territory, of a land¬
grave.
LANDGUARD-fort feems to belong to Suffolk,
but is in the limits of Effex, and has a fine profped of
the coafts of both counties. It was eredled, and is LandUf^rn
maintained, for the defence of the port of Harwich II
over again ft it; for it commands the entry of it from
the fea up the Maning-tree water, and will reach any .
(hip that goes in or out. It is placed on a point of
land fo furrounded with the fea at high-water, that it
looks like a little ifland at lead one mile from the (hore.
The making its foundation folid enough for fo good a
fortification coft many years labour and a prodigious
expence. It was built in the reign of King James I.
when it was a much more confiderable fortification
than now, having four baftions mounted with 60 very
large guns, particularly thofe on the royal baftion,
which would throw a 28 pound ball over Harwich.
Here is a fmall garrifon, with a governor, and a plat¬
form of guns. This fort is refitted and greatly en¬
larged for the conveniency of the officers of ordnance,
engineers, and matroffes; and a barrack built for the
foldiers.
LANDISFARN, or Lindesfarn. See Zfoir-
IJland.
LANDRECY, a town of the French Netherlands
in Hainault, ceded to France by the treaty of the
Pyrenees, and is now very well fortified. It was be-
fieged by Prince Eugene in 1712, but to no purpofe.
It is feated on a plain on the river Sambre, in E. Long.
3.47. N. Lat. 50. 4.
LANDSCAPE, in painting, the view or profpe&
of a country extended as far as the eye will reach.
See Painting, n il. and 22.; and Drawing, Se&.
10.
LANDSCROON, a fea-port town of Sweden, in
South-Gothland, and territory of Schonen, feated on
the Baltic Sea, within the Sound, 22 miles north of
Copenhagen. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat. 55. 4*.
LANDSDOWN, a place in Somerfetfhire, near
Bath, with a fair on Odlober 10th for cattle and
cheefe.
LANDSHUT, a ftrong town of Germany in
Lower Bavaria, with a ftrong caftle on an adjacent
hill. It is feated on the river Ifer, in E. Long. 1. 15.
N. Lat. 48. 23. There is another fmall town of the
fame name in Silefia, and in the duchy of Schweidnitz,
feated on the river Zieder, which falls into the Bauber:
and there is alfo another in Moravia, feated on the
river Morave, on the confines of Hungary and Auftria.
LANDSKIP. See Landscape.
LANERKSHIRE, a county of Scotland, called
alfo Clydefdale, from the river Clyde, by which it is
watered. It is bounded on the north by the county
of Dumbarton ; on the eaft by Stirling, Linlithgow,
Edinburgh, and Peebles, (hires; on the fouth by Dum¬
fries ; and on the weft by Ayr and Renfrew (hires.
Its extent from north to fouth is about 40 miles, from
eaft to weft 36.—The river Clyde, defeending hom Scotian 1 De-
the fouthern part of this county, divides it into two P-j
almpft equal parts; and after a courfe of about 5o3,5'&e*
miles, meets the tide a little below Glafgow: (fee
Glasgow). Proceeding up the river from Glafgow,
the country is rich and well cultivated. Bothwell
caftle, now in ruins, (lands on an eminence which over¬
looks the Clyde. Some of its walls are dill remaining,
which meafure 15 feet in thicknefs and 60 feet in
height. This vaft fabric was once the abode of a man
the mod notorioufly marked of any in the annals of
Scot- _
LAN [ 527 ] LAN
Lanark- Scotland for the audacity and fplendor of his crimes.
Ihire. Between this caftle and the priory of Blantyre on the
lJ“ ' oppofite fide of the Clyde, there is faid to have been
in ancient times a fubterraneous paffage under the ri¬
ver. A little above Hands Bothwell-bridge, noted ibr
the defeat of the Covenanters by the duke of Mon¬
mouth in 1679.—Eaft from Bothwell caftle, in an ele¬
vated fuuation, Hands the Kirk of Shots, amid a wild
and barren country. This dreary wafte is covered
with heath; and though a high fituation, is flat, and
very marlhy in many places. It is chiefly employed
as ftieep-walks; and notwithftanding the vicinity of
coal and lime, feems fcarce capable of cultivation.
This want is, however, compenfated by the abundance
of iron-ftone and coal, which are here brought toge¬
ther by the hand of nature. Nor is this advantage
confined to the barifn tradl in the north-eaft corner
of the Ihire. The whole county abounds with thefe
valuable minerals; and two iron works are erefted on
the banks of the Clyde, one a little above Glafgow
and another ^t Cleland near Hamilton. But the moft
confiderable work of this kind in the county is that of
Cleugh, a few miles fouth-eaft from the Kirk of Shots.
A village is here built for the accommodation of the
workmen. It is called V/Hfintoivn from the name of
the proprietors.—The fmall borough of Lanerk is fi-
tuated on the brow of a hill, on the north-eaft fide of
the Clyde, commanding a fine profpedt over the river.
In this neighbourhood are fome of the greateft cotton
manufattories in Scotland. The Clyde near this place
runs for feveral miles between high rocks covered with
wood ; and in its courfe exhibits many aftoniflring ca-
tarafts: (fee the article Clyde).—From Lanerk, paf-
fing the village of Carftairs, a few miles to the eaft
we meet the fmall town of Carnwath. In this neigh-
Eourhood, and along the Clyde to the fouth-eaft,
there is much cultivation and rich pafture.—To the
fouth of Carnw’ath is the town of Biggar ; where is
feen the ruin of a collegiate church founded in 1545.
—The lands about the villages of Coulter and Lam-
mington are fertile ; but farther up the Clyde we meet
with nothing but ftreep-walks and pafture-grounds in
tracing it to its fource.
In the fouthern part of the {hire, generally called
Clydefdale, the country is not lefs wild. Among the
mountains here, or rather in a hollow near their fum-
mit, we meet with the village of Leadhills, by fome
faid to be the higheft human habitation in the ifland
of Great Britain. Here, however, refide many hun¬
dreds of miners with their families. Thefe miners,
though in a great meafure excluded from fociety by
their fituation, yet not only find means to procure a
comfortable fubfiftence, but alfo pay more attention to
the cultivation of the mind than many of their coun¬
trymen fituated feemingly in more favourable circum-
ftances for the attainment of knowledge. As an evi¬
dence of this, they are very intelligent, and have pro¬
vided a circulating library for the inftrudlion and a-
mufement of the little community belonging to the
village.—Amid thefe mountains particles of gold have
fometimes been found wafhed down by the rains and
ftreams of water; but this defert trad is chiefly va¬
luable for producing metals of inferior worth. “ No-
tiaing (fays Mr Pennant) can equal the gloomy appear¬
ance of the country round. Neither tree, nor fhrub, Lanark*
nor verdure, nor pi&urefque rock, appear to amufe the fll‘re
eye. The fpe&ator muft plunge into the bowels of N '
thefe mountains for entertainment.” The veins of lead ra”e
lie moftly north and fouth; and their thicknefs, which ■ -—-
feldom exceeds 40 feet, varies greatly in different parts.
Some have been found filled with ore within two fa- -
thorns of the furface ; others fink to the depth of go-
fathoms. The earl of Hopeton, the proprietor, has
in his poffefiion a folid mats of lead ore from thefe
mines weighing five tons. His lordfhip has alfo, it i»
faid, a piece of native gold that weighs two ounces,
which was found here. The lead fmelted at this place
is all fent to Leith, where it has the privilege of being
exported free of duty. The fcanty pafture afforded
by this barren region feeds fome ftreep and cattle ;
but thofe in the neighbourhood of the mines fome¬
times perifti by drinking of the water in which the
lead ore has bean wafhed: for the lead-ore communi¬
cates a deleterious quality to the water, though that
liquid acquires no hurtful taint from remaining in lea¬
den pipes or cifterns. North from this mountainous
region lies Crawfordmuir.
About nine miles north of Leadhills, on the eaflr
fide of the fmall river Douglas, which falls into the
Clyde a few miles below, Hands Douglas caftle, for
many ages the refidence of the fecond family in Scot¬
land. A modern building has been erefted on the
fame fite,‘ in imitation of the ancient caftle. Near it
ftands the town of Douglas. A few miles to the
norch-eaft is Tinto, a remarkable conic mountain,
round the bafe of which the Clyde makes a noble.
fweep. Weftward, beyond Douglas, the fmall river
Netham defeends into the Clyde through the populous
parxfh of Lifmahago.—Hamilton houfe, the feat of
the duke of Hamilton, ftands in a plain between the
rivers Clyde and Avon. It is a magnificent ftru&ure,
furrounded by many venerable oaks. In the vicinity
is the town of Hamilton, which contains many hand-
fome houfes: (fee Hamilton). Here are feen the
ruins of a collegiate church, founded in 1451. At a
little diftance from Hamilton-houfe is an elegant ap¬
pendage to it called Chatelherault, the name of the
ancient poffefiions held by the family in France. This
building is feated on the river Avon, and is furround¬
ed by woods and deep dells, and every rural beauty
that can produce a pleafing effeft on the imagination.
— On the weft of Hamilton is the little town of Kil¬
bride ; and to the fouth that of Strathavon, furround¬
ed by the fertile trad from which it derives its name.
In our way from Hamilton to Glafgow we meet with
the ancient borough of Rutherglen, inhabited chiefly
by weavers and other manufadurers: and the village
of Govan ftands on the fame fide of the river on the
road from Glafgow to Renfrew.
LANESBOROUGH, a town of Ireland, fituated
iu the county of Longford and province of Leinfter.
It is a borough, and returns two members to parlia¬
ment ; patronage in the Dillon family. This place is
fituated on the river Shannon, 62 miles from Dublin
and has a barrack for a troop of horfe. There is a
yearly fair here in February. The town gave title of
vifeount to the family of Lane, and now gives title off
carl to that of Butler. There is a bridge over the
6 Shannon.
LAN [ 528 1 LAN
Lanfrane Shannon at Lanefborough into the county Rofcom-
It , mon. N. Lat. 53. 40. W. Long. 8. 6.
Sv- i LANFRANC, an Italian, born at Pavia, became
archbifhop of Canterbury in 1070. He difputed a-
gainft Berengarius in the council held at Rome in
1059* and wrote againft him concerning the real pre¬
fence in the eucharift. He had other difputes, &c.
and died in 1089.
Lanfranc (John), an eminent Italian hiftory-paint-
er, born at Parma in 1581. He was firll the difciple
of Auguftin Caracci; and, after his death, of Hanni¬
bal, whofe talle in defign and colouring he fo happily
attained, that he was intruded to execute fome of his
defigns in the Farnefian palace at Rome. Thefe he
finilhed in fo mafterly a manner, that the difference is
imperceptible to this day between his work and that
of his mafter. His genius direfted him to grand com-
pofitions, which he had a peculiar facility in defigning
and in painting either in frefco or in oil: he did in¬
deed afpire to the grace of Correggio, but could ne¬
ver arrive at his excellence; his greateft power being
manifefted in compofitTon and fore-fhortening. He
was deficient in correftnefs and expreffion; and his
colouring, though fometimes admirable, was frequent¬
ly too dark. By order of Pope Urban VIII. he paint¬
ed in 8t Peter’s church at Rome the reprefentation of
that faint walking on the water, which afforded the
pope fo much fatisfadion that he knighted him. He
died in 1647.
LANGBAINE (Gerard), D. D. a learned Eng-
lifh writer, was born in 1608. He was educated at
Queen’s-college, Oxford; and became keeper of the
archives of that univerfity, provoft of his college, and
dodor of divinity. He was highly efteemed by arch-
bifhop Ufher, Selden, and feveral other learned men ;
and died in 1657-8. He publifhed, 1. An edition of
Longinus, in Greek and Latin, with notes. 2. A re¬
view of the covenant; and other works.
Langbaine, (Gerard), an eminent writer, the fon
of the former, was born in 1656. He was put ap¬
prentice to Mr Symonds, bookfeller in St Paul’s
church-yard : but was foon after called from thence
by his mother upon the death of his eldeft brother,
and by her entered a gentleman-commoner of Univer-
fity-college, Oxford, in 1672. Here he run out a
good part of his eftate; but afterwards correded his
manner of living, and for fome years lived in retire¬
ment near Oxford. During this time he improved
his tafte for dramatic poetry ; and at firft wrote fome
fmall pieces without his name, blit afterwards pub¬
lifhed feveral works which he publicly owned. In
1690 he was eleded inferior beadle of arts in the
univerfity of Oxford ; and, in January following, was
chofen fuperior beadle of law, but died foon after in
1692. He wrote, 1. The hunter, a difcourfe on
honemanfhip. a. A new catalogue of Englifh plays,
with their bell editions, and divers remarks on the
originals of mod plays, and on the plagiaries of feve¬
ral authors. 3. An account of the Englilh dramatic
poets.
LANGELAND (Robert), an old Englifh poet
of the 14th century, and one of the firft. difciples of
Wiekliff'e the reformer. He is faid to have been born
in Shropfhire, but we have no account of his family.
Pit wrote The vifions of Pierce Plowman; a piece
N° 174-
which abounds with imagination and humour, though tangeland
dreffed to great difadvantage in very uncouth verfifica- H .
tion and obfolete language. It is written without ai‘**r
rhyme, an ornament which the poet has endeavoured
to fupply by making every verfe begin with the fame
letter. Dr Hickes obferves, that this kind of allite¬
rative verfification was adopted by Langeland from the
practice of the Saxon poets, and that thefe vifions a-
bound with Saxonifms: he flyles him celeberrimus ille
fatirographus, morum vindex acerrimus. See.. Chaucer
and Spencer have attempted imitations of his vifions,
and the learned Selden mentions him with honour.
Langeland, an ifland of Denmark in the Baltic
fea, in the ftrait called the great belt, and between
Zealand, Saland, and Fyonia. It produces plenty of
corn, and the principal town is Rutcoping. E. Long,
it. 10. N. Lar. 55. o.
LANGETZ, a town of France in Touraine, noted
for its excellent melons. It is feated on the river Loire,
in E. Long. o. 23. N. Lat. 42. 20.
LANGHORNE (John), D. D. was born at
Kirkby-Stephen in Weftmoreland. His father was
the reverend Jofeph Langhorne of Winfton, who died
when his fon was young. After entering into holy
orders, he became tutor to the fons of Mr Cracroft,
a Lincolnfhire gentleman, whofe daughter he mar¬
ried. This lady in a ihort time died : and the lofs of
her was very pathetically lamented by her hulband in
a monody; and by another gentleman, Mr Cart¬
wright, in a poem intitled “ Conftantia.” Dr Lang¬
horne held the living of Blagden in Somerfetfhire at
the time of his death, which happened April 1. 1 779.
He was the author of feveral literary productions;
amongft others, of Poems in 2 vols, 1766; Sermons
in 2 vols, 1773; Effufions of Fancy, 2 vols; Theo-
dofius and Conftantia, 2 vols; Solyman and Almenay
Frederick and Pharamond, or the Confolations of Hu¬
man Life, 1769; a Differtation on the Eloquence of
the Pulpit; and another on Religious Retirement;
and he was editor of the Works of Sc Evremond, of
the Poems of Collins, and fome other articles.
LANGIONA, a large, rich, and ftrong town of
Afia, capital of the kingdom of Laos, with a large
and magnificent palace where the king refides. E.
Long. 96. 45. N. Lat. 22. 38.
LANGOBARD1, a people of Germany fituated
between the Elbe and the Oder, in the Marche of
Brandenburg, whom their-paucity ennobled; in re¬
gard that being encompafled by many and powerful
nations they preferved themfelves, not fo much by fub-
miffion, as by dint of arms and encountering dangers,
(Tacitus).
LANGPORT, in Somerfetfhire, 132 miles from.
London, is a well-frequented town on the Parrot, be¬
tween Bridgewater and Crewkern. It fent members
to three parliaments, and is governed by a portreeve
and a recorder. Here are lighters conftantly fetch¬
ing coals, &c. from Bridgewater; and it is a ftage
for the Taunton waggon, which drops the goods here
from London to be carried farther by water. Eels
are taken in vaft plenty out of the holes of the banks
of the river in frofty weather. The market here is on
Saturday, and there are four fairs in the year.
LANGREL-shot, at fea, that conlifting of two
bars of iron joined by a chain or fhackle, and having
4 half
LAN f 529 ] LAN
Langres half a ball of iron fixed on each end ; by means of laughing, finging, groaning, fcreaming, and other language,
I! which apparatus it does great execution among the natural and audible exprelfions of appetite and pafiion. »' ,u-x.
Language.!eneiny>g rigging. ——Another difference between the language of men
LANGRES, an ancient and confiderable town of and the voices of brute animals confifts in articulation,
France in Champagne, with a bilhop’s fee. The cut- by which the former may be refolved into diftinct ele-
lery-wares made here are in high efteem. It is feated mentary founds or fyllables ; whereas the latter, being
on a mountain near- the river Mearne, in E. Long, for the moft part unarticulated, is not capable of fuch
4. 24. N. Lat. 47. 52. _ a refolution. Hence Flomer and Hefiod chara&erize
LANGTON (Stephen), was born in England, but man by the epithet or “ voice dividing,” as de¬
reign of king John was made archbifhop of Canter- utters but one fuch found, which feems to be employed India bird
bury by Pope Innocent III. in oppofition both to the rather as notes of natural mufic than for the purpofecalled
monks of Canterbury and to the king. Langton was of giving information to others ; for when the bird is*&c‘
one of the moft illuftrious men of his age for learning ; agitated, it utters cries which are very different, and
and continued archbifhop 22 years, dying in 1228. have no articulation. A third difference between Not from
A catalogue of his books is given by Bale and Tanner, the language of men and the fignificant cries of brute'ia,urc or
1 . LANGUAGE, in the proper fenfe of the word, animals, is, that the former is from art and the latter
Definition, gjgnifies the expreffion of our ideas and their various from nature. Every human language islearned by imita-
relaticns by certain articulate founds, which are ufed tion, and is intelligible only to thofe who either inhabit
as the figns of thofe ideas and relations. By articulate the country where it is vernacular, or have been taught
founds are meant thofe modulations of fimple voice, or it by a mailer or by books : but the voices in queftion
of found emitted from the thorax, which are formed are not learned by imitation ; and being wholly inftinc-
by means of the mouth and its feveral organs,— the tive, they are intelligible to all the animals of that fpecies
teeth, the tongue, the lips, and the palate. In a more by which they are uttered, though brought together
general fenfe the word language is fometimes ufed to from the moft diftant countries on earth. That a dog,
denote all founds by which animals of any kindexprefs which had never heard another bark, would notwith-
their particular feelings and impulfes in a manner that (landing bark himfelf, and-that the barkings or yelps
is intelligible to their own fpecies. _ of a Lapland dog would be inftindively underftood by
Nature has endowed every animal with powers fuf- the dogs of Spain, Calabria, or any other country, are
ficient to make known all thofe of its fenfations and fails which admit not of doubt: but there is no rea-
defires, with which it is neceflary, for the prdervation fon to imagine that a man who had never heard any
.of the individual or the continuance of the kind, that language fpoken. would himfclf fpeak ; and it is well
others of the fame fpecies fhould be acquainted. For this known that the language fpoken in one country is un-
purpofe, the organs of all vocal animals are fo formed, as, intelligible to the natives of another country where a
upon any particular impulfe, to utter founds, of which different language is fpoken. Herodotus indeed re-
thofe of the fame fpecies inftin&ively know the meaning, cords a fad which, could it be depended upon, would
The fummons of the hen is inftantly obeyed by the tend to overturn this reafoning, as it infers a natural
whole brood of chickens ; and in many others of the relation between ideas and certain articulate founds,
irrational tribes a fimilar mode of communication may He tells us, that Pfammetichus king of Egypt, in or-
be obferved between the parents and the offspring, and der to difeover which was the oldeft language, caufed
between one animal and its cuftomary affociate. But two children, newly born of poor parents, to be
it is not among animals of the fame fpecies only that brought up by a fhepherd among his cattle, with a
a e thefe inftin&ive founds are mutually underftood. It is ftridl injundion that they fhould never hear a human
ih whatgre- 38 neceffary for animals to know the voices of their e- voice ; and that at the end of two years the children
ipe&s dif- nemies as the voices of their friends ; and the roaring pronounced at the fame time the word /2**r<r, which
ferent from of the lion is a found of which, previous to all expe- in the Phrygian language fignified bread. Either this
tivewks11 rience> ever>' bea.ft of the fortft is naturally afraid, is one of the many fables which that credulous hitfo-
Between thefe animal voices and the language of men rian colle&ed among the Egyptians, or the condudt
there is however very little analogy. Human lan- and reafoning of Pfammetichus were very abfurd ; for
guage is capable of exprdfing ideas and notions, which it is added, that from this circumftance he inferred
there is every reafon to believe that the brutal mind that the Phrygians were the molt ancient people, and
cannot conceive. “Speech (fays Ariftotle) is made that they fpoke the primitive language. The only
to indicate what is expedient and what inexpedient, rational purpofe for which fuch an experiment could
and in confequence of this what is juft and unjuft. It be inftituted, would be to difeover, not which is the
is therefore given to men ; becaute it is peculiar to
them that of good and evil, juft and unjuft, they only
(with refpeft to other animals) poffefs a fenfe or feel¬
ing,” The voices of brutes feem intended by nature
to exprefs, not diftinft ideas or moral modes, but on¬
ly fuch feelings as it is for the good of the fpecies
that they fhould have the power of making known ;
and in this, as in all other refpefts, thefe voices are
analogous ; not to our fpeaking, but to our weeping.
V01. IX. Part II.
oldeft or the lateft language, but whether there be fnch
a thing as a language of nature or inftindl: but in.fuch
a language it is obvious that there could be no word to
denote bread, becaufe in what is called the ftate of na¬
ture bread is unknown. The experiment of Pfamme¬
tichus was probably never made ; but in the woods of
different countries folitary favages have at different
times been caught, who, though they apparently polfef-
fed all the fagacity which is natural to man, and though
3 X theit
LAN
Lancua^e their organs both of hearing and of fpeech were per-
  fe£t, never ufed articulate founds as figns of fenfations
or ideas. They uttered indeed the inarticulate cries
which are inftinftively expreffive of pleafure and pain,
of joy and forrow, more, diftinftly and forcibly than
men civilized ; but with refpedl to the very rudiments
of language, they were what Horace reprefents all
mankind to have been originally,—mutum et turpepecus.
Indeed it feemsto be obvious, that were there any in-
ftin&ive language, the firft words uttered by all chil¬
dren would be the fame ; and that every child, whe¬
ther born in the defert or in fociety, would under-
ftand the language of every other child however edu¬
cated or however negle&ed. Nay more, we may ven¬
ture to affirm, that fuch a language, though its gene¬
ral ufe might, in fociety, be fuperfeded by the pre¬
vailing dialeft of art, could never be wholly loft ; and
that no man of one country would find it difficult, far
lefs impoffible, to communicate the knowledge of his
natural and moft preffing wants to the men of any
other country, whether barbarous or civilized. The
exercife of cultivated reafon, and the arts of civil life,
have indeed eradicated many of our original inftinfts,
but they have not eradicated them all: (fee. In¬
stinct.) There are external indications of the internal
feelings and defires, which appear in the moft poliffi-
ed foeiety, and which are confeffedly inftin&ive. The
paffions, emotions, fenfations, and appetites, are natu¬
rally exprefftd in the countenance by charafters which
^he favage and the courtier can read with equal readi-
nefs. The look ferene, the fmoothed brow, the dim¬
pled fmile, and the gliftening eye, denote equanimity
and good will in terms which no man miftakes. The
eontra&ed brow, the glaring eye, the fullen gloom,
and the threatening air, denote rage, indignation, and
defiance, as plainly and forcibly as revilings or impre¬
cations. To teach men to difguife thefe inftinftive
indications of their temper, and
“ To carry fmiles and funfhine in their face,
“ When difeontent fits heavy at their heart,”
conftitutes a great part of modern and refined educa¬
tion. Yet in fpite of every effott of the utmoft ikill,
and of every motive refulting from intereft, the moft
confummate hypocrite, or the moft hackneyed politi¬
cian, is not always able to prevent his real difpofition
from becoiqing apparent in his countenance. He may
indeed, by long pra&ice, have acquired a very great
command both over his temper and over the in-
ftinftive figns of it ; but at times nature will predomi¬
nate over art, and a fudden and violent paffion will
flafh in his face, fo as to be vifible to the eye of every
beholder. If thefe obfervations be juft, and we flatter
©urfelves with the belief that no man will call them in
queftion, it feems to follow, that, if mankind were
prompted by inftinft to ufe articulate founds as indi¬
cations of their paffions, affeftions, fenfations, and
ideas, the language of nature could never be wholly
forgotten, and that it would fometimes predominate
over the language of art. Groans, fighs, and fome
inarticulate lively founds, are naturally expreflive of
pain and pleafure, and equally intelligible to all man-
LAN
kind. The oecafional ufe of thefe no art can wholly Language*
banilh ; and if there were articulate founds naturalfy v~—<
expreffive of the fame feelings, it is not conceivable
that art or education could baniflr the ufe of them,
merely becaufe by the organs of the mouth they are .
broken into parts and refolvable into fyllables.
It being thus evident that there is no inftinftive ar¬
ticulated language, it has become an inquiry of fome
importance, how mankind were firft induced to fabri¬
cate articulate founds, and to employ them for the
purpofe of communicating their thoughts. Children
learn to fpeak by infenlible imitation ; and when ad¬
vanced fome years in life, they ftudy foreign languages
under proper inftru&ors : but the firft men had no
fpeakers to imitate, and no formed language to ftudy ; ^
by what means then did they learn to fpeak ? On this Either re-
queftion only two opinions can poffibly be formed, vealed from.
Either language muft have been originally revealed from heaven.’ or
heaven, or it muft be the fruit of human induftry. The veiued'by
greater part of Jews and Chriftians, and even fome ofmui.
the wifeft pagans, have embraced the former opinion ;
which feems to be fupported by the authority of Mo-
fes, who reprefents the Supreme Being as teaching
our firft parents the names of animals. The latter o-
pinion is held by Diodorus Siculus, Lucretius, Horace,.
and many other Greek and Roman writers, who cou-
fider language as one of the arts invented by man.
The firft men, fay they, lived for fome time in woods
and caves after the manner of beafts, uttering only
confufed and indiftind noifes; till, affociating for mu¬
tual affiftance, they came by degrees to ufe articulate
founds mutually agreed upon for the arbitrary figns or
marks of thofe ideas in the mind of the fpeaker which
he wanted to communicate to the hearer. This opi¬
nion fprung from the atomic cofmogony which was
framed by Mochus the Phenician, and afterwards im¬
proved by Democritus and Epicurus; and though it
is part of a fyftem in which the firft men are reprefent-
ed as having grown out of the earth like trees and o-
ther vegetables, it has been adopted by feveral modern
writers (a) of high rank in the republic of letters, and
is certainly in itfelf worthy of examination.
The moft learned, and on every account the moft Ar ^ment
refpedable author who now fupports this opinion, can •
didly acknowledges, that if language was invented, it of human
was of very difficult invention, and far beyond the invention,
reach of the grofl'eft favages. Accordingly he holds,
that though men were originally folirary animals, and
had no natural propenfity to the focial life ; yet before
language could be invented they muft have been aflb-
ciated for ages, and have carried on of concert fome
common work. Nay, he is decidedly of opinion, that
before the invention of an art fo difficult as language,
men muft not only have herded together, but have alfo
formed fome kind of civil polity, have exifted in that
political ftate a very long time, and have acquired fuch
powers of abftraftton as to be able to form general ideas.
(See Logic and Metaphysics). But it is obvious,
that men could not have inftituted civil polity, or have
carried on of concert any common work, without com¬
municating their defigns to each other : and there are
four ways by which the author thinks that this could
have
[ 53° I
(a) Father Simon, Voltaire, L’Abbe Condilliac, Dr Smith, and the author of the Origin and Progrcfs of
language.
% AN I 53* 1 LAN
rjy-jmgmge, bsve been done before the inventlof! of fpeech } vw,
****V~~^ I ft, inarticulate cries*, expreffive of fentiments and pal*
fons ; 2d, gejlures, and the expreflion of countenance ; 3d,
imitative founds expreflive of audible things t and, 4th,
painting, by which vifible objefts may be reprefented.
Of thefe four ways of communication it is plain that
only two have any connedtion with language, viz. in¬
articulate cries and imitative founds ; and of thefe the
author abandons the latter as having contributed no¬
thing to the invention of articulation, though he thinks
it may have helped to advance its progrefs. *• lam
difpofed (fays he) to believe, that the framing of words
with an analogy to the found of the things exprefled
by them belongs rather to languages of art than to
the firft languages fpoken by rude and barbarous na¬
tions.” It is therefore inarticulate cries only that
muft have given rife to the formation of language.
Such cries are ufed by all animals who have any
ufe of voice to exprefs their wants ; and the faA
is, that all barbarous nations have cries expreffing dif¬
ferent things, fuch as joy, grief, terror, furprife, and
the like. Thefe, together with geftures and exprefiion
of the countenance, were undoubtedly the methods of
communication firft ufed by men : and we have but to
fuppofe (fays our author) a great number of our fpecies
carrying on fome common bufinefs, and converfing to¬
gether by figns and cries; and we have men juft in a
Hate proper for the invention of language. For if we
fuppofe their numbers to increafe, their wants would
increafe alfo ; and then thefe two methods of commu¬
nication would become too confined for that larger
fphere of life which their wants would make neceflary.
The only thing then that remained to be done was to
give a greater variety to the inftin&ive cries; and as
the natural progrefs is from what is eafy to what is
more difficult, the firft variation would be merely by
tones from low to high, and from grave to acute. But
this variety could not anfwer all the purpofes of fpeech
in fociety; and being advanced fo far, it was natural
that an animal fo fagacious as man ihould go on far¬
ther, and come at laft to the only other variation re¬
maining, namely articulation. The firft articulation
would be very Ample, the voice being broken and dif-
tinguifhed only by a few vowels and confonants. And
as all natural cries are from the throat and larynx, with
little or no operation of the organs of the mouth, it is
natural to fuppofe, that the firft languages were for
the greater part fpoken from the throat; that what
•confonants were ufed to vary the cries, were moftly
guttural; and that the organs of the mouth would at
firft be very little employed. From this account of
the origin of language it appears, that the firft founds
articulated were the natural cries by which men fig-
nified their wants and defires to one another, fuch as
calling one another for certain purpofes, and other fuch
things as were moft neceffary for carrying on any joint
work:thenin procefs oftime other cries would be articu¬
lated, to fignify, that fuch and fuch adlions had been per¬
formed or were performing, or that fuch and fuch
events had happened relative to the common bufinefs.
Then names would be invented of fuch obje&s as they
were converfant with ; but as we cannot fuppofe fa-
vages to be deep iu abftraftion or fkilful in the art of language,
arranging things according to their genera and fpecies, v -J,
all things however fimilar, except perhaps the indivi¬
duals of the lowed fpecies, would be exprefled by dif¬
ferent words not related to each other either by dcri-
vation or compofition. Thus would language grow by
degrees; and as it grew, it would be more and more
broken and articulated by confonants ; but ftill the
words would retain a great deal of their original na¬
ture of animal cries. And thus things would goon,
words unrelated ftill multiplying, till at laft the lan¬
guage would become too cumberfome for ufe; and then
art would be obliged to interpofe, and form a language
upon a few radical words, according to the rules and
method of etymology. g
Thofe ( b ) who think that language was originally Argumenti
revealed from heaven, confider this account of its hu-for i s di¬
man invention as a feries of mere fuppofitions hanging vine origitf.
loofely together, and the whole fufpended from no fixed
principle. The opinions of Diodorus, Vitruvius, Ho¬
race, Lucretius, and Cicero, which are frequently quo¬
ted in its fupport, are in their eftimation of no greater
authority than the opinions of other men ; for as lan¬
guage was formed and brought to a great degree of
perfe&ion long before the era of any hiftorian with
whom we are acquainted, the antiquity of the Greek
and Roman writers, who are comparatively of yefter-
day, gives them no advantage in this inquiry over the
philofophers of France and England. Ariftotle has
defined man to be ; and the definition is
certainly fo far juft, that man is much more remarkable
for imitation than invention ; and therefore, fay the
reafoners on this fide of the queftion, had the human
race been originally mutum et turpe pecus, they would
have continued fo to the end of time, unlefs they had
been taught to fpeak by fome fuperior intelligence.
That the firft men fprung from the earth like vege¬
tables, no modern philofopher has ventured to affert;
nor does there any where appear fufficient evidence
that men were originally in the ftate of favages. The
oldeft book extant contains the only rational cofmo*
gony known to the ancient nations ; and that book
reprefents the firft human inhabitants of this earth, not
only as reafoning and fpeaking animals, but alfo as in a
ftate of high perfeftion and happinefs, of which they
were deprived for difobedience to their Creator. Mofes,
fetting afide his claim to infpiration, deferves, from the
confiftence of his narrative, at kail as much credit as
Mochus, or Democritus, or Epicurus; and from his
prior antiquity, if antiquity could on this fubjeft have
any weight, he would deferve more, as having lived
nearer to the period of which they all write. But
the queftion refpefting the origin of language may be
decided without retting in authority of any kind,
merely by confidering the nature of fpeech and the
mental and corporeal powers of man. Thofe who main¬
tain it to be of human invention, fuppofe men at firft
to have been folitary animals, afterwards to have herded
together without government or fubordination, then
to have formed political focietiee, and by their own
exertions to have advanced from the groffeft ignorance
to the refinements of fcience. But, fay the reafoners
3X2 whofe
<») Warburton, Delaney, Johnfon, Beattie, Blair, and Dr Stanhope Smith of New Jerfey, &c.
LAN [ 532 ] LAN
Language, whofe caufe we are now pleading, this is a fuppofition
^^ ' contrary to all hiftory and all experience. There is
not upon record a fingle inftance well authenticated
of a people emerging by their own efforts from barba-
rifm to civilization. There have indeed been many
nations raifed from the ftate of favages; but it is known
that chey were pol lhed, not by their own repeated ex¬
ertions, but by the influence of individuals or colonies
from nations more enlightened than themfelves. The
original favages of Greece were tamed by the Pelafgi, a
foreign tribe ; and were afterwards further polifhed by
Orpheus, Cecrops, Cadmus, &c. who derived their know¬
ledge from Egypt and the Eaft The ancient Romans,
a ferocious and motley crew, received the blelfings of
law and religion from a fucceflion of foreign kings ;
and the conquefts of Rome at a later period contri¬
buted to civilize the reft of Europe. In America, the
only two nations which at the invafion of the Spaniards
could be faid to have advanced a fingle ftep from bar-
barifm, were indebted for their fuperiority over the
other tribes, not to the gradual and unaftiited progrefs
of the human mind, but to the wife inftitutions of fo¬
reign legiflators.
This is not the proper place for tracing the progrefs
of man from the favage ftate to that of political focie-
ty^See Savage State); but experience teaches us, that
in every art it is much eafier to improve than to invent.
The human mind, when put into the proper track, is
indeed capable of making great advances in arts and
fciences; but if any credit be due to the records of
hiftory, it has not, in a people funk in ignorance and
barbarity, fufficient vigour to difcover that track, or
to conceive a ftate different from the prefent. If the
rudeft inhabitants of America and other countries have
continued, as there is every reafon to believe they have
continued, for ages in the fame unvaried ftate of bar-
barifm; how is it imaginable that people fo much ruder
than they-) a^ to be ignorant of all language, ftrould
think of inventing an art fo difficult as that of fpeech,
or even to frame a conception of rhe thing ? In build¬
ing, fiftiing, hunting, navigating, &c. they might
imitate the inftin&ive arts of other animals ; but there
is no other animal that expreffes its fenfations and af¬
fections by arbitrary articulate founds.—It is faid, that
before language could be invented, mankind muft have
cxifted for ages in large political focieties, and have
carried on of concert fome common work : but if in¬
articulate cries, and the natural vifible figns of the
paffions and affc&ions, were modes of communication
Efficiently accurate to keep a large fociety together
for ages, and to diredt its members in the execution of
fome common work, what could be their inducement
to the invention of an art fo ufelefsand difficult as that
of language ? Let us however fuppofe, fay the advo¬
cates for the caufe which we are now fupporting,. that
different nations of favages fet about inventing an art
of communicating their thoughts, which experience
had taught them was not abfolutely neceffary ; how
came they all, without exception, to think of the one
art of articulating the voice for this purpole ? Inar¬
ticulate cries, out of which language is fabricated,
have indeed an inftindtive connexion with our paffions
and affcftions; but there are geftures and expreffions
of countenance with which our paffions and affedtions
are, in the fame manner connedted. If the natural
cries of paffion could be fo 'modified and enlarged as Language
to be capable of communicating to the hearer every -y—^
idea in the mind of the fpeaker, it is certain that the
natuial geftures could be fo modified as to anfwer the
very fame purpofe (fee Pantomime) ; and it is ftrange
that among the feveral nations who invented languages,
not one ffiould have (tumbled upon fabricating viiible
figns of their ideas, but that all (lioulft have agreed to
denote them by articulated founds. Every nation
whofe language is narrow and rude fupplies its defedts
by violent gefticulation ; and therefore, as much lefs
genius is exerted in the improvement of any art than
was requifite for its firft invention, it is natural to fup¬
pofe, that, had men been left to devife for themfelves
a method of communicating their thoughts, they
would not have attempted any other than that by
which they now improve the language tranfmitted by
their fathers. It is vain to urge that articulate founds
are fitter for the purpofe of communicating thought
than vifible gefticulation: for though this may be true,
it is a truth which could hardly occur to favages, who
had never experienced the fitnefs of either; and if, to
counterbalance the fuperior fitnefs of articulation, its
extreme difficulty be taken into view, it muft appear
little lefs than miraculous that every favage tribe fhould
think of it rather than the eafier method of artificial
gefticulation. Savages, it is well known, are remark-
able for their indolence, and for always preferring eafe
to utility ; but their modes of life give fuch a pliancy
to their bodies, that they could with very little trouble
bend their limbs and members into any pofitions agreed
upon as the figns of ideas. This is fo far from being
the cafe with refpedf to the organs of articulation, that
it is with extreme difficulty, if at all, that a man ad¬
vanced in life can be taught to articulate any found
whiclf he has not been accuftomed to hear. No fo¬
reigner who comes to England after the age of thirty,
ever pronounces the language tolerably well; an Eng-
lilhman of that age can hardly be taught to utter the
guttural found which a Scotchman gives to the Greek
X, or even the French found of the vowel u : -and of
the folitary favages who have been caught in different
forefts, we know not that there has been one who,
after the age of manhood, learned to articulate any
language fo as to make himfelf readily underftood.
The prefent age has indeed furnilhed many inftances of
deaf perfons being taughtito fpeak iuteiligibly b^ ikilful
mafters moulding the organs of the mouth into the
pofitions proper for articulating the voice ; but who
was to perform this talk among the inventors of lan¬
guage, when all mankind were equally ignorant of the
means by which articulation is effedied ? In a word,
daily experience informs us, that men who have not
learned to articulate in their childhood, never after¬
wards acquire the faculty of fpeech but by fuch helps
as favages cannot obtain ; and therefore, if fpeech was
invented at all, it m*A have been either by children
who were incapable of invention, or by men who were
incapable of fpeech. A thoufand, nay a million, of
children could not think of inventing a language.
While the organs are pliable, there is not underftanding
enough fo frame the conception of a language; and by
the time that there is underftanding, the organs are
become too ftiff for the talk. And therefore, fay the
advocates for the divine origin of language, reafon as
welil
LAN C 533 J LAN
Language well as hiftory intimates, that mankind in all ages
»' muft have been fpeaking animals ; the young having
conftantly acquired this art by imitating thofe who
were elder; and we may warrantably conclude, that
our firft parents received it by immediate infpiration.
To this account of the origin of language an ob-
jeftion readily offers itfelf. If the fit ft language was
communicated by infpiration, it muft have been per¬
fect, and held in reverence by thofe who fpake it, i. e.
by all mankind. But a vaft variety of languages have
prevailed in the world ; and fome of thefe which re¬
main are known to be very imperfect:, whilft there is
reafon to believe that many others are loft. If diffe¬
rent languages were originally invented by different
nations, all this would naturally follow from the mix¬
ture of thefe nations ; but what could induce men
poffeffed of one perfedl language of divine original, to
forfake it for barbarous jargons of their own invention,
and in every refpeA inferior to that with which their
forefathers or themfelves had been infpired ?
7 In anfwer to this objection, it is faid, that nothing
Inwhatcir-wag gjven. (jy infpiration but the faculty of fpeech and
thiTmoft65 t^ic elements of language ; for when once men had
perfe6t ^ndlanguage, it is eafy to conceive how they might have
copious ian modified it by their natural powers, as thoufands can
btconietlUk*mProve what they could not invent. The firft lan-
jjarrow and SuaSe> if given b7 infpiration, muft in its principles
rude. have had ail the perfe&ion of which language is fuf-
ceptible ; but fn.m the nature of things it could not
poffibly be very copious. The words of language are
either proper names or the figns of ideas and relations ;
but it cannot be fuppofed that the All-wife Inftruftor
would load the memories of men with words to denote
things then unknown, or with the figns of ideas which
they had not then acquired. It was fufficient that a
foundation was laid of fuch a nature as would fupport
the largeft fuperftrufture which they might ever after
have occafion to raife upon it, and that they were
taught the method of building by compofition and
-derivation. This would long preferve the language
radically the fame, though it could not prevent.the
introdu&ion of different dialefts in the different coun¬
tries over which men fpread themfelves. In whatever
region we fuppofe the human race to have been origi¬
nally placed, the increafe of their numbers would in
procefs of time either difperfe them into different na¬
tions, or extend the one nation to a vaft diftance on
all fides from what we may call the feat qf govern¬
ment. In either cafe they would every where meet
with new obje&s, which would occafion the invention
of new names; and as the difference of climate and
other natural caufes would compel thofe who removed
eaftward or northward to adopt modes of life in many
refpefts different from the modes of thofe who travelled
towards the weft or the fouth, a vaft number of words
would in one country be iabricated to denote complex
conceptions, which muit ncceffaiily be unintelligible to
the body of the people inhabiting countries where
thofe conceptions had never bee’n formed. Thus would
various dialedts be unavoidably introduced into the ori¬
ginal language, even whillt all mankind remained in
one fociety and under one government. But after
feparate and independent focieties were formed, thefe
variations would become more numerous, and the fe-
veral dialedls would deviate farther and farther from
each other} as well as from the idiom and genius of
the' parent tongue, in proportion to the diftance of^30!?11*!?^
the tribes by whom they were fpoken. If we fuppofe
a few people either to have been banifhed together from
the fociety of their brethren, or to have wandered of
their own accord to a dillance, from which through
tracklefs forefts they could not return (and fueh emi¬
grations have often taken place), it is eafy to fee how
the moil copious language muft in their mouths have
foon become narrrow, and how the offspring of in-
fpiratiou muft have in time become fo deformed
as hardly to retain a feature of the anceftor whence
it originally fprung. Men do not long retain a
pra&ical /kill in thofe arts which they never ex-
ercife ; and there are abundance of fa£ts to prove,
that a fingle man call upon a defart i/land, and hav¬
ing to provide the neceffaries of life by his own inge¬
nuity, would foon lofe the art of fpeaking with fluency
his mother-tongue. A fmall number of men call away
together, would indeed retain that art fomewliat lon¬
ger; but in a fpace of time not very long, it would
in a great meafure be loft by them or their pofterity.
In this ftate of banifhment, as their time would be
almoit wholly occupied in hunting, fiffiing, and other
means within their reach to fupport a wretched exif-
tence, they would have very little leifure, and perhapa-
lefs defire, to preferve by converfation the remembrance
of that eafe and thofe comforts of which they now
found themfelves for ever deprived ; and they would
of courfe foon forget all the words which in their
native language had been ufed to denote the accommo-'
dations and elegancies of poli/hed life. This at leaft
feems to be certain, that they would not attempt to
teach their children a part of language which in their
circumftances could be of no ufe to them, and of
wnich it would be impoffible to make them compre¬
hend the meaning ; for where there art no ideas, the
figns of ideas cannot be made intelligible. Fiom fudv>
colonies as this difperfed over the earth, it is probable
that all thofe nations of favages have arifen, which
have induced fo many philofophers to imagine that the
ftate of the favage was the original ftate of man ; and
if fo, we fee that from the language of infpiration
muft have unavoidably fprung.a number of different
dialt£ta all extremely rude and narrow, and retaining
nothing of the parent tongue, except perhaps the
names of the moft confpicuous obje£ts of nature, and
of thofe wants and enjoyments which are infeparable
from humanity. The favage ftate has no artificial
wants, and furni/hes few ideas that require terms to
exprefs them. The habits of folitude- and file nee in¬
cline a favage rarely to fpeak ; and when he fpeaks,
he ufes the lame terms to denote different ideas. Speech
therefore, in this rude condition of men, muft be ex¬
tremely narrow and extremely various. Every new
region, and every new climate, fuggefts different ideas,
and creates different wants, which muft be expreffed
either by terms entirely new or by old terms ufed
with a new fignification. Hence muft originate great g
diverfity, even in the firft elements of fpeech, among Hence
all favage nations, the words retained of the original variety of
language being ufed in various fenfes, and pronounced, tongues
as we may believe, with various accents. When any
of thole favage tribes emerged from their barbarifm, Ihe'wyrld”!
whether by their own efforts or by the aid of people
more enlightened than themfelves* it is obvious that
the improvement and copioufnefs of their language
wouldi
t A N [ 534 1 t A N
;'lianguage. would keep pace with their own prog refs in knowledge
and in the arts of civil life; but in the infinite multi¬
tude of words which civilization and refinement add to
language, it would be little lefs than miraculous were
any two nations to agree upon the fame founds to re-
prefent the fame ideas. Superior refinement, indeed,
may induce imitation, conquefts may impofe a lan¬
guage, and extenfion of empires may melt down dif¬
ferent nations and different dialefts into one mafs ;
but independent tribes naturally give rife to divetfity
of tongues, nor does it feem pofiible that they fhould
retain more of the original language than the words
exprefiive of thofc objects with which all men are at
-«U times equally concerned.
The variety of tongues, therefore, the copioufnefe
of fome, and the narrownefs of others, furnifh no
good obje&ion to the divine origin of language in ge¬
neral ; for whether language was at firft revealed from
heaven, or in a courfe of ages invented by men, a
•multitude of dialefts would inevitably arife as foon as
the human race was feparated into a number of diftindf
and independent nations.—We pretend not to decide
for our readers in a queftion of this nature.; we have
given the beft arguments on both fides which we
could either devife or find in the writings of others;
and if it be feen, as we doubt not it will, that our
own judgment leans to the fide of revelation, let it
not be haflily condemned by thofe whofe knowledge
of languages extends no farther than to Greece and
Rome, and France and England ; for if they will carry
their philological inquiries to the eaft, they may per¬
haps be able to trace the remains of one original lan¬
guage through a great part of the globe at this day (c).
Language, whatever was its origin, muft be fubjedf
to perpetual changes from its very nature, as well as
fro.ti that variety of incidents which affeft all fublu- Eanfuatf*.
nary things; and thofe changes muft always corre- -v—
fpond with the change of circumftances in the People The ?an-
by whom the language is'fpoken. When any parti- jrUage of
cular fet of ideas becomes prevalent among any fociety any people ;
of men, words muft be adopted to exprefs.them ; and*11 index to
from thefe the language muft affume its charadter. tlie‘r ra‘a'^
Hence the language of a brave and martial people is
bold and nervous, although perhaps rude and unculti¬
vated } while the languages of thofe nations in which
luxury and effeminacy prevail, are flowing and harmo¬
nious, but devoid of force and energy of expreffian.
But although it may be confidered as a general rule,
that the language of any people is a very exadt index ceptions ta
of the ftate of their minds, yet it admits of fome par- the prece-
ticular exceptions. For as man is naturally an imita- dmg rule,
tive animal, and in matters of this kind never has re-
courfe to invention but through neceflity, colonies
planted by any nation, at whatever dillance from the
mother-country, always retain the fame general founds
and idiom of language with thofe from whom they are
feparated. In procefs of time, however, the colonifta
and the people of the mother-country, by living under
different climates, by being engaged in different occu¬
pations, and by adopting, of courfe, different modes
of life, may lofe all knowledge of one another, affume
different national characters, and form each a diftinft
language to themfelves, totally different in genius and
ftyle, though agreeing with one another in the fun¬
damental founds and general idiom. If, therefore,
this particular idiom, formed before their feparation,
happen to be more peculiarly adapted to the genius
of the mother-country than of the colonies, thefe will
labour under an inconvenience on this account, which
they may never be wholly able to overcome; and this
2 inconvenience
(c) Numberlefs inftances of this might "be given, but our limits will permit us to produce only a very few.
In the Shanfcrh, or ancient language of the Gmtoos, ocr fignifies a day; (See Halhed's preface to the code of
■Gentoo laws). In other eaftern languages, the fame word was ufed to denote both light and fire. Thus in the
Chaldee, ur is fire; in the Egyptian, or is the fun or light, (Pint, de Ofir. et Ifid.): In the Hebrew, aur is
light: in the Greek, «»f> is the air, often light: in Latin, aura is the air, from the iEolic Greek; and in
Jri/h it is aear. From the very fame original we have the Greek word 7ruP, and the Englilhfire.—In He¬
brew, OR fignifies to raife, lift up one’s felf, or be raifed: hence plainly are derived the Greek to raife, ex¬
ude, and the Latin orior to arife ; whence o-riens the eaft, and Eng. orient, oriental j alfo Lat. origo, and Eng.
origin, originate, &c.—The word Khunt in the Shanfcrit dialed, fignifies a fmall territory, which is retained
in KuvSoc, Kent, Canton, Cantabria. The word Khan, kin, cean, gan, gen, gin, is of the fame kind,
and pervades Afia and Europe from the Ganges to the Garrone. The word light Englilh, lucht Flemifh,
lux Roman, and mx°< Greek, has been traced to Egypt. Aretz, arek, erech, hertha, earth,
and erde, are all one word from Paleftine and Chaldee to Britain and Germany.—The Chaldeans turned the
Hebrew word shur or shor, which fignifies an ox, into thor, as likewife did the Phenicians (See/Yw/.
Vit. SjH.); hence the Greek ravpoe) the Latin taurus, the French taureau, and the Italian and Spanifh
toro. The Hebrew word bit or beith, which-fignifies cavity, capacity, the concave or irfide of any place,
has fpread itfelf far and wide, ftill retaining nearly the original fignification; in the Perfian language it is
bad, bed, bhad, and fignifies a or In all the dialeds of the Gothic tongue, bode fignifies the
fame thing; hence the Englilh abide, abode, booth, boat, and the French batteau. In all thefe inllances there
is a ftriking refemblanoe in found as well as in fenfe between the derived and the primitive words; but this
is not always the cafe, even when of the legitimacy of the derivation no doubt can be entertained. It has
been Ihown (fee Bofwell's Life of Johnfon), that the French jour, a day, is derived from the Latin dies j
but it may be certainly traced from a high r fource. In many of the oriental dialefts, di, bright, is a name
of the fun.} hence the Greek tsu;, ffupiter, and the Latin dies, a day. From dies comes diurnus ; in
the pronunciation of which, either by the inaccuracy of the fpeaker or of the hearer, din is readily con¬
founded with giu} then of the ablative of this adje&ive, corruptly pronounced giurno, the Italians make a
fubftantive giorno, which by the French is readily contra&ed into giour < r jour. From the fame root di,
.comes Aisf, «, ov, the Eolic A<Fof, the Latin divus, and the Celtic dhia, God.
LAN F 535 J LA N
I iiarguage; inconvenience muft prevent their langnage from ever
l—--v attaining to th^t degree of perfection to which* by the
genius of the people, it might otherwife have been
carried. Thus various-languages may have been form¬
ed out of one parent tongue 5 and thus that happy
concurrence of circumflances which has railed fome
languages to a high degree of perfection, may be ea-
fily accounted for, while many ineffectual efforts have
been made to raife other languages to the fame degree
of excellence.
As the knowledge of languages conflitutes a great
part of erudition, as their beauty and deformities fur-
nifh employment to tafte, and as thefe depend much
upon the idioms of the different tongues, we (hall pro¬
ceed to make a few remarks upon the advantages and
defeCts of fome of thofe idioms of language with which
| r iI.‘ we are be ft acquainted.—As the words idiom and ge-
I jBgantby nius of a language are often confounded, it will be
I the iV/'om, neceffary to inform the reader, that by idiom we
I and what would here be underftood to mean that general mode of
I by the ge- arranging words into fentences which prevails in any parti-
I language cular language; and by the genius of a language, we
gU g ' mean to exprefs the particular fet of ideas which the
words of any language, either from their formation or
multiplicity, are mojl naturally apt to excite in the mind of
any one who hears it properly uttered. Thus, although
the Englifh, French, Italian, and Spani/h languages
nearly agree in the fame general idiom, yet the par¬
ticular genius of each is remarkably different: The
Engli/h is naturally bold, nervous, and ftrongly articu¬
lated ; the French is weaker, and more flowing; the
Italian more foothing and harmonious; and the Spa-
1*;. nijh more grave, fonorous, and ftately. Now, when
omTamonewe examIne the feveral languages which have been
the lan- K moft efteemed in Europe, we find that there are on-
gn?.ges e* ly two idioms among them which are effcntially di-
iteemedw ft;ngUifhed from one another; and’all thofe fangua-
! Europe. ^ are betwe€n thefe two idioms, following
fometimes the one and fometimes the other, either
wholly or in part. The languages which may be faid
to adhere to the firft idiom, are thofe which in their
conftruCfion follow the order of nature ; that is, ex¬
prefs their ideas in the natural order in which- they
occur to the mind j the fobjeft which occafions the ac¬
tion appearing firft; then the aAion, accompanied with
its feveral modifications ;.and, laft of all, the objeCt to
which it has reference.—Thefe may properly be called
geus and analogous languages; and of this kind are the Eng,
lifh, French, and moft of the modern languages in
Europe.—The languages which may be referred to the
other idiom, are thofe which follow no other order in
their conftruCtion than what the tafte or fancy of the
compofer may fuggeft; fometimes making the objeCt,
fometimes the aClion, and fometimes the modification
of the a&ion, to precede or follow the other parts.
The confufion which this might occafion, is avoided by
the particular manner of infcBing their words, by which
they are made to refer to the others with which they
ought to be conne&ed, in whatever part of the fentence
they occur, the mind being left at liberty to conneft
the feveral parts with one another after the whole fen¬
tence is, concluded. And as the words may be here
tranfpofed at pleafure, thofe languages may be called
transpositive languages. To this clafs we muft, in
an e(pedal manner, refer the Latin and Creek lan¬
guages.-—-As each of thefe idioms has feveral advanta- Language.-
ges and defefts peculiar to itfelf, we fliall endeavour to  “*
point out the moft confiderable of them, in order to™.14
afeertain with greater precifion the particular charafler
and excellence of fome of thofe languages now princi- guages
pally fpoken or ftudied in Europe. compared
The partiality which our forefathers, at the revi- Yrit]’re*
val of letters in Europe, naturally entertained for the t0
Greek and Roman languages, made them look upon
every diftinguifhing peculiarity belonging to them as
one of the many caufes of the amazing fuperiority which
thofe languages evidently enjoyed above every other at
that time fpoken in Europe.—This blind deference ftill
continues to be paid to them, as our minds are early
prepofleffed with thefe ideas, and as we are taught in
our earlieft infancy to believe, that to entertain the lead
idea of our own language being equal to the Greek or'
Latin in any particular whatever, would be a certain
mark of ignorance or want of tafte.—Their rights;,
therefore, like tbofe of the church in former ages, re¬
main flill to be examined; and we, without exerting
our reafon to difeover truth from falfehood, tamely fit
down fatisfied with the idea of their undoubted pre¬
eminence in every refpeft. But if we look around us
for a moment, and obferve the many excellent produc¬
tions which are to be met with in almoft every language
of Europe, we muft be fatisfied, that even thefe are now
poffeffed of fome powers which might afford at leaft a
prefumption, that, if they were cultivated with a pro¬
per degree of attention, they might, in fome refpeBs, be
made to rival, if not to excel, thofe beautiful and juftly
admired remains of antiquity. Without endeavouring
to derogate from their merit, let us, with the cool eye
of philofophic reafoning, endeavour to bring before the
facred tribunal of Truth fome of thofe opinions which
have been moft- generally received upon this fubjeft,
and reft the determination of the caufe on her impartial
decifion.
The learned reader well knows, that the feveral
changes which take place in the arrangement of the
words in every transpositive language, could not
be admitted without occafioning great confufion, un-
lefs certain claffes of words were endowed with particu¬
lar variations, by means of which they might be made
to refer to the other words with which they ought na¬
turally to be conne&ed. From this caufe proceeds the
necefirty of feveral variations of verbs, nouns, and adjec¬
tives ; which are not in the leaft effential or neceffary in -
the analogous languages, as we have pretty fully ex¬
plained under the article Grammar, to which we refer
for fatisfa&ion on this head. We (hall in this place
eonfider, whether thefe variations are an advantage or
a difadvantage to language.
As it is generally fuppofed, that every language
whofe verbs admit of infeBion, is on that account much
more perfeA than one where they are varied by auxL
Uaries; we (hall, in the firft place, examine this with
fome degree of attention ; and that what is-faid on this
head may be the more intelligible, we (hall give ex¬
amples from the Latin and Englilh languages. We
make choice of thefe languages, becaufe the Latin is
more purely tranfpqfitive than the Greek, and the Eng¬
lilh admits of le> inf.edion than any other language
that we are acquainted with.
If any preference be due to a language from the
one;
LAN
t 53S 1
L A
and preci-
■Language, one or the other method of conjugating verba, it muft
Jn a great meafure be owing to one or more of thefe
Di ‘^ fthree oaufes :—Either it muit admit of a greater va-
•founds, va riety of founds, and confequently more room for har¬
monious diverfity of tones in the language:—or a
greater freedom of expreffion is allowed in uttering any
fimple idea, by the one admitting of a greater variety
in the arrangement of the words which are neceifary to
exprefs that idea than the other does:—or, laftly, a
greater precifion and accuracy in fixing the meaning
of the perfon who ufes the language, arife from the ufe
of one of thefe forms, than from the ufe of the other:
for, as every other circumftance which may ferve to
give a diverfity te language, fuch as the general and
moil prevalent founds, the frequent repetition of any
one particular letter, and a variety of other circum-
llances of that nature, which may ferve to debafe a
particular language, are not influenced in the lead by
the different methods of varying the verbs, they can¬
not be here confidered. We (hall therefore proceed to
make a comparifon of the advantages or difadvantages
Pono,
Dono,
Cano,
Sono,
Or no,
Pugno,
Lego,
Scribo,
Puto,
Vivo,
I put.
I give.
I found.
I adorn.
I fight.
1 read.
I ‘write.
I think.
I live.
Ambulo, I ‘walk.
N
Moveo,
Doleo, ■
Lugeo,
Obeo,
Gaudeo,
Incipio,
Facio,
Fodio,
Rideo,
Impleo,
Abflineo,
/ move.
I ail.
/ mourn.
I die.
I rejoice:
I begin.
I make.
I dig.
I lamh.
I Jill.
I forbear.
The fimilarity of founds is here fo obvious in the
Latin, as to be perceived at the firft glance ; nor can
we be furprifed to find it fo, when we confider that
all their regular verbs, amounting to 4000 or upwards,
muft be reduced to four conjugations, and even thefe
differing but little from one another, which muft of
neceffity produce the famenefs of founds which we here
perceive; whereas, every language that follows the
natural order, like the Fnglifh, inftead of this fmall
which may accrue to a language by infleding its verbs ™mb^r unif(>rm terminations, have almoft as many
with regard to each of thefe particulars,—variety of 38 v’erbs in them language.
^ . 0 • f . . r ■ nut ir. inltfaH r>F friH nrefont m
found, variety of arrangement, and accuracy of meaning,
©iverfity of Pf A/ particular that we have to examine, is,
Counds. ‘ Whether the one method of expretling the variations
of a verb admits of a greater variety of founds? In
this refpeft the Latin feems, at firft view, to have a
great advantage over the Englifh.: for the words amot
amabam, amaveram, amavero, amem, &c. feem to be
more different from one another than the Englifh tranf-
lations of thefe, I love. I did love. I had loved. IJhall
have loved. I may love. &c.; for although the fyilable
am is repeated in every one of the firft, yet as the
laft fyllable ufually ftrikes the ear with greater force,
and leaves a greater impreffion than the firft;, it is very
probable that many will think the frequent repetition
of the word love in the laft inftance, more ftriking
to the ear than the repetition of am in the former.
We will therefore allow this its full weight, and grant
that there is as great, or even a greater difference be¬
tween the founds of the different tenfes of a Latin verb,
than there is between the words that are equivalent to
them in. Englifh. But as we here confider the variety
of founds of the language in general, before any juft
conclufion can be drawn, we muft not only compare
the different parts of the fame verb, but alfo compare
the different verbs with one another in each of thefe
languages. And here, at firft view, we perceive a
moft ftriking diftinttion in favour of the analogous
language over the injletled: for as it would be impof-
fible to form a paiticular fet of infledtions different
from one another for each particular verb, all thofe
But if, inftead of the prefent of the indicative mood,
we fhould take almoft any other tenfe of the Latitr
verb, the fimilarity of founds would be ftill more per¬
ceptible, as many of thefe tenfes have the fame termi-
nation in all the four conjugations, particularly in the
imperfedl of the indicative, as below.
Pone-bam;
Lona-bam;
Cane-bam ;
Sona-bam ;
Orna-bam;
Pugna-bam ;
Lege-bam ;
Scribe-bam ;
' Puta bam ;
Vive-bam ;
Ambula-bam;
Move-bam;
Dole-bam ;
Luge-bam;
Obi-bam;
Gaude-bam;
Incipie bam ;
Facie-bam;
Fodie-bam;
Ride-bam ;
Imple-bam ;
Abftine-bam;
/ did put.
I did give.
I did fing,
/ did found.
I did adorn.
I did fight,
I did read,
I did write,
1 did think,
I did live,
I did walk,
I did move,
I did ail,
I did mourn,
I did die,
I did rejoice,
I did begin,
I did make,
I did dig,
I did laugh,
I did fill,
I did forbear,
I put.
I gave.
Ifung.
Ifounded.
I adorned.
I fought.
I read.
I wrote.
I thought.
I lived.
I walked.
I moved.
I ailed.
I mourned.
I died.
I rejoiced.
/ began.
I dug.
I laughed.
I filled.
I forbore.
It is unneceffary to make any remarks on the Latin
languages which have adopted this method have been words in this example : but in the Englifh tranflation
obliged to reduce their verbs into a .fmall number of we have carefully marked in the firft column the words
claffes; all the words of each of which claffes, com- without any infleftion ; and in the fecond, have put
monly called conjugations, have the feveral variations of down the fame meaning by an inflexion of our verb •
the modes, tenfes, and perfons, expreffed. exaaiy in the which we have been enabled to do, from a peculiar
fame manner, which muft of neceffity introduce a fh
milarity of founds into the language in general, much
greater than where every particular verb always retains
its own diftinguifhing found. To be convinced of this,
we need only repeat any number of verbs in Latin and //thepluperfeS in iram, and the future
Englifh, and obferve on which fide the preference with in the fubjun&ive mood, the imperfect univerfally in
refpedt to variety of founds muft fall. kem, theperfeS in erim, the pluterfea in issem, and
N°I74« the
■xcellency in our own language unknown to any other
either ancient or modern. Were it neceflary to pur-
fue this fubjed farther, we might obferve, that the
perfeft tenfe in all the conjugations ends univerfaily in
LAN [ 537 1 . . LAN
I,miguage. the future in ero: and as a fttll greater famenefs is And if we likewife confider the variations which may Language.
 obfervable in the different variations for the perfons in be produced by a variation of the emphafis, they will ‘'j—
thefe tenfes, feeing the firft perfon plural in all tenfes be as under,
ends in mus, and the fecond perfon in tis, with little ^ j • ^ W wnV^„.
variation in the other perfons; it is evident that, in 2 /a,/gwt W written.
refpea of diverfity of founds, this method of conjuga- HAfrE written.
ting verbs by infleSlion, is greatly inferior to the more
natural method of exprefling the various connexions
and relations of the verbal attributive by different
words, ufually called auxiliaries.
17 The fecond particular, by which the different me-
Variety of thods of marking the relation of the verbal attributive
citpreffions. can affc$ language, arifes from the variety of expref-
fions which either ot thefe may admit of in uttering
the fame fentiment. In this refpedt, likewife, the me¬
thod of conjugating by inflexion feems to be deficient.
Thus the prefent of the indicative mood in Latin can
at moft be expreffed only in two ways, viz. scribo,
and ego scribo ; which ought perhaps in ftri&nefs to
be admitted only as one : whereas, in Englifh, we can
vary it in four different ways, viz. ijl, I write; idly,
I do write; 3t//y, Write 1 do; qlbly, Write do
I (d). And if we confider the further variation which
thefe receive in power as well as in found, by having
the emphafis placed on the different words ; in Head of
four, we will find eleven different variations : thus, 1/?,
I write, with the emphafis upon the I; — idly, I
write, with the emphafis upon the word write.
Let any one pronounce thefe with the different em¬
phafis neceffary, and he will be immediately fatisfied
that they are not only diftindt from each other with
refpeft to meaning, but alfo with regard to found
4. I might have written.
5. written 1 might have.
6. Written 1 might have.
7. Written I might have.
8. Written I might hai'B.
9. Have written I might.
10. Have written I might.
11. Have written I might.
12. Have written I might.
13. Written might have I.
14. Written might have /.
15. Written might ha he I.
16. Written might have I.
17. I written might have.
18. I WRiTTENmighthave.
19. I written might have.
20. I written might hai'E.
it. Have written might I,
22. Have written might I.
23. Have written might I.
24. Have written might I.
In all 24 variations, inftead of two.—If we likewife
confider, that the Latins were obliged to employ the
fame word, not only to exprefs “ I might have written,
but alfo, “ I could, I would, or I Jhould have written ;”
each of which would admit of the fame variations as
the word might; we have in all ninety-fix different ex-
preflions in Englifti for the fame phrafe which in Latin
admits only of two, unlefs they have recourfe to other
forced turns of exprefiion, which the defedts of their
verbs in this particular has compelled them to in¬
vent. V.
But if it ffiould be objedted, that the laft circum-
ftance we have taken notice of as a defedt, can only
be confidered as a defedt of the Latin language, and
is not to be attributed to the infeWton of their verbs,
feeing they might have had a particular tenfe for each
and the fame muff be underftood of all the other parts of thefe different words might, could, would, and Jhould;
«f eL.’s pvamnlp. we anfwer, that, even admitting this excufe as valid,
the fuperiority of the analogous language, as fuch.
8. Write I do,
9. Write do I,
10. Write do I,
11. IVrite do L
of this example.
3. 1 do write,
4. I do write,
5. I do WRITE,
6. Write I do,
7. Write I do,
None of the Latin tenfes admft of more variations
than the two above mentioned : nor do almoft any
of the Englifh admit of fewer than in the above ex¬
ample ; and feveral of thefe phrafes, which muff be
confidered as exadt traufiations of fome of the tenfes
of the Latin verb, admit of many more. Thus the
imperfedt of the fubjundtive mood, which in Latin
admits of the above two variations, admits in Englifh
of the following:
1. / might have written.
2. Written I might have.
3. Have written I might.
Vol. IX. Part II.
4. Written might have I.
5. / written might have.
6. Have written might I.
ftill remains in this refpedt as 12 to 1.—Yet even this
conceflion is greater than ought to have been made :
For as the difficulty of forming a fufficient variety of
words for all the different modifications which a verb
may be made to undergo is too great for any rude peo¬
ple to overcome; we find, that every nation which
has adopted this mode of infledtion, not excepting the
Greeks themfelves, has been obliged to remain fatis¬
fied with fewer words than would have been neceffary
even to effedt this purpofe, and make the fame word
fefve a double, treble, or even quadruple office, as in
the Latin tenfe which gave rife to thefe obfervations:
So that, however in phyfical nectffityi this may not
be chargeable upon this particular mode of conttruc-
tion, yet in moral certainty it muff always be the cafe ;
and therefore we may fafely conclude, that the mode
of varying verbs by infettion affords lefs variety in the
arrangement of the words of the particular phrafes,
3 Y than
(d) We are fufficiently aware, that the laft variation cannot in ftridtnefs be confidered as good language •
although many examples of this manner of ufing it in ferious compofitions, both in poetry and profe might
be eafily produced from the beft authors in the Englifh language.— But however unjuflifiable it may be to
life it in ferious compofition ; yet, when judicioufly employed in works of humour, this and other forced
expreffions of the like nature produce a fine effedt, by giving a burlefque air to the language, and beauti
fully contrafting it to the purer didtion of folid reafoning. The fagacious Shakefpeare has, on many occa-
fions, fhowed how fuccefsfuily thefe may be employed in compofition, particularly in drawing the charadler of
ancient Piftol in Henry V. Without this liberty, Butler would have found greater difficulty in drawing the
inimitable charadter of Hudibras—Let this apology fuffice for our having inferted this and other variations of
the fame kind; which, although they may be often improper for ferious compofition, have ftill their ufe in
language.
LAN L 538 1 LAN
Language, than the method of varying them by the help of auxi-
^ ^ 1 liaries.
18 But if there (hould flill remain any fhadovv of doubt
Precifion of jn t^e m;n(j Gf tj,e reader> whether the method of va-
in which' rying the verbs by injleBion is inferior to that by auxi-
the EngHfh liaries, with regard to diverfity of founds, or variety
is fupenur 0f expreflion ; there cannot be the lead doubt, but
theismLa” t^iat re^Pe<^ t0 Precif10n» diltinftnefs, and accu-
euaee." racy, in exprefiing any idea, the latter enjoys a fupe-
riority beyond all comparifon,-Thus the Latin verb
jlmo, may be Englifhed either by the words, I love,
or 1 do love, and the emphafis placed upon any of the
•words that the circumftances may require j by means
of which, the meaning is pointed out with a force and
energy which it is altogether impoffible to produce by
the ufe of any Angle word. The following line from
Shakefpeare’s Othello may ferve as an example :
  —Excellent wretch !
Perdition catch my foul, but I do love thee :
In which the ftrong emphafis upon the word do, gives
it a force and energy which conveys, in an irrefiflil? le
manner, a moft perfect knowledge of the fituation of
the mind of the fpeaker at the time.—That the whole
eneigy of the expreffion depends upon this feemingly
infignificaut word, we may be at once fatislied of, by
keeping it away in this manner :
 Excellent wretch!
Perdition catch my foul, but / love thee.
How poor—how tame—how infigniftcant is this, when
compared with the other ! Here nothing remains but
a tame affertion, ufhered in with a pompous exclama¬
tion which could not here be introduced w-ith any de¬
gree of propriety. Whereas, in the way that Shake-
fpeare has left it to us, it has an energy which nothing
can furpafs; for, overpowered with the irrefiilible
force of Defdemona’s charms, this ftrong exclamation
is extorted from the foul of Othello in fpite of him-
felf Surprifed at this tender emotion, which brings
to his mind all thofe amiable qualities for which he
had fo much efteemed her, and at the fame time fully
impreffcd with the firm perfuafion of her guilt, he burfts
out into that feemingly inconfiftent exclamation, Ex¬
cellent wretch ! and then he adds in the warmth of his
furpiife,— thinking it a thing moft aftonifhing that
any warmth of affe&ion fhould ftill remain in his
breaft, he even confirms it with an oath,—Perdition
catch my foul, lut I do love thee. —“ In fpite of all the
falfehoods with which I know thou haft deceived me
—in fpite of all the crimes of which I know thee
guilty—in fpite of all thofe reafons for which I ought
to hate thee—in fpite of myfelf,—ftill I find that I
love,—yes, I do love thee.” We look upon it as a
thing altogether impofiible to transfufe the energy of
tills expreffion into any language whofe verbs are regu¬
larly inflected.
In the fame manner we might go through all the
other tenfes, and (how that the fame fuperiority is
to be found in each.— Thus, in \h.zperfect tenfe of the
Latins, indead of the Ample amavi, we fay, I have
xoved ; and by the liberty we have of putting the
emphafis upon any of the words which compofe this
phrafe, we can in the moft accurate manner fix the
precife idea which we mean to excite : for if we fay,
I have loved, with the emphafis upon the word I, it Language,
at once points out the perfon as the principal objett —-v—■'
in that phrafe, and makes us naturally look for a con¬
trail in fome other perfon, and the other parts of the
phrafe becomes fubordinate to it;—“ he has loved thee
much, but I have loved thee infinitely more.” The
Latins'too, as they were not prohibited from joining
the pronoun with their verb, were alfo acquainted with
this excellence, which Virgil has beautifully ufed in
this vtrfe :
 Nos patriam fugimus ;
Tv, Tityre, lentus in umlra, See.
But we are not only enabled thus to diftinguiffi the
perfon in as powerful a manner as the Latins, but can
alfo with the fame facility point out any of the other
circumftances as principals ; for if we fay, with the
emphafis upon the word have, “ I have loved,” it
as naturally points out the time as the principal objedt,
and makes us look for a contrail in that peculiarity,
I have : “ I have loved indeed ;—my imagination has
been led aftray—my reafon has been perverted :—but,
now that time has opened my eyes, I can fmile at
thofe imaginary diftreffes which once perplexed me.”
—In the fame manner we can put the emphafis upon
the other word of the phrafe loved,—“ I have loved.”
— Here the paffion is exhibted as the principal circum-
ftance ; and as this can never be excited without fome
objedt, we naturally wilh to know the objedt of that
paffion—“ Who ! what have you loved?” are the na¬
tural queftions we would put in this cafe. “ I have
loved Eliza.” In this manner we are, on all
occafions, enabled to exprefs, with the utmoft preci¬
fion, that particular idea which we would wilh to ex¬
cite, fo as to give an energy and perfpicuity to the
language, which can never be attained by thofe lan¬
guages whofe verbs are conjugated by iufledtion : and
if to this we add the inconvenience which all infle&ed
languages are fubjecd to, by having too fmall a num¬
ber of tenfes, fo as to be Compelled to make one
word on many occafions fupply the place of two,
three, or even four, the balance is turned ftill more in
our favour.—Thus, in Latin, the fame word amabo
(lands for jhall or wi//love, fo that the reader is left to
guefs from the context which of the two meanings it
was moft likely the writer had in view.—In the fame
manner, may or can love are expreffid by the fame
word amem ; as are alfo might, could, would, or fhould
love, by the Angle word a mare m, as we have already
obferved ; fo that the reader is left to guefs which of
thefe four meanings the writer intended to exprefs :
which occalions a perplexity very different from that
clear precifion which our language allows of, by not
only pointing out the different words, but alfo by al-
lowihg us to put the emphafis upon any of them we
pleafe, which fuperadds energy and force to the preci-
lion it would have had without that affiftance. >9
Upon the whole, therefore, after the moft candid
examination, we muft conclude, that the method Cotju?a-
of conjugating verbs by injleSion is inferior to that ting vrrba
which is performed by the help of auxiliaries;—be-b)
caufe it does not afford fuch a diverfity of founds,— orvVthat*
nor allow fuch variety in the arrangement of expref-wh,ch is
(ion for the fame thought,—nor give fo great diftinc- performed
lion and precifion in the meaning.—It is, however, b.y *axiu*"
attended aes‘
L A N
Language, attended with one confiderable advantage above the
other method : for as the words of which it is formed
are neceflarily of greater length, and more fonorous,
than in the analogous languages, it admits of a more
flowing harmony of expreffion ; for the number of
monofyllables in this la(l greatly checks that pompous
dignity which naturally refults from longer words.
Whether this Angle advantage is fufficient to counter¬
balance all the other defe&s with which it is attended,
is left to the judgment of the reader to determine :—
but we may remark, before we quit the fubjedt, that
even this excellence is attended with fome peculiar in¬
conveniences, which fliall be more particularly pointed
out in the fequel.
But perhaps it might ftill be objedted, that although
the comparifon we have made above may be fair, and
the concluflon juft, with regard to the Latin and En-
gliflr languages ; yet it does not appear clear, that on
that account the method of conjugating verbs by in-
JleStim is inferior to that by auxiliaries ; for although it
be allowed chat the Latin language is defedtive in point
of tenfes ; yet |if a language were formed which had
a fufftcient number of infledted tenfes to anfwer every
purpofe ; if it had, for inftance, a word properly
formed for every variation of each tenfe ; one for /
love, another for I do love ; one for IJhall, another for
I will love ; one for / might, another for / could, and
•would, and Jhould love ; and fo on through all the o-
ther tenfes ; that this language would not be liable to
the objedtions we have brought againft the infledfion
of verbs ; and that of courfe, the objedtions we have
brought are only valid againft thofe languages which
have followed that mode and \executed it imperfedtly.
—We anfwer, that although this would in fome mea-
fure remedy the evil, yet it would not remove it entire¬
ly. For, in the ftrft place, unlefs every verb, or every
fmall number of verbs, were conjugated in one way,
having the- found of the words in each tenfe, and di-
vifion of tenfes, as we may fay different from all the
other conjugations,—it would always occafion a fame-
nefs of found, which would in fome meafure prevent
that variety of founds fo proper for a language. And
even if this could be efftdfed, it would not give fuch a
latitude to the expreffion as auxiliaries allow : for al¬
though there ftiould be two words, one for / might, and
another for / could love ; yet as thefe are Angle words,
they cannot be varied; whereas, by auxiliaries, either
of thefe can be varied 24 different ways, as has been
fliown above. In the lail place, no Angle word can
ever exprefs all that variety of meaning which we can
do by the help of our auxiliaries and the emphafls. /
have loved, if expreffed by any one word, could only
denote at all times one diftinA meaning ; fo that to
give it the power of ours, three diftindt words at lead
would be neceffary. However, if all this were done ;
that is, if there were a diftindl conjugation formed for
LAN
every 40 or 50 verbs;—if each of the tenfes were Language,
properly formed, and all of them different from every —v*”-
other tenfe as well as every other verb ; and thefe all
carried through each of the different perfons, fo as to
be all different from one another ;—and if likewife there
were a diftindt word to mark each of the feparate
meanings which the fame tenfe could be made to af-
fume by means of the emphafls ; and if all this inft-
nite variety of words could be formed in a diftindt
manner, different from each other, and harmonious;
this language would have powers greater than any that
could be formed by auxiliaries, if it were poffible for
the human powers to acquire fuch a degree of know¬
ledge as to be able to employ it with facility. But
how could this be attained, flnce upwards of ten thou-
fand words would be neceffary to form the variations
of any one verb, and a hundred times that number
would not include the knowledge of the verbs alone of
fuch a language (e)! — How much, therefore, ought
we to admire the Ample perfpicuity of our language,
which enables us, by the proper application of ten or
twelve feemingly trifling words, the meaning and ufe
of which can be attained with the utmoft eafe, to ex¬
prefs all that could be expreffed by this unwieldy ap¬
paratus ? What can equal the Amplicity or the power
of the one method, but the well-known powers of the
24 letters, the knowledge of which can be obtained
with fo much eafe—and their powers know rto limits ?
—or, what can be compared to the fancied perfection
of the other, but the tranfeript of it which the Chi-
nefe feem to have formed in their unintelligible lan¬
guage ?
Having thus conAdered pretty fully the advantages
and defeCts of each of thefe two methods of varying
verbs, we cannot help feeling a fecret wilh arife in our
mind, that there had been a people fagacious enough
to have united the powers of the one method with
thofe of the other ; nor can we help being furprifed,
that among the changes which took place in the feve-
ral languages of Europe after the downfal of the Ro¬
man monarchy, fome of them did not accidentally
ftumble on the method of doing it. From many con¬
curring circumftances, it feems probable that the great-
eft part, if not all the Gothic nations that over-ran
Italy at that time, had their verbs varied by the help
of auxiliaries ; and many of the modern European
languages winch have fprung from them, have fo far
borrowed from the Latin, as to have fome of the tenfes
of their verbs infleCIed : yet the Englifti alone have in
any inftance combined the joint powers of the two :
which could only be done by forming inflections for the
different tenfes in the fame manner as the Latins, and
at the fame time retaining the original method of va¬
rying them by auxiliaries ; by which means either the
one or the other method could have been employed as
occaflon required. We have luckily two tenfes formed
3 V 2 in
[ 539 1
(e) This affertion may perhaps appear to many very much exaggerated: but if any fhould think fo, we
©nly beg the favour that he will fet himfelf to mark all the variations of tenfes, mode, perfon, and number,
which an Englilh verb can be made to affume, varying each of thefe in every way that it will admit, both as
to the diverfity of expreffion and the etnphafls ; he will foon be convinced that we have here faid nothing more
than enough.
LAN [540
language. In that way; the prefent of the Indicative, and the aorift
*—y— Q£ tkepaji' jn aimon all our verbs thefe can be declined
1
either with or without auxiliaries. Thus the prefent,
without an auxiliary, is, Hove, .1 write, I /peak ; with
an auxiliary, / do write, I do love, I do /peak. In the
fame manner, the pall tenfe, by inflexion, is, I loved,
I wrote, I /poke i by auxiliaries, I did love, I did/peak,
I did write. Every author, who knows any thing of
the power of the Englifh language, knows the ufe
which may be made of this diftin&ion. What a pity is
it that we Ihould have ftopt Ihort fo foon ! how blind
was it in fo many other nations to imitate the dtfedls,
without making a proper ufe of that beautiful lan¬
guage which is now numbered among the dead !
After the”verbs, the next mod confiderable varia-
Analogou? t;on we fln(l between the analogous and tranfpofitive
LAN
much the reverfe with regard to the variety it allows Language,
in the arranging the words of the phrafe. Here, in- —,,J
deed, the tranfpofitive language flhnes forth in all its
glory, and the analogous mult yield the palm with-
out the fmalleft difpute. For as the nominative 03/egard to the
(or that noun which is the caufe of the energy ex-arrange-
languages is in the nouns; the latter varying the dif-
Lrguages ferent cafes of thefe by infcElion ; whereas the former
compared exprefs all the difFerjent variations of them by the help
with re- Gf 0ther words prefixed, called prepofitions. Now, if
cafS oftiewe conhder the advantages or difadvantages of either
nouns- of thefe methods under the fame heads as we have done
the verbs, we (hall find, that with regard to the firit
particular, viz. variety of founds, almoft the fame re¬
marks may be made as upon the verbs ; for if we
compare any particular noun by itfelf, the variety of
found appears much greater between the different cafes
in the tranfpofitive, than between the tranflation of
thefe in the analogous language. Thus rex, regis,
regi, regem, &c. are more diftinft from one another
in point of found, that the tranflation of thefe, a king,
of a king, to a king, a king, &c. But if we proceed one
ftep further, and confider the variety which is produ¬
ced in the language in general by the one or the other
of thefe methods, the cafe is entirely rcverfed. For as
it would have been impofiible to form diftindt varia¬
tions, different from one another, for each cafe of every
noun, they have been obliged to reduce all their nouns
into a few general claffes, called declenfons, and to
give to all thofe included under each clala the fame ter-
The for- minatibn in every cafe ; which produces a like fimila-
mer fupe rity of found with what we already obferved was oc-
rior in di- cafioned to the verbs from the fame caufe; whereas in
fovinc^ t^e ana^0g0US languages, as there is no neceflity for any
0Un ’ conftraint, there is almoft as great a variety of founds
as their are of nouns. The Latins have only five dif¬
ferent declenfions; fo that all the great number of
words of this general order muff be reduced to the very
fmall diverfity of founds which thefe few claffes admit
of; and even the founds of thefe few claffes are not fo
much diverfified as they might have been, as many of
the different cafes in the different declenfions have ex-
aftly the fame founds, as we (hall have occafion to re¬
mark more fully hereafter. We might here produce
examples to (how the greatfimilarity of founds between
different nouns in the Latin language, and variety
in the Englilh, in the fame way as we did of the verbs:
but as every reader in the leaft acquainted with thefe
two languages can fatisfy himfelf in this particular,
without any further trouble than by marking down any
number of Latin nouns, with their tranflations into Eng-
h(h, we think it unneceffary to dwell longer on this
particular.
But if the inflexion of nouns is a difadvantage
to a language in point pf diverfity of founds, it is very
that noun upon which the energy expreffedby the verb
is exerted), thefe may be placed in any fituation that but '
the writer (hall think proper, without occafioning the
fmalleft confufion : whereas in the analogous languages,
as thefe two different dates of the noun are expreffed
by the fame word, they cannot be diftinguiflred but by
their pofition alone : fo that the noun which is the ef¬
ficient caufe muff always precede the verb, and that
which is the paflive fubjeft muff follow ; which greatly
cramps the harmonious flow of compofition.—Thus
the Latins, without the fmalleft perplexity in the mean¬
ing, could fay either Brutum amavit Cajfius, or Cafius
amavit Brutum, or Brutum Cafius amavit, or Cafius
Brutum amavit. As the termination of the word Caf-
fus always points out that it is in the nominative cafe,
and therefore that he is the perfon from whom the
energy proceeds; and in the fame manner, as the ter¬
mination of the word Brutum points out that it is in
the accufative cafe, and confequently that he is the ob-
jeft upon whom the energy is exerted ; the meaning
continues ftill diftinft and clear, notwithftanding of all
thefe feveral variations : whereas in the Englifti lan¬
guage, we could only fay Cafius loved Brutus, or, by
a more forced phrafeology, Cafius Brutus loved: Were
we to reverfe the cafe, as in the Latin, the meaning
alfo would be reverfed ; for if we fay Brutus loved Caf-
fius, it is evident, that, inftead of being the perfon be¬
loved, as before, Brutus now becomes the perfon from
whom the energy proceeds, and Cafius becomes the
objeft beloved.—In this refpeft, therefore, the analo¬
gous languages are greatly.inferior to the tranfpofitive ;
and indeed it is from this fingle circumftance alone that
they derive their chief excellence.
But although it thus appears evident, that any
language, which has a particular variation of its nouns
to diftinguifh the accufative from the nominative cafe,
has an advantage over thofe languages which have none;
yet it does not appear that any other of their cafes adds
to the variety, but rather the reverfe : for, in Latin, we
can only fay Amor Dei-; in Englifti the fame phrafe
may be rendered, either,—the love of God—of God the
love,—or, by a more forced arrangement, God the love
of. And as thefe oblique cafes, as the Latins called
them, except the accufative, are clearly diftinguilhed
from one another, and from the nominative, by the pre-
pofition which accompanies them, we are not confined
to any particular arrangement with regard to thefe as
with the accufative, but may place them in what order
we pleafe, as in Milton’s elegant invocation at the be¬
ginning of Paradife Loft:
Of man’s firft difobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte
Brought death into the world, and all our wo.
With lofs of Eden, till one greater man
Reftore us, and icgain the blifsful feat,
Sing, heavenly Mufe.
In this fentence the tranfpofition is almoft as great
the
LAN
i.angaa^e. the Latin language would admit of, and the meaning
w—y-»~ as a8 if Milton had begun with the plain lan¬
guage of profe, thus,--*1 Heavenly mufe, fmg of man’a
fir ft difobedience,” &c.
Before we leave this head, we may remark, that the
little attention which feems to have been paid to this
peculiar advantage derived from the ufe of an accufa-
tive cafe different from the nominative, is fomewhat fur-
prifing. The Latins, who had more occafion to attend
to this with care than any other nation, and even the
Greeks themfelves, have in many cafes overlooked it, as
is evident from the various inftances we meet with in
their languages where this is not diftinguifhed. For all
nouns of the neuter gender both in Greek and Latin
have in every declenfion their nominative and accufa-
tive fingular alike. Nor in the plural of fuch nouns
is there any diftindlion between theft two cafes;* and
in Latin all nouns whatever of the third, fourth, and
fifth declenfions, of which the number is very confi-
derable, have their nominative and accufative plural
alike- So that their language reaps no advantage in
this refpedt from almoft one half of their nouns. Nor
have any of the modern languages in Europe, however
much they may have borrowed from the ancient lan¬
guages in other refpe&s, attempted to copy from them
I 54' 1
LAN
of the fentences ;--as are alfo the nominative, voca- Languare.
tive, and ablative fingular, and the dative and ablative
plural. In the fecond, the genitive fingular, and no¬
minative and vocative plural, are the fame; as are al¬
fo the dative and ablative fingular, and dative and ab¬
lative plural; except thofe in um, whofe nominative,
accufative, and vocative fingular, and nominative, accu¬
fative, and vocative plural, are alike. The other three
declenfions agree in as many of their cafes as thefe do ;
which evidently tends to perplex the meaning, unlefs
the hearer is particularly attentive to, and well acquaint¬
ed with, the particular conftruftion of the other parts
of the fentence ; all of which is totally removed, and
the cleareft certainty exhibited at once, by the help
of prepofitions in the analogous languages.
It will hardly be neceffary to enter into fuch a mi¬
nute examination of the advantages or difadvantages
attending the variation of adjeElives ; as it will ap¬
pear evident, from what has been already faid, that
the endowing them with terminations fimiliar to, and
correfponding with, fubjlantives, mull tend (till more
to increafe the fimilarity of founds in any language,
than any of thofe particulars we have already taken
notice of; and were it not for the liberty which they
have, in tranfpofitive languages, of feparating the ad-
this particular ; from which perhaps more advantage jedlive from the fubftantive, this mull have occafioned
would have been gained, than from copying all the
other fuppofed excellencies of their language.—But to
return to our fubjedft.
*3 It remains that we confider, whether the infledlion
Greatly fu- 0y nouns gives any advantage over the method of defi-
to ^recifion n*nS t^em prepofitions, in point of diftin&nefs and
ef mean- precifion of meaning? But in this refpeft, too, the ana-
ing. logons languages mud come off vidlorious. Indeed this
is the particular in which their greateil excellence con-
fids , nor was it, we believe, ever difputed, but that, in
point of accuracy and precifion, this method mud ex¬
cel all others, however it may be defe&ive in other re-
fuch a jingle of fimilar founds as could not fail to have
been mod difgufting to the ear: but as it would have
been impofiible in many cafes, in thofe languages where
the verbs and nouns are infle&ed, to have pronounced
the words which ought to have followed each other,
unlefs their adjedtives could have been feparated from
the fubftantives; therefore, to remedy this inconveni¬
ence, they were forced to devife this unnatural method
of infle&ing them alfo ; by which means it is eafy to
recognife to what fubftantive any adje&ive has a re¬
ference, in whatever part of the fentence it may be
placed. In thefe languages, therefore, this infledlion,.
fpe&s. We obferved under this head, when fpeaking of both as to gender, number, and cafe, becomes abfo-
verbs, that it might perhaps be poffible to form a lan¬
guage by infltdlion which fhould be capable of as great
accuracy as in the more Ample order of auxiliaries: but
this would have been fuch an infinite labour, that it
was not to be expedled that ever human powers would
have been able to accomplidi it. More eafy would it
hive been to have formed the feveral inflexions of the
notns fo different from one another, as to have render¬
ed it-’mpoffible ever to miftake the meaning. Yet even
this ha not been attempted. And as we find that thofe
language which have adopted the method ofinfleXing
their vert are more imperfeX in point of precifion
than the oi,er, fo the fame may be faid of infleXing
the nouns: not to mention the energy which the
analogous lang,ages acquire by putting the accent
upon tb; noun, m- its prepofition (when in an oblique
cafe), according a-the fubjeX may require, to exprefs
which vaiation of meaning no particular variety of
words hav been invented in any infleXed language,
they are ndeven complete in other refpeXs. The La¬
tin, in partii,lar, is in many cafes defeXive, the fame
termination w;ng employed in many inftances for dif¬
ferent cafes othe fame noun. Thus the genitive and'
lutely neceffary ; and, by the diverfity which it ad¬
mitted in the arranging the words of the feveral phrafes,
might counterbalance the jingle of fimilar founds which
it introduced into the language.
Having thus examined the moft linking particu-™ 54’‘
lars in which the tranfpefitive and analogous lan- different^'
guages differ, and endeavoured to Ihow the general ten- idioms of
dency of every one of the particulars feparately, it language
would not be fair to difmifs the fubjeX without con-comPa,:ei1.
fidering each of thefe as a whole, and pointing out “gnerau^
their general tendency in that light: for we ail know,fe<fts4
that it often happens in human inventions, that every
part which compcfes a whole, taken feparately, may
appear extremely fine ; and yet, when all thefe parts
are put together, they may not agree, but produce
a jarring and confufion very different from what we
might have expeXed. We therefore imagine a few
remarks upon the genius of each of thefe two diftinX
idioms of language confidered as a whole will not be
deemed ufelefs.
Although all languages agree in this refpeX, that *5
they are the means of conveying the ideas of one man T,1re.traI?fi.
to another ; yet as there is an infinite variety of ways£, "Ve
j ■ f rrnl-,,   •  ^ ,3 an lunuiic Vdiiccy OI ways fiften.
ft !! 1\d nominative and vocative plural, of in which we might wilh to convey thefe ideas, fome-for foiemn-
the firft declenL are all exaa]y alikej and _ ^
ly be diftinguiflt froiB one j^^ber by the formation
times by the eafy and familiar mode of converfation, compofc
and at other times by more folemn addreffes to thetioI>*
LAN [ 542 ] LAN
Language. underHanding, by pompous declamation, &c. it may
f0 happen, that the genius of one language may be
more properly adapted to the one of thefe than the o*
ther, while another language may excel in the oppo-
fite particular. This is exaftly the cafe in the two
general idioms of which we now treat. Every par¬
ticular in a iranfpofttive language, is peculiarly calcu¬
lated for that folemn dignity which is necelfary for
pompous orations. Long founding words, formed by
the inflexion of the different parts of fpeech,—flowing
periods, in which the attention is kept awake by the
harmony of the founds, and in expe&ation of that
word which is to unravel the whole, —if compofed by
a flcilful artift, are admirably fuited to that folemn dig¬
nity and awful grace which conftitute the effence of a
a6 public harangue. On the contrary, in private conver-
The analo- fation, where the mind wifhes to unbend itfelf with
private1" ea^e» become fo many clogs which encumber
converfa- and perplex. At thefe moments we vvifh to transfufe
tion and our thoughts with eafe and facility—we are tired with
written di- every unneceffary fyllable—and wifh to be freed from
°^ue’ the trouble of attention as much as may be. Like our
flate-robes, we would wifh to lay afide our pompous
language, and enjoy ourfelves at home with freedom
and eafe. Here the folemnity and windings of the
tranfpofitive language are burdenfome ; while the faci¬
lity with which a fentiment can be expreffcd in ihe ana¬
logous language is the thing that we wifh to acquire.
Accordingly in Terence and Plautus, where the beau¬
ties of dialogue are mod. charmingly difplayed, tranf-
pofkion is fparingly ufed. In this humble, though
mod engaging fphere, the analogous language moves
unrivalled ;--in this it wifhes to indulge, and never tires.
But it in vain attemps to rival the iranfpojitive in dig¬
nity and pomp : The number of monofyllables inter¬
rupt the flow of harmony; and although they may
give a greater variety of founds, yet they do not na¬
turally poffefs that dignified gravity which fuits the
other language. This, then, mud be confidered as
the driking particular in the genius of thefe two dif¬
ferent idiom s, which marks their charadlers.
If we coniider the cffc&s which thefe two diffe¬
rent chara&ers of language mud naturally produce
upon the people who employ them, we will foon per¬
ceive, that the genius of the analogous language is
much more favourable for the mod engaging purpofes
of life, the civilizing the human mind by mutual in-
tercourfe of thought, than the tranfpofitive. For as it
is chiefly by the ufe of fpeech that man is raifed above
the brute creation ;—as it is by this means he improves
every faculty of his mind, and, to the obfervations
which he may himfelf have made, has the additional
advantage of the experience of thofe with whom he
may converfe, as well as the knowledge which the hu¬
man race have acquired by the accumulated experience
of all preceding agesas it is by the enlivening glow
of converfation that kindred fouls catch fire from one
another, that thought produces thought, and each
improves upon the other, till they foar beyond the
bounds which human reafon, if left alone, could ever
have afpired to ;—we mud furely confider that lan¬
guage as the mod beneficial to fociety, which mod ef¬
fectually removes thefe bars that obdruCt its progrefs.
Now, the genius of the analogous languages is fo eafy,
fo fimple and plain, as to be within the reach of every
one who is born in the kingdom where it is ufed
to fpeak it with facility; even the ruded among the Language,
vulgar can hardly fall into any confiderable gramma-  ■/-•-*
tical errors : whereas, in the tranfpofiti'Oe languages, fa
many rules are neceffary to be attended to, and fo
much variation is produced in the meaning, by the
flighted variations in the found, that it requires adudy
far above the reach of the illiterate mechanic ever
to attain. So that, how perfect foever the language
may be when fpoken with purity, the bulk of the na¬
tion mud ever labour under the inconvenience of rude-
nefs and inaccuracy of fpeech, and all the evils which
this naturally produces.—Accordingly, we find, that
in Rome, a man, even in the highed rank, received
as much honour, and was as much didinguifhed a-
mong his equals, for being able to converfe with eafe,
as a modern author would be for writing in an eafy
and elegant dyle ; and Caefar among his contempo¬
raries was as much edeemed for his fuperiority in fpeak-
ing the language in ordinary converfation with eafe
and elegance, as for his powers of oratory, his Ikill in
arms, or his excellence in literary compofition. It is
needlefs to point out the many inconveniences which this
mud unavoidably produce in a date. It is fufficient
to obferve, that it naturally tends to introduce a vad
didindlion between the different orders of men ; to fet
an impenetrable barrier between thofe born in a high
and thofe born in a low dation ; to keep the latter in
ignorance and barbarity, while it elevates the former
to fuch a height as mud fubjeft the other to be eafily
led by every popular demagogue.—How far the hidory
of the nations who have followed this idiom of lan¬
guage confirms this obfervation, every one is left to
judge for himfelf.
Having thus confidered Language in general, and
pointed out the genius and tendency of the two mod
didinguilhed idioms which have prevailed ; we lhall
clofe thefe remarks with a few obfervations upon the
particular nature and genius of thofe languages which
are now chiefly fpoken or dudied in Europe.
Of all the nations whofe memory hidory has tranf- ,
mitted to us, none have been fo eminently didinguifhed
for their literary accompliftiments, as well as acquain-thofe lan-
tance with the polite arts, as the Greeks ; nor are weguages
as yet acquainted with a language poffcffed of fo many whjcc1ha/®
advantages, with fo few defects, as that which they poken or7
ufed, and which continues dill to be known by therdudied in
name.—The neceffary connexion between the progr/ls EliroPe-
of knowledge and the improvement of language^as
been already explained ; fo that it will not b ^ur"
prifing to find their progrefs in the one ket5. Pace
with that of the other: but it will be ofA^J to
point out fome advantages which that d‘:tinSu,^lcd
people poffeffed, which other nations, peJaPs nPl tefs
didinguiflied for talents or tafte, hav" HOt ojoyed,
which have contributed to render th'ir language the
mod univerfally admired in ancient apwell as modern
times.
It has been already obferved, tlat the oripnal inhabi- 2g
tantsof Greece, who were groff favages, ad whole lan-The great
guage of courfe would be very rude and na-ovv, were firdfuPerioritF
tamed by the Pelafgi, an eadern or an ByPl‘an tnhe. Qree^ Jan_
From the ead it is well known that as and fciences guage, ow-
were fprelad over the red of the worldia<l that Egypt ing to what
was one of the countries firfi civzed. The Jan-Caufe8,
guage therefore impoi ted into Gree by the Pelafgi
would be pure from the founta" llead, and much
more
I. A N [ 543 ] LAN
Language, more perfeft in its ftru&ure than if it had been tranf-
—v   mitted through many nations. But this was not the
only circumttance highly fortunate for the Greek lan¬
guage. Before it had time to be fully eftabliihed a-
mong the people, its afperiti.es, which it had in com¬
mon with the other diale&s of the call, were polilhed
away by fuch a fucceffion of poets, muficians, philo-
fophers, and legiflators, from different countries, as ne¬
ver appeared in any other- nation at a period fo early
as to give their genius and taile its full influence. In
this refpeft, no people were ever fo eminently diftin-
guifhed as the ancient Greeks, who had their Orpheus,
their Linus, their Cecrops, and their Cadmus, who in¬
troduced their different improvements at a time when
the nation had no ftandard of tafle formed by itfelf.
Hence the original founds of the Greek language are
the moll harmonious, and the moft agreeable to the
ear, of any that have hitherto been invented. They
are indeed agreeable to every, perfon who hears them,
even when the meaning of the words js not underflood;
whereas almoft all other languages, till they are under-
flood, appear, to an ear which has not been accuflomed
to them, jarring and difeordant. This is the funda¬
mental excellence of that juftly admired language ; nor
have the people failed to improve this to the utmofl of
their power, by many aids of their own invention. The
Greek language is of the tranfpofitive kind : but a
people fo lively, fo acute, and fo loquacious, could ill
bear the ceremonious reflraint to which that mode of
language naturally fubjedled them; and have there¬
fore, by various methods, freed it in a great meafure
from the ftiffhefs w-hich that produced In infledling
their nouns and verbs, they fometimes prefix a fyllable,
and fometimes add one; which, befides the variety that
it gives to the founds of the language, adds greatly to
the diflinctnefs, and admits of a more natural arrange¬
ment of the words than in the Latin, and of confe-
quence renders it much fitter for the eafinefs of private
converfation : and indeed the genius of the people fo
far prevailed over the id\om of the language, as to ren¬
der it, in the age of its greatefl perfedlion, capable of
almoft as much eafe, and requiring almoft as little tranf-
pofition of words, as thole languages which have been
called analogous. But as thofe nations who fpoke this
language were all governed by popular aflemblies, and
as no authority could be obtained among them but by
a (kill in rhetoric and the powers of perfuafion ; it
became neceffary for every one, who wifhed to acquire
power or confideration in the ftate, to improve him-
felf in the knowledge of that language, in the ufe of
which alone he could expert honours or reputation.
Hence it happened, that while the vivacity of the
people rendered it eafy, the great men lludioufly im¬
proved every excellence that it could reap from its
powers as a tran/pojitive language; fo that, when brought
to its utmoft perfeftion by the amazing genius of the
great Demoflhenes, it attained a power altogether un¬
known to any other language.—Thus happily cir-
cumftanccd, the Greek language arrived at that envied
pre eminence which it {till jufily retains. From the
progrefs of arts and faiences ; from the gaiety and in¬
ventive genius of the people ; from the number of free
Hates into which Greece was divided, each of which
invented words of its own, all of which contributed to
the general flock; and from the natural communica¬
tion which took place between thefe flates, which ex- Language,
cited in the ftrongeft degree the talents of the people ; ‘ v ^
it acquired a copioufnefs unknown to any ancient lan¬
guage, and excelled by few of the moderns.— In point
of harmony of numbers, it is altogether unrivalled ;
and on account of the eafe as well as dignity which,
from the caufes above mentioned, it acquired, it ad¬
mits of perfedlion in a greater number of particular
kinds of compofition than any other language known.
—The irrefifttble force and overwhelming impetuofity
of Demofthenes fetm§ not more natural to the genius
of the language, than the more flowery charms ot
Plato’s calm and harmonious cadences, or the una¬
dorned fimplicity of Xenophon ; nor does the majeftic
pomp of Homer feem to be more agreeable to the ge¬
nius of the language in which he wrote, than the more
humble ftrains of Theocritus, or the laughing feftivity
of Anacreon : Equally adapted to all purpofes, when
we perufe any of thde authors, we would imagine the
language was moft happily adapted for his particular
ftyle alone. The fame powers it likewife, in a great
meafure, poflefied for converfation ; and the dialogue
feems not more natural for the dignity of Sophocles
or Euripides, than for the more eafy tendernefs of
Menander, or buffoonery of Ariftophanes.—With all
thefe advantages, however, it muft be acknowledged,
that it did not poffefs that unexceptionable clearnefs
of meaning which fome analogous languages enjoy, or
that chara&eriftic force which the emphalis properly
varied has power to give, were not thefe defects coun¬
terbalanced by other caufes which we fhall afterwards
point out.
The Romans, a people of fierce and watlike difpo-The Latin
fitions, for many ages during the infancy of their re-language
public, more intent on purfuing conquefts and military inferi?r to
glory than in making improvements in literature or ^^ Greek ’
the fine arts, bellowed little attention to their language. ™ 1 ’
Of a difpofition lefs focial or more phlegmatic than
the Gieeka, they gave themfelves no ticublc about
rendering their language fit for converfation ; and it
remained ftrong and nervous, but, like their ideas,
was limited and confined. More difpofed to command
refpedl by the power of their arms than by the force
of perfuafion, they defpifed the more effeminate powers
offpeech: fo that, before the Punic wars, their lan¬
guage was perhaps more referved and uncourtly than
any other at that time known.—But after their rival
Carthage was deftroyed, and they had no longer that
powerful curb upon their ambition; when riches flowed
in upon them by the multiplicity of their conquelis ;
— luxury began to prevail, the ftern aufterity of their
manners to relax, and felfilh ambition to take place of
that difinterelled love for their country fo eminently
confpicuous among all orders of men before that pe¬
riod.—Popularity began then to be courted : ambi¬
tious men, finding themfelves not poflefied of that me¬
rit which infured them fucccfs with the virtuous fe-
nate, amufed the mob with artful and feditious ha¬
rangues; and by making them believe that they were
poffeffed of all power, and had their facred rights en-
croached upon by the fenate,. led them about at their
pleafure, and got themfelves exalted to honours and
riches by thefe infidious arts. It was then the Ro¬
mans fir ft began to perceive the ufe to which a com¬
mand of language could be put. Ambitious men
then
LAN [ 5.4+ ] LAN
language, t^gn ftud;ed it with care, to be able to accompli/h been fpoken have been fubjedted to the yoke of fo- Ivanguage.
their ends ; while the moie virluous were obliged to* reign dominion for upwards of two thoufand years,  V""***,
acquire a fleill in this, that they might be able to repel and their country has been twice ravaged by barba-
the attacks of their adverfaries.—Thus it happened,
that in a fhort time that people, from having entire,
ly negle&ed, began to ftudy their language with the
greatetl affiduity ; and as Greece happened to be fub-
nations, and more cruelly deprelfed than ever the
Romans were.
From the view which we have already given of the
Latin language, it appears evident, that its idiom was
30
It could
not be car¬
ried to 1 he
Came de¬
cree of per
fedtion.
jedted to the Roman yoke about that time, and a more ttridtly tranfpofitive than that of any other lan-
friendly intercourfe was eftablilhed between thefe two guage yet known, and was attended with all the de-
-countries, this greatly confpired to nourifh in the fedfs to which that idiom is naturally fubjedted : nor
minds of the Romans a taite for that art of which could it boaft of fuch favourable alleviating circum-
they had lately become fo much enamoured. Greece itances as the Greek, the prevailing founds of the La-
bad long before this period been corrupted by luxury; tin being far lefs harmonious to the ear; and although
their tafte for the fine arts had degenerated into un- the formation of the words are fuch as to admit of full
neceflary refinement; and all their patriotism conlifted and diitindt founds, and fo modulated as to lay no re¬
in popular harangues and unmeaning declamation, ffraint upon the voice of the fpeaker; yet, to a perfon
Oratory was then ftudied as a refined art; and all the unacquainted with the language, they do not convey
fubtleties of it were taught by rule, with as great care that enchanting harmony fo remarkable in the Greek
as the gladiators were afterwards trained up in Rome, language. The Latin is ftately and folemn ; it does
But while they were thus idly trying who fhould be not excite difguft; but at the fame time it does not
the lord of their own people, the nerves of govern- charm the ear, fo as to make it liiten with delightful
ment were relaxed, and they became an eafy prey to attention. To one acquainted with the language in-
every invading power. In this fituation they became deed, the nervous boldnefs of the thoughts, the harmo-
-the^fy>Sj-,underthe title of the u///Vr,ofRome, and intro- nious rounding of the periods, the full folemn fwelling
duced among them the fame talle for haranguing which of the founds, fo diftinguilhable in, the moft eminent
prevailed among themfelves. Well acquainted as they writers in that language which have been preferved to
were with the powers of their own language, they fet us, all confpire to make it pleafing and agreeable 
themfelves with unwearied affiduity to poliffi and im- In thefe admired works we meet with all its beauties,
prove that of their new mailers r but with all their without perceiving any of its defers; and we naturally
affiduity and pains, they never were able to make it admire, as perfedt, a language which is capable of pro-
arrive'at that perfection which their own language ducing fuch excellent works.—Yet with all thefe feem-
had acquired ; and in the Auguftan age, when it had ing excellencies, this language is lefs copious, and
arrived at the fummit of its glory, Cicero bitterly morelimitedinitsftyleofcompofition,thanmanymo-
complainsofits want ofcopioufnefs in many particulars, dern languages; far lefs capable of precifion and ae-
But as it was the defire of all who lludied this lan- curacy than almoft any of thefe ; and infinitely be-
guage with care, to make it capable of that ftately hind them all in point of eafinefs in converfation. But
dignity and pomp neceflary for public harangues, they thefe points have been fo fully proved already, as to
followed the genius of the language in this particular, require no further illuftration—Of the compofitions
and in a great meafure neglecled thofe leffer delicacies in that language which have been preferved to us, the
which form the pleafure of domeftic enjoyment; fo Orations of Cicero are bed adapted to the genius of
that, while it acquired more copioufnefs, more har- the language, and we there fee it in its utmoll perfec-
mony, and precifion, it remained lliff and inflexible tion. In the Philojophical Works of that great au-
for converfation: nor could the minute dillindlion of thor we perceive fome of its defedls; and it requires
nice grammatical rules be ever brought down to the all the powers of that great man to render his Epijlles
apprehenfion of the vulgar ; whence the language fpo- agreeable, as thefe have the genius of the language to
ken among the lower clafs of people remained rude and ftruggle with.—Next to oratoiy, hiftory agrees with
unpolifhed even to the end of the monarchy. The the genius of this language ; and Csefar, in his Com-
Huns who over-run Italy, incapable of acquiring any mentaries, has exhibited the language in its purell
knowledge of fuch a difficult and abitrule language, elegance, without the aid of pomp or foreign orna-
■never adopted it; and the native inhabitants being ment. Among the poets, Virgil has bell adapted
made acquainted with a language more natural and his works to his language. The flowing harmony
eafily acquired, quickly adopted that idiom of fpeech and pomp of it is well adapted for the epic llrain, and
introduced by their conquerors, although they ilill the coned delicacy of his tafte rendered him perfedly
retained many of thofe words which the confined na- equal to the talk. But Horace is the only poet whofe
ture of the barbarian language made neceflary to al- force of genius was able to overcome the bars which
low them to exprefs their ideas.—And thus it was the language threw in his way, and fucceed in lyric
that the language of Rome, that proud miftrefs of the poetry. Were it not for the brilliancy of the thoughts,
world, from an original defeft in its formation, al- and acutenefs of the remarks, which fo eminently diftin-
though it had been carried to a pe'rfeftion. in other re- guilh this author’s compofitions, his odes would long
fpeds far fuperior to any northern language at that ere now have funk into utter oblivion. But fo con-
time, eafily gave way to them, and in a few ages the feious have all the Roman poets been of the unfitnefs
knowledge of it was loft among mankind : while, on of their language for eafy dialogue, that almoft none
the contrary, the more eafy nature of the Greek lan- of them, alter Plautus and Terence, have attempted
guage has ftill been able to keep fome flight footing any dramatic compofitions in that language. Nor
in the world, although the nations in which it has have we any reafon to regret that they negledled this
5 branch
LAN [ 545 1 LAN
Language, branch of poetry, as it is probable* if they had ever
****~v~" become fond of thefe, they would have been obliged
to have adopted fo many unnatural contrivances to ren¬
der them agreeable, as would have prevented us (who
of courfe would have confidered ourfelves as bound to
follow them) from making that progrefs in the drama
which fo particularly diltinguilhes the productions of
t modern times.
The Italian The modern Italian language, from an inattention
language of too common in literary fubjetts, has been ufually called
Gothic idi- a of the Latin language^ and is commonly be¬
am and Uevgd to be the ancient Latin a little debafed by the
mixture of the barbarous language of thofe people who
conquered Italy. The truth is, the cafe is direftly the
reverfe : for this language, in its general idiom and
fundamental principles, is evidently of the analogous
kind, firft introduced by thofe fierce invaders, although
-it has borrowed many of its words, and fome of its
modes of phrafeology, from the Latin, with which
they were fo intimately blended that this could fcarce-
ly be avoided ; and it has been from remarking this
flight connexion fo obvious at firft' light, that fuper-
ficial obfervers have been led to draw this general con-
clufion, fo contrary to faCt.
When Italy was over-run with the Lombards, and
the empire deftroyed by thefe northern invaders, they,
as conquerors, continued to fpeak their own native
language. Fierce and illiterate, they would not ftoop
to the fervility of ftudying a language fo clogged with
rules, and difficult of attainment, as the Latin would
naturally be to a people altogether unacquainted with
nice grammatical diftin&ions: while the Romans of
neceffity were obliged to ftudy the language of their
conquerors, as well to obtain fome relief of their grie¬
vances by prayers and fupplications, as to deftroy that
odious diftincfion which fubiifted between the con¬
querors and conquered while they continued as diftinCf
people. As the language of their new mailers, al¬
though rude and confined, was natural in its order,
and eafy to be acqnired, the Latins would foon attain
a competent Ikill in it: and as they bore fuch a pro¬
portion to the whole number of people, the whole
language would partake fomewhat of the general found
of the former : for, in fpite of all their efforts to the
contrary, the organs of fpeech could not at once be
made to acquire a ptrfed power of uttering any unac-
cuftomed founds; and as it behoved the language of
the barbarians to be much lefs copious than the Latin,
whenever they found themfelves at a lofs for a word,
they would naturally adopt thofe which moft readily
prefented themfelves from their new fubjeCts. Thus
31 a language in time was formed, fomewhat refembling
©f Latin the Latin both in the general tenor of the founds
found. and in the meaning of many words: and as the bar¬
barians gave themfelves little trouble about language,
and in fome cafes perhaps hardly knew the general
analogy of their own language, it is not furprifing if
their new fubjefts ftould find themfelves fometimes at
a lofs on that account; or if, in thefe fituations, they
followed, on fome occafions, the analogy fuggefted to
them by their own : which accounts for the ftrange
degree of mixture of heterogeneous grammatical ana¬
logy we meet with in the Italian as well as Spaniflr
and French languages. The idiom of all the Gothic
languages is purely analogous ; and in all probability,
Vol. IX. Part II.
before their mixture with the Latins and other people Language,
in their provinces, the feveral grammatical parts of
fpeech followed the plain Ample idea which that fup-
pofes; the verbs and nouns were all probably varied
by auxiliaries, and their adjeftives retained their Am¬
ple unalterable ftate :—but by their mixture with the
Latins, this innple form has been in many cafes altered;
their verbs became in fome cafes infle&ed ; but their
nouns in all thefe languages ftill retained their original
form ; although they have varied their adje&ives, and
fooliihly clogged their nouns with gender, according 35
to the Latin idioms. From this heterogeneous and^sthe^ea
fortuitous (as we may fay, becaufe injudicious) mix-
ture of parts, refults a language poffefling almoft allparent
the defe&s of each of the languages of which it is com- tongues,
pofed, with few of the excellencies of either: for it
has neither the eafe and precifion of the analogous, nor
the pomp and boldnefs of the tranfpofitive^ languages ;
at the fame time that it is clogged with almoft as many
rules, and liable to as great abufes.
Thefe obfer vat ions are equally applicable to the
French and Spanifh as to the Italian language. With
regard to this laft in particular, we may obferve, that
as the natural inhabitants of Italy, before the laft in-
vafion of the barbarians, were funk and enervated by
luxury, and that ;by depreffion of mind and genius
which anarchy always produces, they had become fond
of feafting and entertainments, and the enjoyment of
fenfual pleafures conftituted their higheft delight; and
their language partook of the fame debility as their
body.—The barbarians too, unaccuftomed to the fe-
duftions of pleafure, foon fell from their original bold¬
nefs and intrepidity, and, like Hannibal’s troops of
old, were enervated by the fenfual gratifications in
which a nation of conquerors unaccuftomed to the re-
ftraint of government freely indulged. The foftnefs
of the air, the fertility of the climate, the unaccuftomed
flow of riches which they at once acquired, together
with the voluptuous manner of their conquered fub-
jefts; all confpired to enervate their minds, and render
them foft and effeminate. No wonder then, if a lan¬
guage new-moulded at this jundure fhould partake of
the genius of the people who formed it; and inftead
of participating of the martial boldnefs and ferocity of
either of their anceftors, fhould be foftened and en¬
feebled by every device which an effeminate people
could invent.—The ftrong confonants which termi¬
nated the words, and gave them life and boldnefs, be¬
ing thought too harfh for the delicate ears of thefe
fons of floth, were banifhed their language ; while fo-
norous vowels, which could be protraded to any length
in mufic, were fubftituted in their ftead.—Thus the And
Italian language is formed flowing and harmonious, th,>ugI,
but deftitute of thofe nerves which
ftrength and vigour of a language : at the fame time, ons js too
the founds are neither enough diverfified, nor in them- feeble for
felves of fuch an agreeable tone, as to afford greatt,ie higheft
pleafure without the aid of mufical notes; and theftJtciesrof
fmall pleafure which this affords is ftill leffened by the [1™^°
little variety of meafure which the great fimilarity of
the terminations of the words occafions. Hence it
happens, that this language is fitted for excelling in
fewer branches of literature than almoft any other:
and although we have excellent hiftorians, and more
than ordinary poets, in Italian, yet they labour under
3 z great
LAN
[ 546 ]
L A N
Language, great inconveniences, from the language wanting nerves European language. This is the reafon why the cha- Language.
ancj ftatelinefs for the former, and fufficient variety of rafters fo finely drawn by Cervantes in Don Qm'xotte — 1
modulation for the latter. It is, more particularly on
this account, altogether unfit for an epic poem : and
though attempts have been made in this way by two
men whofe genius, if not fettered by the language,
might have been crowned with fuccefs; yet thefe,
notwithilanding the fame that with fome they may
have acquired, muft, in point of poetic harmony, be
deemed defective by every impartial perfon. Nor is it
pofiible that a language which hardly admits of poetry
without rhime, can ever be capable of producing a
perfeft poem of great length; and the ftanza to which
their poets have ever confined themfelves, muft always
produce the moft difagreeable effeft in a poem where mirable charafters.
are ftill unknown to all but thofe who underhand the
language in which he wrote. Nothing can be more
unlike the gentle meeknefs and humane heroifm of the
knight, or the native fimplicity, warmth of affeftion,
and refpeftful loquacity of the fquire, thamthe incon-
fiftent follies of the one, or the impertinent forward-
nefs and difrefpeftful petulance of the other, as they
ar@ exhibited in every Englifti tranflation. Nor is it,
as we imagine, poffible to reprefent fo much familiarity,
united with fuch becoming condefcenfion in the one,
and unfeigned deference in the other, in any other Eu¬
ropean language, as is neceflary to paint thefe two ad-
unreftrained pomp or pathos are neceffary qualifications.
The only fpecies of poetry in which the Italian lan¬
guage can claim a fuperior excellence, is the tender
tone of elegy : and here it remains unrivalled and
alone; the plaintive melody of the founds, and fmooth
flow of the language, being perfeftly adapted to «x-
Although this language, from the folemn dignity
and majeftic elegance of its ftrufture, is perhaps better
qualified than any other modern one for the fublims
ftrains of epic poetry ; yet as the poets of this nation,
have all along imitated the -Italians by a moft fervilc
fubjeftion to rhime, they never have produced one
prefs that foothing melancholy which this fpecies of poem of this fort, which in point of poefy of ftyle de^
poetry requires. On this account the plaintive feenes
of the Pajlor Fido of Guarini have juftly gained to
that poem an univerfal applaufe ; although, unlefs on
this account alone, it is perhaps inferior to almoft
every other poem of the kind which ever appeared.—
We muft obferve with furprife, that the Italians, who
have fettered every other fpecies of poetry with the
fevereft fhackles of rhime, have in this fpecies fhowed
an example of the moft unreftrained freedom; the
happy effefts of which ought to have taught all Eu¬
rope the powerful charms attending it : yet with a-
mazement we perceive, that fcarce an attempt to imi¬
tate them has been made by any poet in Europe ex¬
cept by Milton inhisLycidas; no dramatic poet, even in
Britain, having ever adopted the unreftrained harmony
ferves to be tranfmitted to pofterity. And in any
other fpecies of poetry but this, or the higher tragedy,
it is not naturally fitted to excel. But although the
drama and other polite branches of literature were ear¬
ly cultivated in this country, and made confiderable
progrefs in it, before the thirft of gain debafed their
fouls, or the defire of univerfal dominion made them
forfeit that liberty which they once fo much prized ;
fince they became enervated by an overbearing pride,
and their minds enflaved by fuperftition, all the polite
arts have been neglefted: fo that, while other Euro¬
pean nations have been advancing in knowledge, and
improving their language, they have remained in a ftate
of torpid inaftivity; and their language has not arri¬
ved at that perfeftion which its naiture would admit, or
of numbers to be met with in this and many other of the acute genius of the people might have made us na¬
turally expeft. ,5
It will perhaps by fome be thought an unpardon- The french
able infult, if we do not allow the French the prefe- langVage
rence of all modern languages in many refpefts. But
fo far muft we pay a deference to truth, as to be obli- energy;but
ged to rank it among the pooreft languages in Eu¬
rope. Every other language has fome founds which
can be uttered clearly by the voice : even the Italian,
35 their heft dramatic compofitions.
The excel- Of all the languages which fprung up from the mix-
theS anilh tUre ^ ^at'ns w*t^ t^le northern Feopk on the de-
tongue.ni ftruftion of the Roman empire, none of them approach
fo near to the genius of the Latin as the Spaniih does.
For as the Spaniards have been always remarkable for
their military prowefs and dignity of mind, their lan¬
guage is naturally adapted to exprefs ideas of that
kind. Sonorous and folemn, it admits nearly of as although it wants energy, ftill poffefles diftinftnefs of
much dignity as the Latin. For converfation, it is articulation. But the French is almoft incapable of
either of thefe beauties; for in that language the vow¬
els are fo much curtailed in the pronunciation, and the
words run into one another in fuch a manner, as necef-
farily to produce an indiftinftnefs which renders it in¬
capable of meafure or harmony. From this caufe, it
is in a great meafure incapable of poetic modulation,
and rhime has been obliged to be fubftituted in its
Head ; fo that this pooreft of all contrivances which
has ever yet been invented to diftinguiih poetry from
profe, admitted into all the modern languages when
the moft elegant and courteous language in Europe.
The humane and generous order of chivalry was firft
invented, and kept its footing longeft, in this nation ;
and although it run at laft into fuch a ridiculous ex-
cefs as defervedly made it fall into univerfal difrepute,
yet it left fuch a ftrong tinfture of romantic heroifm
upon the minds of all ranks of people, as made them
jealous of their glory, and ftrongly emulous of culti¬
vating that heroic politenefs, which they confidered
as the higheft perfeftion they could attain. Every .
man difdained to flatter, or to yield up any point of ignorance prevailed over Europe, has ftill kept fome
honour which he poffdfed ; at the fame time, he ri-
goroufly exafted from others all that was his due-
Thefe circumftances have given rife to a great many
footing in the greateft part of thefe, rather through a
deference for eftablifhed cuftoms than from any necef-
fity. Yet as the French language admits of fo little
terms of refpeft, and courteous condefcenfion, without poetic modulation, rhime is in fome meafure necejjary
meannefs or flattery, \yhich give their dialogue
fpeftful politenefs and elegance unknown to any other
to it; and therefore this poor deviation from profe has
been adopted by it, and dignified with the name of Poe¬
try.
LAN [ 547 ] LAN
Language, try. But by their blind attachment to this artifice,
v the French have negle&ed to improve fo much as they
might have done the fmall powers for harmony of
which their language is poffeffed ; and by being long
accuftomed to this falfe tafte, they have become fond
of it to fuch a ridiculous excefs, as to have all their
tragedies, nay even their comedies, in rhime. While
the poet is obliged to enervate his language, and check
the flow of compofition, for the fake of linking his
lines together, the judicious aftor finds more difficulty
in deftroying the appearance of that meafure, and pre¬
venting the clinking of the rhimes, than in all the reft
of his talk.—After this, we will not- be furprifed to
find Voltaire attempt an epic poem in this fpecies of
poetry; although the more judicious Fenelon in his
Telemaque had fhown to his countrymen the only fpe¬
cies of poefy that their language could admit of for
any poem which afpired to the dignity of the epic
itrain.—Madam Deffiouliers, in her Idyllic, has ffiown
the utmeft extent of harmony to which their language
can attain in fmaller poems: indeed in the tendernefs
of an elegy, or the gaiety of a fong, it may fucceed ;
but it is fo deftitute of force and energy, that it can
never be able to reach the pindaric, or even perhaps
the lyric ftrain,—as the ineffe&ual efforts even of the
harmonious Rouffeau, in his tranflation of the Pfalms
of David of this ftamp, may fully convince us.
With regard to its powers in other fpecies of com¬
pofition, the fententious rapidity of Voltaire, and the
more nervous dignity of Rouffeau, afford us no fmall
prefumption, that, in a flcilful hand, it might acquire
fo much force, as to tranfmit to futurity hiftorical
fa<51 s in a ftyle not altogether unworthy of the fubjedt.
In attempts at pathetic declamation, the fuperior abi¬
lities of the compofer may perhaps on fome occafions
excite a great idea ; but this is ever cramped by the
genius of the language: and although no nation in
Europe can boaft of fo many orations where this gran¬
deur is attempted ; yet perhaps, there are few who can¬
not produce more perfect, although not more laboured,
compofitions of this kind.
But notwithftanding the French language labours
under all thefe inconveniences; although it can nei¬
ther equal the dignity or genuine politenefs of the
Spaniff, the nervous boldnefe of the Englifh, nor the
melting foftnefs of the Italian ; although it is defti¬
tute of poetic harmony, and fo much cramped in found Langnaore.
as to be abfolutely unfit for almoft every fpecies of mu- *"■
fical compofition (f) ; yet the fprightly genius of
that volatile people has been able to furmount all thefe
difficulties, and render it the language moft generally ^
efteemed, and moft univerfally fpoken, of any in Eu-Admirably
rope; for this people, naturally gay and loquacious, fitted for
and fond to excefs of thofe fuperficial accompli(hmentsligh.t <:on"
which engage the attention of the fair fex, have in-ver atlon*
vented fuch an infinity of words capable of expreffing
vague and unmeaning compliment, now dignified by
the name of politenefs, that, in this ftrain, one who
ufes the French can never be at a lofs ; and as it is eafy
to converfe more, and really fay lefs, in this than in any
other language, a man of very moderate talents may
diftinguiffi himfelf much more by ufing this than any
other that has ever yet been invented. On this ac¬
count, it is peculiarly well adapted to that fpecies of
converfation which muft ever take place in thofe gene¬
ral and promifcuous companies, where many perfons of
both fexes are met together for the purpofes of relaxa¬
tion or amufement; and muft of courfe be naturally
admitted into the courts of princes, and affemblies of
great perfonages ; who, having fewer equals with whom
they can affociate, are more under a neceffity of con-
verfing with ftrangers, in whofe company the tender
ftimulus of friendffiip does not fo naturally expand
the heart to mutual truft or unreftrained confidence.
In thefe circumftances, as the heart remaineth difen-
gaged, converfation muft neceffarily flag; and man¬
kind in this fituation will gladly adopt that language
in which they can converfe moft eafily without being
deeply interefted. On thefe accounts the French now
is, and probably will continue to be, reckoned the
moft polite language in Europe, and therefore the
moft generally ftudied and known : nor ftiould we
envy them this diftin&ion, if our countrymen would
not weaken and enervate their own manly language,
by adopting too many of their unmeaning phrafes. „
The Englilh is perhaps poffeffed of a greater de- The «cel-
gree of excellence, blended with a greater number of lencie* and
defedfs, than any of the languages we have hitherto
mentioned. As the people of Great Britain are a^£ng"
bold, daring, and impetuous race of men, fubjsA to ' tonkruc'
ftrong paffions, and, from the abfolute freedom and
independence which reigns amongft all ranks of people
3 Z z throughout
(f) An author of great difeernment, and well acquainted with the French language, has lately made the
fame remark; and as the loftinefs of his genius often prevents him from bringing down his illuttrations to
the level of ordinary com prehen fion, he has on this and many other occafions been unjuftly accufed of being
Fond of paradoxes.—But as mufic never produces its full effeft but when tha tones it affumes are in unifon
with the idea that the words naturally excite, it of neceffity follows, that if the words of any language do not
admit of that fulnefs of found, or that fpecies of tones, which the paffion or affe&ion that may be deferibed
by the words would naturally require to excite the fame idea ic the mind of one who was unacquainted with
the language, it will be impoffible for the mufic to produce its full effedt, as it will be cramped and confined
by the found of the words and as the French language does not admit of thofe full and open founds which
are neceffary for pathetic expreffion in mufic, it muft of courfe be unfit for mufical compofition.—It is true
indeed, that in modern times, in which fo little attention is beftowed on the Ample and fublime charms of pa¬
thetic expreffion, and a fantaftical tingling of unmeaning founds is called mufic—where the fenfe of the words
are loft in fugues, quavers, and unneceffary repetition of particular fyllables,—all languages are nearly fitted
for it ; and among thefe the French: nor is it lefs to be doubted, that, in the eafy gaiety of a fong, this
language can properly enough admit of all the mufical expreffion 'which that fpecies of compofition may re-,
quire.
LAN [ 548 ] LAN
Language throughout this happy ifle, little folicitous about con-
trolling thefe paffions;—our language takes its ftrong-
eft charafteriltical diftinftion from the genius of the
people ; and, being bold, daring, and abrupt, is ad¬
mirably well adapted to exprefs thofe great emotions
which fpring up in an intrepid mind at the profpeft
of interefting events. Peculiarly happy too in the full
and open found of the vowels, which forms the cha-
ra&eriftic tone of the language, and in the ftrong ufe
of the afpirate H in almoft all thofe words which are
ufed as exclamations, or marks of ftrong emotions up¬
on interefting oceafions, that particular clafs of words
called interjeBions have, in our language, more of that
fulnefs and unreftrained freedom of tones, in which
their chief power confifts, and are puftied forth from
the inmoft recefles of the foul in a more forcible and
unreftrained manner, than any other language what¬
ever. Hence it is more peculiarly adapted for the
great and interefting fcenes of the drama than any
language that has yet appeared on the globe. Nor
has any other nation ever arrived at that perfe&ion
which the Englilh may juftly claim in that refped;;
for however faulty our dramatic compofitions may be
in fome of the critical niceties which relate to this art,
—in nervous force of didtion, and in the natural ex-
preffion of thofe great emotions which conftitute its
foul and energy, we claim, without difpute, an un¬
rivalled fuperiority. Our language too, from the
great intercourfe that we have had with almoft all the
nations of the globe by means of our extenfive com¬
merce, and from the eminent degree of perfection
which we have attained in all the arts and fciences, has
acquired a copioufnefs beyond what any other modern
language can lay claim to: and even the moft partial
favourers of the Greek language are forced to acknow¬
ledge, that in this refpeft it muft give place to the
Englilh. Nor is it lefs happy in that facility of con-
ftruction which renders it more peculiarly adapted to
the genius of a free people, than any other form of
language. Of an idiom purely analogous, it has de¬
viated lefs from the genius of that idiom, and poffelTes
more of the chara&eriftic advantages attending it than
any other language that now exifts: for, while others,
perhaps by their more intimate connexion with the
Romans, have adopted fome of their tranfpolkionsi and
clogged their language with unneceffary fetters, we
have preferved ourfelves free from the contagion, and
ftill retain the primitive fimplicity of our language. Our
xerls are all varied by auxiliaries (except in the in-
flance we have already given, which is fo much in our
favour) ; our nouns remain free from the perplexing
embarraffment of genders, and our pronouns mark this
diftinaion where neceffary with the moft perfea ac¬
curacy ; our articles alfo are of courfe freed from this
unnatural encumbrance, and our adjeBives preferve
their natural freedom and independence. From thefe
caufes, our language follows an order of conftruaion
fo natural and eafy, and the rules oifyntax are fo few
and obvious, as to be within the reach of the moft or¬
dinary capacity. So that from this, and the great
clearnefs and diftin&nefs of meaning with which this
mode of conftrudtion is neceffarily accompanied, it is
much better adapted for the familiar intercourfe of
private fociety, and liable to fewer errors in ufmg it>
than any other language yet known ; and on this ac- Language,
count we may boaft, that in no nation of Europe do • 1
the lower clafs of people fpeak their language with
fo much accuracy, or have their minds fo much en¬
lightened by knowledge, as in Great Britain. —
What then fhall we fay of the difeernment of thofe
grammarians, who are every day echoing back to one
another complaints of the poverty of our language on
account of the few and fimple rules which it requires
in fyntax ? As juftly might we complain of an inven¬
tion in mechanics, which, by means of one or two
fimple movements, obvious to an ordinary capacity,
little liable to accidents, and eafily put in order by the
rudeft hand, ftiould poffefs the whole powers of a com¬
plex machine, which had required an infinite appara¬
tus of wheels and contrary movements, the knowledge
of which could only be acquired, or the various ac¬
cidents to which it was expofed by ufmg it be re¬
paired, by the powers of an ingenious artift, as com¬
plain of this charadleriftic excellence of our language
as a defe£.
But if we thus enjoy in an eminent degree the ad¬
vantages attending an analogous language, we likewife
feel in a confiderable mcafure the defefts to which it is
expofed ; as the number of monofyllables with which
it always muft be embarraffed, notwithftanding the
great improvements which have been made in our lan¬
guage fince the revival of letters in Europe, prevents
in fome degree that fwelling fulnefs of found which fo
powerfully contributes to harmonious dignity, and
graceful cadences in literary compofitions. And as
the genius of the people of Britain has always been
more difpofed to the rougher arts of command than to
the fofter infinuations of perfualion, no pains have been
taken to correft thefe natural defe&s of our language ;
but, on the contrary, by an inattention of which we
have hardly a parallel in the hiftory of any civilized na¬
tion, we meet with many inftances, even within this
'laft century, of the harmony of found being facrificed
to that brevity fo defirable in converfation, as many
elegant words have been curtailed, and harmonious fyl-
lables fuppreffed, to fubftitute in their ftead others,
Ihorter indeed, but more barbarous and uncouth. Nay,
fo little attention have our forefathers beftowed upon
the harmony of founds in our language, that one would
be tempted to think, on looking back to its primitive
ftate, that they had on fome occafions ftudioufty de-
bafed it. Our language, at its firit formation, feems
to have laboured under a capital defedt in point of
found, as fuch a number of S’s enter into the forma¬
tion of our words, and fuch a number of letters and
combinations of other letters alfume a fimilar found, as
to give a general hifs through the whole tenor of our
language, which muft be exceedingly difagreeable to
every unprejudiced ear. We would therefore have na¬
turally expe&ed, that at the revival of letters, when
our forefathers became acquainted with ihe harmoni¬
ous languages of Greece and Rome, they would have
acquired a more correft tafte, and endeavoured, if
poffible, to diminilh the prevalence of this difgufting
found. But fo far have they been from thinking of
this, that they have multiplied this letter exceedingly.
The plurals of almoft all our nouns were originally
formed by adding the harmonious fyllable en to the
lingular
LAN [ 549 3 LAN
Language Angular, which has given place to the letter s ; and
v--'v ' in (lead of houfen formerly, we now fay houfes. In
like manner, many of the variations of our verbs were
formed by the fyllable eth, which we have likewife
changed into the fame difagreeable letter ; fo that,
inftead of loveth, moveth, •writeth, walketh, &c. we
have changed them into the more modifh form of loves,
moves, writes, walks. See. Our very auxiliary verbs
have fuffered the fame change ; and inftead of hath
and doth, we now make ufe of has and does. From
thefe caufes, notwithftanding the great improvements
which have been made in language, within thefe few
centuries, in other refpesits; yet, with regard to the
pleafingnefs of found alone, it was perhaps much more
perfect in the days of Chaucer than at prefent: and
although cuftom may have rendered thefe founds fo fa¬
miliar to our ear, as not to affedt us much ; yet to an
unprejudiced perfon, unacquainted with our language,
we have not the fmalleft doubt but the language of
Bacon or Sidney would appear more harmonious than
that of Robertfon or Hume. This is indeed the funda¬
mental defedl of our language, and loudly calls for re¬
formation.
But notwithftanding this great and radical de-
fedt with regard to pleafingnefs of founds, which muft
be fo ftrongly perceived by every one who is unac¬
quainted with the meaning of our words; yet to thofe
who underftand the language, the exceeding copiouf-
fiefs which it allows in the choice of words proper for
the occafron, and the nervous force which tbe perfpi-
cuity and graceful elegance the emphafis beftows upon
it, makes this defedt be totally overlooked; and we
could produce fuch numerous works of profe, which
excel in almoft every different ftyle of compofition, as
would be tirefome to enumerate : every reader of tafte
and difeernment will be able to recolledl a fufficient
number of writings which excel in point of ftyle, be¬
tween the graceful and becoming gravity fo confpicu-
ous in ail the works of the author of the Whole Duty of
Man, and the animated and nervous didlion of Ro¬
bertfon in his Hiftory of Charles the Fifth,—the more
flowery ftyle of Shaftefbury, or the Attic fimplicity
and elegance of Addifon. But although we can equal,
if not furpafs, every modern language in works of
profe, it is in its poetical powets that our language
fhines forth with the g’reateft luftre. The brevity to
which we muff here neceflarily confine outfelves, pre¬
vents us from entering into a minute examination of
the poetical powers of our own, compart i with other
languages ; otherwife it would* be eafy to (how, that
every other modern language labours under great re-
ftraints in this refpedb which ours is freed from ;—that
our language admits of a greater variety of poetic
movements, and diverfity of cadence, than any of the
admired languages of antiquity ; that it diftinguifhes
with the greateft accuracy between accent and quan¬
tity, and is poflefied of every other poetic excellence
which their languages were capable of: fo that we
are poffeffed of all the fources of harmony which they
could boaft;.and, befides all thefe, have one fuper-
added, which is the caufe of greater variety and more
forcible expieflion in numbers than all the reft ; that
is, the unlimited power given by the emphalis over
quantity and cadence; by means whereof, a neceifary
union between found and fenfe, numbers and meaning,.
— . *
in verfification, unknown to the ancients, has been Language,
brought about, which gives our language in this re- » "
fpeft a fuperiority over all thofe juftly admired lan¬
guages. But as we cannot here further purfue this
fubjeft, we (hall only. obfeive, that thefe great and
diftinguiftiing excellencies far more than counterba¬
lance the inconveniences that we have already men¬
tioned : and although, in mere pleafantnefs of founds,
or harmonious flow of fyllables, our language may be
inferior to the Greek, the Latin, Italian, and Spanifti;
yet in point of manly dignity, graceful variety, intui¬
tive diftinftnefs, nervous energy of expreffion, uncon-
ftrained freedom and harmony of poetic numbers, it
will yield the palm to none. Our immortal Milton,
flowly rifing, in graceful majefty (lands up as equal, if
not fuperior in thefe refpefts to any poet, in any other
language, that ever yet exifted ;—while Thomfon,
with more humble aim, in melody more fmooth and
flowing, foftens the foul to harmony and peace :—the
plaintive moan of Hammond calls forth the tender
tear and fympathetic figh-; while Gray’s more footh-
ing melancholy fixes the fober mind to filent contem¬
plation :—more tender ftill than thefe, the amiable
Shenfton comes ; and from his Doric reed, ftill free
from courtly affeflation, flows a drain fo pure, fo
Ample, and of fuch tender harmony, as even Arcadian
(hepherds would be proud to own. But .far before
the reft, the daring Shakefpeare fteps forth confpicu-
ous, clothed in native dignity ; and, prefling forward
with unremitting ardour, boldly lays claim to both
dramatic crowns held out to him by Thalia and Mel¬
pomene :—his rivals, far behind, look up, and envy
him for thefe unfading glories ; and the aitoniftied na¬
tions round, with diftant awe, behold and tremble at.
his daring flight. Thus the language, equally obe¬
dient to all, bends with eafc under their hands, what¬
ever form they would have it affume ; and, like the
yielding wax, readily receives, and faithfully tranfmita
to pofterity, thofe impreflions which they have (tamp*
ed upon it.
Such are the principal outlines of the language of
Great Britain, fuch are its beauties, and fuch its mod
capital defeds ; a language more peculiarly circum-
ftanced than any that has ever yet appeared.—It is
the language of a great and powerful nation, whofe
fleets furround the globe, and whafe merchants are in
every port; a people admired or revered by all the
world :—and yet it is lefs known* in every foreign
country than many of the other languages in Europe.
In it are written more perfed treatifes on every art and
fcience than are to be found in any other language
yet it is lefs fought after or efteemed by the literati in
any part of the globe than almoft any of thefe. Its
fuperiqr powers for every purpofe of language are fuf-
ficiently obvious from the models of perfedion in al¬
moft every particular which can be produced in it ■
yet it is negleded, defpifed, and vilified by the people
who ufe it ; and many of thofe authors who owe al¬
moft the whole of their fame t» the excellence of the
language in which they wrote, look upon that very
language with the higheft contempt. Negleded and:
defpifed, it has been trodden under foot as a thing al¬
together unworthy of cultivation or attention. Yet
in fpite of all thefe inconveniences, in fpite of the
many wounds it has thus teceived, it ftill holds up ita
LAN [ jj° ] LAN
language., an(j preferves evident marks of that comelinefs which diminifheth in appearance the fize of every ob- Language.
v and vigour which are its chara&criilical diftinftion. je& except the firft : but when beginning at the great-
Like a healthy oak planted in a rich and fertile foil, eft objeft, we proceed gradually to the leaft, refem-
ithas fprung up with vigour: and although negle&ed, blance makes us imagine the fecond as great as the
and fuffered to be over-run with weeds ; although ex- firft, and the third as great as the fecond ; which in
pofed to every blaft, and unprote&ed from every vio- appearance magnifies every objedl except the firft. On
dence ; it ftill beareth up under all thefe inconveniences, the other hand, in aferies varying by large differences,,
and (hoots up with a robuft healthinefs and wild luxu- where contraft prevails, the effefts are direftly oppo-
riance of growth. Should this plant, fo found and iite : a great objeft fucceeding a fmall one of the fame
vigorous, be now cleared from thofe weeds with which kind, appears greater than ufual; and a little objeft
it has been fo much encumbered ;—(hould every ob- fucceeding one that is great, appears lefs than ufual SeeKe-
Itacle which now buries it under thich (hades, and Hence a remarkable pleafure in viewing a feries afcend-/“Wdn‘«.
hides it from the view of every paffenger, be cleared ing by large differences; dire&ly oppofite to what we
away ;—(hould the foil be cultivated with care, and a feel when the differences are fmall. The leaft objeft
ftrong fence be placed around it, to prevent the idle or of a feries afcending by large differences has the fame
the wicked from breaking or diftorting its branches;— effeft upon the mind as if it flood (ingle without ma-
who can tell with what additional vigour it would king a part of the feries : but the fecond objedl, by
flourifti, or what amazing magnitude and perfedlion means of contraft, appears greater than when viewed
it might at lad attain ! — How would the aftonifhed fingly and apart ; and theeffedt is perceived in afcend-
world behold, with reverential awe, the majeftic grace- ing progreflively, till we arrive at the laft objedl. The
fulnefs of that objedl which they fo lately defpifed ! oppofite effedl is produced in defcending ; for in this
Beauty of Langvage -corfidered in regard to Compofi- diredlion, every objedl, except the firft, appears lefs
tion. The beauties of language may be divided into than when viewed feparately and independent of the
three claffes: i. Thofe which arife from found; 2. feries. We may then affume as a maxim, which will
Thofe which refpedl fignificance ; 3. Thofe derived hold in the compofition of language as well as of other
from a refemblance between found and fignification. fubjedls, That a ftrong impulfe fucceeding a weak,
Elements I. With refpeQ to found. In a curfory view, one makes a double impreffion on the mind; and that a
ef Grit. would imagine, that the agreeablenefs or difagreeable- weak impulfe fucceeding a ftrong, makes fcarce any
nefs of a word with refpedl to found, (hould depend impreffion.
upon the agreeablenefs or difagreeablenefs of its com- After eftablilhing this maxim, we can be at no lofs
ponent fyllables: which is true in part, but not en- about its application to the fubjedl in hand. The
tirely ; for we mult alfo take under confideration the following rule is laid down by Diomedesf. “ In verbis | DeflruO.
effedl of fyllables in fucceffion. In the firft place, obfervandum eft, ne a majoribus ad minora defcendat/w/rffe
fyllables in immediate fucceffion, pronounced each of oratio; melius enim dicitur, Vir ef optimus, quam, <‘rat- hb. ii.
them. with the fame, or nearly the fame, aperture of Vir optimus ejl.” This rule is alfo applicable to entire
the mouth, produce a fucqeffion of weak and feeble members of a period, which, according to our author’s
founds; witnefs the French words ditil, pathetique: on expreffion, ought not, more than (ingle words, to
the other hand, a fyllable of the greateft aperture fuc- proceed from the greater to the lefs, but from the
ceeding one of the fmalleft, or the contrary, makes lefs to the greater. In arranging the members of a
a fucceffion which, becaufe of its remarkable difa- period, no writer equals Cicero: The following ex-
greeablenefs, is diftinguiftied by a proper name, viz. amples arc too beautiful to be (lurrcd over by a refe-
hiatus. The moft agreeable fucceffion is, where the rence.
cavity is increafed and diminiftied alternately, within
moderate limits : examples, Alternative, longevity, pu- Qiiicum quaeftor fueram,
Jillanimous. Secondly, words confiding wholly of fyl- Quicum me fors confuetudoque majorum,
lables pronounced flow, or of fyllables pronounced Qmcummedeorumhominumquejudiciumconjunxerat*
quick, commonly called long andJhort fyllalles, have Again •
little melody in them ; witnefs the words petitioner, °
fruiterer, di%%inefs : on the other hand, the intermix- Habet honorem quern petimus,
ture of long and fliort fyllables is remarkably agree- Habet fpem quam praspolitam nobis habemus,
able ; for example, degree, repent, wonderful, altitude, Habet exiftimationem, multo fudore, labore, vigi-
rapidity, independent, impetuofity ; the caufe of which is liifque, colleflam.
explained in Poetry, Part II. Again •
To proceed to the mufic of periods. As the ar- °
rangement of words in fucceffion, fo as to afford the Eripite nos ex miferiis,
greateft pleafure to the ear, depends on principles re- Eripite nos ex faucibus eorum,
mote from common view, it will be neceffary to pre- Quorum crudelitas noftro fanguine non poteft expleri.
mife fome general obfervations upon the appearance De oratore, l. 1. $ 52.
that objefls make when placed in an increafing or de-
creafing feries ; which appearance will vary according This order of words or members gradually increafing
to the prevalence of refemblance or of contraft. Where in length, may, fo far as concerns the pleafure of found;
the objefts vary by fmall differences fo as to have, a be denominated a climax in found.
mutual refemblance, we in afcending conceive the fe- With refped to the mufic of periods as united in a
cond objedl of no greater fize than the firft, the third difeourfe this depends chiefly on variety. Hence a
mL no greater fize than the fecond, and fo of the reft; rttle for arranging the members of different periods
^ with
LAM l
with relation to each other, That to avoid a tedious
uniformity of found and cadence, the arrangement,
the cadence, and the length of the members, ought
to be diverfified as much as poffible : and if the members
of different periods be fufficiently diverfified, the pe¬
riods themfelves will be equally fo.
II. With ref peel to fgnification. The beauties of lan¬
guage with refpeft to fignification, may not impro¬
perly be diftinguifhed into two kinds : firft, the beau¬
ties that arife from a right choice of words or mate¬
rials for conftru&ing the period ; and next, the beau¬
ties that arife from a due arrangement of thefe words
or materials.
t. Communication of thought being the chief end
of language, it is a rule, That perfpicuity ought not
to be facrificed to any other beauty whatever. No¬
thing therefore in language ought more to be ftudied,
than to prevent all obfeurity in the exprefiion ; for to
have no meaning, is but one degree worfe than to
have a meaning that is not underftood. We fhall here
give a few examples where the obfeurity arifes from a
wrong choice of words.
Livy, fpeaking of a rout after a battle, “ Multique
in ruina majore .quam fuga opprefli obtruncatique.”
This author is frequently obfeure by exprelling but
part of his thought, leaving it to be completed by his
reader. His defeription of the fea-fight, /. 28. cap. 30.
is extremely perplexed.
Unde tibi reditum certo fultemine Parcaj
Rupere. Hor.
551 ] LAN
words has been obfefved by every critic, and is fo Language.^
well underftood as not to require any illuftration. v™ ^
But there is a concordance of a peculiar kind that has
fcarcely been touched in works of criticifm, though
it contributes to neatnefs of compofition. It is what
follows.
In a thought of any extent, we commonly find fome
parts intimately united, fome flightly, fome disjoined,
and fome dire&ly oppofed to each other. To find thefe
conjun&ions and disjunctions imitated in the expreffion,
is a beauty ; becaufe fuch imitation makes the words
concordant with the fenfe. This doCtrine may be il-
luftrated by a familiar example : When we have occa-
fion to mention the intimate connection that the foul '
hath with the body, the expreffion ought to be, Me
foul and body ; becaufe the article the, relative to both,
makes a connection in the expreffion, refembling in
fome degree the connection in the thought : but when
the foul is diftinguiffied from the body, it is better to
fay the foul and the body ; becaufe the disjunction in the
words refembles the disjunction in the thought. We
proceed to other examples, beginning with conjunc-,
tions.
“ Coriftituit agmen ; et expedite tela animofque,
equitibus juffis,” &c. Livy,l. 38.$ 25. Here the words
that exprefs the connected ideas are artificially connect¬
ed by fubjeCting them both to the regimen of one verbs
And the two following are of the fame kind.
“ Quum ex paucis quotidie aliqui eorum caderent
aut vulnerarentur, et qui fuperarent, feffi et corporibus
et animis effent,” &c. Ibid. § 29.
Qui perfaepe cava teftudine flevit amorem.
Won elaboratum ad pedem. Id.
Me fabulofse Vulture in Appulo,
Altricis extra limen Apuliae,
Ludo, fatigatumque fomno,
Fronde nova puerum palumbes
Texere. Id.
Purae rivus aquse, filvaque jugerum
Paucorum, et fegetis certa fides mem,
Fulgentem imperio fertilis Africm
Fallit forte beatior. Id.
Cum fas atque nefas exiguo fne libidinum
Difcernunt avidi. Id.
Ac fpem fronte ferenat. Virg.
The rule next in order is, That the language ought
to correfpond to the fubjeCt: heroic aCtions or fenti-
ments require elevated language; tender fentiments
ought to be exprefled in words foft and flowing; and
plain language void of ornament, is adapted to fubjeds
grave and didaCtic. Language may be confidered as
the drefs of thought; and where the one is not fuited
to the other, we are fenfible of incongruity, in the fame
manner as where a judge is drelfed like a fop, or a
peafant like a man of quality. Where the impreffion
made by the words refembles the impreffion made by
the thought, the fimilar emotions mix fweetly in the
mind, and double the pleafure ; but where the im-
preffions made by the thought and the words are diffi-
milar, the unnatural union they are forced into is dif-
agreeable.
This concordance between the thought and the
Poll acer Mneftheus addu&o conftitit arcu,
Alta petens, pariterque oculos telumque tetendit.
JEneid, v. 507.
But to juftify this artificial connexion among the
words, the ideas they exprefs ought to be intimately
connefted; for otherwife that concordance which is
required between the fenfe and the expreffion will
be impaired. In that view, the following paffage
from Tacitus is exceptionable ; where words that
fignify ideas very little connected, are however forced
into an artificial union. “ Germania omnis a Gallis,
Rhmtiifque, et Pannoniis, Rheno et Danubio flumini-
bus ; a Sarmatis Dacifque, mutuo metu aut montibus
feparatur.”
Upon the fame account, the following paflage feems
equally exceptionable.
—; The fiend look’d up, and knew
His mounted fcale aloft; nor more, but fled
Murm’ring, and with him fled the fliades of night.
Paradife Lojl, B. iv. at the end.
There is no natural connection between a perfon’s fly¬
ing or retiring, and the fucceffion of day-light to dark-
nefs ; and therefore to conneCt artificially the terms that
fignify thefe things cannot have a fweet effeCt.
Two members of a thought connected by their re¬
lation to the fame aCtion, will naturally be expreffed by
two members of the period governed by the fame verb*
in which cafe thefe members, in order to improve their
connection, ought to be conftruCted in the fame man¬
ner. This beauty is fo common among good writers
as to have been little attended to ; but the negleCt of
it is remarkably difagreeable: for example, “ He did
LAN C 552 ] LAN
Lanjjuage.not mention Leonora, nor that her father was dead.”
Better thus : “ He did not mention Leonora, nor her
father’s death.”
Where two ideas are fo connefted as to require but
a copulative, it is pleafant to find a connexion in the
words that exprefs thefe ideas, were it even fo flight
as where both begin with the fame letter. Thus,
n The peacock, in all his pride, does not difplay half
the colour that appears in the garments of a Britifli
lady, when (he is either dreffed for a ball or a birth¬
day.” Speft.
“ Had not my dog of a fteward run away as he did,
without making up his accounts, I had ftill been im-
merfed in fin and fea-coai.” Ib.
My life’s companion, and my bofom-friend.
One faith, one fame, one fate (hall both attend.
Dryden, Tranjlatim of JEneid.
Next as to examples of disjunftion and oppofition
in the parts of the thought, imitated in the expreflion;
an imitation that is diftinguiftied by the name of anti-
thefts.
Speaking of Coriolanus foliciting the people to be
made conful:
With a proud heart he wore his humble weeds.
Coriolanus.
« Had you rather Caefar were living, and die all
flaves, than that Cjefar were dead, to live all free men ?”
'Julius C&far.
He hath cool’d my friends and heated mine enemies.
Shakefpeare.
An artificial conneftion among the words, is un¬
doubtedly a beauty when it reprefents any peculiar
connexion among the conftituent parts of the thought f
but where there is no fuch couneflion, it is a pofitive
deformity, becaufe it makes a difcordance between the
thought and expreflion. For the fame reafon, we ought
alfo to avoid every artificial oppofition of words where
there is none in the thought. This laft, termed verbal
antithefts, is ftudied by low writers, becaufe of a cer¬
tain degree of livelinefs in it. They do not confider
how incongruous it is, in a grave compofition, to cheat
the reader, and to make him expeft a contrail in the
thought, which upon examination is not found there.
A fault dire&ly oppofite to the laft mentioned, is to
conjoin artificially words that exprefs ideas oppofed to
each other. This is a fault too grofs to be in common
praftice ; and yet writers are guilty of it in fome de¬
gree, when they conjoin by a copulative things tranf-
a&ed at different periods of time. Hence a want of
neatnefs in the following exprefiion : “ The nobility
too, whom the king had no means of retaining by fuit-
able offices and preferments, had been feized with the
general difeontent, and unwarily threw themfelves into
the fcale which began already too much to preponde¬
rate.” Hume. In periods of this kind, it appears
more neat to exprefs the pall time by the participle
paffive, thus: “ The nobility having been feized with
the general difeontent, unwarily threw themfelves,” &c.
or, “ The nobility, who had been feized, &c. unwarily
threw themfelves,” &c.
It is unpleafaut to find even a negative and affirma¬
tive propofition connefted by a copulative :
N° 174.
If it appear not plain, and prove untrue, Language,
Deadly divorce itep between me and you. y—a
Shakefpeare.
In mirth and drollery it may have a good effeft to
connedl verbally things that are oppofite to each other
in the thought. Example ; Henry IV. of France in¬
troducing the Marefchal Biron to fome of his friends,
“ Here, gentlemen (fays he) is the Marefchal Bi¬
ron, whom I freely prefent both to my friends and
enemies.”
This rule of ftudying uniformity between the thought
and expreffion may be extended to the conftruftion
of fentences or periods. A fentence or period ought
to exprefs one entire thought or mental propofition ;
and different thoughts ought to be feparated in the ex¬
preffion by placing them in different fentences or pe¬
riods.- It is therefore offending againft neatnefs, t®
crowd into one period entire thoughts requiring more
than one ; which is joining in language things that
are feparated in reality. Of errors againft this rule
take the following examples.
“ Behold, thou art fair, my beloved, yea pleafant:
alfo our bed is green.”
Burnet, in the hillory of his own times, giving Lord
Sunderland’s charafter, fays; “His own notions were
always good; but he was a man of great expence.”
“ I have feen a woman’s face break out in ffisats, as
flie has been talking againft a great lord, whom (he
had never feen in her life 5 and indeed never knew a
party-woman that kept her beauty for a twelvemonth.”
Sped.
Lord Bolingbroke, fpeaking of Strada: “ I Angle
him out among the moderns, becaufe he had the foolilh
prefumption to cenfure Tacitus, and to write hillory
himfelf; and your lordlhip will forgive this flrort ex-
curfion in honour of a favourite writer.”
To crowd into a Angle member of a period different
fubjefts, is Hill worfe than to crowd them into one
period:
  ——— Trojam genitore Adamafto
Paupere (manfiffetque utinamfortuna) profe£tus.
JEneid iii. 614.
From conjunctions and disjunctions in general, we
proceed to comparifons, which make one fpecies of
them, beginning with limilies. And here alfo, the in¬
timate connection that words have with their meaning
requires, that in deferibing two refembling objeCts, a
refemblance in the two members of the period ought
to be ftudied. To begin with examples of refemblances
expreffed in words that have no refemblance.
“ I have obferved of late, the ftyle of fome great
minifters very much to exceed that of any other pro¬
ductions.” Swift. This, inftead of ftudying the re¬
femblance of words in a period that expreffes a com-
parifon, is going out of one’s road to avoid it. In¬
ftead ofproduBions, which refemble not minifters great
nor fmall, the proper word is writers or authors.
“ I cannot but fancy, however, that this imitation,
which paffes fo currently with other judgments, mull at
fome time or other have ftuck a little with your lord-
Jhip.” Shaftejb. Better thus: “ 1 cannot but fancy,
however, that this imitation, which paffes fo currently
with others, mull at fome time or other have lluck a
little with your lord/hip.”
LAN [ 553 1 LAN
Language. “ A glutton or mere fenfualift is as ridiculous as the
' "in 'v other two characters.” Id.
“ They wifely prefer the generous efforts of goodwill
and affeSion, to the reluftant compliances of fuch as
obey by force.” Bolingb.
It is a ftill greater deviation from congruity, to af-
feft not only variety in the words, but alfo in the con-
ftruftion.
Hume fpeaking of Shakefpeare : “ There may re¬
main a fufpicion that we over-rate the greatnefs of
his genius, in the fame manner as bodies appear more
gigantic on account of their being difproportioned
and milhapen.” This is ftudying variety in a period
where the beauty lies in uniformity. Better thus:
“ There may remain a fufpicion that we over-rate the
greatnefs of his genius, in the fame manner as we
ever-rate the greatnefs of bodies that are difpropor¬
tioned and milhapen.”
Next of comparifon where things are oppofed to
each other. And here it muft be obvious, that if re-
femblance ought to be fludied in the words which ex-
prefs two refembling obfeCts, there is equal reafon for
ftudying oppofition in the words which exprefs con-
trafted objects. This rule will be belt illuftrated by
examples of deviations from it.
“ A friend exaggerates a man’s virtues j an enemy
inflames his crimes.” Spe8. Here the oppofition in
the thought is neglefted in the words; which at firft
view feem to import, that the friend and enemy are
employed in different matters, without any relation
to each other, whether of refemblance or of oppofi-
tkm. And therefore the contrail or oppofition will
be better marked by expreffing the thought as fol¬
lows : “ A friend exaggerates a man’s virtues, an ene¬
my his crimes.”
“ Thewifemanishappy whenhe gains his ownappro-
bation ; the fool when he recommends himfelf to the
applaufe of thofe about him.” Ib. Better: “ The
wife man is happy when he gains his own approba¬
tion, the fool when he gains that of others.”
We proceed to a rule of a different kind. During
the courfe of a period, the fcene ought to be continued
without variation: the changing from perfon to per-
fon, from fubjeft to fuhjedl, or from perfon to fubjeft,
within the bounds of a Angle period, diftra&s the mind,
and affords no time for a (olid impreflion.
Hook, in his Roman hiftory, fpeaking of Eumenes,
who had been beat to the ground with a ftone, fays,
** After a ihort time he came to himfelf; and the next
day they put him on board his fliip, which conveyed
him firlt to Corinth, and thence to the ifland of iE-
gina.”
The following period is unpleafant, even by a very
flight deviation from the rule: “ That lort of inftruc-
tion which is acquired by inculcating an important
moral truth,” &c. This^txpreflion includes two per-
fons, one acquiring, and one inculcating; and the
fcene is changed without necefilty. To avoid this
blemilh, the thought may be expreffed thus: That
fort of inftruftion which is afforded by inculcating,”
&c.
The bad effedt of fuch a change of perfon is remark¬
able in the following paffage: “ The Britons., daily
haraffed by cruel inroads from the Bids, were forced
Vox.. IX. Part II.
to call in the Saxons for their defence, wta confequent- I'angtiag*}
ly reduced the greateft part of the ifland to their own  v—^
power, drove the Britons into the moft remote and
mountainous parts, and the rejl of the country, in cu-
lloms, religion, and language, became wholly Saxon.”
Swift.
The following paffage has a change from fubjed to
perfon : “ This projlitution of praife is not only a de¬
ceit upon the grofs of mankind, who take their notion
of charaders from the learned ; but alfo the better fort
muft by this means lofe fome part at lead of that de¬
fire of fame which is the incentive to generous adions,
when they find it promifcuoufly beftowed on the meri¬
torious and undeferving.” Guardian, N° 4.
The prefent head, which relates to the choice of ma¬
terials, ftiall be clofed with a rule concerning the ufe of
copulatives. Longinus obferves, that it animates a pe¬
riod to drop the copulatives; and he gives the following
example from Xenophon: “ doling their Ihields toge¬
ther, they were pulh’d, they fought, they flew, they
were flain.” The reafon may be what follows. A con¬
tinued found, if not loud, tends to lay us afleep: an in¬
terrupted found roufes and animates by its repeated im-
pulfes: thus feet compofed of fyllables, being pronoun¬
ced with a fenfible interval between each, make more
lively impreflions than can be made by a continued found.
A period of which the members are conneded by copu¬
latives, produceth an effed upon the mind approach¬
ing to that of a continued found; and therefore the
fupprelfing copulatives muft animate a defcription. It
produces a different effed akin to that mentioned : the
members of a period conneded by proper copulatives,
glide fmoothly and gently along ; and are a proof of
fedatenefs and leifure in the fpeaker: on the other hand,
one in the hurry of pallion, negleding copulatives and
other particles, expreffes the principal image only ; and
for that reafon, hurry or quick adion is beft expreffed
without copulatives:
Veni, vidi, vici.
 — Ite:
Ferte citi flammas, date vela, impellite remos.
JEneid. iv. 593.
Quis globus, O cives, caligine volvitur atra ?
Ferte citi ferrum, date tela, fcandite muros.
Hollis adeft, eja. JEneid. ix. 37.
In this view Longinus juftly compares copulatives in
a period to ftrait tying, which in a race obftruds the
freedom of motion.
It follows, that a plurality of copulatives in the fame
period ought to be avoided; for il the laying afide co¬
pulatives give force and livelinefs, a redundancy of them
muft render the period languid. The following mftance
may be appealed to, though there are but two copula¬
tives : “ Upon looking over the letters of my female
correfpondents, I find feveral from women complaining
of jealous hulbands; and at the fame time protelling
their own innocence, and defiring my advice upon this
occafion.” SpeEt.
Where the words are intended to exprefs the cold-
nefs of the fpeaker, there indeed the redundancy of
copulatives is a beauty :
‘ Dining one day at an alderman’s in the city, Peter
‘ obferved him expatiating after the manner of his bre
4 A ‘ tbren
LAN C 554 1 LAN
L»ngu*ge. « thren in the praifes of his fnrloin of beef. “ Beef
the fage magiftrate) is the king of meat: beef
“ comprehends in it the quinteifence of partridge, and
“ quail, and Tenifon, and pheafant, and plum-pudding,
“ and cuftard.’' Tale of a Tub, § 4. And the au¬
thor (hows great delicacy of talle by varying the ex-
prefiion in the mouth of Peter, who is rep re fen ted more
animated: “ Bread (fays he), dear brothers, is the
“ Half of life ; in which bread is contained, inclu/ive,
“ the quintelfence of beef, mutton, veal, venifon, par-
“ tridge, plum-pudding, and cuftard.”
Another cafe muft alio be excepted. Copulatives
have a good effeA where the intention is to give an
iraprtffion of a great multitude confiding of many di-
vifions; for example: ‘The army was compofed of
Grecians, and Carians, and Lycians, and Pamphylians,
and Phrygians.’ The reafon is, that a leifurely fur-
vey, w'hich is expreflfed by the copulatives, makes the
parts appear more numerous than they would do by a
hafty furvey : in the latter cafe, the army appears in
one group ; in the former, we take as it'were an accu¬
rate furvey of each nation, and of each division.
2. To pave the way for the rules of arrangement, it
will be here neceffary to explain the difference between
a natural (lyle and that where tranfpofition or inver-
verfion prevails. In a natural ftyle, relative words are
by juxtapofition connefted with thofe to which they
relate, going before or after, according to the pecu¬
liar genius of the language. Again, a circumftance
connected by a prepofition, follows naturally the word
with which it is connected. But this arrangement may
be varied, when a different order is more beautiful: a
circumftance may be placed before the word with which
it is conne&ed by a prepofition-; and may be interjeft-
ed even between a relative word and that to which it re¬
lates. When fuch liberties are frequently taken, the
ttyle becomes inverted or tranfpofed.
But as the liberty of inverfion is a capital point in
the prefent fubjeft, it will be necelfary to examine it
more narrowly, and in particular to trace the feveral
degrees in which an inverted ftyle recedes more and
more from that which is natural. And firft, as to the
placing a eircumftance before the word with which it
is connefted, this is the eafieft of all inverfion, even fo
eafy as to be confiftent with a ftyle that is properly
termed natural: witnefs the following examples.
“ In the fmcerity of my heart, I profefs,” &c.
“ By our own ill management, we are brought to
fo low an ebb of wealth and credit, that,” &c.
“ On Thurfday morning there was little or nothing
tranfafted in Change-alley.”
“ At St Bride’s church in Fleetftreet, Mr Wool-
fton (who writ againft the miracles of our Saviour),
in the utmoft terrors of confcience, made 3 public re¬
cantation.”
The interje&ing a circumftance between a relative
word and that to which it relates, is more properly
termed tnverfon; becaufe, by a disjunction of words
intimately connected, it recedes farther from a natural
ftyle. But this licence has degrees; for the disjunc¬
tion is more violent in fome cafes than in others.
In nature, though a fubjeft cannot exift without its
qualities, nor a quality without a fubject; yet in our
conception of thefe, a material difference may be re¬
marked. We cannot conceive a quality but as belong¬
ing to fome fubjeft : it makes indeed a part of the idea Language.'
which is formed of the fubjedt. But the oppofite holds
not; for though we cannot form a conception of a
fubje& void of all qualities, a partial conception may
be formed of it, abftracSting from any particular qua¬
lity : we can, for example, form the idea of a fine A-
rabian horfe without regard to his colour, or of a white
horfe without regard to his fize. Such partial concep¬
tion of a fubjeft is (till more eafy with refpeft to ac¬
tion or motion, which is an occafional attribute only,
and has not the fame permanency with colour or figure:
we cannot form an idea of motion independent of a bo¬
dy; but there is nothing more eafy than to form an idea
of a body at reft. Hence it appears, that the degree
of inverfion depends greatly on the order in which
the related words are placed : when a fubftantive oc¬
cupies the firft place, the idea it fuggefts muft fubfift
in the mind at leaft for a moment, independent of the
relative words afterward introduced; and that moment
may without difficulty be prolonged by interjefting a
circumftance between the fubftantive and its connec¬
tions. This liberty therefore, however frequent, will
fcarce alone be fufficient to denominate a ftyle invert¬
ed, The cafe is very different, where the word that
occupies the firft place denotes a quality or an aftion f
for as thefe cannot be conceived without a fubjeft, they
cannot without greater violence be feparated from the
fubjeft that follows; and for that reafon, every fuch
feparation by means of an interjefted circumftance be¬
longs to an inverted ftyle.
To illuftrate this doftrine, examples are neceffary.
In the following, the word firft. introduced does net
imply a relation :
 Nor Eve to iterate
Her former trefpafs fear’d.
 Hunger and third at once.
Powerful perfuaders, quicken’d at the (cent
Of that alluring fruit, urg’d me fo keen.
Moon that now meet’ft the orient fan, now fli’ft
With the fix’d ftars, fixed in their orb that flies.
And ye five other wand’ring fires that move
In myftic dance not without fong, refound
His praife.
Where the word firft introduced imports a relation*
the disjunftion will be found more violent:
Of man’s firft difobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whofe mortal tafte
Brought death into the world, and all our^wes,
With lofs of Eden, till one greater man
Reftore us, and regain the blisful feat,
Sing heav’nly mufe.
 Upon the firm opacous globe
Of this round world, whofe firft convex divide*
The luminous inferior orbs, inclos’d
From chaos and th’ inroad of darknefs old,
Satan alighted walks.
  On a fudden open fly.
With impetuous recoil and jarring found,
Th’ infernal doors.
    Wherein remain'd,
For what could elfe ? to our almighty foe
Clear viftory, to our part lofs and rout.
Language
LAN [ 5J5 1 LAN
language. Language would have no great power, were it con-
fined to the natural order of ideas : By inverfion a
thoufand beauties may be compafled, which muft be
relinquifhed in a natural arrangement.
Rules, i. In the arrangement of a period, as well
as in a right choice of words, the firft and greatyob-
jeft being perfpicuity, the rule above laid down, that
perfpicuity ought not to be facrificed to any other
beauty, holds equally in both. Ambiguities occa-
iioned by a wrong arrangement are of two forts; one
where the arrangement leads to a wrong fenfe, and
one where the fenfe is lefs doubtful. The firit, being
the more culpable, fiiall take the lead, beginning with
examples of words put in a wrong place.
“ How much the imagination of fuch a prefence
mull exalt a genius, we /nay obferve merely from the
influence which an ordinary prefence has over men.”
Sbaftejb. This arrangement leads to a wrong fenfe:
the adverb wrre/yfeems by its pofition to affedl the pre*
ceding word; whereas it is intended to affedl the fol-
- lowing words, an ordinary prefence; and therefore the
nrrangement ought to be thus : “ How much the
imagination of fuch a prefence muft exalt a genius,
we may obferve from the influence which an ordinary
prefence merely has over men.” [Or better],—“ which
even an ordinary prefence has over men.”
“ Sixtus the Fourth was, if I miftake not, a great
collector of books at leaft.” Boring. The exprefiion
here leads evidently to a wrong fenfe; the adverb at
leaf, ought not to be conne&ed with the fubftantive
looks, but with colled or, thus: “ Sixtus the Fourth
was a great collector at leaft, of books.”
Speaking of Louis XIV. “ If he was not the great-
eft king, he was the bell aftor of majefty at leaft that
ever filled a throne.” Id. Better thus: “ If he was
not the greateft king, he was at leaft the bell a&or
of majefty,” &c. This arrangement removes the
wrong fenfe occafioned by the juxtapofition of majefy
and at leaf.
The following examples are of a wrong arrangement
of members.
“ 1 have confined myfelf to thofe methods for the
advancement of piety, which are in the power of a
prince limited like ours by a ftrift execution 6rf the
law's.” Swift. The itrufture of this period leads to a
meaning which is not the author’s, viz. power limited
by a ftriA execution of the laws. That wrong fenfe is
removed by the following arrangement; “ I have con¬
fined myfelf to thofe methods for the advancement of
piety, which, by a drift execution of the laws, are in
the power of a prince limited like ours.”
“ This morning, when one of lady Lizard’s daugh¬
ters was looking over fome hoods and ribbands brought
by her tirew'oman, with great care and diligence, I em¬
ployed no lefs in examining the box which contained
them.” Guardian. The wrong fenfe occafioned by
this arrangement, may be eafily prevented by varying
it thus: “ This morning, when, with great care and
diligence, one of Lady Lizard’s daughters was look¬
ing over fome hoods and ribbands,” dkc.
“ A great fto'ne that I happened to find after a
long fearch by the i’ea-fnore, ferved me for an anchor.”
Swift. One would think that the fearch was confined
to the fea-fhore ; but as the meaning is, that the great
ftone was found by the fea-fhore, the period ought to Language,
be arranged thus : “ A great ftone that, after a longv—
fearch, I happened to find by the fea-fhore, ferved me
for an anchor.”
Next of a wrong arrangement where the fenfe is left
doubtful; beginning, as in the former fort, with ex¬
amples of a wrong arrangement of words in a member.
“ Thefe forms of converfation ly degrees multiplied
and grew troublefome.” Sped. Here it is left doubt¬
ful whether the modification by degrees relates to the
preceding member or to what follows; it fhould be,
“ Thefe forms of converfation multiplied by degrees.”
“ Nor does this falfe modefty expofe us only to fuch
aftions as are indifereet, but very often to fuch as are
highly criminal.” Sped. The ambiguity is removed
by the following arrangement: “ Nor does this falfe
modefty ex pole us to fuch aftions only as are indif¬
ereet,” &c.
“ The empire of Blefufcu is an ifland fituated ta
the north-eaft fide of Lilliput, from whence it is
parted only by a channel of 800 yards wide.” Swift.
The ambiguity may be removed thus: 
“ from whence it is parted by a channel of 800 yards
wide only.”
In the following examples the fenfe is left doubtful
by wrong arrangement of members.
“ The minifter who grows lefs by his elevation,
like a little fatue placed on a mighty pedefal, will al ¬
ways have his jealoufy flrong about him.” Bolingb.
Here, fo far as can be gathered from the arrangement,
it is doubtful, whether the objeft introduced by way
of fimile relates to what goes before or to what fol¬
lows. The ambiguity is removed by the following
arrangement: “ The minifter who, like a little ftatue
placed on a mighty pedeftal, grows lefs by his eleva¬
tion, will always,” &c.
Speaking of the fuperftitious praftice of locking
up the room where a perfon of diftinftion dies: “ The
knight, feeing his habitation reduced to fo fmall a
compafs, and himfelf in a manner ftiut out of his own
houfe, upon the death of his mother, ordered all the
apartments to be flung open, and exorcifed by his
chaplain.” Sped. Better thus: “ The knight, fee¬
ing his habitation reduced to fo fmall a compafs, and
himfelf in a manner (hut out of his own houfe, order¬
ed, upon the death of his mother, all the apartments
to be flung open.”
Speaking of fome indecencies in converfation : “ As
it is iropofiible for fuch an irrational way of conver¬
fation to laft long among a people that make any
profelfion of religion, or fliow of modefty, if the coun¬
try gentlemen get into it, they will certainly be left in
the lurch.” lb. The ambiguity vanilhes in the fol¬
lowing arrangement:   “the country-
gentlemen, if they get into it, will certainly be left in
the lurch.”
“ And fince it is neceflary that there fhould be a
perpetual intercourfe ,of buying and felling, and deal¬
ing upon credit, where fraud is permitted or connived
at, or hath no law to puni/h it, the honeft dealer is
always undone, and the knave gets the advantage.”
Swift. Better thus : “ And fince it is neceftary that
there fhould be a perpetual intercourfe of buying and
felling, and dealing upon credit, the honeft dealer,
4 A 2 where
LAN [ 556 1 L A N
JLanguage. where fraud is permitted or connived at, or hath no fuch a country, whatever it might be in the abbot of Language.
•— law to punilh it, is always undone, and the knave gets St Real’s, which was Savoy, I think ; or in Peru, under —~-v——*
the advantage.” . t^ie incas, where Garcilaflb de la Vega fays it was law-
From thefe examples, the following obfervation ful for none but the nobility to ftudy—for men of all
will occur : That a circumftance ought never to be degrees to inftrudt themfelves in thofe affairs wherein
placed between two capital members of a period ; for they may be a&ors, or judgers of thofe that a£l, or
by fuch fuuation it muft always be doubtful, fo far as controllers of thofe that judge.” Ibid.
we gather from the arrangement, to which of the two “ If Scipio, who was naturally given to women, for
members it belongs: where it is interje&ed, as it which anecdote we have, if I miltake not, the autho-
ought to be, between parts of the member to which rity of Polybius, as well as fome verfes of Nevius pre-
it belongs, the ambiguity is removed, and the capital ferved by Aulus Gellius, had been educated by Olym-
members are kept diftimft, which is a great beauty in pias at the court of Philip, it is improbable that he
compofition. In general, to preferve members diftindl would have reftored the beautiful Spaniard.” Ibid.
that fignify things diftinguifhed in the thought, the If any one have a curiofity for more fpecimens of
beft method is, to place fir ft in the confequent mem- this kind, they will be found without number in the
ber, fome word that cannot conned: with what pre- works of the fame author.
•edts it. A pronoun, which faves the naming a perfon or
If it ftrall be thought, that the obje&ions here are thing a fecond time, ought to be placed as near as
too fcrupulous, and that the defed of perfpicuity is polTible to the name of that perfon or t hing. This is
eafily fupplied by accurate punduation ; the aafwer a branch of the foregoing rule ; and with the reafon
is, That punduation may remove an ambiguity, but there given, another occurs, viz. That if other ideas
will never produce that peculiar beauty which is per- intervene, it is difficult to recal the perfon or thing by
ceived when the fenfe comes out clearly and diftindly reference.
by means of a happy arrangement. Such influence “ If I had leave to print the Latin letters tranf-
has this beauty, that, by a natural tranfition of per- mitted to me from foreign parts, they would fill a vo-
ception, it is communicated to the very found of the lume, and be a full defence againft all that Mr Pa-
words, fo as in appearance to improve the mufic of tridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquifition,
the period. But as this curious fubjed comes in more will be ever able to objed ; who, by the way, are the
properly elfewhere, it is fufficient at prefent to appeal only enemies my predidipns have ever met with at home
to experience, that a period, fo arranged as to bring or abroad.” Better thus: “ and be a full
out the fenfe clear, feeiris always more mufical than defence againft all that can be objeded by Mr Pa-
where the fenfe is left in any degree doubtful. tridge, or his accomplices of the Portugal inquifition;
The next rule is, That words expreffing things who, by the way, are,” See.
conneded in the thought, ought to be placed as near “ There being a round million of creatures in hu-
together as poffible. This rule is derived immediately man figure, throughout this kingdom, nuhofe whole
from human nature, prone in every inftance to place fubfiftence,” &c. Swift. Better: “ There being,
together things in any manner conneded : where throughout this kingdom, a round ihillion of creatures
things are arranged according to their ponnedions, in human figure, whofe whole fubfiftence,” &c.
we have a fenfe of order; otherwife we have a fenfe The following rule depends on the communication
of diforder, as of things placed by chance : and we of emotions to related objeds ; a principle in human
naturally place words in the fame order in which we nature that hath an extenfive operation : and we find
would place the things they fignify. The bad effed this operation, even where the objeds are not other-'
of a violent feparation of words or members thus in- wife related than by juxtapofition of the words that
timately conneded, will appear from the following exprefs them. Hence, to elevate or deprefs an objed,
examples. one method is, to join it in the expreffion with another
« for the Engliffi are naturally fanciful, and very that is naturally high or low : witnefs the following,
often difpofed, by that gloominefs and melancholy of fpeech of Eumenes to the Roman fenate.
temper which is fo frequent in our nation, to many “ Caufam veniendi.fibi Romam fuifle, praeter cupi-
wild notions and vifions, to which others are not fo ditatem vifendi deos hominefque, quorum beneficio in ea
liable.” Sped. Here the verb or aflertion is, by a fortuna eflet, fupra quam ne optare quidem auderet,
pretty long circumftance, violently feparated from the etiam ut coram moneret fenatum ut Perfei conatus
fubjed to which it refers: this makes a harfh ar- obviam iret.” Livy. To join the Romans with the
rangement; the^ lefs excufable that the fault is eafily gods in the fame enunciation, is an artful ftroke of.
prevented by placing the circumftance before the verb,
after the following manner: “ For the Englilh are na¬
turally fanciful, and by that gloominefs and melan¬
choly of temper which is fo frequent in our nation,
often difpofed to many wild notions, &c.”
flattery, becaufe it tacitly puts them on a level-
On the other hand, the degrading or vilifying an
objed, is done fuccefsfully by ranking it with one that
is really low : “ I hope to have this entertainment in
readinefs for the next winter; and doubt not but it
; From whence we may date likewife the rivalftiip will pleafe more than the opera or puppet-ffiow.” SpeB.
of the houfe of France, for we may reckon that ol Va- “ Manifold have been the judgments which Heaven
lois and that of Bourbon as one upon this occafion, from time to time, for the chaftifement of a finful peo-
and the houfe of Auftria, that continues at this day, pie, has inflided upon whole nations. For when the*
and has oft coft fo much blood and fo much treafure in degeneracy becomes common, it is but juft the punilh-
tlie courfe of it.” Bolingbr. ment Ihould be general. Of this kind, in our own
“ It cannot be impertinent or ridicubus therefore in unfortunate country, was that deftrudive peftilence,
whofe
LAN [ 557] LAN
language, whofe mortality was fo fatal as to fweep away, if Sir In arranging a period, it is of importance to deter-Language
v—””' William Petty may believed, five millions of Chriftian mine in what part of it a word makes the greateft ^
fouls, befides women and Jews.” Arluthnot. figure, whether at the beginning, during the courfe,
“ Such alfo was that dreadful conflagration enfuing or at the clofe. The breaking lilence roufes the at-
in this famous metropolis of London, which confumed, tention, and prepares for a deep impreflion at the be-
according to the computation of Sir Samuel More- ginning: the beginning, however, muft yield to the
fend, 100,000 houfes, not to mention churches and clofe; which being fucceeded by a paufe, affords time
ftables.” ll'id for a word to make its deepeft imprefllon. Hence the
“ But on condition it might pafs into a law, I would following rule, That to give the utmoft force to a pc-
gladly exempt both lawyers of all ages, fubaltern and riod, it ought, if poffible, to be clofed with that word
field officers, young heirs, dancing-mafters, pick poc- which makes the greateft: figure. The opportunity of
kets, and players.” Swift.  /L>—,J —‘ L~   ^ :“
Sooner let earth, air, fea, to chaos fall,
Men, monkeys, lap-dogs, parrots, perifh all.
Rape of the Lock.
Circumftances in a period refemble fmall ftones in a
a paufe ftiould not be thrown away upon acceffories,
but referved for the principal object, in order that it
may make a full impreffion : which is an additional
reafon againit doling a period without a eircumftance.
There are, however, periods that admit not fuch a
ftru&ure ; and in that cafe the capital word ought, if
building, employed to fill up vacuities among thofe of poffible, to be placed in the front, which next to the
a larger fize. In the arrangement of a period, fuch clofe is the moil advantageous for making an impref-
under parts crowded together make a* poor figure ; and fion* Hence, in dire&ing our difcourfe to a man of
never are graceful but when interfperfed among the figure, we ought to begin with his name ; and one
capital parts, will be fenfible of a degradation when this rule is ne-
. “ It is likewife urged, that there are, by compu- gledted, as it frequently is for the fake of verfe. We
tation, in this kingdom, above 10,coo parfons, whofe give the following examples,
revenues, added to thofe of my lords the bilhops,
Integer vitas, fcelerifque purus,
Non eget Mauri jaculis, neque arcu,
Nec venenatis gravida fagittis,
Fufce, pharetra. Horat. Cartn. 1. 1. ode 22.
Je crains Dieu, cher Abner, et n’ai point d’autre
crainte.
would fuffice to maintain, &c.” Swift. Here two
circumftances, viz. by computation, and in this kingdom,
are crowded together unneceffarily. They make a
better appearance feparated in the following manner:
“ It is likewife urged, that in this kingdom there are
by computation, above 10,000 parfons,” &c.
If there be room for a choice, the fooner a circum- r r , r ^ ,
fiance is introduced, the better ; becaufe circumftan- J" ^ examfIeS* fithe namke ?f ^ Perfon add^
ces are proper for that coolnefs of mind, with which °’ e a mean Sure* flnS. .* ^ a circutnftance
we begin a period as well as a volume : in the progrefs, ^ mt° a ,C°rner. 1 hat 'hls cr“,c‘fmr 1S, wdl
the mind warms, and has a greater relilh for matters ^ ° Pr0°f than Addifoa^ tranllauon’
of importance. When a circumftance is placed at the ° C a examP e *
beginning of the period, or near the beginning, the
tranfition from it to the principal fubjedl is agreeable ;
it is like afeending, or going upward. On the other
hand, to place it late in the period has a bad effedl;
for after being engaged in the principal fubjedt, one
is with reluftance brought down to give attention to a
circumftance. Hence evidently the preference of the
following arrangement, “ Whether in any country a
O Abner l I fear my God, and I fear none but
him. Guardian, n° 117.
O father, what intends thy hand, (he cry’d,
Againft thy only fon ? What fury, O fon,
Pofiefles thee to bend that mortal dart
Againft thy father’s head ?
Paradfe loJI, book ii. /. 727.
choice altogether unexceptionable has been made. Every one muft be fenfible of a dignity in the invoca>
feems doubtfulbefore this other, “ Whether
choice altogether unexceptionable has in any country
been made,” &c.
For this reafon the following period is exceptionable
tion at the beginning, which is not attained by that-
in the middle. It is not meant, however, to cenfure-
this paffage r on the contrary, it appears beautiful, by-
diftinguifhing the refpeft that is due to a father from
1 point of arrangement. “ I have confidered former- that which is due to a fon.
ly, with a good deal of attention, the fubjeft upon The fubftance of what is faid in this and the fore-
which you command me to communicate my thoughts going fedlion, upon the method of arranging words in
to' you.” Boling. Which, with a flight alteration, a period, fo as to make the deepeft imp-reffiou with re¬
may be improved thus: “I have formerly, with a fpeft to found as well as fignification, is comprehend-
good deal of attention, confidered the fubjeft,” &.c. ed in the following obfervation : That order of words--
Swift, fpeaking of a virtuous and learned education : in a period will always be the moft agreeable, where,
“ And although they may be, and too often are, without obfeuring the fenfe, the moft important ima-
drawn by the temptations of youth, and the opportu- ges, the moft fonorous words, and the longeft mem-
nities of a large fortune, into fome irregularities, when bers, bring up the rear.
they come forward into the great world; it is ever with Hitherto of arranging Angle words, Angle mem-
reluftance and compundtion of mind, becaufe their bers, and fingle circumftances. But the enumeration-
bias to virtue ftill continues.” Better ; “ And al- of many particulars in the fame period is often necef-
though, when they come forward into the great world, fary ; and the queftion is, In what order they ftiould 1
they may be, and too often,” See. be placed 1 Aud, fir ft, with refpeft to the enumera¬
ting.;
LAN [ 55** 1 LAN
kaiiguage, ting particulars of equal rank : As there Is no caufe
*~‘v~**" for preferring any one before the reft, It is indifferent
to the mind in what order they be viewed ; therefore
it is indifferent in what order they be named, adly, If
a number of obje&s of the fame kind, differing only
in fize, are to be ranged along a ftraight line, the moft
agreeable order to the eye is that of an inereafing fe-
ries: in farveyiirga number of fuch obje&s, beginning
at the leaft, and proceeding to greater and greater, the
mind fwells gradually with the fucceffive objefts, and
in its progrefs has a very fenfible pleafure. Precifely
for the fame reafon, words expreffive of fuch objects
ought to be placed in the fame order. The beauty of
this figure, which may be termed a climax in fenfe, has
efcaped Lord Bolingbroke in the firft member of the
following period : “ Let but one, great, brave, diiin-
terefted, aftive man arife, and he will be received, fol¬
lowed, and almoft adored.” The following arrange¬
ment has fenfibly a better effeft : “ Let but one brave,
great, a&ive, difinterefted man arife,” &c. Whether
the fame rule ought to be followed in enumerating men
of different ranks, feems doubtful: on the one hand,
a number of perfons prefented to the eye in form of
an increafing feries, is undoubtedly the moft agreeable
order; on the other hand, in every lift of names, we
fet the perfon of the greateft dignity at the top, and
defeend gradually through his inferiors. Where the
purpofe is to honour the perfons named according to
their rank, the latter ought to be followed ; but every
one who regards himfelf only, or his reader, will
ehoofe the former order. 3dly, As the fenfe of or¬
der diredts the eye to defeend from the principal to its
greateft acceffory, and from the whole to its greateft
part, and in the fame order through all the parts and
acceffories, till we arrive at the minuteft ; the fame
order ought to be followed in the enumeration of fuch
particulars.
When force and livelinefs of expreffion are demand¬
ed, the rule is, to fufpend the thought as long as pof-
• fible, and to bring it out full and entire at the clo.fe :
•which cannot be done but by inverting the natural ar¬
rangement. By introducing a word or member before
its time, curiofity is raifed about what is to follow;
and it is agreeable to have our curiofity gratified at
the clofe of the period : the pleafure we feel refembles
that of feeing a ftroke exerted upon a body by rhe
whole colle&ed force of the agent. On the other
hand, where a period is fo conftrufted as to admit
more than one complete clofe in the ftnfe, the curiofi¬
ty of the reader is exhaufted at the firft clofe, and what
follows appears languid or fuperfiuous; his difappoint-
ment contributes alfo to that appearance, when he
finds, contrary to iexpe&ation, that the period is not
yet finifhed. Cicero, and after him Quintilian, re¬
commend the verb to the laft place. This method e-
vidently tends to fufpend the fenfe till the clofe of the
period ; for without the verb the fenfe cannot be
complete : and when the verb happens to be the capi¬
tal word, which it frequently is, it ought at any rate
to be the laft, according to another rule above laid
down. The following period is placed in its natural
order : “ Were inftrudtion an effential circumftance in
epic poetry, I doubt whether a Angle inftance could
be given of this fpecies of compofition in any lan¬
guage.” The period thus arranged admits a full clofe
pon the word compofition ; after which it goes on lan¬
guidly, and clofes without force. This blemifti will Laiguare.
be avoided by the following arrangement : “ Were in- —
ftru&ion an effential circumftaiice. in epic poetiy, I
doubt whether, in any language, a Angle inftance could
be given of this fpecies of compofition.”
“ Some of our moft eminent divines have made ufe
of this Platonic notion, as far as it regards the fub-
fiftence of our paffions after death, with great beauty
and ftrength of reafon.” Spe8. Better thus: “ Some
of our moft eminent divines have, with great beauty
and ftrength of reafon, made ufe of this Platonic no¬
tion,” &c.
“ Men of the belt fenfe have been touched, more or
lefs, with thefe groundlefs horrors and prefages of fu¬
turity, upon furveying the moft different works of na¬
ture.” Ib. Better, “ Upon furveying the moft in¬
different works of nature, men of the beft fenfe,” &c.
“ She foon informed him of the place he was in ;
which, notwithftanding all its horrors, appeared to him
more fweet than the bower of Mahomet, in the com¬
pany of his Balfora.” Guardian. Better, “ She
foon, &c. which appeared to him, in the company of
his Balfora, more fweet than the bovver of Mahomet.”
None of the rules for the compofition of periods are
more liable to be abufed than thofe laft mentioned ;
witnefs many Latin writers, among the moderns efpe-
cially, whofe ftyle, by inverfions too violent, is ren¬
dered harfh and obfeure. Sufpenfion of the thought
till the clofe of the period, ought never to be prefer¬
red before perfpicuity. Neither ought fuch fufpenfion
to be attempted in a long period ; becaufe in that cafe
the mind is bewildered amidft a profufion of words:
a traveller, while he is puzzled about the road, relifh.es
not the fineft profpedt: “ All the rich prefents which
Aftyages had given him at parting, keeping only fome
Median horfes, in order to propagate the breed of
them in Perfia, he diftributed among his friends
whom he left at the court of Ecbatana.” Trav. of
Cyrus.
III. Beauties from a refemllance between Sound and
Signification. There being frequently a ftrong refem-
blance of one found to another, it will not be furprifing
to find an articulate found refembling one that is not
articulate : thus the found of a bow-ftring is imitated
by the words that exprefs it:
  The firing let fly,
Twang'djhort and [harpy like the fhrill fwallovv’s .cry.
Odyffey, xxi. 449.
The found of felling trees in a wood :
Loud founds the ax, redoubling ftrokes on ftrokes.
On all fides round the foreft hurls her oaks
Headlong. Deep echoing groan the thickets brown,
Then ruftling, crackling, crafhing, thunder down. |
Iliad, xxiii. 144.
But when loud' furges lafh the founding fhore.
The lioarfe rough verfe fhould like the torrent roar.
Pope's BJfay on Critieifm, 369.
Dire Scylla there a feene of horror forms.
And here Charybdis fills the deep with ftorrhs :
When the tide rufhes from her rumbling caves,
The rough rock roars ; tumultuous boil the waves.
Pope.
No petfon can be at a lofs about the caufe of this
beauty j it is obvioufly that of imitation.
S
That
'Language.
LAN [ 559 1 LAN
That there is any other natural refemblance of
found to fignification, mull not be taken for grankd.
There is no refemblance of found to motion, nor of
found to fentiment. We are, however, apt to be de¬
ceived by artful pronunciation : the fame paflage may
be pronounced in many different tones, elevated or
humble, fweet or harffr, biilk or melancholy, fo as to
accord with the thought or fentimcnt: fuch concord
mull be dillinguilhed from that concord between found
and fenfe which is perceived in fome expreffions in¬
dependent of artful pronunciation ; the latter is the
poet’s work, the former mull be attributed to the
reader. Another thing contributes Hill more to the
deceit: in language, found and fenfe being intimately
cbnnedted, the properties of the one are readily com¬
municated to the other; for example, the quality of
grandeur, offweetnefs, or of melancholy, though be¬
longing to the thought foley, is transferred to the
words, which by that means refembie in appearance
the thought that is exprefied by them. That there
may be a refemblance of articulate founds to fome
that are not articulate, is felf-evident; and that in
fadt there exift fuch refemblances fuccefsfully employed
by writers of genius, is clear from the foregoing ex¬
amples, and from many others that might be given.
But we may fafely pronounce, that this natural re¬
femblance can be carried no farther ; the objedts of the
different fenfes differ fo widely from each other,, as to
exclude any refemblance ; found in particular, whether
articulate or inarticulate, rtfembles not in any degree
talle, fmell, nor motion ; and as little can it refembie
any internal fentiment, feeling, or emotion. But mull
we then admit, that nothing but found can be imitated
by found ? Taking imitation in its proper fenfe, as
importing a refemblance between two obje&s, the
propofition muil be admitted : and yet in many paf-
lages that are not defcriptive of found, every one mult
be fenfible of a peculiar concord between the found of
the words and their meaning. As there can be no
doubt of the fadl, what remains is to enquire into its
caufe.
Refembling caufes may produce effedls that have
no refemblance ; and caufes that have no refemblance
may produce refembling effedts. A magnificent
building, for example, refembies not in any degree an
heroic adlion ; and yet the emotions they produce are
concordant, and bear a refemblance to each other.
We are ftill more fenfible of this refemblance in a
fong, when the mufic is properly adapted to the fenti¬
ment : there is no rcfemblance between the thought and
found ; but there is the ftrongell refemblance between
the emotion raifed by mufic tender and pathetic, and
that raifed by the complaint of an unfuccefsful lover.
Applying this obfervation to the prefent fubjedl, it
appears, that, in fome inllances, the found even of a
hngle word makes an impreflion refembling that which
ts made by the thing it fignifies: witnefs the word
running, compofed of two Ihort fyllables ; and more
remarkably the words rapidity, impetuqfity, precipita~
tion. Brutal manners produce in the fpedlator an
emotion not unlike what is produced by a harlh and
rough found ; and hence the beauty of the figurative
expreffion, rugged manners. Again, the word little,
being pronounced with a very fmall aperture of the
mouth, has a weak and faint found, which makes an Language,
impreflion refembling that made by a diminutive ob- '■>—
jedt. This refemblance of effects is Hill more remarkable
where a number of words are connedted in a pe¬
riod : words pronounced in fucceflion make often a
ftrong impteflion ; and when this impreflion happens
to accord with that made by the fenfe, we are fenfible
of a complex emotion, peculiarly pleafant; one pro¬
ceeding from the fentiment, and one from the melody
or found of the words. But the chief pleafure proceeds
from having thefe two concordant emotions combined
in perfedl harmony, and carried on in the mind to a
full clofe. Except in the fingle cafe where found is
defctibed, all the examples given by critics of fenfe
being imitated in found, refolve into a refemblance of
effedls : emotions raifed by found and fignification may
have a refemblance ; but found itfelf cannot have a re¬
femblance to any thing but found.
Proceeding now to particulars, and beginning with
thofe cafes where the emotions have the ftrongeft re¬
femblance, we obferve, firll. That by a number of
fyllables in fucceflion, an emotion is fometimes raifed,
extremely fimilar to that raifed by fucceflive motion ;
which may be evident even to thofe who are defe&ive
in talle, from the following fad, that the term move¬
ment in all languages is equally applied to both. In
this manner, fucceflive motion, fuch as walking, run-
ning, galloping, can be imitated by a fucceflion of long
or fliort fyllables, or by a due mixture of both : for
example, flow motion may be jultly imitated in a verfe
where long fyllables prevail; efpecially when aided by
a flow pronunciation :
1111 inter fefe magna vi brachla toUunf.
Georg, iv. 174.
On the other hand, fwift motion is imitated by a
fucceflion of fliort fyllables;
Quadrupedante putrem fonhu quatit ungula cam-
pum.
Again ;
Radit iterliquidum, celeres neque commovet alas.
Thirdly, A line compofed of monofyllables makes
an impreflion by the frequency of its paufes, fimilar to
what is made by laborious interrupted motion •-
With many a weary Hep, and many a groan,
Up the high hill he heaves a huge round (lone.
Odyffey, xi. 73^
Firll march the heavy mules fecurely flow ;
O’er hills, o’er dales, o’er craggs, orer rocks they go*
Iliad, xxiir. 138.
Fourthly, The imprefiion made by rough founds in
fuccefiion, refembies that made by rough or tumultu¬
ous motion : on the other hand, the impreflion o£
fmooth founds refembies that of gentle motion. The
following is an example of both.
Two craggy rocks projefting to the main.
The roaring winds tempelluous rage reflrain j
Within, the waves in fofter murmurs glide,
And fhips fecure without their haulfers ride.
Odyjfey, in*, tit*
Another example of the latter:
Soft
LAN [ 560
Language. Soft is the (train when Zephyr gently blows,
‘l-' t ' 1 ' And the fmooth dream in fmoother numbers flows.
EJJay on Criticifmt 366.
Fifthly, Prolonged motion is expreffed in an Alex¬
andrine line. The firfl example (hall be of a flow mo¬
tion prolonged :
A needlefs Alexandrine ends the fong ;
That, like a wounded fnake, drags its flow length
along.
Ib. 356.
The next example is of forcible motion prolonged :
The waves behind impel the waves beforej
Wide-rolling, foaming high, and tumbling to the (hore.
Iliad, xiii. 1004.
The lad (hall be of rapid motion prolonged :
Not fo when fwift Camilla fcours the plain,
Flies o’er the unbending corn, and (kirns along the
:main.
EJfay an Critictfm, 373.
Again, fpeaking of a rock torn from the brow of a
mountain: ' .
Still gathering force, it fmokes, and, urg’d amain,
Whirls, leaps, and thunders down impetuous to the
plain.
Iliad, xiii. 197.
Sixthly, A period confiding moflly of long fyl-
lables, that is, of fyllables pronounced flow, produ-
.ceth an emotion refembliog faintly that which is pro¬
duced by gravity and folemnity. Hence the beauty
of the following verfe :
Olli fedato refpondet corde Latinus.
It refembles equally an objeft that is infipid and unin-
tereding.
Ttedet quotidiasarum harum formarum.
Terence.
Seventhly, A flow fucceflion of ideas is a circum-
■ftance that belongs equally to fettled melancholy, and
to a period compofed of polyfyllables pronounced flow ;
and hence, by fimilarity of emotions, the latter is imi¬
tative of the former:
In thofe deep folitudes, and awful cells,
Where heav’nly-penfive Contemplation dwells,
And ever-muling Melancholy reigns.
Pope, Eloifa to Abelard.
Eighthly, A long fyllable made (hort, or a (hort
fyllable made long, raifes, by the difficulty of pro
nouncing contrary to cudom, a feeling fimilar to that
of hard labour:
When Ajax drives fome rock’s vajl weight to throw,
The line too labours, and the words move flow.
Ejfay on Criticifm, 370.
Ninthly, Har(h or rough words pronounced with
difficulty, excite a feeling fimilar to that which pro¬
ceeds from the labour of thought to a dull writer 1
N° 174-
]
LAN
Jud writes to make his barrennefs appear, __
And drains from hard-bound brains eight lines a-year.
Pope’s Epijlle to Dr Arbuthnot, 1. 181.
We (hall clofe with one example more, which of all
makes the fined figure. In the firfl feftion mention
is made of a climax in found ; and in the fecond of a
climax in fenfe. It belongs to the prefent fubjeft to
obferve, that when thefe coincide in the fame paffage,
the concordance of found and fenfe is delightful: the
reader is confcious of pleafure not only from the two
climaxes feparately, but of an additional pleafure from
their concordance, and from finding the fenfe fo juflly
imitated by the found. In this refped, no periods are
more perfedl than thofe borrowed from Cicero in the
fird feftion.
The concord between fenfe and found is not lefs
agreeable in what may be termed an anticlimax, where
the progrefs is from great to little ; for this has the
effe& to make diminutive obje&s appear dill more di¬
minutive. Horace affords a Ariking example :
Parturiunt montes, nafcetur ridiculus mus.
The arrangement here is Angularly artful: the firft
place, is occupied by the verb, which is the capital
word by its fenfe as well as found: the clofe is re-
ferved for the word that is the meaned in fenfe as well
as in found: and it mud not be overlooked, that the
refembling founds of the two laft fyllables give a ludi¬
crous air to the whole.
In this article we have mentioned none of the beau¬
ties of language but what arife from words taken in
their proper fenfe. Beauties that depend on the me¬
taphorical and figurative power of words, are treated
under the feparate articles of Figures, Personifica¬
tion, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Metaphor, &c.
See alfo Oratory.
Purity of Language. Both the Greeks and Romans
were particularly careful of preferving the purity of
their language. It feems amongd the Romans to have
been a point which they thought worthy the attend
tion of the date itfelf; for we find the Cumeans not
daring to make ufe of the Latin language in their
public a&s without having fird obtained leave in form.
Tiberius himfelf would not hazard the word monopo-
lium in the fenate without making an excufe for em¬
ploying a foreign term. Seneca gives it as a certain
maxim, that wherever a general falfe tafte in Ayle and
expreffion prevails, it is an infallible fign of a corrup¬
tion of manners in that people : A liberty of introdu¬
cing obfolete words, or forming new ones, is a mark,
he thinks, of an equal licentioufnefs of the moral kind.
Accordingly it is obfervtd, there are fcarce more than
eight or ten indances of new words to be produced
from the mod approved Roman writers, in the courfe
of two or three centuries If this mode of reafoning
concerning the morals of the date was introduced and
applied in our own country, no nation on the face of
the earth could appear more abandoned} for no na¬
tion is more fond of adopting new words, though our
language is diffidently copious. This delicacy of Se¬
neca appears to be carried a little too far. and his
manner of edimating the morals of the people mud be
a little fallacious. The Greeks were very remarkable
a for
Language.
LAN [ 561 ] LAN
TUngrad for their difeernment of provinclallfins, efpecially the
.. II Athenians, whofe dialed was inconceivably fweet and
.Lanfuet-, elegant.
LANGUED, in heraldry, exprefTes fuch animals
whcfe tongtie, appearing out of the mouth, is borne of
a different colour from the reft of the body.
LANGUEDOC, a large and maritime province of
France ; bounded on the north by Quercy, Rouerque,
Auvergne, and Lionnois; on the eaft by Dauphiny
and Provence ; on the weft by Gafcony; and on the
fouth by the Mediterranean Sea and Roufillon. It is
225 miles in length, and 100 in breadth where broad-
eft. The clergy are more rich and numerous here than
in the reft of France, there being three archbifhops and
20 bithops. Languedoc is divided' into the Ufper and
Lower; and in general it is a very pleafant country,
fertile in corn, fruits, and excellent wines; and the
inhabitants carry on a confiderable trade. There are
many curious medicinal plants, with iron mines, quar¬
ries of marble, and turquoife ftones. There is alfo a
great deal of kelp, and on the heaths are confideiable
numbers of the kermes oak. The principal rivers are
the Rhone, the Garonne, the Aude, the Tarne, the
Allier, and the Loire. There are alfo a great number
of mineral fprings. Thouloufe is the capital town.
This province is famous for the royal canal, which di¬
vides it in two, joining the Mediterranean with the At¬
lantic Ocean. This oanal was undertaken in 1666,
•and finifhed in 1680 ; the mathematician who under¬
took it made a bafon 400 yards long, 300 broad, and
7 feet deep, which is always kept full of water, and
•may be let out by means of a fluice on the fide of the
Mediterranean, as well as by another on the fide of
the Atlantic,
LANGUET (Hubert), born at Viteaux in Bur-
■gundy in 1518, gained great reputation by his learn¬
ing and virtue in the 16th century. Having read one
of Melan&hon’s books at Bologna, he conceived fo
high an efteem for the author, that he went to Wir-
temberg purpofely to vifn him ; he arrived there in
1549, when he contrafted a ftrift friendfhtp with Me-
-lancthon, and embraced the Proteftant religion. In
1565, he was one of the firft counfellors of Auguftus
eledtor of Saxony, who employed him in feveral im¬
portant affairs and negociations. He was afterwards
admitted to the confidence of William prince of Orange;
and died at Antwerp, on the 30th of September 1581.
We have many of his letters written in Latin to Sir
Philip Sydney, to Camerarius the father and fon, and
to Auguftus e left or of Saxony, which have been feve¬
ral times reprinted, in three volumes; and there is alfo
attributed T;o him a famous treatife, intitled, Vindicia
contra Tyrannos, and other works. His life is written
by Philibert de la Mare.
Languet (John Baptift Jofeph), the celebrated vi-
ear of St Sulpice at Paris, and a dodtor of the Sor-
bonne, was born at Dijon in 1675. He was received
into the Sorbonne in 1698; and attached himfelf to
the community of St Sulpice, to which parifh he was
of great fervice. M. de la Chetardie the vicar, con-
fcious of his talents, chofe him for his curate, in which
capacity he officiated near 10 years; and in 1714, fuc-
ceeded to the vicarage. His parifh-church being fmall
and out of repair, he conceived the defign of building
a church fuitable to the fize of his parifh, which he
Vol. IX. Part IL
began with the fum of 100 crowns, but foon obtained Languet
confiderable donations; and the duke of Orleans, re- _ I!
gent of the kingdom, granted him a lottery, and laid ■ an‘ar
the firft ftone of the porch in 171 8. It was confecra-
ted in 1745, after M. Lan'guet had fpared neither la¬
bour nor expence to render it one of the fineft churches
in the world botth for architefture and ornament. An¬
other work which did him no lefs honour was the
Maifon de l’enfant Jefus. This eftablifhment con lift 3
of two parts; the firft compofed of about 35 poor la¬
dies of good families, and the fecond of more than
400 poor women and children of town and country.
The order and economy in this houfe, for the educa¬
tion and employment of fo many perfons, gave cardi¬
nal Fleury fo high an idea of the vicar of St Sulpice,
that he propofed to make him fuperintendant-general
of all the hofpitals in the kingdom ; which, however,
was declined. Never man took more pains than he
did to procure charitable donations and legacies, which
he diftributed with admirable difcretion : he is faici
from good anthority to have deburfed near a million
of livres to the poor annually. When there was a ge¬
neral dearth in 1725, he fold, in order to relieve the
poor, his houfehold goods, pidtures, and fome curious
pieces of furniture that he had procured with difficul¬
ty ; and when the plague raged at Marfeilles, he fent
large fums into iSovence'for the relief of the diftreffed.
M. Languet was not only Angular in this warm, difin-
terefted, benevolent conduft, but alfo in another cir-
cumftance equally rare; and this was in the refuCal of
feveral bifhoprics that were offered hirti: he refigned
even his vicarage in 1748 ; but continued to preach
every Sunday at his own parifh-church, and to fupport
the Maifon de l’enfant jfefus, to his death, which hap¬
pened in 1750. It is obferved, that his piety and
charity did not proceed from poverty of talents; for
he was fenfible and lively in converfation, and his ge¬
nius often difcovered itfelf in his agreeable repartees.
LANGUOR, among phyficians, fignifies great
weaknefsand lofs of ftrength, attended with a dejection
of mind ; fo that the patients can fcarce walk or even
Hand upright, but are apt to faint away.
LANHAM. See Lavenhaiw.
LANIARD (from Lanier, Fr.), a fhbrt piece of
cord or line faftened to feveral machines in a fhip, and
ferving to fecure them in a particular place, or to ma •
nage them more conveniently. Such are the laniards
of the gun-ports, the laniard of the buoy, the laniard
of the cat-hook, &c.—The principal laniards ufed ih
a fhip, however, are thofe employed to extend the
fhrouds and flays of the mails by their communication
with the dead-eyes, fo as to form a fort of mechani¬
cal power refembling that of a tackle.—Thefe lani¬
ards are fixed in the dead-eyes as follows: one end of
the laniard is thruft through one of the holes of the
upper dead-eye, and then knotted, to prevent it from
drawing out; the other is then pafled through one of
the holes in the lower dead-eye, whence, returning up¬
ward, it is inferted through the fecond hole in the up¬
per dead-eye, and next through the fecond in the
lower dead eye, and finally through the third holes in
both dead-eyes. The end of the laniard being then
diredled upwards from the loweft dead-eye, is ftretch-
ed as ftiff as poffible by the application of tackles;
and that the feveral parts of it may Hide with mote
4 B fatility
LAN
f 562 ]
LAN
ianigefoa* facility through the holes in the dead-eyes, it is inches and a half in length. The irides are hazel; the kaniua,
* jj well fmeared with hog’s-lard or tallow, fo that the ftrain billvefembles that of the preceding fpecies j the head
XaaniuP. • • j*  .* j   u ..I,..        4.1,, 1 t. L iz _ . i* 1 .
, is immediately communicated to all the turns at once.
LANIGEROUS, an appellation given to whatever
bears wool.
LANISTA, in antiquity, is fometimes ufed to lig¬
and lower part of the back, are of a fine light grey ;
acrofs the eyes from the bill runs a broad black ftroke;
the upper part of the back, and coverts of the wings,
are of a bright ferruginous colour ; the bread, belly.
nify an executioner j but more frequently for a mader- and fides, are of an elegant bloffom colour: the two
gladiator, who taught the ufe of arms, and had al- middle feathers of the tail are longed, and entirely
ways people under them ready to exhibit fliows of black; the lower part of the others white, and the ex-
that kind. For this purpofe,. they either purchafed terior webs of the outmod feather on each fide wholly
gladiators, or educated children, that had been expo- fo. In the female, the droke acrofs the eyes is of
fen, in that art.
EANIUS, the Shrike, or Butcher-bird., in orni-
•piates thology ; a genus belonging to the order of accipitres,
cclxh. and the characters of which are thefe : The beak is fome-
ccLXui. what drait, with a tooth on each fide towards the apex,
and naked at the bafe ; and the tongue is lacerated.
reddilh brown ; the head of a dull rud colour mixed
with grey ; the bread, belly, and fides, are of a dirty
white, marked with fcmicircular dufley lines : the tail
is of a deep brown ; the outward feather on each fide
excepted, whofe exterior webs are white. It is rather
larger than the male. This bird is much more common
. The excubitor, great cinereous firrike, or greater than the former fpecies. Mr Latham fufpeCts its being a
butcher-bird, is in length 10 inches. The plumage bird of paffage, never having feen it in winter. It lays,
on the upper parts is of a pale afh-colour ; the under, fix white eggs marked with a rufous brown circle towards
white: through the eyes there is a black dripe : the the large end. The ned is generally in a hedge or
fcapulars are white : the bafe of the greater quills is low bufti ; near which, it is faid, no fmall bird choofes.
white, the red black: the tail is fomewhat cuneiform; to build ; for it not only feeds on infeCIs, but alfo on
the two middle feathers are black ; the outmod on the young of other birds in the ned, taking hold of
each fide, white ; thofe between are black, with the them by the neck, and drangling them, beginning tt> =
ends more or lefs white : the legs are black. Its bill eat them fird at the brain and eyes. It is fonder of
is black, one inch long, and hooked at the end ; the grafshoppers and beetles than of other infeCIs, which
Upper mandible furnilhed with a fharp procefs: the it eats by morfels, and, when fatisfied, dicks the re-
noftrils are oval, covered with black bridles pointing mainder on a thorn ; when kept in a cage, it does the
downwards : the mufcles that move the bill are very fame againd the wires of it, like the former fpecies.
thick and drong; which makes the head very large.
This apparatus'is quite requifite in a fpecies whofe me¬
thod of killing its prey is fo fingular, and whofe man-
r of devouring it is ndt lefs extraordinary: fmall
It is called in the German language by a name figni-
fying “ great head,” or “ bull head,” from the fize
of that part. It will alfo feed on fheep’s kidneys, if in
a cage, eating a whole one every day. Like the ci-
tnrds it will feize by the throat, and drangle ; which nereous Ihrike, it only mocks the notes of other birds,
probably is the reafon the. Germans alfo call this bird having none of its own ; and this merely, like that, to
•wurchangl, or “ the fuffocating angel.” It feeds on fmall decoy. It is faid to be in this imitative art an adept;
birds, young nedlings, beetles, and caterpillars. Wheh if money is counted over at midnight in the place
it has killed the prey, it fixes them on fome thorn, and where one of thefe is kept, fo as to make a jingling
when thus fpitted pulls them to pieces with its bill: noife, it begins to imitate the fame found. Wheh
on this account the Germans call it thorntraer and fitting on the neft, the female is foon difeovered ; for
thornfreker. When confined in a cage, they will often on the approach, of any one, fhe fets up an horrible
treat their food in much the fame manner, flicking it outcry.
againft the wires before they devour it.—This bird 3. The eosnilefeefts, or fork-tailed Indian butcher-
inhabits many parts of Europe and North America, bird of Edwards, is in length about feven inches and
The female makes its neft with heath and mofs, lining a half: the bill isblackifh brown, and bent; the upper
it with wool and goffamer ; and lays fix eggs, about mandible befet with black hairs turning forwards: the
as big as thofe of a thrufh, of a dull olive-green, fpot- plumage on the upper parts of the body is a fine black,
ted at the thickeft end with black. In fpring and with a glofs of blue and in fome lights green; the
fummer it imitates the voices of other birds, by way under parts are white : the greater quills and tail are
©f decoying them within reach, that it may deftroy of a ferruginous black ; the tail is pretty much forked,.
them ; but beyond this, the natural note is the fame and the outer feather fpotted with dirty white. It in»
throughout all feafons. If a trap-fall be baited with habits Bengal, where it is called Jingah. It is called:
a living fmall bird, it proves a decoy, by Which it may alfo by the Indians the king of the crb'ws, from its puf-
be taken in winter. It is obferved to be mute when fuing thefe birds frdm place to place with a great noife, .
kept in a cage, though feemingly content.—In coun- and pecking them on the back till they efcape.
tries where they are plenty, the hufbandmen value 4, The Antiguan Jhrikfe (or 6f
them, on fuppofition of their deftroying rats, mice, Sonnerat) is about the fize of a lark. Its bill is large
and other vermin. They are fuppofed to live five or and black; the upper mandible very long, and the
fix years ; and are often trained up fer catching fmall curvature fo exceffive that one would rather take it
birds in Ruffia. In Carniola they are migratory, co- for a monftrofity than common to any one fpecies:
ming in May and departing in September ; which is the irides are dulky : the head is black ; the back, of
the cafe alfo in refped. to the few which are met with a yellowilh rufous colour: the throat and breaft are
in England. white ; the quills, and ballard wing-coverts, black 5
3. The colloiioj or leffer butcher-bird, is fevea and the wings reach only to the beginning of the tail,
3 Which.
X A N [ 563 ] t A n
Laniu*. whieH is Very Jong and wedge-fhaped ; the two middle
' feather? are wholly black.; the leg? are duflcy black.
It inhabits Panay, one of the Philippine iflands, but
principally about Antigue, one of the provinces thereof.
5. Thejocofus, or jocofe flirike, is in length feven
inches and a half. The bill is blackilh, rather Itraighter
than in mott of the genus, and furnifhed only with a
very fine notch near the tip : the crown of the head is
V black, except fome long brown feathers, which form
a kind of ere ft : the fides of the head, throat, and
fere part of the neck, are white; from each corner of
the mouth there is a black line, continued backwards;
and under each eye is a fmall fpot of lively red: the
upper parts of the body are brown ; the under parts,
dirty white ; the vent, rofe-colour : on the lower part
of the neck and breaft there is a kind of a brown bands
the quills are brown : the tail is greatly wedge-ftiaped,
and in colour brown, except the four outer feathers
on each fide, which have white tips: the legs and claws
are black. This is a Chinefe bird, and called in thofe
parts by the name of ko<wkai-lon. It feeds upon rice
and infers, particularly cockroaches.
6. The infauftus, or rock-lhrike, is in length feven
inches and three quarters. The bill is about an inch
long, and blackifti: the head and neck are of a dark
a(h-colour, marked with fmall rufous fpots: the upper
part of the back is a dark brown ; the lower much
paler, inclining to a(h, efpecially towards the tail:
the quills and wing-coverts are dulky, with pale mar¬
gins : the breaft, and under parts of the body, are
orange, marked with fmall fpots, fome white and
others brown : the tail is three inches in length; the
two middle feathers are brown, the others rufous: the
legs are blackifh : the wings and tail are even. This
is the defeription of the female. The male is faid to
differ very little, except in being of a brighter colour.
—This fpecies is met with in many parts of Europe,
from Italy on the one hand, to Ruffia on the other;
and is found in fome parts of Germany, the Alpine
mountains, thofe of Tyrol, and fuch-like places. The
manners of this bird feem difputed. Buffon fays that
it perches on a high ftone, and as foon as a markfman
appears with his gun, removes to a greater diftance,
and fo on as often as he approaches; which renders
this fpecies difficult to come at. Brunnich and Lin¬
naeus, on the contrary, fay that it is a bold bird, attend¬
ing the traveller wdhle at his meal, on purpofe to feed
on his feraps. It has an agreeable note of its own,
approaching to that of the hedge-fparrow, and will
alfo learn to imitate that of others. It makes the
neft among the holes of the rocks, &ci hiding it with
great art; and lays three or four eggs, feeding the
young with worms and infefts, on which it alfo feeds
itfelf. It may be taken young from the neft, and
brought up as the nightingale.
7. The fauftus, or white-wreathed fhrike, is about
the fize of a common thrufh. Its bill is pale : the up
per parts of the body are grey ; the under ferruginous:
from the eyes to the hind head there paffes a whitilh
line, compofed of numerous white feathers, rendering
it truly charaeferiftic : the wings are rounded ; the
quills brownifh, with grey edges, which are crofted
with numerous flender brown lines: the tail is round¬
ed, brown, and crofted with numerous bars of darker
brown : the legs are pale. This elegant fpecies in¬
habits China* where it is known by the name of ’whom*
maj. It may be obferved, arhong others, iq Chinefe Lanlu«»
paper-hangings, where the white line feems to encom- »
pafsthe back part of the head like a wreath.
8. The Dominican fhrike (or Pie-griefche Domini-
quaine of Sonnerat), is bigger than a fparro w, and ra¬
ther longer. The bill is greyifli, conical, and ftrong ;
the bafe befet with briftles, pointing forwards : the
head, neck, breaft, back, wings, and tail, are black ;
the belly and rump white: the wings reach near an
inch beyond the middle of the tail: the thighs are
black. It inhabits the Philippine iftands, and is
a bold courageous bird : it flies very quick, and with
great rapidity 5 frequently hovering in the air like a
fwallow. It is a great enemy to the raven ; to whom,
though much bigger, he bids defiance, and even pro¬
vokes him to combat: the battle often lafts half an
hour, and ends with the retreat of the raven ; rather,
perhaps, from being teafed out than much injured
by the little enemy.
9. The nengeta (Giurarou, Buff.) is in length nine
or ten inches. Its bill is dufky, and befet with
briftles at the bafe : the irides are fapphire-coloured $
and from the angles of the mouth, through the eyes,
there runs a black ftreak : the upper parts of the body
are of a dark brownifh afh-colour ; the under parts cine¬
reous white : in the middle of the wing are a few
white feathers ; the quills and tail are nearly black;
and all the feathers of the laft, except the two middle
ones, are obliquely tipped with white: the legs are of
a dark afh-colour ; the claws black.—Thefe birds arc
found at Surinam and Brafil. They are common like-
wife at Guiana, where they frequent watery places,
and are found in great numbers together. They are
obferved, at frequent intervals, to fet up a great cry
all together ; which affords a happy and certain prefage
to the thirfty traveller, in the immenfe forefts of
Guiana, of water being at hand.
10. The tyrannus, or tyrant fhrike, is about the fize
of a thrufh. Its bill is a blackifh brown, befet with
briftles at the bafe : the irides are brown : the upper
parts of the plumage grey brown ; the under, white l
the breaft; inclines to afh-colour : the head is blackifh
on the upper part ; the bafe of the feathers on that
part in the male is orange, but feldom viftble except
it erefts the feathers, when there appears a ftreak of
orange down the middle of the crown : the tail is
brown, marginated with rufous: the legs and claws
are black brown. The female fcarcely differs, except
in the head ; the bafe of the crown feathers being yel¬
low inftead of orange; the colours are not quite fo
deep, and it is a trifle lefs in fize. It inhabits Vir¬
ginia.—There is a variety which inhabits St Domingo
and Jamaica. Thefe birds are called titiri. pipiri, or qui-
quirt, from their cry, which refembles thofe words. The
firft is called the black-headed or great-bdled pipiri; the
fecond, the yellow headedpipiri or pipiri of paffage. The
firft though in plenty are feldom leen but in pairs; the
fecond in great troops, about the month of Auguft,
when they are very fat, and killed in great numbers for
the table, as their fiefh is accounted good eating.—All
authors agree in the manners of thefe birds, which
are ferocious to a great degree while the hen is fitting:
no bird whatever dare approach their neft t they will
attack the firft which comes near, without referve, and
ufually come off conquerors. From hence by fome
they are called king-bird;.
4 B 2 The
LAN [ 364 1 LAN
Laaius The Carolina tyrant of Catefby is little, if at all, dif-
II. ferent from the preceding, in regard to fpepific cha-
F>aii quinet.ra(^.eri jgut jJ£ payS tjjat jt ma}ces ;ts neft rather ex-
pofed, on trees and bulhes, frequently on the faffafras;
whereas the pipiris make ufe of the hole of a tree, for
the fake of concealing it. In Carolina it is a bird of
paflage, coming in fpring, and making one neft in a
year, which is commonly in June, and after bringing
up its young, retires in autumn. Thefe birds frequent
alfo the red cedars; are feldom found in woods, but
often in hedge rows and fences of fields, and for the
moft part within 20c yards of each, other. They do
xrot moleft their own fpecies; but the moment either
crow, or even eagle, appears, all within reach join
forces, and begin the attack in all parts of his body
at once, never defifting till they have driven him to a
great diftance.
11. The albus, or white Panayan fhrike, is about double
the fize of a lark. Its bill is black: the head, neck, back,
belly, and fhoulders, are white : the reft of the wings
and tail black ; and acrofs the greater quills there is
a white band : the legs are black. It inhabits the ifle
of Panay.
There are above 40 other fpecies of this genus, be-
fides many varieties.
LANNER, or Lanka*. See Falco.
LANSDOWNE (Lord). See Granville.
LANSQUINET, the name of a game at cards, of
French origin.
It may be played at by any indifcriminate number
of people, though a Angle pack of cards is ufed during
the deal. The dealer, who poflefles an advantage,
fhuffles the cards, and after they have been cut by
another of the party, deals out two cards on his left
hand, turning them up, then one for himfelf, and a
fourth that he places on the table for the company,
who is called the rejouiJJ'ance. On this card any, or all
the company, the dealer excepted, tnay put their money,
which the dealer is compelled to anfwer. The dealer
continues turning the cards upwards, one by one, till
two of a fort come up, that is to fay, two aces,
two deuces, &c. which, to prevent miftakes, or their
being confidered as fingle cards, he places on each
fide of his own card ; and as often as two, three,
or the fourth fort of a card come up, he invari¬
ably places, as before mentioned, on each ilde of his
own card. The company has a right to take and
put money upon any fingle card, unlefs the dealer’s
card Ihould happen to be double, which is often the
cafe, by his card being the fame as one of the two
hand-cards, which he firft dealt out on his left hand :
thus he continues dealing till he brings either their
cards or his own. Whilft the dealer’s own card re¬
mains undrawn, he wins; and which ever card ;s turn¬
ed up firft, lofes. If he deals out the two cards on
his left hand, which are ftyled the hand cards, before
his own., he is intitled to deal again. This advantage
amounts to no more than his being exempted from lo-
fmg, when he turns up a fimilar card to his own, im¬
mediately after he has turned up one for bimfelf.
Lanfquinet is often played without the rejouiffance,
the dealer giving every one. of the party a card to put
their money upon. It is alfo often played by dealing
only two cards, one for the company and the other
for the dealer.
It ftxould likewife be obferved, that a limitatioa is
generally fixed for the fum to be placed upon any card Lantana,
or number of cards, either in gold or filver, beyond •Lantfrn- _
which the dealer is not obliged to anfwer. —-y—
LANTANA, or Indian sage, in botany : A genua
of the angiofpermia order, belonging to the didyna-
mia clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, Perfonata. The calyx is in-
diftin&ly quadridentated; the ftigma as it were broken
and turned back like a hoof; the fruit is a plum with
a bilocular kernel. There are feveral fpecies, confift-
ing of Ihrubby exotics from Africa and America for
the green-houfe or ftove; growing to the height of a
yard or two, and adorned with oblong, oval, and
roundifti fimple leaves, with monopetalous, tubular,
four-parted flowers of different colours. They may
be propagated either by feeds or cuttings—The cama-
ra, or wild fage, is remarkable for the beauty of its
flowers ; which are yellow, tinged with red. The in-
volucrata, or fea-fide fage, has fmall afh coloured leaves
and a moft agreeable fmell. They are both natives of
the Weft Indies, the former growing wild among the
bulhes, and the latter found near the fea. Their leaves,
particularly thofe of the fea-fide fage, are ufed by the
black people in teas for colds, rheums, and weaknefs
of the ftomach—There are feven other fpecies.
LANTERN, or Lanthorn, a device to carry a
candle in ; being a kind of cover ufually made of white
icon, with falhes of fome tranfparent matter, as glafs,
horn, &c. to tranfmit the light.
Dark Lantern, one with only one opening, which
may alfo be clofed up when the light is to be entirely
hid, or opened when there is occafion for the affifl>
ance of the light to difcover fome objeft.
Magic Lantern, an optic machine, whereby little
painted images are reprefented fo much magnified, as
to be accounted the -cffeS of magic by the ignorant.
See Dioptics, Art. x. p. 37.
Lantern, in architecture, a little dome raifed over
the roof of a building to give light, and ferve as a
carowning to the fabric.
The term lantern is alfo ufed for a fquare cage of1
carpentry, placed over the ridge of a corridor or galle¬
ry, between two rows of Ihops, to illumine them, like
that of the royal exchange London.
Lantern, on fhip-board, a well known machine, of;
which there are many in a fhip, particularly for the
purpofe of direfting the courfe of other (hips in a fleet¬
er convoy ; fuch are the poop and top lanterns, &c.
Feajl of Lanterns, in China, is a celebrated feafl »
held on the 15th day of the firft month; fo called
from the infinite number of lanterns hung out of the
houfes and ftreets; which, it is laid, is no lefs thaix
two hundred millions. On this day are expofed lan¬
terns of all prices, whereof fome are faid to coft 2000
crowns. Some of their grandees retrench fome what,
every day out of their table, out of their drefs, equi¬
page, &c. to appear the more magnificent in lanterns. .
They are adorned with gilding, fculpture, painting,,
japanning, &c. And as to their fize, it is extrava¬
gant ; fome being from 25 to 30 feet diameter : they
reprefent halls and chambers, and two or three fuch
machines together would make handfome houfes; fo-
that in China they are able to eat, lodge, receive vi-
fits, have balls, and a6l plays in a lantern. To illu¬
mine them, they Ihould have bonfires; but as that
would he inconvenient, they content themfelves with.
lighting
LAO
JLantern lighting up in them an infinite number of torches
II or lamps, which at a diftance have a beautiful effeft.
.Laocoon, jn tjlepe they exhibit various kinds of fliows, to divert
* the people. Befides thefe enormous lanterns, there is
a multitude of others fmaller, which ufually con fid of
fix faces or lights, each about four feet high, and one
and a half broad, framed in wood finely gilt and ad¬
orned ; over thefe they ftretch a fine tranfparent filk,
curioufly painted with flowers, trees, and fometimes
human figures: the painting is very extraordinary,
and the colours extremely bright; and when the
torches are lighted, they appear highly beautiful and
furprifing.
L,ANTERN-Fly, in naturalhiftory. See Fulgora.
LANUGO, the foft down of plants, like that
growing on the fruit of the peach tree. See Hair.
LAOCOON (fab. hilt.), a fon of Priam and He¬
cuba, or according to others of Antenor or of Capys.
At being prieft of Apollo, he was commiffioned by the
Trojans to offer a bullock to Neptune to render him
propitious. During the facrifice two enormous fer-
pents iffued from the fea, and attacked Laocoon’s two
•fbns who flood next to the altar. The father imme¬
diately attempted to defend his fons 5 but the ferpents
falling upon him fqueexed him in their complicated
wreathes, and he died in the greatefl agonies. This
punifhment was faid to have been inflidted upon him
for diffuading the Trojans to bring into the city the
fatal wooden horfe which the Greeks had confecrated
to Minerva, as alfo for his impiety in, hurling a javelin
againft the fid?s of the horfe as it entered within the
walls. According to Hyginus, he fuffered the above
punifhment for his marriage againft the confent of
Apollo, or, according to others, for his polluting the
temple, by his commerce with his wife Antiope, before
, the flatue of the god.
Laocoon, in the hiftory of the arts, is a celebrated
monument of Greek fculpture executed in marble by
Polydorus, Athenodorus, and Agefander, the three
famous artifls of Rhodes. This remain of antiquity
was found at Rome in the ruins of the palace of Titus,
in the beginningof the fixteenth century, under the pon-
tificate of Julius II. and fince depofited in the Farnefe
palace. Laocoon, the prieft of Apollo and Neptune,
is here reprefented with his two fons, with two hide¬
ous ferpents clinging round his body, gnawing it, and
injefting their poilon : Virgil has given us the follow-
jog defer iption of the fact:
Serpens amplexus uterque
Jmplicat, iff miferos morfu depafeitur artus,:
Gorripiunt, fpirifque ligant ingeniibus, & jam
Bis medium ampjexi, lis collo fquamea citxum
7ergo, dati, fuperant capite & ccrvicibus alt is.
This ftatue exhibits the mofl aftonifhing dignity and
, tranquillity of mind in the midft of the mofl excruci-
xxxvi! c. 5. a.ting torments: Pliny * fays of it, that is, epus omnibus,
pi£lure/s & Jlatuaria artis, praferendum.
f Hift.of The Laocoon, Dr Gilliesf > obferves, may be re-
Greece,11, garded as the triumph of Grecian fculpture; fince
bodily pain, the groffeft and moft ungovernable of all
our pafiions, and that? pain united with anguiih and
torture of mind, are yet expreffed with fuch propriety
and dignity, as afford leffons of fortitude fuperior to
any taught in the fchools of philofophy. The horrible
fhriek which Virgil’s Laocoon emits is a proper cir-
cumftance for poetry, which fpeaks to the fancy by
LAO
images and ideas borrowed from all the fenfes, and has Laodic*a,
a thoufand ways of ennobling its objeft ; but the ex- Laomedf)n,
preffion of this fhriek would have totally degraded ’ L
the ftatue. It is foftened, therefore, into a patient
figh, with eyes turned to heaven in fearch of relief.
The intolerable agony of fuffering nature is repre¬
fented in the lower part, and particularly in the ex¬
tremities of the body; but the manly breaft ftruggles
againft calamity. The contention is ftill more plainly
perceived io his furrowed forehead ; and his- languiih-
ing paternal eye demands affvftance, Jefs for himfelf
than for his miferable children, who look up to- him
for help.
LAODICiE A on the Lycus (anc. geog.), a towm
of Phrygia, at firtt called Diofpolis, then Rhoas. It
was built by Antiochus fon of Stratonice, and called
after his confort Laodice. It was long an inconfide-
rable place ; but increafed toward the age of Auguftus
Csefar, after having fuffered in a fiege from Mithri-
dates. The fertility of the foil, and the good fortune 5/"
of fome of its citizens, raifed it to greatnels. Hiero,
who adorned it with many offerings, left the people
his heir to more than 2000 talents. After that be-
nefaAor followed Zeno, the rhetorician; and his fom
Polemo, as renowned a fophift as ever lived. This-
perfon flourilhed at Smyrna ; but was buried here by
the Syrian gate, near which were the fepulchres or
coffins of his anceftors. Laodicea, though inland,
grew more potent than the cities on the coaft, and be¬
came one of the largeft towns in Phrygia. It was of¬
ten damaged by earthquakes, and reftored by its own
opulence or by the munificence of the Roman em¬
perors. Thefe refources failed, and the city, it is
probable, became early a feene of ruin. About the
year 1097 it was poffeffed by the Turks, and fub-
mitted to Ducas general of the Emperor Alexis. In
1120 the Turks facked fome of the cities of Phrygia
by the Mseander, but were defeated by the Emperor
John Comnenus, who took Laodicsea, and built anew
or repaired the walls. About 1161 it was again un¬
fortified. Many of the inhabitants were then killed
with their biftrop, or carried with their cattle into cap¬
tivity by the Turks. In 1190 the German emperor,
Frederick Barbaroffa, going by Laodicea with his
army toward Syria on a croifade, was received fo kind¬
ly, that he prayed on his knees far the profperity of
the people. About 1196 this region with Caria was
dreadfully ravaged by the Turks. The Sultan, on the
invafion of the Tartars in 1255, gave Laodicea to the
Romans ; but they were unable to ;defend it, and it
foon returned to the Turks. .It- is.now totally ruined
anddeferted. Several remains of its ancient grandeur
are, however, ftill to be feen ; particularly the ruins of
two theatres and an amphitheatre.—Thememoryof this
place is confecrated in feripture, being one of the fevetx
churches to which St John in the Apocalypfe ad-
dreffes himfelf, commended by St Paul.
Laoducjea on -the fea (anc. geog.), according to
Strabo, was a town of Seleucis in Syria, extremely
well built, with a commodious harbour. The country
about it yielded great quantities of wine. The city
took its name from Laodice, mother of Seleucus the
founder of it.
LAOMEDON, king of Troy, whofe hiftory is in<
volved in fables. He was fon of. Ilus king of
Troy J and married Stryrao, called by fome Placia, or
Lcthg
[ 565 I
LAP [ 566 ] LAP
£&om«don 'Lcucippe, by whom he had Podarce? afterwards known
II , by the name of Priam, and liefione. He built the
, ap^ 1U'V walls of Trov. and v/as affifted by Apollo and Nep¬
tune, whom Jupiter had banilhed from heaven, and
condemned to be lubfervient to the will of Laomedon
for one year. When the walls were finifhed, Laomedon
refufed to reward the labours of the gods; andfoon af¬
ter his territories were laid wafte by the fea or Nep¬
tune, and his fubje&s were vifitcd by a peftilence fent
by Apollo. Sacrifices were offered to the offended
divinities; but the calami ties of the Trojans increafed,
and nothing could appeafe the gods, according to the
words of the oracle, but annually to expofe to a fea
monfter a Trojan virgin. Whenever the monfter ap¬
peared, the marriageable maidens were affembled, and
the lot decided which of them was doomed to death
for the good of her country. When this calamity had
-continued for five or fix years, the lot fell upon He-
fione Laomedon’s daughter. The king was unwilling
to part with a daughter whom he loved with uncom¬
mon tendernefs, but his refufal would irritate more
flrongly the wrath of the gods. In the midft of his
fear and hefitation, Hercules came and offered to de¬
liver the Trojans from this public calamity, if Laome¬
don wouldpromife to reward him with a number of fine
horfes. The king confented; but when the monfter
was deftroyed, he refufed to fulfil his engagements, and
Hercules was obliged to befiege Troy and take it by
force of arms. Laomedon was put to death after a
reign of 29 years ; his daughter Hefione was given in
marriage to Telamon, one of the conqueror’s attend¬
ants ; and Podarcts was ranfomed by the Trojans, and
placed upon his father’s throne. According to Hy-
ginus, the wrath of Neptune and Apollo was kindled
againft Laomedon, becaufe he refufed to offer on their
altars as a facrifice all the firft bom of his cattle, ac¬
cording to a vcwv he had made.
LAON, a confiderable town of the ifle of France,
and capital of the JLaonis, with a caftle and bifliop’s
fee. Its principal trade confifts in corn and wine; and
it is very advantageoufly feated on a mountain in
E. Long. 3. 42. N. Lat. 49. 34.
LAOS, a kingdom of Afia beyond the Ganges;
bounded on the north, by China; on the call, by
Tonquin and Cochin-China; on the fouth, by Cam¬
bodia ; and on the weft, by the kingdom of Siam,
and by the territories of the king of Ava. This coun¬
try is fullof fore ft s, and abounds in rice, fruits, and
filh. The inhabitants are well made, robuft, of an
olive complexion, and mild in their difpofitlon ; but
very fuperftitious, and much addifted to women.
Their principal occupation is tilling the ground and
filhing. The king Ihows himfelf but twice a year,
and has large revenues from the elephant’s teeth found
in his dominions. Their religion is a kind of idolatry,
and much the fame as in China. Langiona is the ca¬
pital town.
LAPATHUS, Lapethus, or Lepithus (anc.
geog.) ; a town of Cyprus, about the middle of its
■north fide, with a port or ftation foi ftiips, and a cog-
• nominal river. It was built by a colony of Phoenici¬
ans, according to Scylax ; by Belus king of Tyre, ac¬
cording to Alexander Ephefius. According to Strabo,
it was built by a colony of Spartans; and one of the
nine kings refided here, the laft of whom was Pififtra-
tus, who commanded the naval army of Alexander the Lapidary-
Great. There was a temple here dedicated to Venua. II;
The territory round it is called Papithia by Diodoius .
and Ptolemy ; Lapiihii, the people, tainted with a de- ^
gree of fatuity ; hence Ibapathius denotes fatuus, (He-
fychius).—Now a village called Lapitha; but, accord¬
ing to the Abbe Mariti, the longeft and moft extenfive in
the ifland. Befides the advantage of a fine fituation, it
furnifhes the heft ,productions in the country; and.
though Cyprus is in general not very abundant in
fruits, Lapitha feems a favoured fpot in this refpect,
and may be called the garden af the ijland.
LAPIDARY, an artificer, who cuts precious
Hones.
The art of cutting precious ftones is of great anti¬
quity. The French have carried this art to a very
great perfection, but not in any degree fuperior to the
dBritilh.
There are various machines employed in the cutting
of precious (tones according to their quality. The
diamond, which is extremely hard, is cut on a wheel of
foft fteel, turned by a mill, with diamond dull, temper¬
ed with olivc-oil, which alfo ferves to polhh it.
The oriental ruby, fapphire, and topaz, are cut on
a copper-wheel with diamond dull tempered with
olive-oil, and are polilhed on another copper-wheel with
tripoli and water. The hyacinth, emerald, amethyft,
garnets, agates, and other ftones not of an equal de¬
gree of hardnefs with the other, are cut on a leaden
wheel with fmalt and water, and polilhed on a tin-wheel
with tripoli. The turquois of the old and new rock,
girafol, and opal, are cut and polilhed on a wooden
wheel with tripoli alfo.
The lapidaries of Paris have been a corporation
fince the year 1290. It is governed by four jurats,
who fuperintend their rights and privileges, vifit th?
mafter-workmen, take care of the mafter-pieee of
workmanlhip, bind apprentices, and adminifter the
freedom.
Ladidary is alfo ufed for a virtuofo (killed in the
nature, kinds, &c. of precious ftemes; or a merchant
who deals in them.
Lapidarx Style, denotes the ftyle proper for menu*
mental or other inferiptions.
This is a kind of medium between profe and verfe f
the jejune and the brilliant are here equally to be avoid¬
ed. Cicero has preferibed the rules of it: Accedat
oportet oratio •varia, vehement, plena fpiritus. Omnium
fententiarum gravitate, omnium verborum ponderibus, ejl
utendum.
The lapidary ftyle, which was loft with the ancient
monuments, has been retrieved at the beginning of this
age by Count Emanuel Teforo : it is now ufed various
ways at the beginning of books; and even epiftles de¬
dicatory are compofed in it, of which we have no ex¬
ample among the ancients.
LAPIDESCENT, any thing which has the facul¬
ty of petrifying, or turning bodies to a ftony nature-
Naturalifts fpeak of a lapidefeent principle, a lapide-
feent fpirit, a lapidefeent juice, &c.
LAPIS, in general, is u(ed to denote a done qf
any kind.
Lapis, in Roman antiquity, a geographical mea-
fure denoting a mile ; becaufe miles were diftinguilh-
ed by erecting a Hone at the end of each j the
pumbe?
LANir s.
Plate CC_LXtI.
J2)o/ne/ucvt/v r J^A.
LAP [ 5«7 1 LAP
Lapis number marked on which, the length of way from
il Rome might be known. The device is by Plutarch
afcribed to Caius Gracchus. This was more accu-
'v " rately executed by Auguftus, who eredted a gilt pil-
lar.in the forum, at which all the public ways of Italy,
diftinguifhed by ftones, were terminated. The fame
thing was done in the Roman provinces. Hence the
phrafes tertlus lapis, centefmus lapis, &c. for three, a
hundred, &c. miles ; and fometimes the ordinal num¬
ber without lapis, as adduodecimum, &c. attewlve miles
diftance.
Lapis Sljpus, in the natural hiftory of the ancients,
the name of a ftone called alfo farcopbagus, from its
power of confuming flefh. See Sarcophagus.
Lapis Bononienjis, the Bolognian Hone. See Che¬
mistry, n° 1081, 1082.
Lapis Lazuli. See Lazuli.
LaPIs Lyncurius. See Lyncurius.
Lapis Mutalilis. See Hydrophanes.
Lapis Hepaticus. See Li per-Stone.
Lapis Lydius. See Touch-stone, Trapp» and
Lapis Lrnws.
Lapis Oljtdianits. See Obsidianus and Galli-
naceus.
Lapis Nephritiais. See JADE-Stone.
Lapis Specularis. See Specularis.
LAPITHtE, (anc. geog.) a people of Theflaly.
See the next' article.
LAPITHUS, (fab. hift.), a fon of Apollo.by Stilbe.
He was brother to Centaurus; and married Orfinome,
daughter of Euronymus, by whom he had Phorbas
and Periphas. The name of Lapithas was given to
the numerous children of Phorbas and Periphas, or
rather to the inhabitants of the country of which they
had obtained the fovereignty. The chief of the La-
pithae affembled to celebrate the nuptials of Perithous,
one of their number. Atnong them were Thefeus,
Dryas, Hopleus, Mopfus, Phalerus, Exadius, Pro-
lochus, Titarefius, 86c. The Centaurs were alfo in¬
vited to partake the common feftivity; and the amufe-
ments would have been harmlefs and innocent, had
not one of the intoxicated Centaurs offered violence
to Hippodamia the wife of Perithous. The Lapithae.
refented the injury, and the Centaurs fupported their
companions; upon which the quarrel became univer-
fal, and ended in blows and flaughter. Many of the
Gtntaurs were flain, and they at laft were obliged to
retire. Thefeus among the Lapithse {bowed himfelf
brave and intrepid in fupporting the caufe of his
friends ; and Neftor alfo was not lefs adfive in the pro-
te&ion of chaftity and innocence. Hefiod has defcri-
bed the battle of the Centaurs and Lapithae ; as has alfo
Ovid, in a more copious manner. The invention of
bits and bridles for horfes is attributed to the Lapi-
thse.
LAPLAND, the mofl northerly country of Eu¬
rope, extending from the north cape in yi? 30' N.
Lat. to the White Sea under the ar&ic circle, is in¬
habited by the fame people, though the country is
fabjeft to different powers. Norwegian Lapland, un¬
der the dominion of Denmark, lies between the nor¬
thern fea, the river Pais, and the lake Enarak. Swe-
difh Lapland comprehends all the country from the
Baltic to the mountains that feparate Norway from
Sweden. It is divided into fix diftrifts, denominated
march, or territory; and thefe are diftinguilhed by the
names of rivers, fuch as Aungnermanland, Elma, Lapland;
Peta, Lufe, Torna, and Kiemi. The eaftern part,“
fubjeft to the Czar of Mufcovy, fituated between the
lake Enarak and the White Sea, is divided into three
diftinft prefe&ures; namely, that of the fea coaft to¬
wards the north, called Mourmankoi Leporie ; the Ter-
fkoi Leporie, upon the coaft of the White Sea ; and
the third, or inland, known by the name of Bellamo-
rejboi Leporie. In Swedifh Lapland, which is the moft
confiderable of the three, the provinces or marcks are
fubdivided into fmaller diftridfs called liars, confiding
each of a certain number of families 5 among which
the land is parcelled out by government, or the prefedl
of the diftridf appointed by the king of Sweden.
Lapland may be termed a huge congeries of fright¬
ful rocks and ftupendous mountains ; interfperfed,
however, with many pleafant valleys, watered by an
infinite number of rivulets that run into the rivers and
lakes, which difeharge themfelves into the gulf of
Bothnia. The names of the principal lakes in Lap-
land are the Great Uma, the Great Windel, the
Oreavan, the Stor-avan, the Great Lula; the lakes-
of Kartom, Kali, Torno, Enara, and Kimi. Some
of thefe extend 60 leagues in length, and contain a
great number of iflands : Stor-avan is faid to contain
365 ; and Enara contains an archipelago of iflands fo
large, that no Laplander has lived long enough to
vifit each particular ifland. The natives believe this
country to be the terreftrial paradife ; and indeed no¬
thing could be more enchanting than fuch vaft pro-
fpefts of mountains, hills, forelts, lakes, rivers, &c.
if the country was in a moderate climate; though
even here, in fummer the rofes are feen blowing wild
on the banks of the lakes and rivers, with all the beau¬
tiful glow of colour which appears in thofe cultivated
in our gardens. But all the intervals between the
mountains are not ingrofied by thefe agreeable pro-
fpeits; great part of the flat country is covered with
brown dulky forefts of fir and pine trees ; and thefe are
often fkirted by wide extended moraffes, the ftagna-
ting waters of which in fummer produce myriads of
mifehievous infefts, that are more intolerable than
even the cold of winter.
The cold of Lapland is very intenfe during the
winter, freezing even brandy and the watery part of
fpirit of wine, if the latter is not highly re&ified : all the
lakes and rivers are frozen to a prodigious thicknefs;
and the whole face of the country is covered with fnow
to the depth of four or five feet. While this continues
loofe, it is impoffible to travel; for a man’s eyes are
not only blinded with it, but if a ftrong wind fliculd
rife he will be buried in the drifts of fnow : yet fhould
a partial thaw take place for a few hours, the furfaca
of this fnow is formed by the fucceeding froft into a
hard impenetrable cruft, over which the Laplander
travels in his fledge with great celerity. While the
thaw prevails, the air is furcharged with vapours, and
the climate is rainy ; but while the north wind blows,
the fky is beautifully ferene, and the air very clear.
The heat of fummer is almoft as intolerable in Lap-
land as the cold of winter. At the northern extremi¬
ty of the country the fun never fets for three months
in fummer, and in winter there is an unintenapted
night of the fame duration ; but this is qualified in fuch .
a manner by a conftant revolution of dawn and twi¬
light, by a ferene fky, moon-light, and aurora borea-
LAP [ 568 ] LAP
X,9pland. Us, reflefled from the white furface of the earth co-
vered with fnow, t,hat the inhabitants are enabled to
hunt, fifh, and proceed with their ordinary occupa¬
tions. The country abounds with excellent fprings;
and is remarkable for fome furprifing catara&s, in
which the water rumbles ove/ frightful precipices, and
dartres among rocks with amazing impetuortty and
noife.
The foil of Lapland is generally fo chilled and bar¬
ren, that it produces little or no grain or fruit-trees
of any kind. This fterility, however, is not fo much
owing to the foil, which is in many places of a rich
mould, as to want of induftry; for in fome diftri&s the
Swedes have tilled and manured pieces of ground that
bear plentiful crops of rye. There is alfo great plenty
of berries: fuch as black currants •; what is called the
.Norwegian mulberry, growing upon a creeping plant,
and much erteemed as an antifcorbutic; rafp-berries,
-cran-berries, Juniper berries, and bilberries. The
tops of the mountains are fo much expofed to intenfe
-cold, and tempefts of fnow and hail, that no tree will
grow near the fummit; but in parts that are more
fheltered, we fee fine woods of hirch, pine, and fir,
difpofed by nature as if they had been planted by art
in rows at regular diftances, without any undergrowth
-or incumbrance below. Befides thefe trees, fome parts
of Lapland produce the fervice tree, the willow, the
poplar, the elder, and the cornel. Among the plants
of this country the principal is the angelica ; which is
greatly efteemed by the natives, who ufe it in their
food. Here is likewife the acetofa or forrel, which
grows in great plenty, and is of much fervice on ac¬
count of its antifcorbutic properties. 'They have alfo
other kinds of herbs peculiar to the country, different
itinds of gfafs, heath, fern, and mofs; which are all enu¬
merated by Linnasus in his Flora Laponica. But the
vegetable which is in greatefl plenty, and of the moft
extenfive ufe among them, is the lichen rangiferus. The
rein-deer is wholly fuftained in winter by this vegeta¬
ble ; and the Laplanders themfelves boil it in broth as
a cordial and reftorative- They likewife ufe one fort
of it as a foft, eafy, and wholefome bed for their new¬
born children.
Some filver and lead mines have been difeovered in
the provinces of Pitha and Lula ; and two of copper,
together with excellent veins of iron, in the diftrief of
Toi-no; but they are not at prefent worked with any
confiderable advantage. In fome places there are veins
©f filver and gold mixed ; but thefe mines are worked
only for a few months in the fummer, becaufe the froft
hinders the engines from playing. Here are found
beautiful cryflals, of a furprifing magnitude, fo hard
and fine, that when pOlirtied they refemble real dia¬
monds. In fome places amethyfts and topazes are
alfo found, but pale and cloudy ; alfo a great quantity
of very curious (tones, which are too hard to be work¬
ed by the tool of the mafon. Some of thefe found on
the banks of rivers and lakes, when they happen to
bear the lead refemblanee to the figures of animals,
the Laplanders remove to more confpicuous places,
and adore as deities. The province of Torno affords
fome curious (tones of an oftagonal rtiape, regular,
fhining, and polirtied by the hand of nature. In fome
rivers they fifli for pearls, which are generally pale ;
but fome of them are as bright as the oriestal pearls
N°175.
and much larger and rounder. Thefe pearls arc found Ltplawh
in mufcle-(hells ; and the fifhery is not in the fea, but —
in rivers.
Lapland, as well as Norway, is infefted with a great
number of grey wolves and bears, with whom the in¬
habitants wage perpetual war. The mod honourable
exploit among the Laplanders is that of killing a bear ;
and the heroes adorn their caps with a fmall plate of
lead or pewter for every bear they have (lain. The
country abounds alfo with elks, beavers, and otters,
which live here unmoleded, and find plenty of firti for
their fubfidence. The foreds of this country furnirfi
haunts to a great number of beautiful martens and
fquirrels ; which lad change their colour every wintey
from brown to grey. Lapland is alfo the native coun¬
try of the zibeling or fable, whpfe (kin is extremely va¬
luable. Here are likewife ermines, weafels, hares,
large black cats which attend the Laplanders in hunt¬
ing, and little prick-eared curs trained to the game.
But the mod remarkable animal of Lapland is the rein¬
deer, of which an account is given in the article Cervus
n° 4. Thefe animals, fo ufeful in various refpe&s to the
natives, are kept at no expence. In fummer they feed
upon grades and alpine plants ; in winter, as already-
mentioned, upon the lichen rangiferusy or rein-deer lichen,
and its varieties, which are fo abundant as in many
parts almod totally to cover the ground for the fpace
of feveral miles, and which the fagacious animal dif-
covers under the fnow by the peculiar acutenefs of its
fmell. Mod of thofe ufed for draught are cadrated
when very young, and are larger and fatter than the
bucks. The woods, mountains, and rivers are well
docked with wild-fowl;, fuch as bullard, partridge,
growfe, heathcock, pheafants, lapwings, fwans, wild-
geefe, wild-ducks, and all forts of aquatic birds that
build and breed in northern climates. In the beginning
of the fpring the fwans go thither in numerous flights
from the German ocean ; the lap wings follow in fuch
fwarms that they darken the (ley as they pafs along,
and feream fo loud that they may be heard at a great
didance. The rocks and mountains are likewife fre¬
quented by eagles, hawks, falcons, kites, and other
birds of prey.—The rivers abound with delicious fal-
mon from the gulph of Bothnia, trout, bream, and
perch of exquifite flavour and amazing magnitude;
and the inhabitants of Wardhus, or Daniih Lapland,
are well fupplied with fifli from the northern ocean*—
With refpedt to infefts, the flies hatched in the mo-
raffes and woods in fummer are fo numerous, that they
often obfeure the face of day; fo venomous, trouble-
fome, and intolerable, that the rein-deer fly to the
tops of the highed mountains for (belter, and the
Laplanders betake themfelves to the fea-fide, which
is the lead infeded by thefe pedilent vermin.
M. de Maupertuis, in his account of the voyage
he made to Lapland, in company with the other
French mathematicians fent thither by the king to
meafure a degree of the meridian, gives us to un-
defdand, that-on the tops of the mountains in Torno
the flies were fo troubkfome, that even the Finland
foldiers, who are counted the mod hardy troops in
the fervice of Sweden, were obliged to cover their faces
with the (kirts of their coats from the attacks of thefe
animals, which fwarmed to fuch a degree, that the
moment a piece of flefh appeared it was blackened all
3 over
Lapland.
LAP
Over. Some of thefe flies are very large, with green
heads, and fetch blood from the fkin wherever they
[ 5^9 1
LAP
The fummer garb of the men confifts of a long Laplan^
coat of coarfe cloth, reaching down the middle of the » "
ftrike. The Laplanders Ihroud themfelves in the fmoke leg, and girded round the waift with a belt or girdle ;
of a large fire kindled for that purpofe ; yet even this
difagreeable expedient was not fufficient to defend the
French philofophers: they were obliged, notwithftand-
ing the exceffive heat, to wrap up their heads in gar-
from which hang a Norway knife, and a pouch con¬
taining flints, matches, tobacco, and other neceflarieaj
the girdle itfelf being decorated with brafs rings and
chains. _ Their caps are made of the fkin of the nor-
ments made of the fkins of rein-deer, called in that them diver, with the feathers on ; and their fhoes of
country lapmudes, and to cover themfelves with a thick the rein-deer fkin, with the hair outwards. They
rampart of fir boughs ; yet all thefe precautions proved wear no linen ; but the garments of the better fort are
ineffe&ual. M. de Maupertuis obferved a lake quite of a finer cloth, and they delight in a variety of co¬
covered with little yellowifh grains, refembling millet lours, though red, as the moft glaring, is the mofl »-
feed, which he fuppofed to be the chryfalifes of fome  r_j • -
of thefe infe&s.
The Laplanders are very low in flature, and are
likewife remarkable for having large heads. They are
alfo ill fhaped, and their features harfh. They are,
however, ftrong, hardy, and robuft, infomuch that
they will bear incredible fatigue ; and it is remarked
that the ftouteft Norwegian is not able to bend the
bow of a Laplander. The women are much lefs home¬
ly than the men, and many of them are noted for a
delicate and florid complexion.
Thefe people are Ample, honeft, hofpitable, and ti¬
morous : their timidity, however, refpedts war alone ;
for to many other fpecies of dangers they expofe them¬
felves with furprifing intrepidity, whether in afcend-
greeable. In winter they are totally cafed up in coats,
caps, boots, and gloves, made of the rein-deer fkins.
In the Flora Lapponica, Linnaeus fays, “ Perhaps the
curious reader will wonder how the people in Lapland,
during the terrible cold that reigns there in winter,
can preferve their lives ; fince almoft all birds, and
even forae wild beafts, defert it at that time. The
Laplander, not only in the day, but through the
whole winter nights, is obliged to wander about in
the woods with his herds of rein-deer. For the rein¬
deer never come under cover, nor eat any kind of fod¬
der, but a particular kind of liverwort. On this ac¬
count the herdfmen are under a neceflity of living con j
tinually in the woods, in order to take care of their
_ cattle, left they fhould be devoured by wild beafts.
ing and defcending mountains and precipices with their The Laplander eafily does without more light, as the
fnow-fhoes and in fledges, or in venturing amidft whirl¬
pools and catara&s in little flender boats made of thin
fir-boards, faftened together with thongs of leather,
fnow refledts the rays that come from the ftars, and a_
the Aurora Borealis illuminates the air every night
with a great variety of figures. No part of our body
willow and ofier. Thefe boats are of different fixes,
from two to fix yards in length, managed with oars,
and caulked with mofs fo tight as to keep out the
water. The Laplanders are partly fettled, and in part
wild and roving: the latter live in tents made with
finews of wild beafts, or tough and flexible twigs of is more eafily dertroyed by cold than the extremities
 j -r... nr»e_r_ L  _r j:rr- . c  of thc i;mbS( wh;ch ^ moft remote frorn the fun of
this micrpcofm, the heart. The kibes that happen to
our hands and feet, fo common in the northern parts
of Sweden, prove this. In Lapland you will never fee
w fuch a thing; although were we to judge by the fitua-
coarfe cloth ; the former are fixed in fmall villages near tion of the country, we fhould imagine juft the contra-
the lakes, and chiefly follow fifhing. They build their ry, efpecially as the people wear no ftockings, as we
cottages fomewhat in the fhape of a cone, by placing do, not only Angle, but double and triple. The Lap-
a circle of large trees or poles aflant in the earth, and 1— u: -f-,r —‘ n ■' * ’ • ’ - "
clofe to each other, fo that their tops meet, and form
a fmall vent for the iffue of the fmoke : they cover the
ground within with branches of trees. In fpring their
food confifts principally of the eggs of water-fowl,
which are extremely plentiful in thofe parts; in fum¬
mer and autumn, of the birds themfelves, and of va¬
rious other of the partridge-tribe ; and in winter of
the milk and flefh of the rein-deer and dried fifh. They
had till lately no bread ; but in lieu thereof ufed the in-
r rind of the pine-tree dried and ground, and dried
lander guards himfelf againft the cold in the following-
manner. He wears breeches made of rein-deer Ikina
with the hair on, reaching down to his heels, and
fhoes made of the fame materials, the hairy part turn¬
ed outwards. He puts into his fhoes flender-eared
broad-leafed cyperus grafs, (carex veftcaria, Spec. PL
or the Bladder Carex), that is cut in fummer and
dried. This he firft combs and rubs in his hands,
and then places it in fuch a manner that it not only
covers his feet quite round, but his legs alfo ; and be¬
ing thus guarded, he is quite fecured againft the intenfc
filh reduced to powder. They make confe&ions and cold. With this grafs they fluff their gloves likewife,
fWnttmns nf bprrips. nnorpl.Va. anrt fnrrpL wWK jn onler to preferve their hands. As this grafs keeps
off the cold in winter, fo in fummer it hinders the feet
from fweating, and at the fame time preferves them
. from being annoyed by ftriking againft ftones, &c. for
together with the feverity of the climate, brace his their fhoes are very thin, being made, net of tanned
nerves to a very unufual pitch of ftrength, and fortify leather, but the raw hide.”
his conftitution in fuch a manner, that he often lives The womens apparel differs very little from that of
to the age of roo, without feeling the leaft pang of the other fex ; only their girdles are more ornamented
decodtions of berries, angelica, and forrel, which they
juftly reckon to be prefervatives againft the feurvy.
The Laplander is fecured in the poffefiion of unin¬
terrupted health by temperance and exercife, which,
diftemper, or even perceiving his vigour in the Teaft
impaired ; for it is not uncommon to fee a Laplander
in extreme old age hunting, fowling, fkaiting, and
performing all the fevereft exercifes with undiminifhed
agility.
r. VoL.IX.Part.il.
with rings, chains, needle-cafes, and toys that fome-
times weigh r20 pounds. In winter, both men and
women lie in their furs ; in fummer, they cover them¬
felves entirely with coarfe blankets to defend them
from the gnats which are intolerable. The Laplanders
4 C are
LAP . f. 57°..]
3t*apJan<f. aft not only well difpofed, but naturally ingenious, driving
* » They make ali their own furniture, theiHroats, (ledges,
bows and arrows. They form neat boxes of thin birch
boards, and inlay them with tire horn of the rein deer.
The Swedes are very fond of the Lapland bafkets made
€>f the roots of tiees, flit in long thin pieces, and
twiited together fo nicely that they will hold water.
Among the roanufa&utes of this country we likewife
number curious horn-fpoons, and moulds in which they
call the trinkets of tin which adorn their girdles. Over
and above thefe doroeftic occupations, the men within
doors perform the office of cooks in dreffing victuals
for the family. The women ait as taylors and em¬
broiderers ; they make clothes, (hoes, and boots, and
harnefs for the rein deer: they fpin thread of fur, and
knit it into caps and gloves that are very foft and
warm. They draw tin into wire through a horn ; and
with this they cover the thread which they ufe in em-
LAP
generally deftroyed. It, however, fre» Lapland.
quently happens, that he will perkvere in his jour, '"'—v■"""■*
ney 50 miles without intermiffion, and without taking
any refrefhment, except occaftonally moiftening his
mouth with the fnow. Before he lets out, the Lap¬
lander whifpers in his ear the way he is to follow, and
the place at which he is to halt, firmly perfuaded that
the bead underltands his meaning: but, in fpite of
this intimation, he frequently (tops (hort long before
he has reached the journey’s end ; and fometimes he
over/hoots the mark by feveral leagues. In ,the begin¬
ning of winter the Laplanders mark the mod frequent¬
ed roads, by (trewing them with fir-boughs; and in¬
deed thefe roads are n6 other than pathways made
through the fnow by the rein-deer and the pulkhas;
their being frequently covered with new fnow, and
alternately beaten by the carriage, confolidates then*
into a kind of caufeway; which is the harder if the
broidering the figures of beads,, flowers, trees, and furface has felt a partial thaw, and been cruded by
liars upon their caps and girdles.
The Laplanders make furprifing excurfions upon
fubfequent frod. It requires great caution to follow
thefe trails; for if the carriage deviates to the right
the fnow in their hunting expeditions. They pro- or left, the traveller is plunged
^ abyfs of fnowr.
In lefs frequented parts, where there is no fuch beaten
road, the Laplander diredls his courfe by certain marka
which he has made on the trees.
The chief occupation of the Laplanders is huntings
vide themfelves each with a pair of (kates, or fnow.
fhoes, which are no other than fir-boards covered with
the rough (kin of the rein-deer, turned in fuch a man¬
ner that the hair rifes againd the .fnow, otherwife
they would be too flippery. Oae of thefe (hoes is and this exercife they perform in various ways. In
ufually as long as the perfon who wears it; the other fummer they hunt the wild beads with fmall dogs,
is about a foot (horter. The feet dand in the middle, trained to, the diverfion. In winter they purfue them
and to them the (hoes are fadened by thongs or withes, by their tracks upon the fnow, ikating with fo great ve-
The Laplander thus equipped wields a long pole in locity, that they very often run down the prey. They
his hand, near the end of which there is a round ball catch ermines in traps, and fometimes with dogs,
of wood to prevent its piercing too deep in the fnow ; They kill fquirrels, martens, and fables, with blunt
and with this he dops himfelf occafionally. By means darts, to avoid wounding the (kin. Foxes and bea-
of thefe accoutrements he will travel at the rate of 60 vers are (lain with (harp pointed darts and arrows; in
miles a-day without being fatigued; afeehding deep (hooting which, they are accounted the bed markfmen
mountains, and Aiding down again with amazing in the world. The larger beads, fuch as bears, wolves.
The Laplander not only travels a-foot, but is pro¬
vided with a carriage drawn by the rein-deer, in which
he journeys with dill greater rapidity. The (ledge,
called flulia, is made in the form of a fmall boat, with
elks, and wild rein-deer, they either kill with fire¬
arms purchafed in Sweden or Norway, or take in
fnares and pits dug in the fbreds. Their particular
laws relating to the chace are obferved with great
pun&uality. The bead becomes the property of the
si convex bottom, thjt it may Aide the more eafily man in whofe fnare or pit he is caught; and he who
over the fnow : the prow is (harp and pointed ; but the difeovers a bear’s den has the exclufive privilege of
fledge is flat behind. The traveller is fwathed in this
carriage like an infant in a cradle, with a dick in his
hand to deer the veflel, and difengage it from pieces
of rock or dumps of trees that may chance to encoun¬
ter it in the route. He mud alfo balance the fledge
with his body, otherwife he will be in danger of be-
hunting him to death. The conqudl of a bear is the
mod honourable atchievement that a Laplander can
perform ; arid the fleffi of this animal they account the
greated delicacy on earth. The bear is always dif-
patched with a fufil, fometimes laid as a fnare, ready
cocked and primed; but more frequently in the hands
ing overturned. The traces, by which this carriage is of the hunter, who runs the mod imminent ri(k of hia
fadened to the rein-deer, are fixed to a collar about
the animal’s neck, and run down over the bread be¬
tween the fore and hind legs* to be connefted with the
prow of the fledge : the reins, managed by the travel¬
ler, are tied to the horns; and the trappings are fur-
nilhed with little bells, the found of which is agreeable
to the animal. With this draught at his tail, it has
been reported that the rein-deer will fly like lightning
L  1 .k ' ... —
life (hould he mifs his aim of wounding the bead
mortally. The death of a bear is celebrated by the
Laplanders as a fignal vidlory. The carcafe is drawn
to the cabin or hut of the vidor by a rein-deer, which
is kept facred from any other work for a whole year
after this fervice. The bear is furrounded by a great
number of men, women, and children, reciting a par¬
ticular hymn or fong of triumph, in which they thank
over hill and dale at the rate of 200 miles a-day. But the vanquilhed enemy for having allowed himfelf to be
this reprefentation is greatly exaggerated. According overcome without doing any mifehief to his conque-
to the beft accounts, the common pace of the rein-deer ror, and welcome his arrival: then they make an apo-
is only at the rate of about four miles an hour; though, ftrophe to heaven, expreffing their acknowledgment to
if he be prefled, he will travel 10 or 12 Swediffi miles God, that he has created beads for the ufe of men,
(70 or 84 Englilh miles) in a day; but by fuch hard and endued mankind with ftrength and courage to over-
LAP l 571 ] LAP
I.aptsnd come and attack the fierceft of the brute creation. The
' » *" hero is faluted by the women, who fpit chewed elder-
bark in his face. He is feafted three days fucceffive*
ly, and his cap is decorated with an additional figure
wrought in tin wire.
The manner in which the young Laplander choofes
a wife is equally remarkable and ludicrous. When he
has pitched upon a female, he employs fome friends as
mediators with the father; and thefe being provided
with fome bottles of brandy, the fuitor accompanies
them to the hut of his futute father-in-law, who in¬
vites the mediators to enter; but the lover is left with¬
out until the liquor be drank, and the propofal dif-
cuffed : then he is called in, and entertained with fuch
fare as the hut affords j yet without feeing his miftrefs,
who retires and goes out on this occafion. Having
obtained leave of her parents to make Iris addreffes in
perfon, he puts on his heft apparel, and is admitted to
the lady, whom he falutes with a kifs: then he pre-
fents her with the tongue of a rein deer, a piece of
beaver’s flefh, or fome other fort of prqvifion. She de¬
clines the offer, which is made in prefence of her li¬
fters and relations; but makes a fignal to the lover to
follow her into the fields, where (he accepts the pre-
fents. Thus encouraged, he begs her permiffion to
fleep with her in the hut: if Ihe confents, there is no
further difficulty; if Ihe difapproves of the propolal,
Ihe drops her prefents on the ground. When the lo¬
vers are agreed, the youth is permitted to vifit his in¬
amorata as often as he lhall think proper: but every
time he comes, he mull purchafe this pleafure with a
frelh bottle of brandy ; a perquifite fo agreeable to the
father, that he often pollpones ihe celebration of the
nuptials for two or three years. At lengt h the cere¬
mony is performed at church by the prieil of the pa-
rilh. Even after this event, the hufband is obliged to
ferve his father-in-law a whole year j at the expiration
of which he retires to his own habitation with his wife,
and her patrimony ot rein-deer, and receives prefents
from all his friends and relations. From this period he
fequetfers his wife from the company of all ftrangers,
efpecially of the male fex, and watches over her con-
duft with the moll jealous vigilance.
Many Lapland women are barren, and none of them
are very fruitful. A woman, immediately after deli¬
very, fwallows a draught of whale-fat: the child is
walhed with fnow or cold water, and wrapped up in
a hare Hein. The mother is feldom above five days in
the ftraw, and in fourteen is generally quite recovered:
then Ihe carries the child to church to be baptized.
Before Ihe can reach the refidence of the prieft, (he is
often obliged to traverfe large forefts, mountains, lakes,
and wide-extended wades of fnow. The infant is fa-
ftened in a hollowed piece of wood, ftretched naked
on a bed of fine mots covered with the foft Hein of a
young rein deer, and flung by two (traps to the back
of the mother, who always fucklee her own child. At
home this little cradle is hung to the roof of the hut,
and the child lulled afleep by Twinging it from one fide
to the other. The boys from their infancy praftife
the bow; and are not allowed to break their fall
Until they have hit the mark. The female children
are as early initiated in the bufinefs peculiar to their
fex.
Thefe people, though for the moft part vigorou*
and healthy, are not altogether exempted from diT-
temper. They are fubject to fore eyes, and ^even to —■'v-'—-*
blindnefs, from the fmoke of their huts, and the fire
to which they are almolt continually expofed. Some
wafte away in confumptions; others are afflifted with
rheumatic pains and the feurvv; and a few are fub-
jedd to vertigo and apoplexy. For the cure of all their
internal dii’orders, they ufe no other medicine than the
deco&ion of a certain fpecies of mofs; and when thij
cannot be procured, they boil the ftalk of angelica in
the milk of the rein-deer. In order to remove a fixed
pain, they apply a large mulhroom, burn ng hot, ta
the part affedted ; an i this produces a bliitcr, which,
is fuppofed to draw off the peccant humour. Tq their
wounds they apply nothing but the turpentine that
drops from the fir-tree. When they are froft-bitten,
(though according to the above extrafl from Lin¬
naeus this feldom or never happens), we are told that
they thrall a red hot iron into a cheefe made of rein¬
deer’s milk, and with the fat that drops from it anoint
the frozen member, which generally recovers. When
a Laplander is fuppofed to be on his death bed, his
friends exhort him to die in the faith of Chrift, and
bear his fufferings with refignation, by remembering
the palfiou of our Saviour. They are not, however,
very ready to attend him in his laft moments; and as
foon as he expires, quit the place with precipitation,
apprehending fome injury from his fpirit or ghoft,
which they believe remains with the corple, and takes
all opportunities of doing mifehief to the living. The
deceafed is wrapped up in woollen or linen, accord¬
ing to his circumftances, and depofited in a coffin by
a perfon fele&ed for that purpofe: but this office he
will not perform, unlefs he is firlt fecured from the ill
offices of the manes, by a confecrated brafs ring fixed
on his left arm. The Chriftian religion in this coun¬
try has not yet difpelled all the rites of heathenilh fu-
perllition: together with the body they put into the
coffin an ax. a flint, and fteel, a flalk of brandy, fome
dried filh and venifon. With the ax the deceafed is
fuppofed to hew down the bulhes or boughs that may
obttrudl his paffage in the other world : the fteel and
flint are deligned for ilriking a light, Ihould he find
himfelf in the dark at the day of judgment; and on
the provifion they think he may lublift during his
journey.
The Mufcovite Laplanders obferve other ceremonies,
that bear an affinity to the fuperftitions of the Greek
church. They not only fupply the defundl with money,
but likewife provide him with money for the porter of
paradife, and a certificate figned by the prieft, and di¬
rected to St Peter, fpecifying, that the bearer had li¬
ved like a good Chriftian, and ought to be admitted
into heaven. At the head of the coffin they place a
little image of St Nicholas, who is greatly reverenced
in all parts of Mufcovy as a friend to the dead. Be¬
fore the interment, the friends of the deceafed kindle
a fire of fir boughs near the coffin, and exprefs their
forrow in tears and lamentations. They walk in pro-
ceffion feveral times round the body, demanding, in
a whining tone, the reafon of his leaving them on
earth. They alk whether he was out of humour
with his wife; whether he was in want of meat,
drink, clothing, or other neceffaries; and whether
he had not fueceeded in hunting and filhing ? Thefe,
4 C 2 and
1 A t> [i72] LAP  
Lapland, and other fuch interrogations, to which the defund Lapland contains about eight churches, which in fome Lapivna
makes no reply, are intermingled with groans and parts lie at fo great a diftance from each other, that a Lapfe*
hideous bowlings ; and, between whiles, the prieft native is frequently obliged to travel three days in or- v ■ ■ i
fprinkles the corpfe and the. mourners alternately with der to attend divine fervice. The Laplanders, before
holy water. Finally, the body is conveyed to the their converfion to Chriftianity, which was not till
place of interment on a fledge drawn by a rein-deer ; lately introduced amongft them, pofTeffed no books or
and this, together with the cloaths of the deceafed, manufcripts, though they knew many traditional hi-
are left as the prieft’s perquifite. Three days after ftories and fongs of ancient heroes and princes who
the burial, the kinfmen and friends of the defunft are once reigned over them ; but involved in great uncer-
invited to an entertainment, where they eat the flefh tainty, and mixed with the moft fabulous accounts,
of the rein-deer which conveyed the corpfe to the bu- They have now a tranflation of the New Teftament in
rying-ground. This being a facrifice to the manes, their language ; and many of the natives are able to
the bones are colle&ed into a bafleet and interred, read and write.
Two thirds of the effedts of the deceafed are inherited LAPLYSIA, or Sea hare; a genus of marine pjate
by his brothers, and the remainder divided among infefts belonging to the order of vermes mollufca. The CCLXII2.
his lifters: but the lands, lakes, and rivers, are held body is covered with membranes refle&ed. It hath a
in coparceny by all the children of both fexes, ac- fhield like membrane on the back, a lateral pore on
cording to the divifion made by Charles IX. of Swe- the right fide, the anus on the extremity of the back,
den, when he affigned a certain traft of land to each with four feelers refembling ears. The figure repre¬
family.
The commerce of the Laplanders is more confider-
fents the depilans minor, which grows to two inches
and a half in length, and to more than an inch in dia-
able than one would expeft in a defart country inha- meter : its body approaches to an oval figure, and is
bited by a favage ignorant people. They export foft, punftated, of a kind of gelatinous fubftance, and
great quantities of fifh to the northern parts of Both.-, of a pale lead colour ; from the larger extremity there
nia and White Ruffia. They likewife trade with the arife four oblong and thick protuberances: thefe are
neighbouring countries of Norway, Sweden, Mufco- the tentacula; two of them ftand nearly ere A, two are
vy, and Finland, by felling rein-deer, fine furs, baf- thrown backward. It is not uncommon about our
kets and toys of their own manufa&ure, dried pikes, fhores, efpecially off Anglefea. It caufes, by its poi-
and cheefe made of the rein-deer’s milk. In return fonous juice, the hair to fall off the hands of thofe that
for thefe commodities they receive rixdollars, woollen touch it ; and is fo extremely fetid as to create fick-
cloaths, linen, copper, tin, flour, oil, hides, needles, nefs at ftomach.—The major, or greater fea-hare, grows
knives, fpirituous liquors, tobacco, and other necefla- to the length of eight inches.
The Laplanders march in caravans to the fairs
in Finland and Norway: thefe are compofed of i
LAPSANA, nipplewort : A genus of the poly,
gamia aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia clafa
long firing of 30 or 40 rein-deer and pulkhas tied to of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
one another, the foremoft being led by a Laplander the 49th order, Compofua. The receptacle is naked ;
a foot. When they have chofen a fpot for an encamp- the calyx caliculated, with all the inferior feales cana-
ment, they form a large circle of their rein-deer and liculated or finely channelled. There are four fpecies,
pulkhas ready yoked ; and the animals lying down which grow commonly as weeds by the fides of ditches.,
quietly on the fnow, are fed with mofs by their ma- The young leaves of the common kind, called dock-cref-
fters. The people kindle great fires, around which, y«, have the tafte of radifties, and are eaten raw at Con«
men, women, and children fit, and fup on dried fifh : ftantinople as a falad. In fome parts of England the
but the more voluptuous fpread out bear-fkins un- common people boil them as greens, but they have a
der their tents, where they lie at their eafe and fmoke bitter and difagreeable tafte.
tobacco. LAPSE, in ecclefiaftical law, a flip or omiflion of
The revenue arifing from this country is of no great a patron to prefent a clerk to a benefice within fix
confequence : it is paid partly in rix-dollars, but chief- months of its being void : in which cafe, the benefice
ly in furs; nay, fome that can procure neither, pay is faid to be in lapfe., or lapfed, and the right of pre-
the tribute in dried pikes. The produce of the mines fentation devolved to the ordinary,
forms likewife a confiderable article. Fifty fquirrel- And if the ordinary negleft to prefent during the
fleins, or one fox-fkin, with a pair of Lapland fhoes, fame time, the right of prefentation accrues to the
are valued at one rixdollar. Part of the taxes is allot- metropolitan, and to the king by negled of the me¬
ted for the maintenance of the Lapland clergy.—The tropolitan. This right of lapfe was firft eftabliflied in
frightful afpeft of this country has been deemed a the reign of Henry II. when the biihops firft began to
more effe&ual defence than artificial bulwarks and gar- exercife univerfally the right of inftitution to churchest
rifons, of which here are none; or than the arms and and therefore when there is no right of inftitution,,
courage of the natives, who are neither warlike in there is no right of lapfe; fo that no donative can
themfelves, nor in the leaft tin&ured with difeipline. lapfe to the ordinary, unlefs it hath been augmented
The Laplanders call themfelves Salme-Same, and Sa~ by the king’s bounty ; but no right of lapfe can ac-
xnm-Almatjeh. Their country they denominate Same- crue, when the original prefentation is in the crown.
d-anda, or Same-aednam ; the Swedes ftyle it Lapland In cafe the benefice becomes void by death, or ceflion
or Lappmarhen, and the inhabitants Lappar. The na- through plurality of benefices, there the patron is.
tives of thofe diftri&s under the dominion of Sweden bound to take notice of the vacancy at bis own peril;
and Denmark are Lutherans; while many of thofe but in cafe of a vacancy by refignation or canonical
who are fubjeft to Ruflia are ftill Pagans. Swedilh deprivation, or if a clerk prefented be refufed for in-
L A R r 573 ] L A R
Lapwing fufficlency, thefe being matters of which the bifliop
!l alone is prefumed to be cognizant, here the law re-
,Larceny- quires him to give notice thereof to the patron, other-
wife he can take no advantage by way of lapfe; nei¬
ther (hall any lapfe accrue thereby to the metropolitan
or the king. If the bifhop refufe or negleft to exa¬
mine and admit the patron’s clerk, without good rea-
fon affigned or notice given, he (hall have no title to
prefent by lapfe: and if the right of prefentation be
litigious or contefled, and an aftion be brought againft
the bifhop to try the title, no lapfe (hall occur till the
queftion of right be decided. If the bifhop be both
patron and ordinary, he fhall not have a double time
allowed him to collate in : and if the bifhop doth not
collate his own clerk immediately to the living, and
the patron prefents, though after the fix months are
lapfed, yet the prefentation is good, and the bifhop is
bound to inftitute the patron’s clerk. If the bifhop
fuffer the prefentation to lapfe to the metropolitan, the
patron alfo has the fame advantage if he prefents be¬
fore the archbifhop has filled up the benefice : yet the
ordinary cannot, after lapfe to the metropolitan, col¬
late his own clerk to the prejudice of the archbifhop.
But if the prefentation lapfes to the king, the patron
fhall never recover his right till the king has fatisfied
his turn by prefentation 5 for nullum tempus occurrit
regi.
LAPWING, in ornithology. See Tringa.
LAQUEARIUS, a kind ofathleta among the an¬
cients, who in one hand held a laqucus, i. e. a fort of
fnare, wherewith to embarrafs and entangle his anta-
gonift, and in the other a poignard to flab him.
LAQUEUS, in furgery, a kind of ligature fo con¬
trived, that, when flretched by any weight or the like,
it draws up clofe. Its ufe is to extend broken or dif-
jointed bones, to keep them in their places while they
are fet, and to bind the parts clofe together.
LARARIUM, was a chapel which the Romans
frequently had in their houfes for the houfehold gods,
called lares. Spartian fays, that Alexander the fon of
Mammeus kept in his lararium the figure of our Sa-
- viour, together with his other idols.
LAR-BOARD, among feamen, the left-hand fide
of the fhip when you Hand with your face towards the
head.
LARCENY, or Theft, by contra&ion for latro-
ciny, lairocinium, is diftinguifhed by the law into two
forts: the one called fimple larceny, or plain theft, un¬
accompanied with any other atrocious circumflance;
and mixed or compound larceny, which alfo includes in
it the aggravation of a taking from one’s houfe or
perfon.
I. Simple larceny, when it is the Healing of goods
above the value of twelvepence, is called grand lar¬
ceny ; when of goods to that value, or under, is pe¬
tit larceny: offences, which are confiderably diflin-
guifhed in their punifhment, but not otherwife. See
Theft.
II. Mixed, or compound larceny, is fuch as has all
the properties of the former, (fee Theft) ; but is
accompanied with either one or both of the aggra¬
vations of a taking from one’s houfe or perfon. Firfl
therefore of larceny from the houfe, and then of lar-
ceny from the perfon.
A. Larceny from the houfe, though it might feera
to have a higher degree of guilt than firaple larceny, Larceny,
yet is not at all diflingutlhed from the other at com- —v“—
mon law : unlefs where it is accompanied with the
circumftance of breaking the houfe by night; and
then it falls under another defeription, viz. that of
burglary, (fee Burglary). But now by feveral a&s
of parliament (the hiflory of which is very ingeniouf-
ly deduced by a learned modern writer j-, who hath t Barr.
fhown them to have gradually arifen from our im- 375*
provements in trade and opulence), the benefit of cler¬
gy is taken from larcenies committed- in an houfe in
almofl every inftance : except that larceny of the ttock
or utenfils of the plate glafs company from any of their
houfes, &c. is made only Angle felony, and liable to
tranfportation for feven years. The multiplicity of the
general afts is apt to create fome confufion ; but up¬
on comparing them diligently, we may colleft, that the
benefit of clergy is denied upon the following domeftic
aggravations of larceny; viz. firft, in larcenies above
the value of twelvepence, committed, 1. In a church Blaclji.
or chapel, with or without violence, or breaking the
fame; 2. In a booth or tent in a market or fair, in
the day-time or in the night, by violence or breaking
the fame, the owner or fome of his family being
therein : 3. By robbing a dwelling-houfe in the day¬
time (which robbing implies a breaking), any perfon
being therein: 4. In a dwelling-houfe by day or by
night, without breaking the fame, any perfon being
therein and put in fear; which amounts in law to a rob¬
bery : and in both thefe laft cafes the acceffory before
the fa61 is alfo excluded from his clergy. Secondly, in
larcenies to the value offiveJhillings, committed, 1. By
breaking any dwelling-houfe, or any out houfe, (hop,
or warehoufe thereunto belonging, in the day-time, al¬
though no perfon be therein ; which alfo now extends
to aiders, abettors, and acceffories before the fa6l:
2. By privately dealing goods, wares, or merchandife
in any (hop, warehoufe, coach-houfe, or dable, by
day or by night; though the fame be not broken o-
pen, and though no perfon be therein ; which likewife
extends to fuch as affid, hire, or command the offence
to be committed. Ladly, in larcenies to the value of
fortyJhillings in a dwelling-houfe, or rts out houfes, al¬
though the fame be not broken, and whether any per¬
fon be therein or not; unlefs committed againd their
mafters by apprentices under the age of 15. This alfa
extends to thofe who aid or affid in the commiffion of
any fuch offence.
2. Larceny from the perfon, is either by privately-
dealing, or by open and violent affault, which is ufu-
ally called robbery.
The offence of privately dealing from, a man’s per¬
fon, as by picking his pocket or the like, privily, with¬
out his knowledge, was debarred of the benefit of cler¬
gy fo early as by the datute 8 Eliz. c. 4. But then*
it mud be fuch a larceny as Hands in need of the be¬
nefit of clergy, viz. of above the value of x 2 d. 5 elfe
the offender (hall not have judgment of death. For
the datute creates no new offence ; but only takes a-
way the benefit of clergy, which was a matter of grace,,
and leaves the thief to the regular judgment of the an¬
cient law. This feverity (for a mod fevere law it cer¬
tainly is) feems to be owing to the eafe with which
fuch offences are committed, the difficulty of guarding
againft them, and the boldnefs with which they were
prat;-
L A R C 574 ] L A R
X-ar praftifed (tvcn in the queen's court and prefence) a»
Lardner t^ie t'me w^en t^*3 ftatute w’a8 made : befides that this
, ^ is an infringement of property in the manual occupa¬
tion or corporal poffeffion of the owner, which >vas an
offence even in a date of nature. And therefore the
faccularii, or cutpurfes, were more feverely punifhed
than common thieves by the Roman and Athenian
laws.
As to open and violent larceny from the perfon, fee
Robbery.
LAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Pars,
vwith a caftle. It carries on a great trade in fllk; and
Us territory abounds in oranges, lemons, and very
large tamarinds. E. Long. 54. ty. N. Lat. 27. 30.
LARACHA, an ancient and itrong town of Afri¬
ca, in the kingdom of Fez. It is feated at the mouth
of a river of the fame name, with a good harbour. It
was once in the poffeffion of the Spaniards ; hut the
Moors took it from them. W. Long. 5. 55. N. Lat.
35-
LARDNER (Nathaniel), an eminent Englifh dif-
fenting divine, was bora at Hawkhurft in Kent, June
6. 1684. After a grammatical education, to which
great attention muft have been given, and in which a
no lefs rapid progrefs muft have been made, he was
fent firft to a diffenting academy in London, which
was under the care of the Rev. Dr Jofhua Oldfield;
and thence, in his 16th year, to profecute his ftudies
at Utrecht, under the celebrated proftflors D’Uries,
Giaevius, and Barman. Here he remained fomewhat
more than three years, and then removed for a ftiort
fpace to Leyde-n. In 1703 he returned to England,
continuing at his father’s houfe to employ himftlf by
clofe and diligent preparation for the facred profeffion
which he had in view Qualified as he was, it was
not till 1 709 that he preached his fii ft fermon, from
Romansi. 16.— “ a text (his biographer remarks) than
which there could not have been a mote proper one
for a man who was deflined in the order of Divine
Providence to be one of the ableft advocates for the au¬
thenticity and truth of the Chriftian revelation that
ever exifted.”
A few years after this, Lardner was received into
Lady Treby’s family as domeftic chaplain and tutor
to her fon, and continued in this comfortable fituation
till her lady Ihip’s death in 1721 This event threw him
into circumftances of feme perpl.xity, having preach¬
ed to feveral congregations during his refidence with
Lady Treby without the approbation or choice of any
one congregation. Here we are told, “ that it refle&s
no honour on the D’ffenters, that a man of fuch merit
ftiould fo long have been neglt&ed.” But it has been
obferved upon this, that the pulpit was not the place
in which Mr Lardner wjs calculated either to convey
improvement or acquire reputation. Dr Kippis af-
MnthU teiwards informs us, “ that his mode of elocution
gtview, was very unpleafant ; that from his early and extreme
Jan. 1789 deafnefs he could have no fuch command of his voice
as to give it a due modulation ; and that he greatly
dropped his word<.” It cannot then, as his biogra¬
pher adds, be matter of furprife that he was not po¬
pular ; nor, it may be added, can it be any reflexion
on the congregations to which he occafionally preach¬
ed, that they did not choofe for their -minifter a man,
who, notwithftanding his great learning and amiable
virtues, was fa deficient as a public fpeaker, that it Lardner.
was impoffible to hear him with any pleafure, and
fcarcely without pain.
Though Mr Lardner had no church at which he
officiated as minifter, he was engaged with fome of
his difTenting brethren in preaching a Tuefday evening
lefture at the Olo Jcwiy. Acquainted probably with
the direction of his Uudies, they appointed him to
preach on the proof of the Credibility ef the Gofpel Hi-
Jlory. This he difeufied, we are told, in two fermons ;
and profieating the fubjeft which he had taken up in
thefe difeourfes, in Feb. 1727, he publifted, in two
volumes odtav ., the Firjl Part of “ The Credibility
of the Gofpel Hiftory, or the Fa&s occasionally
mentioned in the New Teftament confirmed by Paifages
of ancient Authors who were contemporary with our
Saviour or his A poftles, or -lived near their Time.” An
Appendix was fubjoined, relating to the time of He¬
rod’s death.
Thus Mr Lardner commenced author, and began
his literary career with Angular reputation. “ It is
fcarcely neceflary to fay (obferves Dr Kippis), how
well this work was received by the learned world. Not
only was it highly approved by the Proteftant Dilfen-
ters, with whom the author was more immediately
conne&ed, but by the clergy in general of the efta-
bliftied church; and its reputation gradually extended
into foreign countries. It is indeed an invaluable per¬
formance, and hath rendered the moft effential fervice
to the caufe of Chritlianity. Whoever perufes this
work (and to him that does not perufe it, it will be
to his o^'n lofs) will find it replete with admirable in-
ftru&ion, found learning, and juft and candid criti-
cifm.” Thefe two, with the fubfequent fifteen, vo¬
lumes oftavo, and the four thin quartos intitled "Jewifh
and Heathen Tejlmoniest occupied him, with the inter¬
ruption arifing from fome fmaller produftions, during
the fpace of forty three years.
D Kippis gives us a particular account of the time
when each volume was publifhed, and of the fubje&s
difeufiVd in each. The following ufeful informa¬
tion which the Do&or introduces, in fpeaking of
the “ Supplement to the Credibility,” deferves well to
be tranferibed. “ I cannot avoid ftiongly recom¬
mending this work (fays he) to the attention of
all young divines. Indeed, I think that it ought to
be read by every theological ftudent before he quits
the univerfity or academy in which he is educated.
There are three other works which will be found of
eminent advantage to thofe who are intended for, or
beginning to engage in, the Chriftian miniftry. Thefe
are, Butler’s Analogy, Bifhop Law’s Confiderations
on the Theory of Religion, and Dr Taylor’s Key t®
Apoftolical Writings, prefixed to his Paraphrafeon the
Epiftle to the Romans. Without agreeing with every
circumftance advanced in thefe works, it may be faid
of them with the greateft truth, that they tend to open
and enlarge the mind ; that they give important views
of the evidence, nature, and defign of revelation; and
that they difplay a vein of reafoning and inquiry which
may be extended to other obje&s befides thofe imme¬
diately confidered in the books themfelves.— It muft
not be forgotten, that the Supplement to the Credibi¬
lity has a place in the excellent collection of treatifes
in divinity which has lately been publiihed by Dr Wat-
4 fba
L A R f 575 1 L A R
JL«red« fon Wfhop of Landaff. For a colleftion willed cannot
II fail of being eminently conducive to the inftruftion and
iifiptovement of younger clergymen, and for the noble,
manly, and truly evangelical preface by which it is
preceded, this great prelate is entitled to the gratitude
of the Chriflian world.” It may not be improper *o
add, that the Supplstnent to the Credibility was feme
years ago publifhed feparately by the biokfellers, un¬
der the title of The Hijlory of the Gofpels and Epijlles.
Applauded as Dr Lardner’s works were, he received
little recompence for them. Some of the latter vo¬
lumes of the Credibility were publifhed at a lofs; and
at laft he fold the copy-right and all the remaining
printed copies to the bookfellers, for the trifling fum
of L.150. His objeff, however, was not private emo¬
lument, but to ferve the interefts of truth and virtue;
and it pleafed Divine Providence to fpare his life, both
to complete his extetlive plan, and to fee the laft vo¬
lume, the 4th of the Tejlimonies, publifhed. This was
in 1767. He was feized with a decline in the lummer
follotying ; and was carried off in a few days at Hawk-
hurft, the place of his nativity, where he had a fmall
paternal diate, in the 85th year of his age.
LAREDO, a fea-port town of Spain, in the bay
of Bifcay, with a large fafe harbour. It is 30 miles
weft: of Bilboa, and 72 north by weft of Burgos. W.
Long. 3. 45. N. Lat. 43. 23.
LARENTINALIA, jin antiquity, a feaft held
among the Romans on the 23d day of December, but
ordered to be obferved twice a year by Auguftus ; by
fome fuppofed to have been in honour of the Lares,
but by others, with more probability, in honour of
Acca Laurentia ; and to have been the fame with Lau-
rentalia.
LARES, among the ancients, derived by Apu-
leius (De Deo Socratis), from lar, familiaris; a kind
of domeftic genii, or divinities, wotfhipped in houfts,
and efteenped the guardians and proteftors of families ;
fuppofed to refide more immediately in the chimney
corner;
The Lares were diftinguifhed from the Penates ; as
the former were fuppofed to prefide over houfe-keep-
ing, the fervants in families, and domeftic affairs; and
the latter were the protestors of the mafters of fami¬
lies, their wives and children. Accordingly the Lares
were dreffed in fhort fuccimft habits, to fhow their
readinefs to ferve ; and they held a fort of cornucopia
in their hands, as a fignal of hofpitality and good
houfe-keeping. According to Ovid, there were gene¬
rally two of them, who were fometimes reprefented
with a dog at their feet.
Plutarch diftinguilhts good and evil Lares, as he
had before done good and evil Genii.—There were
alfo fome public,' others private Lares.
Apuleius tells us the domeftic Lares were no more
than the fouls of departed perfons, who had lived well,
and difeharged the duties of their ftation ; whereas
thofe who had done otherwife, were vagabonds, wan¬
dering about and frightening people, called Larva and
Lemures.
The Lares were alfo called Penates, and were wor-
Ihipped under the figures of little marmoufets, or ima¬
ges of wax, filver, or earthen ware.
The public Lares were alfo called Compitales, from
compitum “ a crofs-way and ViaUt, from via “away
or public road as being placed at the meetings <jf Lares,
roads and in the high-ways, and efteemed the patrons v~“
and proteftors of travellers.
Theff private Lares took care of particular houfes
and families ; thefe they alfo called Prajldes, from
prdtjlo ;
Hputrilprftant oculis omoia tuia fu't. Ovid Faft.
They gave the name Urbani, i e. “Lares of cities,” to
thofe who had cities under their care ; and Hojliiii, to
thofe who were to keep their enemies off. There were
alfo Lares of the country, called Rurales, as appears by
feveral antique inferiptions.
The Lares were alfo genial gods, and were fnppofei
to take cate of childfen from their birth- It is for this
reafon that when Macrobius tells u# the Egyptians had
four gods who prefided over the birth of children, viz.
the Genius, Fortune, Love, and Neceffity, called
Prajlites, fome interpret him as if he bad faid the E-
gyptians had Lares; but they have mentioned that
there was a great difference between the Lares of the
Romans and the Praeftites of the Egyptians. How¬
ever, the karned Mr Bryant affirms that they were the
fame.
The ancients differ extremely about the origin of
the Lares. Varro and Macrobius fay that they were
the children of Mania ; Ovid makes them the iffne of
Mercury, and the Naiad Lara, or Larunda; Apukius
affures us they were the pofterity of the Lemures ; Ni-
gridius, according to Arnobius, made them fometimes
the guardians and prote&ors of houfes, and fometimes
the fame with the Curetes of Sam .thracia, which the
Greeks call Idai datlyli Nor was Varro more confiltent
in his opinion of thefe gods ; fometimes making them
the manes of heroes, and fometimes gods of the air.
T. Tatiu* king of the Sabines, was the firft who
built a temple to the Lares The chimney and fire¬
place in the houfe were particularly confecrated to
them.
Tertullian tells us, the cuftom of worfhtpping the
Lares arofe from this, that they anciently interred:
their dead in their houfes; whence the credulous
people took occafion to imagine their fouls continued
there alfo, and proceeded to pay them divine honours.
To this it may be added, that the cuftom being after¬
wards introduced of burying in the highways, they
might hence take occafion to regard them as gods of
the highways.
The vidfim offered to the Lares in the public facri-
fices was a hog : in private, they offered them wine,
incenfe, a crown of wool, and a little of what was left
at the table. They alfo crowned them with flowers,,
particularly the violet, myrtle, and rofemary. Their
fymbol was a dog, which was ufually rtprefented
by their fide, on account of its fidelity and the fer-
vice it does to man in watching his -houfe. They
were fometimes alfo reprefented as clothed in a dog’s
fkin.
The term Lares, according to Mr Bryant, was-
formed from lafen, an ancient word by which the ark.
was reprefented : and he fuppofes that the Lares and
Manes were the fame domeftic deities under different
names; and that by tbefe terms the Hetrurians and
Latins denoted the dii arkita, who were no other than
their arkite anceftors, or the perfons preferved in the
laren or ark ; the genius of which was Ifis, the repu¬
ted
L A R [ 576 ] L A R
t<*d parent of the world. He obferves farther, that
they are defcribed as daemons and genii, who once li-
j ved on earth, and were gifted with immortality. Ar-
nobius ftyles them Lares quofdam genios iff funfldrum
animas; and he fays, that according to Varro, they
were the children of Mania. Huetius (Demonft.
Prop. 4. p. 139.) adds, that Mania had alfo the name
of Larunda ; and (he is ftyled the mother of the dae¬
mons. By fome (he is called Lara, and was fuppofed
to prefide over families; and children were offered at
her altar in order to procure her favour. In lieu of
thefe they in after-times offered the heads of poppies
and pods of garlic.
LARGE, a fea term applied to the wind when
it croffes the line of a fhip’s courfe in a favourable di-
re&ion, particularly on the beam or quarter. Thus,
if a fhip fleer weft, then the wind in any point of the
compafs to the eaftward of the fouth or north may be
called large, unlefs when it is diretlly eaft, and then it
is faid to be right aft. Sailing large is, therefore, ad¬
vancing with a large wind, fo as that the fheets are
flackened and flowing, and the bow-lines entirely dif-
tifed. This phrafe is generally oppofed to failing clofe-
hauled.
LARGESS. SeeLARGirio.
LARGITIO, in Roman antiquity, was a diftribu-
tion of corn, provifion, cloaths, money, &c. to the
people. Gracchus, when tribune, to make himfelf
popular, paired a law for fupplying the Roman citizens
with corn at a very low rate, out of the public gra¬
naries. Claudius, another tribune, with the fame
views to popular applaufe, procured it to be diftributed
gratis.—Czto, to win the common people from Csefar,
perfuaded the fenate to do the fame, and 300,000 citi¬
zens thared in the diftribution. Csefar, after his triumph,
extended his bounty to 150,000, giving them each a
tnina. The Roman emperors enlarged ftill further the
lift of thofe who were to partake of their diftributions.
Largitio is frequently taken in a bad fenfe, to fignify
a mafleed bribery; whereby candidates purchafed votes,
when they ftood for places of honour or truft in the
Hate. The diftribution of money was called congiarium,
and the diftributors divifores and fequeftres.
LARGS, a village on the weft coaft of Scotland,
oppofite to the ifland of Bute ; rendered memorable by
the defeat of the Norwegians here in their laft invafion
of this country.—This invafion was made in the year
1263, with a fleet of 160 fail and an army of 20,000
men, commanded by Haquin king of Norway, whofe
ravages on the coaft of Ayr, Bute, and Arran, reach¬
ing the Scottifh court, an army was immediately af-
fembled by Alexander III. and a bloody engagement
enfued at this village, when 16,000 of the invaders
were flain in the battle and flight, with 5000 Scots.
Haquin efcaped to the Orkneys, where he foon after
died of grief. The entrenchments of the Norwegian
camp may ftill be traced along the fhore of this place.
The Scottifh commanders who fell in battle were bu¬
ried in a riling field, near the village ; three or four
perfons were interred in one grave, on each fide of
which was a large ftone, a third was placed acrofs the
grave, fupported at the extremities by the fide ftoncs,
and in this rude manner the warriors lay entombed.
Some years ago the proprietor of the field demolifhed
thefe repofitories of the dead, leaving only one (a
175.
fpecial favour!), which ferves to give an idea of the
whole.
LAR1NO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, in the Capitanata, with a bifhop’s fee. E. Long.
15.51. N.Lat. 41.48.
LARISSA, an ancient, rich, and celebrated town
of Greece, in the province of Janna or Theflaly, with
an archbifhop’s fee of the Greek church, a palace, and
feveral handfome mofques. According to Virgil, it
was the country of Achilles. It was alfo the place
where Philip the father of Alexander the Great refi-
ded.—The inhabitants carry, on a confiderable trade.
The city is agreeably feated on the river Peneus, in
E. Long. 23. 36. N. Lat. 38. 51.
LARIX, the larch-tree. See Pinus.
LARK, in ornithology. See Alauda, and Bird-
Catching.
The lark is not only a very agreeable bird for the
cage, but will live upon almoft any food, fo that it
have once a week a frefh tuft of three-leaved grafs.
The proper method of keeping them in health is this:
there muft be two pans of food, the one containing
meat, the other oatmeal and hempfeed. A very good
food is the following: boil an egg very hard, to
which add the crumb of a halfpenny loaf, and as much
hempfeed; let the egg be chopped very fmall, and the
hempfeed bruifed in the mortar ; when thefe are mix¬
ed, the bread is to be crumbled in among the reft, and
the whole to be rolled together with a common roll¬
ing-pin, and kept for ufe. There muft be fome fine
fmall gravel ftrewed at the bottom of the cage, and
renewed at fartheft once in a week. This will pre¬
vent the bird’s feet from getting hurt by being clog¬
ged with the dung ; and his bafking in this will keep
him alfo from growing loufy, after which few come to
good. There muft be a perch in the cage, and it muft
either be lined with green bays, or made of fine mat¬
ting, which the lark is very fond of. When the bird
is firft taken, fome meat muft be ftrewed upon the fand
in the bottom of the cage; fpr it will be fometimes
almoft famiflied before it finds the meat in the pan.
The cock-bird of this kind is known from the hen
by the loudnefs and length of his call, by his tallnefs
as he walks about the cage, and by his doubling his
notes in the evening, as if he was going with his mate
to rooft. A better rule than all others, however, is
his finging ftrong ; for the hen wood-lark fings but
very weakly.—Both the cock and hen of this kind are
fubjedt to many diforders; the principal of thefe are
cramps, giddinefs of the head, and breeding lice.
Cleanlinefs is the beft cure for the firft and the
laft of thefe complaints; but we know of no cure
for the other. A good ftrong bird, however, will
often laft very well five or fix years, and improve all
the time.
LARKSPUR. See Delphinium.
LARR1BUNDAR, a fea-port town of Afia, in
Indoftan ; feated at the mouth of the river Sinda, or
Indus, with a harbour capable of receiving ftiips of
200 tons burden. It is but a fmall place, confifting
of about 100 houfes built with wood; but has a ftone
fort, with a few guns. E. Long. 67. o. N. Lat. 25. o.
LARVA, in natural hiftory, a name given by Lin*
nasus to infedts in that ftate, called by other writers
truca or caterpillar. See Transformation of Insects.
LARVAE,
L A R [ 577 ] L A R
-Larva LARVJE, in antiquity, derived from the Hetrufcan
ii word lar or lars, fignifying “ prince or lord,” deno-
. Larus. tej ^ gjj0fts Qf the deceafed, confidered as wicked
~v and mifchievous. Hence -is formed the term larvatus,
i. e. larvtl indutus or demoniac* The ingenious Mr Far¬
mer urges the etymology and ufe of this term to prove,
that the heathen demons were human ghofts.—The lar-
vse were alfo called lemures.
Larv.®, in mineralogy, the fame with petrifadlions.
See Petrifactions.
Plates LARUS, the gull, in ornithology; a genus be-
GCLXIV. longing to the order of anferes, the charafters of
•&CCLXV. which are thefe : The bill is ftrait, cultrated, a little
crooked at the point, and without teeth; the inferior
mandible is gibbous below the apex; the noftrils
are linear, a little broader before, and fituated in the
middle of the beak. The different fpecies are princi¬
pally diftinguifhed by their colour.
1. The marinus, or black-backed gull, is in
length 29 inches; in breadth five feet nine. The
bill is very ftrong and thick, and almoft four inches
long; the colour a pale yellow; but the lower man¬
dible is marked with a red foot, with a black one in
the middle. The head, neck, whole under-fide, tail,
and lower-part of the back, are white : the upper-
part of the back, and wings, are black ; the quill-
feathers tipt with white, the legs of a pale flefh-
colour. It inhabits feveral parts of England, and
breeds on the higheft cliffs. The egg is blunt at each
end; of a duflcy olive-colour; quite black at the greater
end, and the reft of it thinly marked with dufky fpots.
It is alfo common on moft of the northern coafts of
Europe. It frequents Greenland; but chiefly inha¬
bits the diftant rocks. It lays three eggs in May, pla¬
cing them on the heaps of dung which the birds leave
there from time to time. It is faid to attack other
birds, and to be particularly an enemy to the eider
duck. It very greedily devours carrion, though the
moft general food is fifh. It is common alfo in Ame¬
rica, as low as fouth Carolina, where it is called the
old wife.
2. The catara&es, or Skua gull, is in length two
feet; the extent four feet and a half; the weight three
pounds: the bill is two inches one-fourth long, very
much hooked at the end, and very fharp ; the upper
mandible covered more than half-way with a black cere
or fkin, as in the hawk kind ; the noftrils are placed near
the bend, and are pervious. The feathers on the
head, neck, back, fcapulars, and coverts of the wings,
are of a deep brown, marked with ruft-colour (brighteft
in the male). The breaft, belly, and vent, are fer¬
ruginous, tinged with afh-colour. The tail when
fpread is circular, of a deep brown, white at the root,
and with fhafts of the fame colour. The legs are co¬
vered with great black fcalons: the tabtis black,
ftrong, and crooked; the interior remarkably fo.—
This bird inhabits Norway, the Ferroe ifles, Shetland,
and the noted rock Foula a little weft of them. It is
alfo a native of the South Sea. It is the moft formi¬
dable of the gulls; its prey being not only fifh, but, what
is wonderful in a web-footed bird, all the lefler fort of
water-fowl, fuch as teal, &c. Mr Schroter, a furgeon
in the Ferroe ifies, relates that it likewife preys on
ducks, poultry, and even young lambs. It has all the
fcrcenefs of the eagle in defending its young ; when
Vol. IX. Part II,
the inhabitants of thofe iflands vifit the neft, it at- Laro».
tacks them with great force, fo that they hold a knife' 
erett over their heads, on which the flcua will transfix
itfelf in its fall on the invaders. The Rev. Mr Low,
minifter of Birfa in Orkney, confirmed part of the
above account : On approaching the quarters of thefe
birds, they attacked him and his company with moft
violent blows; and intimidated a bold dog of Mr
Low’s in fuch a manner, as to drive him for prote&ion
to his mafter. The natives are often very rudely
treated by them while they are attending their fheep
on the hills; and are obliged to guard their heads by
holding up their fticks, on which the birds often kilt
themfelves. In Foula it is a privileged bird, becaufe
it defends the flocks from the eagle, which it beats
and purfues with great fury; fo that even that rapa¬
cious bird feldom ventures near its quarters. Thfc
natives of Foula on this account lay a fine on any
perfon who deftroys one : they deny that it ever in¬
jures their flocks or poultry ; but imagine it preys on
the dung of the ar&ic and other larger gulls, which it
perfecutes till they moot for fear.—Thefe birds are
alfo frequent in many high latitudes of the fouthern
hemifphere: our circumnavigators met with them in
Falkland ifles, particularly about Port Egmont, whence
called Port Egmont hens. In this place, and at Terra
del Fuego, they were obferved to make their nefts
among the dry grafs. After breeding-time, they dif-
perfe over the ocean, and for the moft part are feen
in pairs. They are met with in Kerguelen’s land, and
off the Cape of Good Hope, and other parts. In all
places its manners are the lame in refpeft to ferocity:
it is frequently feen to attack the largeft albatrofs,
beating it with great violence fo long as it remains on
the wing ; at which time this cowardly giant finds no
other refource than to fettle on the water; upon which
the flcua flies away.
3. The parafiticus, or dung-hunter, is in length 21
inches. The bill is an inch and a half long, pretty
much hooked, and of a dufky colour : the noftrils are
placed in a kind of cere : the top of the head is black;
the fides of it, forehead, neck, and all beneath, white :
acrofs the breaft there is a pale duflcy bar : the upper
parts of the body, wings, and tail, are black; the bafe
of the quills white on the inner webs; and the two
middle feathers of the tail are near four inches longer
than the reft: the legs are fcaly, not very flout ; the
colour of them is black. The female is faid to be en¬
tirely brown, paleft beneath ; and the middle tail fea¬
thers only two inches longer than the others. This is
a northern fpecies; and very common in the Hebrides,
where it breeds on heath. It comes in May, and re¬
tires in Auguft ; and if difturbed flies about like the
lapwing, butfoon alights. It is alfo found in the Ork¬
neys; and on the coafts of Yorkfliire, where it is called
the feafer. It is met with likewife on the northern
coafts of Sweden, Denmark, and Ruflia, as far as
Kamtchatka; and it is common in Greenland, where
it frequents the open fea, as well as the bays. The
female makes an artlefs neft of grafs and mofs, on a
hillock in fome marfhy place, and lays two aflt-coloured
eggs, fpotted with black, the fixe of thofe of a hen.
This bird does not often fwim, and flies generally in a
flow manner, except it be in purfuit of other birds;
which it often attacks, in order to make them dif-
4 D gorge
L A R [ 578 j L A R
Laru'. gorge the fifh or other food,, which this common plun-
derer greedily catches up. Mod authors have told us,
that it is the dung of the birds which it fearches after
in the purfuit ; but latter obfervations inform us that
the circumftance is not true ; though,, from the fuppo-
fition of its being fo, the bird has obtained the name
ofjtrunt-jager.
4. The fufeus, or herring-gull, weighs upwards, of
30 ounces ; the length 23 inches, its breadth 52 : the
bill is yellow, and the lower mandible marked with an
orange coloured fpot : the back and coverts of .the
wings are afh-coloured ; the upper part of the five firtl
quill-feathers are black, marked with a. white fpot
near their end ; the legs of>a pale flefii-colour- Thefe
birds breed on the ledges.of rocks that hang over the
fea : they make a large neft. of dead grafs ; and lay
three eggs of a dirty white, fpotted with black. The
young are alh-coloured, fpotted with brown. They do
not come to their proper colour the firft year : this is
common to other gulls ; which has greatly multiplied,
the fpecies among authors, Who are inattentive to thefe
particulars. This gull is a great devourer of filh, efpe-
cially of that from which it takes its name: it is a
conliant attendant on the nets, and fo bold as to feize
its prey before the filhermens faces.—The herring gull
is common in this kingdom, and frequents the fame
places as the black-backed. It is alfo found in moll of
the northern parts of Europe, as well as about the Caf-
pian and Black, feas and the rivers which fall into them,
and about the great lakes of Siberia. It is found like-
wife in Iceland, Greenland, and Hudlon’s Bay. In
winter it migrates fouth, being found, in Jamaica; and
is faid to breed on fome of the iflands on the coaft of
South Carolina.
5. The naevius, or wagel, is a large fpecies, being
near two feet in length, and in breadth about five;
weight, near three pounds. The bill is black; two
inches and a half long: the irides are dulky: the
whole plumage is compofed of a mixed brown, alh-
colour, and white ; the middle of each feather brown:
the under parts of the body are the fame, but paler:
the quills are black : the lower part of the tail is
mottled black and white ; near the end is a bar of
black, and, beyond this the end is white : the legs are
of a dirty Hefti-colour, in fome white.—This fpecies
frequents the fea-ftiores of many parts of England,
though not in any confiderable numbers. At times it
is feen on the banks of the Thames along with other
gulls ; and is there fuppofed to be the female of the
black-backed: but this has not yet been determined
fufficientiy by authors.
6. The hybertms, or winter-gull, winter-mew, or
coddy moddy, weighs from 14 to 17 ounces: the
length 18 inches, the breadth three feet nine. The
irides are hazel: the bill is two inches long, but the
flendereft of any gull; black at the tip, and whitilh
towards the bafe. The crown of the bead, and hind-
part and fides of the neck, are white, marked with
oblong duflty fpots; the forehead, throat, middle of
the breaft, belly, and rump, white ; the back and fca-
pulars of a pale grey, the laft. fpotted with-brown: the
coverts of the wings are of a pale brown, edged with
white; the firft quill-feather is black,thefucceeding ones
are tipt with white; the tail is white, croffed near the
end with a black bar ; the legs are of a dirty bluifti Larus.
white. This kind frequents, during winter, the molft
meadows in the inland parts of England, remote from
the fea. The gelatinous fubftance, known by the
name of Jlar-fhot, or Jlar-gelly, owes its. origin to this
bird,, or fome of the kind.; being nothing but. the
half digefted remains of earth-worms, which thefe
birds feed on, and often difeharge from their ftomachs.
7. The canus, or coipmon gull, is in length 16 or
17 inches; in breadth 36; weight one pound. The
bill is yellow: the irides are hazel, and the eye-lids
brown : the head, neck, under parts of the body, and
tail,, are white; the back and wings, pale grey : the
outer-edge of the four firft quills, and tips, of the firft
five,, are black ; but the. fourth and fifth have a white
fpot at the tips; the reft, except the three neareft the
body, have the ends white : the legs are of a dull
greenifh white. This feems to be the moft common
of all the gulls, being found in vaft numbers on our
fliores and rivers which are contiguous to the fea. It
is feen alfo very far north, as far as Iceland and. the
Ruffian lakes : it is met with in the neighbourhood of
the Cafpian Sea, in various ftrores of the Mediterra¬
nean, and as far fouth as Greece : and it is found alfo
in America, on the coaft of Newfoundland. It breeds
on the rocks and cliffs, like others of the genus ; and
the eggs are two inches and a half in length, of a deep
olive brown, marked with irregular deep reddifti blotch¬
es. It is a tame fpecies, and may be feen by hundreds
on the ftrores of the Thames and other rivers, in the
winter and fpring,,at low tides, picking up the various
worms and fmali fifti left by the tides ; and will often-
follow the plough in the fields contiguous, for the
fake of worms and infefts which are turned up, par¬
ticularly the cockchafer or dorheetle in its larva:
ftate, which it joins with the rooks in devouring moft
greedily.
8. The tridaftylus, or tarrock, is in length 14 inch¬
es, breadth 36 ; weight feveri ounces. The bill is ftiort,
thick, and black : the head, neck, and under parts, are
white : near each ear, and under the throat, there is a •
black fpot; and at the hind part of the neck a crefcentof
black: the back and fcapulars are bluifti grey; the wing-
coverts dufky edged with grey, fome of the larger wholly
grey: the exterior fides and ends of the firft four quills
are black, tips of the two next black, all the reft white :
the ten middle feathers of the tail are white tipped
with black, the two outermoft wholly white :. the legs
are of a dulky afti-colour ; in lieu of the back toe, it
has only a protuberance. This breeds in Scotland with
the kittiwake ; and inhabits other parts of northern
Europe, quite to Iceland and Spitzbergen, the Baltic
and White Sea, as alfo Kamtchatka. It is common
in Greenland in fummer. It comes in fpring, and fre¬
quents the fea-ftiores; builds in the rocky crags of the
bays; in June lays two eggs of a greenifh afh-colour
fpotted with brown ; and retires from the fhores in
autumn. Itisobferved frequently to attend the whales
and feals, for the fake of the filh which the laft drive
before them into the fhallows, when thefe birds dart
into the water fuddcnly and make them their prey.
They are very noify birds, efpecially during ^the time
of incubation. They fwim well, and fly equally well,
and for a long time together : they are often obferved
on
L A R [ 579 ] LAS
Lams, on portions of ice fwirriming in As fea. Both the flefh
and eggs are efteemed by the Greenlanders, and the
fkins ufed as garments.
9. The rifla, or kittiwake, is in length 14 inches, in
extent three feet two. When arrived at full age, the
head, neck, belly, and tail, are of a fnowy whitenefs;
behind each ear is fometimes a dulky fpot: the back
and wings are grey: the exterior edge of the firll quill-
feather, and tips of the four or live next, are black :
the bill is yellow, tinged with green ; and the inlide
of the mouth is orange: the legs are dulky, with only
a knob inflead of the back-toe. It inhabits the ro¬
mantic cliffs of Flamborough-head (where it is called
petrel), the Bafs ifle, the vaft rocks near the caftle of
Slains in the county of Aberdeen, and Prieftholm ille.
The young of thefe birds are a favourite dilh in North
Britain, being ferved up roafted, a little before dinner,
in order to provoke the appetite; but from their rank
tafte and fmell, feem much more likely to produce a
contrary effeft. This bird is likewife met with at
Newfoundland ; in Greenland, Spitzbergen, Iceland,
and the north of Europe; the anStic coaft of Afia;
and Kamtchatka, By the Icelanders it is called
rltfa. Some authors affirm the kittiwake to be the
tarrock in a Hate of perfeftion; while others maintain
the contrary.
10. The ridibundus, pewit, or black-head gull, is in
length 15 inches, breadth three feet; weight 10 ounces.
The bill is rather flender, and of a blood-red : the
eye-lids are red, and the irides hazel: the head and
throat are dulky brown, in old birds black ; and on
each eye-lid is a fmall white fpot: the back and wings
are of an alh-colour: the neck, all the under parts,
and tail, are white; the ten firft quills are white, mar¬
gined and more or lefs tipped with black ; the others
of an alh-colour, with white ends: the legs are of the
colour of the bill, the claws black. This fpecies
breeds on the Ihores of fome of our rivers ; but full as
often in the inland fens of Lincolnlhire, Cambfidge-
fhire, and other parts of England. They make their
neft on the ground, with rulhes, dead grafs, and fuch
like ; and lay three eggs of a greenilh brown marked
with red brown blotches. After the breeding feafon,
they 'again difperfe to the fea-coafts. They breed alfo
in Northumberland and Scotland ; and are found
throughout Ruffia and Siberia, as far as Kamtchatka,
but not farther to the north. They are feen through¬
out the winter at Aleppo, in great numbers; and fo
tame, that the women are faid to call them from the
terraces of their houfes, thiowing up pieces of bread,
which thefe birds catch in the air. They inhabit
North America, coming into New England in May
and departing in Auguft. The young birds in the
neighbourhood of the Thames are thought good eat¬
ing, and are called the red-legs. They were formerly
more elleemed, and numbers were annually taken and
fattened for the table. Plott gives a marvellous ac¬
count of their attachment to the lord of the foil they
inhabit; infomuch, that on his death they never fail
to (hift their quarters for a certain time. Whitelock,
in his Annals, mentions a piece of ground near Portf-
mouth, which produced to the owner 401. a-year by
the fale of pewits, of this fpecies of gull. Thefe
are the fee guiles that in old times were admitted to the
noblemens tables. The note of thefe gulls is like a Larynx
hoarfe laugh. .
11. The atricilla, or laughing-gull, is in length 18 j
inches, breadth three feet. It differs from that bird
only in the legs, which are black inftead of red.' It is
found in Ruffia on the river Don, particularly about
Tfchercafk. The note refembles a coarfe laugh, whence
the name of the bird. Is met with alfo in different
parts of the continent of America; and is very nume¬
rous in the Bahama iflands.
There are 9 or 10 other fpecies of this genus.
LARYNX, in anatomy, the upper part of the wind¬
pipe. See Anatomy, n° 116.
LASCA RIS (Andrew John), furnamed Ryndacenus,
of an ancient Greek family, went into Italy, after the
taking of Conftantinople by the Turks in 1453. He
was well received by Laurence de Medicis, a diftin-
guifhed proteftor of learned men ; and was twice fent
to Conftantinople to colled!: the bell G reek manuferipts,
by which means numberlefs fcarce and valuable trea-
fures of literature were carried into Italy. At his re¬
turn Louis XII. king of France prevailed on him to
fettle in the univerfity of Paris, and fent him twice
ambaffador to Venice. Ten years after, cardinal John
de Medicis being eledfed pope, under the name of
Leo X John Lafcaris, his old friend, went to Rome,
and had the diredtion of a Greek college. He died
at Rome in 1535, at about the 90th year of his age.
He brought into the Weft; moft of the fine Greek ma¬
nuferipts that are now extant, and compofed fome epi¬
grams in Greek and Latin.
Lascaris (Conftantine), one of the Greeks who
were principally concerned in the revival of learning
in the Weft, retired into Italy in 1454, and taught
polite literature at Milan, whither he was called by
Francis Sforza; he afterwards went to Rome, where
he was well received by Cardinal Beffarion. He af¬
terwards taught rhetoric and the Greek tongue at
Naples; and ended his days at Meffina, leaving the
fenate of that city many excellent manuferipts which
he had brought from Conftantinople. He was inter¬
red at the public expence, and the fenate of Meffina
eredled a marble tomb to his memory. He wrote
fome grammatical works.
LASERPITIUM, lazar-wort: A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
45th order, Umbellata. The fruit is oblong, with
eight membranaceous angles; the petals inflexed, e-
marginated, and patent. There are nine fpecies, none
of which are at all remarkable for their beauty, Lo are
only preferved in botanic gardens for the fake of va¬
riety. They are natives of Germany, Italy, and the
fouth of France. All of them abound with an acrid
juice, which turns to an exceffively acrimonious refin.
This was ufed by the ancients to take away black and
blue fpots that came by bruifes or blows, as alfo to
take away excrefcences: it was alfo by fome of the
ancients ufed internally ; but produced fuch violent
effe&s, that the more prudent refrained from the ufe
of it. It is generally fuppofed that the filphium of
the ancients was procured from one of the fpecies of
this genus ; but of this we are at prefent ignorant.
LASH, or lace, in the fea-language, fignifies to
4 D 2 bind
L A T L 580 ] L A T
taflitude bind and make faft; as, to lafh the bonnet to the
I atere cour^e> or t^,e drabbler to the bonnets ; alfo the car-
1 ^ ere* . penter takes care that the fpare yards be laflted faft
to the (hip’s fide ; and in-a rolling fea, the gunners
mind that the guns be well lafhed, left they fhould
break loofe. Lalhers are properly thofe ropes which
bind fait the tackles and the breechings of the ord¬
nance, when hauled or made faft within-board.
LASS ITUDE, or weariness, in medicine, a mor¬
bid fenfation, that comes on fpontaneoufly, without
any previous motion, exercife, or labour. This is a
frequent fymptom in acute diftempers: it arifes either
from an increafe of bulk, a diminution of proper eva¬
cuation, or too great a confumption of the fluids ne-
ceflary ts maintain the fpring of the folids, or from a
vitiated fecretion of that juice.
LASSUS, or Lasus, a' dithyrambic poet, born at
Hermione in Peloponnefus about 500 years before
Chrift. He is reckoned among the wife men of Greece
by fome. He is particularly known by the anfwer he
gave to a man who alked him what could beft render
life pleafant and comfortable ? Experience. He was
acquainted with mufic. Some fragments of his poetry
are to be found in Athenaeus. He wrote an ode upon
the Centaurs, and an hymn to Ceres, without inferting
the letter S in the compofition.
LAST, in general, fignifies the bnrden or load of
a (hip. It fignifies alfo a certain meafure of filh, corn,
wool, leather, &c. A laft of codfifli, white herrings,
meal, and alhes for foap, is twelve barrels; of corn or
rapefeed, ten quarters; of gunpowder, twenty-four
barrels; of red herrings, twenty cades; of hides, twelve
dozen ; of leather, twenty dickers ; of pitch and tar,
fourteen barrels ; of wool, twelve facks ; of ftock-fiflr,
one thoufand ; of flax or feathers, 1700lb.
LASTAGE, or lestage, a duty exadfted in fome
fairs and markets, for carrying things bought whither
one will. It fignifies alfo the ballaft or lading of a
(hip; and fometimes is ufed for garbage, rubbiflr, or
fuch like filth.
LATE RAN was originally the proper name of a
man : whence it defcended to an ancient palace in
Rome, and to the buildings fince ere&ed in its place ;
particularly a church called St John of Lateran, which
is the principal fee of the popedom.
Councils of the Lateran, are thofe held in the bafi-
lica of the.Lateian: of thefe there have been five, held
in 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, and 1513.
Canons Regular of the Congregation of the Later an,
is a congregation of regular canons, whereof that
church is the principal place or feat.
It is pretended there has been an uninterrupted fuc-
ceflion of clerks, living in community from the time
of the apoftles : and that a number of thefe were efta-
blifhed in the Lateran in the time of Conftantine. But
the canons were not introduced till the time of Leo I.
and thefe held the church 800 years, till the reign of
Boniface, who took it from them, and placed fecular
canons in their room: 150 years after, the regulars
were reinftated-
A LATERE, a term ufed to denote the qualifica¬
tions of the cardinals whom the pope fends as legates
into foreign countries. They are called legates a la¬
tere, as being his holinefs’s afliftants and counfellors
in ordinary. Thefe are the moft confiderable of the
otherthree kinds of legates, being fuch as the pope com- Latere
miffions to take his place in councils ; and fo called, in . II
regard that he never gives this office to any but his e‘
favourites and confidants, who are always a latere, at
his fide. A legate a latere has the power of confer¬
ring benefices without a mandate, of legitimating ba-
ftards to hold offices,, and has a crofs carried before
him as the enfign of his authority.
De Latere, legates who are not cardinals, but yet
are entrufted with an apoftolical legation. See the
article Legate.
LATE-wake, a ceremony ufed at funerals in the
Highlands of Scotland. The evening after the death
of any perfon, the relations and friends of the deceafed
meet at the houfe, attended by bagpipe or fiddle ; the
neareft of kin, be it wife, fon, or daughter, opens a me¬
lancholy ball, dancing, znigreeting (i. e. crying vio¬
lently) at the fame time, and this continues till day¬
light ; but with fuch gambols and frolics among the
younger part of the company, that the lofs which oc-
cafioned them is often more than fupplied by the con-
fequences of that night. If the corpfe remains unbu¬
ried for two nights, the fame rites are renewed. Thus,.
Scythian.like, they rejoice -at the deliverance of their
friends out of this life of mifery.
LATEEN"sail, along triangular fail extended by
a lateen yard, and frequently ufed by xebecs, poleacres,
fetees, and other veffels navigated in the Mediterra¬
nean fea.
LATH, in building, a long, thin, and narrow flip
of wood nailed to the rafters of a roof or cieling, in
order to fuftain the covering,
Lath-RricLs, a particular fort of bricks made in
fome parts of England, of 22 inches in length and 6
in breadth, which are ufed in the place of laths or
fpars, fupported by pillars in cafts, for the drying of
malt.. This is an excellent contrivance; for beiides
that they are not liable to fire, as the wooden laths
are, they retain the heat vaftly better; fo that being
once heated, a very ftnall quantity of fire will ferve to
keep them fo.
LATHE, a very ufeful engine for the turning of
wood, ivory, metals, and other materials. (See Turn¬
ing.) The invention of the lathe is very ancient:
Diodorus Siculus fays, the fiift who ufed it was a,
grandfon of Dasdalus, named Talus. Pliny aferibes it
to Theodore of Samos; and mention^ one Thericles,
who rendeied himfelf very famous by his dexterity in
managing the lathe. With this inftrument the an¬
cients turned all kinds of vafes, many whereof they
enriched with figures and ornaments in baflb relievo.
Thus Virgil;
Lenta quibus tor no facili fuperaddita vitis.
The Greek and Latin authors make frequent mention
of the lathe ; and Cicero calls the workmen who ufed
it vafcularii. It was a proverb among the ancients, to
fay a thing was formed in the lathe, to exprefs its de¬
licacy and juftnefs.
The lathe is compofed of two wooden cheeks or
(ides, parallel ta the horizon, having a groove or
opening between ; perpendicular to thefe are two other
pieces called puppets, made to Aide between the
cheeks, and to be fixed down at any point at plea-
fure. Thefe have two points, between which the piece
to be turned is fuftaiued ; the piece is turned round,
backward*
L A T C j8i ] . L A ,T
JLathraa backwards and forwards, by means of a firing put nour of Jupiter Latiaris or Latialis. -
i) round it, and faftened above to the end of a pliable
Laiiar. pole, and underneath to a tredle or board moved with
the foot. There is alfo a refl which bears up the tool,
and keeps it fteady.
As it is the ufe and application of this inftrument
having made a treaty of alliance with the Latii
propofed, in order for perpetuating it, to ereft. a
common temple, where all the allies, the Romans,
Latins, Hernici, Volfci, &c. fhould aflemble them-
felves every year, hold a kind of fair, exchange
Tarquin Laticlave,
that makes the greateft part of the art of turning, we merchandizes, feaft, facrifice, and make merry toge-
refer the particular defeription thereof, as well as the ther. Such was the inllitution of the Latiar. The
manner of applying it in various works, to that head, founder only appointed one day for this feaft ; the firft
See Turning. conful added another to it, upon concluding the peace
LATHRiEA, in botany : A genus of the angio- with the Latins ; and a third was added after the peo-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of pie who had retired to the Mons Sacer were returned to
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the Rome ; and a fourth, after appeafing the fedition rai-
40th order, Perfonatx. The calyx is quadrifid ; there fed on occafion of the plebeians afpiring to the conlu-
is a depreffed glandule at the bafe of the future of the late.
germen.- The capfule is unilocular. Thefe four days were called the Latin feria •, and all
LATHREVE, Leidgreve, or Trithengreve, things done during the comfe of the feriae, as feafts,
was an officer under the Saxon government, who had facrifices, offerings, &c. were called Latiares.
authority over a third part of the county ; and \vhofe LATICLAVE, (Laticlavium), in Roman anti-
territoiy was therefore called trithing, otherwife a kid quity, was an honourable diftindlion, peculiar, in the
or leithiriy in which manner the county of Kent is ftill times of the republic, to the fenators; but whether it
divided ; and the rapes in Suflex item to anfwer to the was a particular kind of garment, or only an ornament
fame. As to the jurifdi&ion of this officer, thofe mat- upon it, the critics are not agreed : But the more ge-
ters that could not be determined in the hundred neral opinion is, that it was a broad ftripe of purple
court, were thence brought to the trithing ; where fewed upon the fore-part of their tunic, and round the
all the principal men of the three or more hundreds middle of the breaft. There were buttons fet on the
being affembled by the lathreve, or trithingreve, did latus davits ox laticlave, which appeared like the heads
debate and decide it; or if they could not, then the of large nails, whence fome think it derived its name.
lathreve fent it up to the county court, to be there —The fenators, praetors, and chief magiftrates of co-
finally determined. Ionics and municipal cities, had a right to wear it. The
LATHYRUS, chickling: A genus of the de- praetexta was always worn over it; but when the praetor
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of pronounced fentence of death, the prsetexta was then
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the put off, and the laticlave retained. The latidavium
3 2d order, Papilionacea. The tlylus is plain, villous differed from the angujliclavium, but authors do not a-
above, towards the end broader ; the upper two fej_
ments of the calyx are ftiorter than the reft.
Species. 1. The latifolius, or everlafling pea, hath
thick, fibrous, perennial roots ; climbing, thick,
gree in what refpedl this difference confifted ; the moft
general opinion feems to be, that the flips or (tripes
of purple were narrower in the angul'ticlave.
LATIMER (Hugh), bifliop of Worcefter, was
branching annual italks, having membranaceous wings born about the year 1480 at Thurcaftbn in’Lticefter-
between the joints, rifing upon fupport by their cirri (hire, the only fon of a yeoman of that village. At
fix or eight feet high ; diphyiloiis leaves, of two fpear- the age of fourteen he was fent to Chrift’s college,
fhaped lobes, terminated by clafpers ; and numerous Cambridge ; where he applied himfelf to the ftudy of
large red or purple flowers on long foot ftalks, appear- divinity, and in proper time took the degree of ba-
ing plentifully from Jane til! October, fucceeded by chelor in that fcience. At this time he was a zealous
abundance of feed. 2. The odorata, or fweet-feented Papifl, and was honoured with the office of keeper of
pea, hath a fibrous annual root ; a climjpjng ftalk, ri- the crofs to the univerfity : but when he was about
fing upon fupport by its clafpers three or four feet thirty years of age, he became a convert to the Pro-
high ; diphyllous leaves of two oval lobes, terminated teftant religion ; and being now one of the twelve H-
by climbing tendrils ; and flowers by two’s on long cenfed preachers from Cambridge, he promulgated his
flower ftalks, of different colours in the varieties, opinions with great freedom. It was not long before
3. The tangitanus, or Tangier-pea, hath a fibrous an- he was accufed of herefy ; and being fummoned before
nual root, a climbing ftalk rifing upon fupport for cardinal Wolfey, was obliged to fubferibe certain ar«
four or five feet high ; diphyllous leaves,, of two fpear- tides of faith, which he certainly did not believe. A-
fhaped alternate lobes, terminated by tendrils ; and
from the joints of the ftalk large reddifti flowers by
two’s On long footllalks.
Culture. All thefe fpecies are of hardy growth ; and
may be propagated by feed in the common ground, in
patches where it is defigned-the planes ftiouid flower,
for they do not fucceed fo well by tranfplantation.
They may be fowed in fpring ; though, if fowed in
autumn,, the plants will flower earlier the following
)’e
bout the year 1529 he was prefented by the king t<
the re&ory of Weftkinton in Wdtihire ; to which
place, after refiding fome time at court with his friend
and patron Dr Butts, he retired ; but, refuming his
former inve&ives againft the Popifh dodlrines, he was
again fummoned to anfwer certain interrogatories, and
again obliged to fubferibe. In 15^5 he was promoted
to the bilhopric of Worcefter; in the poffeffi >n of
which dignity he-continued till the year 1539, when,
rather than afl’ent to the aft of the fix articles, he re-
LATIAR, in Roman antiquity, a feall or ce- figned his mitre, and retired into the country; bnt
. remony inftituted by Tarquirnus .Superbus, in ho- was in a fhoit time accufed of fpeaking againft the fix
articles.
L A T [
I-afimer, articles, and committed to the Tower, where he
^ L: t n , tinued prifoner till the death of Henry VIII. which
"lv happened in January x J47. On the acceffion of Ed¬
ward VI. Latimer was releafed, but not reftored to
his bifhopric, though he preached feveral times before
the king, and continued to exercife his minifterial
funftion with unremitting zeal and refolution. Young
, Edward, alas! finilhed his fhort reign in T553 ; and
Mary, of infamous memory, afcending the throne,
poor Latimer was immediately doomed to deftruftion,
and, together with Cranmer and Ridley, confined in
the Tower. In April 1554, they were removed to
Oxford, that they might difpute with the learned
doftors of both univerfities. Latimer declining the
deputation on ^account of his great age and infirmi¬
ties, delivered his. opinion in writing ; and refufing
582 1 L A T
on- been declining, and all endeavours have been ufed to
retrieve the pure language of the Auguttan age. See }
Language.
LATiN-Church. See Church.
LATINS, an ancient nation of Italy. See La-
TIUM.
LATINIJS, king of the Latins in Italy, was the
fan of Faunus ; and, it is faid, began to reign about
the t 216th year before the Chriftian era. Lavinia,
his only daughter, married iEneas, after that Trojan
prince had killed Turnus king »f the Rutuli. See
Rome.
LATISSIMUS, in anatomy, the name of feveral
mufcles. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
LATITUDE, in altronomy, is the diflance of a
ftar north orj| fouth from the ecliptic. In geography
to fubfcribe the Popifh creed, was condemned for it fignifies the dillance of any place north or fouth,
herefy ; and in Oftober following was, together with
bifhop Ridley, burnt alive. He behaved with un¬
common fortitude on the occafion, and died a real
martyr to the Reformation. His general charafter is
that of a learned, virtuous, and brave man. Hjs
works are, 1. Sermons, 1635, fol. 2. Letters; in
Fox’s A£s and Monum. vol. ii. fol. 1580. 3. An
injunftion to the prior and convent of St Mary’s in
Worcefterfliire. See record at the end of Burnet’s
Hifiory of ihe Reformation, part ii. p. 293.
LATIN, a dead language, firft fpoken in Latium,
and afterwards at Rome; and ftill ufed in the Romiftt
church, and among many of the learned.
This language is principally derived from the Greek,
and particularly from the Eolic dialed! of that tongue,
though it has a great number of words which it bor¬
rowed from the languages of the Etrufci, Ofci, and
other ancient people of Italy ; and foreign commerce
and wars, in courfe of time, added a great many
more.
The L,atin is a ftrong nervous language, perfe&ly
fuitable to the charadter of the people who fpoke ;t:
we have ftill works of every kind admirably well writ¬
ten in the Latin, though there are vaft numbers loft.
The Latin tongue was for a while confined almoft
wholly within the walls of Rome ; nor would the Ro¬
mans allow the common ufe of it to their neighbours,
or to the nations they fiibdued : but by degrees they
in time became fenfible of the neceffity of its being ge¬
nerally under ftood for the conveniency of commerce ;
from the equator. See Astronomy and Geogra¬
phy, pafltm.
L ATITUDINARIAN, a perfon of moderation
with regard to religious opinions, who believes there
is a latitude in the road to heaven, which may admit
people of different perfuafions.
LATIUM (anc. geog.), the country of the La¬
tins, at firft contained within very narrow bounds, but
afterwards increafed by the acceffion of various people.
The appellation, according to Virgil, is a latendo,
from Saturn’s lying hid there from the hoftile purfuits
of his fon Jupiter; and from Latium comes the name
Latini, the people, (Virgil): though Dionyfius Hali-
carnaftseus derives it from king Latinus, who reigned
about the time of the Trojan war. But whatever be
in this, it is certain, that Latium, when under ./Eneas
and his dependents, or the Alban kings, contained
only the Latins, exclufive of the iEqui, Volfci, Her-
nici, and other people ; only that ./Eneas reckoned
the Rutuli, after their conqueft, among the Latins.
And this conftituted the ancient Latium, confined to
the Latins: but afterwards, under the kings, and af¬
ter their time, it reached from the Tiber to Circeii.
Under the confuls, the country of the Equi, Volfci,
Hernici, &c. after long and bloody wars, was added
to Latium, under the appellation adjeSitious orfuperad¬
ded Latium, as far as the river Liris, the eaftern boun¬
dary, and to the north as far as the Marti and Sa¬
bines. The various people, which in fucceffion occu¬
pied Latium, were the Aborigines, the Pelafgi, the
and accordingly, ufed their endeavours, that all the Arcades, the Siculi, the Arunci, the Rutuli; and be-
nations fubjeft to their empire Ihould be united by one J r-:—:: .u- xr-ir-: .u^ n/v.: a . u„.
common language ; fo that at length they impofed the
ufe of it by a particular law for that purpofe. After
the tranflation of the feat of the empire from Rome to
Conftantinople, the emperors of the eaft, being always
defirous of retaining the title of Roman emperors, ap¬
pointed the Latin to be ftill ufed ; but at length ne-
glefting the empire of the weft, they abandoned all
care of the Latin tongue, and ufed the Greek. Char¬
lemagne coming to the empire of the weft, revived this
language ; but at length it gave way, and the French
took place of the Latin : it was, however, prodigiouf-
ly degenerated before it came to be laid afide, in which
condition it was found at the time of the Reformation,
when Vives, Erafmus, &c. began to open the way for.
itg recovery: fince which time the monkilh latinity has
yond Circeii, the.Volfci, the Ofci, the Aufones : but
who firft, who next, occupied the country, it is diffi¬
cult to fay.
LATMUS (anc. geog.), a mountain of Ionia, or
on the confines of Caria, famous for the fable of En-
dymion, of whom the Moon was faid to be enamour¬
ed : hence called Latmius Heros, and Latmius Venator.
In the mountain was a cave in which Endymion dwelt
(Scholiaft on Apollonius Rhodius). Suppofed by
Hecatseus to be the Phiheiron Mans of Homer ; but
by others to be Gnus Mans, nor far from Latmus
(Strabo.)
LATOMIA, properly fignifies a Jhme quarry :
But the places whence flones had been dug having
been made ufe of fometimes as dungeons, jails, or pri-
fons for criminals, it is oftentimes applied as a name
for
L A T [ 533 ] . L A T
Latona for a prifoo. There was a place of confinement of were public places where the Haves waihed and emp-
II this fort at Rome, near the Tullianum ; another at tied their mailer’s clofe-ftools. We are pretty well af- a el ' 1
Latriuae. Syracufe, in which Cicero fays Verres had fnut up
Roman citizens,
L AT ON A, in mythology, a pagan goddefs, whofe
hiftory is. very obfcure. Hefiod makes her the daughter
of Titan Coeus and Phoebe his filter. She was admired
for her beauty, and celebrated for the favours which
fite granted to Jupiter. Juno, always jealous of her huf-
band’s amours, made Latona the object of her ven¬
geance, and Cent the ferpent Python to difturb her
peace and perfecute her. Latona wandered from place
to glace in the time of her pregnancy,, continually a-
larmeclfor fear of Python. She was, driven, from hea-
fured that the Romans had public places of conveni¬
ence, which were covered over, and had a fponge
hanging up in them for cleanlinefs. Rich men had
clofe-ftools, which were taken away occafionally to
the common fhores.
LATRUNCULI, a game amongft the Romans, of
much the fame nature with our chefs. The latrunculi
were properly the chefs-men, called alfo latrones and
calculi. They were made of glafs, and diftinguilhed
by black and white colours. Sometimes they were
made of wax or other convenient fubftances. Some
give the invention of thisgame to Palamsedes when at
ven; and Terra, influenced by Juno, refufed to give her the Gege of Troy ; Seneca attributes it to Chilon, one
a place where fhe might reft and bring forth. Nep¬
tune, moved with compaffion, ftruck with his trident
and made immoveable the ifland of IJelos,, which be¬
fore wandered in the iEgean, and appeared fometimes
above, and fometimes below, the furface of .the lea.
of the feven Grecian fages ; others honour Pyrrhus
with the invention ; and others again contend th^t it is
of Pcrfian origin—but is not this Z/x de lana caprina ?
Frequent allufions to this game are met with in the
Roman daffies, and a little poem was wrote upon it
Latona, changed, into a quail by Jupiter, came to addreffed to' Pifo, which fame fay wad the work of
Delos ; where ffie refumed her original ffiape, and Ovid, others of Lucan, in the end of fome editions
gave birth to Apollo and Diana, leaning againft a of whofe works it is to be found,, and to which we refer
palm tree or an olive. Her repofe was of Ihort dura- for a fuller account of the game. This game exprefles
tion : Juno difeovered the place of her retreat, and fo well the chance and order of war, that it is, with
obliged her to fly from Delos. She wandered over great appearance of probability, attributed to fome
the greateft part of the world ; and in Caria, where military officer as the inventor. One Canius Julius
her fatigue compelled her to flop, (he w'as infulted and was fo exceedingly fond of chefs, that after he was
ridiculed by the peafants of whom (he alked for wa- fentenced to death-by Caligula, he was found playing,
tet" while they were weeding a marfh. Their refufal but interrupted in his game by a call to execution ; he
and infolence provoked her, and flie intreated Jupiter obeyed the fummons, but firft defired the centurion
to puniffi their barbarity. They were all changed in- who brought the fatal order, to bear witnefs that he
to frogs. She was alfo infulted by Niobe ; who boaft- had one man upon the board more than his antagoniil,
ed herfelf greater than the mother of Apollo and Di- that he might not falfely brag of vi&ory when he
ana, and ridiculed the prefents which the piety of her ffiould be no more.
neighbours had offered to Latona. At laft, Latona, LATTEN denotes iron-plates turned over, of which
though perfecuted and expofed to the refentment of tearcannifters are made.
Juno, became a powerful deity, and faw her children Plates of iron being prepared of a proper thinnefs,
receive divine honours. Her worlhip was generally are fmoothed by ruffing them in an acid liquor, as
eftabliffied where her children received adoration; common water made eager with rye. With this liquor
particularly at Argos, Delos, &c. where ffie had tem- they fill certain troughs, and then put in the plates,
pies. She had an oracle in Egypt, -celebrated for the which they turn once or twice a-day, that they may
true and decifive anfwers which it gave. Latona, Ve- be equally rufted over. After this they are taken out,
as, and Diana, were the three goddeffes moll in v
neration among the Roman women.
LATRIA, in theology, a religious worffiip due
only to God. See Adoration!.
and.'well fcoured with fand ; and, to prevent their ruft-
ing again, are immediately plunged into- pure water,
in which they are to be- left till the inltant they are to
be tinned or blanched ;‘the manner of doing which is
The Romanifts.fay,. “ They honour God with the this; They flux the tin in a large iron crucible, whiah
worlhip of latria, and the faints with the worlhip of has the figure of an oblong pyramid with four faces
duJiaP' But the terms, however diftinft, are ufually of which two oppofite ones are lefs than the two others,
confounded. The crucible is heated only from below, its upper part
The worlhip. of latria, befides its inner chara&ers, being luted with the furnace all round. The crucible
has its external marks to diftinguiffi it ; the principal is always deeper than the plates which are to be tin-
whereof is facriiice, which, cannot be offered to any ned are long; they always put them in downright,
other but God; himlelf, as being a folemn acknow- and the tin ought to fwim over them ; to this purpofe
ledgment or recognition of the fovereignty of God,
and our dependence on him.
artificers of different trades prepare- plates of different
ffiapes, though Mr Reaumur thinks them all excep-
Mr Daiile feems to own, that fome of the fathers tionable. But the Germans ufe no fort of preparation
of the fourth century allowed the diftinftion between of the iron to make it receive the tin more than the
Iq/rJa and: du/ia. keeping it always deeped in water till the time ; only
LATRINiE, were public houfes of office, or necef- when the tin is melted in the crucible, they cover it
faries, amongft the Romans. We do not find, in the with a layer of a fort of fuet, which is ufually two
writings or buildings that remain of antiquity, that inches thick, and the plate mult pafs through this be-
they had any privies in their dwellings. , The lalrinas fore it can come to the melted tin. The firft ufe
qF
LAV [ 584 1 LAV
fatten of this covering is to keep the tin from burning ;
fi for if any part (hould take fire, the fuel would foon
Lava' moiften it, and reduce it to its primitive ftate again.
v The blanchers fay, this fuet is a compounded matter.
It is indeed of a black colour; but Mr Reaumur fup-
pofed that to be only an artifice to make it a fecret,
and that it is only coloured with foot or the fmoke of
a chimney : but he found it true fo far, that the com¬
mon unprepared fuet was not fufficient; for after fe-
veral attempts, there was always fomething wanting
to render the fuccefs of the operation certain. The
whole fecret of blanching, therefore, was found to lie
in the preparation of this fuet; and this at length he
difcovered to confift only in the firll frying and burn¬
ing it. This Ample operation not only gives it the
colour, but puts it into a condition to give the iron a
difpofition to be tinned, which it does furprifingly.
The melted tin muft alfo have a certain degree of
heat: for if it is not hot enough, it will not dick to the
iron ; and if it is too hot, it will cover it with too thin
a coat, and the plates will have feveral colours, as red,
blue, and purple, and upon the whole will have a call
of yellow. To prevent this, by knowing when the
fire has a proper degree of heat, they might try with-
fmall pieces of iron ; but in general, ufe teaches them
to know the degree, and they put in the iron when
the tin is at a different ftandard of heat, according
as they would give it a thicker or thinner coat. Some¬
times alfo they give the plates a double layer, as they
would have them very thickly covered. This they do
by dipping them into the tin when very hot the firft
time, and when lefs hot the fecond. The tin which
is to give the fecond coat muft. be ifrefh covered with
fuet; and that with the common fuet, not the pre¬
pared.
LATiEN-Brafs, plates of milled brafs reduced to
different thicknefs, according to the ufes they are in¬
tended for.
LATTIMO, in the glafs-trade, a name for a fine
milk-white glafs. There are feveral ways of making
it, but the beft of all is this: take 400 weight of cry-
ftal frit, and 60 pounds of calcined tin, and two pounds
and a half of prepared manganefe ; mix thefe well wuth
the frit, and fet them in a pot in a furnace to melt
and refine. At the end of 18 hours this will be puri¬
fied ; then call it into water, purify it again afterwards
in the furnace, and make a proof of it. If it be too
clear, add 15 pounds more of calcined tin; mix it
well with the metal, and let it ftand one day to puri¬
fy ; it will then be of a whitenefs furpaffing even that
of fnow, and is fit to work into veffels.
LAVA, a ftream of melted minerals which runs
out of the mouths, or burfts out through the fides of
burniag mountains during the-time of an eruption.
See ./Etna, Vesuvius, Hecla, Volcano, &c.
The lava at its firft difcharge is in a ftate of pro¬
digious ignition, greatly fuperior to any thing we can
have an idea of from the fmall artificial furnaces made
by us. Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the
lava of Vefuvius, at the place whence it iffued (in
the year 1767), “had the appearance of a river of
red-hot and liquid metal, fuch as we fee in the glafs-
. houfes, on which were large floating cinders half
lighted, and rolling over one another with great pre¬
cipitation down the fide of the mountain, forming on
N° 175>
the whole a mcft beautiful and uncommon cafcade.” Lava.
Now, if we confider the materials of which' the lava
confifts, which undoubtedly are the common matters
to be found every where in the earth, namely, ftones,
metallic ores, clay, fand, &c. we fhall find that our
hotteft furnaces would by no means be able to bring
them into any degree of fufion ; fince the materials
for glafs cannot be melted without a great quantity
of very fufible falts, fuch as alkalies, nitre, &c. mixed
along with them. The heat of a volcano muft there¬
fore be immenfg : and befides its heat, it is fometimes
attended with a very uncommon circumftance; for Sir
William Hamilton informs us, that the red-hot *
ftones thrown up by Vefuvius on the 31ft of March
1766 were perfetflly tranfparcntand the like re-javas>
mark he makes on the vaft ftream of lava which iffued
from this volcano in 1779: (See Vesuvius). This
we cannot look upon to be the mere effeft of heat:
for mere heat with us will not make a folid body tranf-
parent; and thefe ftones, we are fure, were not in a ftate
of fufion, or the refiftance of the air would have broke
them all to pieces, even fuppofing them, which is very
improbable, to have been in that ftate detached from
the reft of the lava. For the tranfparency, therefore,
we muft have recourfe to eleftricity; which in fome of
our experiments hath the property of rendering opaque
bodies tranfparent *. Indeed it is fcarce pofiible but * See
the lava and every other matter thrown out of a vol-*"“ty> ln'
cano muft be in the higheft degree ele&rical, feeing ex' %
the fire itfelf moft probably takes its rife from ele&ri- Probably
city, as is Ihown under the article Volcano. in a highly
The lava, after having once broke out, does not
conftantly continue running from the fame vent, butKa e a °*
often has intermiffions, after which it will burft out
fometimes at the fame place, and fometimes at another.
No real flame ever appears to come from the lava, tu,;3
In the day-time its progrefs is marked by a thick rai appear*
white fmoke, from which the light of the red hot mat- ance.
ter being reflefted in the night-time, makes it appear
like flame. But if, during its progrefs, it meets with
trees or other combuftible fubftances, which it fre¬
quently does, a bright flame immediately ilfues from
its furface, as hath alfo been remarked by Sir William
Hamilton.—This liquid fubftance, after having run
pure for about 100 yards (more or lefs, no doubt,
according to different circumftances), begins to colleft
cinders, ftones, and a fcum is formed on the furface.
Our author informs us, that the lava which he obfer-
ved, with its fcum, had the appearance of the river
Thames, as he had feen ft after a hard froft and a
great fall of fnow, when beginning to thaw, carrying
down vaft maffes of fnow and ice. In fome places it
totally difappeared, and ran in a fubterraneous paffage
formed by the fcum for feveral paces; after which it
came out pure, having left the fcum behind, though
a new one was quickly formed. This lava at the far-
theft extremity from its fource did not appear liquid,
but like a heap of red-hot coals, forming a wall in
fome places jo or 1 2 feet high, which rolling from the
top foon formed another wall, and fo on.— This was
the appearance alfo put on by the lava which iffued in
the great eruption of 1783 in Iceland ; with this differ¬
ence, that the wall was at one time 210 feet high,
and the general thicknefs of it was more than 100:
(See Hecla). While a lava is in this ftate, Sir Wil-
1 liara
1 A V [ 585 3 1'. A V .
iLm, Ham is of opinion, that it is very pra&icabte to divert it, which was inftantly put in execution without any
it into another channel, in a manner fomewhat fimilar other inconvenience than the violent heat with which
to what is praftifed with rivers. This he Was after- the legs and feet were affefted. The cruft was fo
wards told had been done with fuccefs during the great tough, that their weight made no imprt fiion upon it,
eruption of Etna in 1669: that the lava was directing and the motion fo flow that they were in no danger
its coui-fe towards the walls of Catania, and advancing of falling. This circumftance, according to Sir Wil-
very flowly, when they prepared a channel for it round liam, points out a method of efcape ihould any perfon
the walls of the town, and turned it into the fea. A happen to be inclofed betwixt two lavas, but ought
fuccef&on of men, covered with fheep flcins wetted, never to be tried except in cafes of real necefflty ; and
were employed to cut through the tough flanks of la- indeed, if the current of melted matter was very broad
va, till they made a paflage for that in the centre, muft undoubtedly be attended with extreme danger,
which was in perfedt fution, to difgorge itfelf into the both from the heat of the -upper cruft and the chance
channel prepared for it. But this, it is evident, can of its breaking and falling down with the paflenger in-
only take place in fmall ftreams of this burning matter ; to the burning liquid below. That which Sir William
with that above mentioned it would have been impof- Hamilton croffed was about 50 or 60 feet broad,
not al- Able. It hath been alfo obferved of the lavas of Et- Having palled this burning ftream, our trsvellers
ways de- na, that they do not conftantly fall down to the low- walked up along the fide of it to its very fource.
fcend to the places, but will fometimes afcend in fuch a manner Here they faw it boiling and bubbling violently up
as to make the valleys rife into hills. On thiVSir Wil- out of the ground, with a hilling and crackling noife
liam Hamilton has the following note : “ Having heard like that which attends the playing off an artificial
the fame remark with regard to the lavas of Vefuvius, fire-work. An hillock of about 15 feet high was for-
I determined, during an eruption of that volcano, to med by the continual fplafhing up and cooling of the
watch the progrefs of a current of lava, and I was foon vitrified matter. Under this was an arched hollow
enabled to comprehend this feeming phaenomenon, red-hot within, like an heated oven; the lava which
though it is, I fear, very difficult to explain. Certain ran from it being received into a regular channel rai-
it is, that the lavas, while in their moft fluid ftate, fol- fed upon a fort of wall of fcorfse and cinders, almoft
low always the laws of other fluids; but when at a perpendicularly, of about the height of 8 or 10 feet,
great diftance from their fource, and confequently en- and much refembling an ancient aqueduft. On quit-
cumbered with fcorix and cinders, the air likewife ha- ting this fountain of lava, they went quite up to the
ring rendered their outward coat tough, they will crater, where as ufual they found a little mountain
fometimes (as 1 have feen) be forced up a fmall afcent, throwing up ftones and red-hot fcorise with loud ex-
the frefh matter pulhing forward that which went be- plofions; but the fmoke and fmell of fulphur was fo
fore it, and the exterior parts of the lava a&ing always intolerable, that they were obliged to quit the place
as condu&ors (or pipes, if I maybe allowed the ex- with precipitation. ^
preffion) for the interior parts, that have retained their By the great eruption in Auguft 1779, the curious
fluidity from not being expofed to the air.” channels above mentioned were entirely deftroyed, the
From the year 1767 to 1779, this gentleman made cone of the mountain was covered with a ftratum of
many curious obfervations on the lavas of Vefuvius. lava full of deep cracks, from whence continually if-
He found, that they conftantly formed channels in fued a fulphureous fmoke that tinged the fcorise and
the mountain as regular as if they had been made by cinders with a deep yellow, or fornetimes white tint,
art; and that, whilft in a ftate of perfeA fufion, they The lava of this eruption appeared to be more per-
continued their courfe in thofe channels, which were feftly vitrified than that of any former one he hadob-
fometimes full to the brim, and at others more or lefs ferved. The pores of the frefli lava were generally
fo according to the quantity of matter thrown out. full of a perfect vitrification, and the fcoril them-
Thefe channels, after fmall eruptions, were generally ftlves, viewed through a magnifying glafs, appeared
from two to five or fix feet wide, and feven or eight like a confufed heap of filaments of a foul vitrification
in depth. They were often hid from the fight by a When a piece of the folid lava had been cracked in iti
quantity of fconx that had formed a cruft over them, fall, without feparating entirely, fibres of perfect glafs
and the lava, having been conveyed in a covered way were always obferved reaching from fide to fide with-
for feme yards, came out again frefli into an open in the cracks. The natural fpun glafs which fell in
'channel. Our author informs us, that he had walked fome places along with the aftes of this eruption and
in fome of thefe fubterraneous galleries, which were which has likewife been obferved in other places he
exceedingly curious, the fideij, top, and bottom, being is of opinion muft have proceeded from an operation of
exceedingly fmooth and even : others were incrufted the kind juft mentioned ; the lava cracking and fe
with what he calls very extraordinary fcorix, beauti- parating in the air at the time of its emiffio.f from the
fully rammed white falls in the form of dropping fta- crater, and by that means fpinning out the pure vitri-
laftites,. &c. ... . . .in fied matter from its pores or cells; the wind at the
. °n viewing a ftream of lava while in its fluid ftate fame time carrying off the filaments of glafs as fall as
in the month of May *779> perceived the opera- they were produced.
tion of it in the channels above deferibed in great Our author obferved a kind of pumice ftone flick
perfe&ion. After quitting them, it fpread itfelf in the ing to fome very large fragments of the new lava On
valley, and ran gently like a river that had been fro- clofe Hifpeftion, however, he found that this fub
zen, and had maffes of ice floating upon it. The wind ftance had been forced out of the minute pores of the
happening then to ftiift, our traveller was fo incom- ’ folid lava itfelf; and was a colleftion of fine vitreous
xnoded by the imoke_, that the guide propofed to crofs fibres or filaments confounded together at the time of
Von. IX. Part II. 4 £ their
Lara.T
LAV
their being preffed out by the contra&ion of the larg<
J fragments of lava in cooling, and which had been bent
[ 586 I
LAV
arrived at the fame place in a fluid ftate, and has there
undergone fo great a change as fcarce to retain an ap-
downwards by their own weight. “ This curious fub- pearance of its original ftate. It is, however, like iron
fiance (fays he) has the lightnefs of 3 pumice, and J"~r~ : ——  1 r'"— lir“ ",r~
refembles it in every refpeft, except that it is of a
darker colour.”
When the pores of this lava were large, and filled
with pure vitrified matter, the latter was fometimes
found blown into bubbles on the furface; probably by
the air which had been forced out at the time the la¬
va contracted itfelf in cooling ; and from thefe thin
bubbles it appeared, that this kind of volcanic glafs
has much the fame tranfparency with our common
glafs bottles, and like them is of a dirty yellow co-
drofs, in grains of unequal fixes. We find it alfo at
various diftances, fuch as one, two, or more hundred
fathoms. It is fometimes found in large pieces like
tables, covered over with (harp points, fome longer
and others fhorter. All thefe pieces are quite detach¬
ed from one another, as if they had been brought thi¬
ther and fcattered from a tumbril. The matter of
which the cruft of the lava is formed, feems to have
iffued from it in the fame manner in which froth rife*
upon folution of foap in water. It appears afterwards
to have fwelled, burft, and affumed its prefent form.
lour; but when large pieces of it were broken off prefenting to the view various fpaces filled with final!
with a hammer, they appeared perfe&ly black and
Opaque.
In the lava of this eruption it was obferved, that
many detached pieces were in the fhape of a barley¬
corn or plum-ftone, fmall at each end, and thick in
the middle. Some of thefe did not weigh above an
ounce ; but others could not be lefs than 60 pounds.
Our author took them to be drops from the liquid
fountain of fire, which might naturally acquire fuch a
form in their fall. There were alfo many other cu¬
rious vitrifications, different from any he had feen be¬
fore, mixed with this huge fhower of fcoriae and maf-
fes of lava.
In treating of Mount Etna, M. Houel makes men¬
tion of a piece of lava which, after having been once
eje&ed by the volcano, was fwallowed up, and thrown
cut a fecond time. The intenfe heat to which it was
then fubje&ed, had fuch an effedt upon it, that it ap¬
peared all full of chinks to a confiderable depth, and
which run at right angles to one another. He had alfo
an opportunity of obferving to great advantage fome
of the hollow channels formed by the lavas of Etna fi-
milar ta.thofe defcribed by Sir William Hamilton, but
loofe ftones. A great number of new lavas were like-
wife obferved, ail of them putting forth various kinds
of efflorefcences in great quantity.
The hardnefs, denfity, and folidity, of lavas, no
doubt proceed from the degree of heat to which they
have been expofed, and which feems to be greater or
lefs according to their quantity. Hence the Icelandic
volcanoes, which pour forth tiie greateft quantities of
lava, produce it alfo in the gfeateft degree of lique-
fadtion, and Dr Van Troil obfeAres, that what he faw
muft have been liquefied to an extreme degree.
The compofition of the lavas of different volcanoes, obferfa.
and even of different parts of thofe of the fame volcano, t;ons on tj,e
is extremely different. Sir William Hamilton is of different
opinion that this difference in compofitisn contributes c.omPofi-
not a little to the facility or difficulty with which they “asn|8 “gj**
afterwards receive earth capable of vegetation. “ Some vy, Hamil-
(fays he) have been in a more perfedt ftate of vitrifi-ton. ‘
cation than others, and are confequently lefs liable to
the impreffions of time. I have often obferved on
Mount Vefuvius, when I have been clofe to a mouth
from whence'the lava was difgorging itfelf, that the
quality of it varied greatly from time to time. I have
a much larger fcale. Here the great eruption of feen it as fluid and coherent as glafs when in fufion
water in 1755 had overturned, in a vertical diredlion,
an huge tube of this kind for the length of half a mile.
The tube itfelf appeared to be compofed of enormous
maffes, fomewhat refembling planks; each two feet
thick and twelve or fifteen in breadth, continued in
a ftraight line through the whole of that fpace. At the
fame time by the adtion of the lava a kind of walls had
been formed, from ten to fixteen feet in height, and
curved at the top. Some of thefe walls appear rolled
together like paper ; and M- Houel is of opinion, that
thefe various appearances on. the furface of the lava
when cooled muft have arifen from particles heteroge¬
neous to the real lava; and which detach themfelves
from it, rifing to the furface under a variety of forms
proportioned to the fpaces of time taken up in cool¬
ing. Thele crufts are formed of different kinds of fco-
rias and dirty lava, mixed with fand or afhes. At the
fame place are found alfo great numbers of fmall pieces
Kke thofe of ice heaped upon one another after having
floated for fome time on a river. Beneath thefe the
and I have feen it farinaceous, the particles feparating
as they forced their way out, juft like meal coming
from under the grindftones. A lit earn of lava of this
fort being lefs compaft, and containing more earthy
particles, would certainly be much fooner fit for vege¬
tation than one compofed of the more perfeft vitrified
matter.” Mr Bergman, who has accurately analyfed 6
fome Icelandic lavas, informs us, that one kind is very Mr
coarfe, heavy, and hard, full of bladders, almoft black, erSmaE»
intermixed with white grains refembling quartz, which
in fome places have a figure not very unlike a fquare.
This black matter is not attracted by the magnet; but
if a piece of it is held againft a compafs, the needle
vifibly moves. When tried in the crucible, it yields
from ten to twelve pounds of iron in every hundred
weight. It does not diffolve in the leaft with fal fodas,
and very difficultly with borax, and fcarce at all with
urinous fait. It feems to contain a great deal o£
clay in its compofition, which may be extracted by
all acid folvents. This laft he is like wife, from expe-
pure lava is met with, and which has evidently been in riments, affured is the cafe with the lava of Solfaterra
a date of perfect fufion. This is extremely denfe ; in Italy.
and by looking narrowly into its chinks, the compo¬
fition of the whole appears to be merely homogeneous.
“ It is curious (fays he) to obferve, fo near one fpecies
®£ lava which is very pure, another which, has like wife
The white lava, which pofleffes more or lefs of thofe
tranfparent grains or rays with which lavas arc gene¬
rally chequered, does not feem to be of the nature o£
quartz, as it cannot, be attacked by fal fodse; it is
3 how.,
"By'Mr
Berber.
M. Dolo-
micii s epi-
LAV [587] . LAV
however, foluble with fome difficulty by borax and he juftly obferves, is of all others the moil fallacious, lava,
fulible urinous fait, or microcofmic acid. Thefe effects The fubftances are all fufible, and we have no proper —v—^
are perfeflly fimilar to thofe produced upon the dia- methods of meafuring the intenfity of our fire; fo s
mond, ruby, fapphire, topaz, and hyacinth. The that the fame fubilance which to-day may come out
chryfolite, garnet, tourmalin, and Ihirl, can neither of our furnaces untouched, may to-morrow be found
be diflblved by fal fodas, though they are fomewhat at- completely altered, even though the fire employed
tacked by it when reduced to a fine powder; and up- Ihould not appear to us to be any more violent than the
on the two laft mentioned ones it produces a flight former. Analylirs by different menflruahave not been
effervefcence ; on which account, fays Mr Bergman, it more fuccefsful. Mr Bergman has indeed analyfed 9
is poffible that the precious ftones found upon Mount fome lavas with acids, and gives with aftonifhing Pre- a^af^'0!
VefuViius, which are fold at Naples, are nearer related cifion the following refult, viz. that an hundred fava!' ^ °
to the real precious ftones than is generally imagined, par ts of lava contain 49 of Ifiliceous earth, 35 of ar-
He found no fuch grains in a finer kind of lava, quite gillaceous earth, four of calcareous earth, and 12 of
porous within, and entirely burnt out, and coniiderably iron. Thefe experiments, however, our author ob-
lighter than the former ones. ferves, give us no information with regard to lavas in
The Iceland agate is of a black or blackifh brown general. They only fhow the compofuion of the par-
colour, a little tranfparent at the thin edges like glafs, ticular fpecimens that he tried ; and even after the de-
and gives fire with fteel. It cannot eafily be melted by feriptions that he has given, we are a good deal at a
itfelf; but becomes white, and flies in pieces. It can lofs to difeover the fpecies of lava which he fubje&ed
hardly be diflblved in the fire by fufible urinous fait; to analyfis. “ It would be as ridiculous (fays M.
but it fucceeds a little better with borax, though with Dolomieu) to apply this analyfis to every volcanic pro-
fome difficulty. With fal fodae it diflblves very little ; dud, as it would be to believe that the component parts
though in the firft moments fome ebullition is percei- of a fiflile rock were the fame with thofe of every rock
ved, and the whole mafs is afterwards reduced to pow- compofed of laminae or thin ftrata.” For thefe reafona
der. Hence Mr Bergman concludes, that this agate he is of opinion, that, in order to underftand the na-
hath been produced by an exceflive fire out of the ture of lavas, we fliould confider not only that of vol-
black lava formerly mentioned. canoes themfelves, but of the bafes on which they reft.
In the Iceland pumice-ftone, quartz and cryftals Had this been done, we would have found that the
are often found, particularly in the black and reddiih- volcanic fires generally exift in beds of argillaceous I0
brown kind. The ftones thrown out of the volcano, fchiftus and horn ftone; frequently in a fpecies ofofthefeae
whether grey, or burnt brown, feemed to coniift of a porphyry, the gluten of which is intermediate be-°f voltao«:
hardened clay, mixed with a filiceous earth. They twixt horn-ftone and petfofilex ; containing a large fires•
were fprinkled with rays and grains refembling quartz, quantity of fchorl, feldt-fpar, and greenifti quartz or
and fome few flakes of mica. They fufed with great chryfolite, in little rounded nodules. Thefe fubftances
difficulty in the fire ; with fal fodse they ftrowed fome he tells us, would have been found in thofe mountains
effervefcence at firft:, but which ceafed in a fliort time, which are called primitive, and in ftrata butted under
The parts refembling quartz produced no motion at beds of calcareous ftone ; and, among other things,
all; from whence Mr Bergman concludes, that the would have convinced us, that the fluidity of lavas
black lava already mentioned proceeds principally from does not make them lofe the diftimftive charatfters of
this mafs. Several other ftones which were fent him their bafes. In the mountains called Primitive, thofe
from Iceland, Mr Bergman fuppofed to have no con- rocks which are aflrgned as the bafes of the more com-
nedlion with the eruptions, but to have been produced mon lavas are found intermixed with micaceous ones
in fome other way. with gneifs, granite, &c. and they generally reft on
In Mr Ferber’s travels through Italy, we are in- maffes of granite. Hence lavas muft confift of all
formed, that he has feen a fpecies of lava fo exa&ly re- thefe matters, and the fire muft a<ft upon them all
fembling blue iron flags, that it was not to be diftin- whenever it meets with them. Our author has con-
guiflied from them but with great difficulty. The fame ftantly obferved, that volcanoes fituated at the greateft
author tells us likewife, that “ the Vicentine and Ve- diftance from the centre of the chain, or group of
fonefe lavas and volcanic alhes contain inclofed feveral mountains on which they are eftablifhed, produce lavas
forts of fire-ftriking and flint-horn ftones, of a red, of a more homogeneous compofition, and lefs varied
black, white, green, and variegated colour, fuch as and which contain moft iron and argillaceous earth!
jafpers and agates; that hyacinths, chryfolites, and Thofe, on the contrary, placed nearer the centre, are
pietre obftdiane, deferibed by Mr Arduini in his Giornale more diverfified in their products; containing fubftan-
d’Italia, are found at Leonedo ; and that chalcedony ces of an infinite variety of different kinds. The feat
or opal pebbles, and noduli with inclofed water-drops, of the fire, however, he obferves, does not long con-
(chakedonii opah enhydri), are dug out of the volcanic tinue among the granites, the inflammation being ei-
cineritious hills near Vicenza. ther extinguiflied, or returning to the centre of the
M. Dolomieu cenfiders the chemical analyfis of la- fchiftus rocks in its neighbourhood,
va as but of little account. When fubje&ed to the From this knowledge of the materials of which lavas n
force of fire a fecond time, they are all of them redu- are compofed, we acquirs alfo a confiderable know- Mater>d*
cible to the fame kind of glafs; from which it has been ledge of the matters that arc found in greateft quantity a£undant in
concluded, that all volcanic products have been form- in the bowels of the earth. The excavations made by Ireat^1*at
ed of the fame kind of materials, and that the fubter- mines, See. on the furface of the earth, are mere depths
raneous fire has always afted on and varioufly modi- fcratches in comparifon of the depths of volcanic fires-fll0Wn.I)7
^ed the fame kind of ftone. But an analyfis by fire, and as he confiders the mountains themfelves as theg"gjanic
4 E 2 pro.
LAV [ 1 LA V
produflions of thofe fires, it thence follows, that by
attentively examining the materials of which they are
compofed, we may theqce determine what kind of
fubftances are mod common at thefe great depths in
the earth.
Thus our author thinks it probable, that fchoeils
and porphyries, though rare on the furface, are very
common in the internal par|s of the earth. Asan.inftance
of the truth of his obfervations, our atjjhor informs us,
that he was convinced, from no other circumftance but
merely infpefting the lavas of Mount Etna, that, in.
dome parts of the ifland of Sicily, there exifted granites,
porphyries, with fchiftus and argillaceous horn-
llones. In this opinion he perfifted, notwithftanding
the generally oppoiite fentiments of the inhabitants
themfelves. He fearched in vain three-fourths of the
ifland ; and at lafl found that all the mountains, form¬
ing the point of Sicily, called Pelorus> contain rocks of
the kind above mentioned. He then faw that the bafe
of thefe mountains was produced under Mount Etna
on one fide, and under the Lipari iflandson the other.
“ We muft, therefore, (fays he) believe, that thefe
mountains have furnifhed the materials on which the
volcanoes have, for thoufands of years, exerted their
power.”
By travelling among thofe elevations called the N'eJ>--
tunian Mountains^ or Mans P dor us, he was enabled to
difcover the reafon why the produ&s of Etna and the
Lipari iflands differ from one another. This, he fays,
is the unequal diftribution of the granite and fchiftus
rocks among them. The iflands reft almoft immedi-
ately on the granite, or are feparated from it by a very
thin llratum of argillaceous rock which contains por¬
phyry ; but the Sicilian volcano is fituated on the pro¬
longation of the fchiftous rock, which it muft pierce
before it reaches the granite ; and accordingly very
little of its lava feems to have granite for, its bafis. If
the feat of the fire was ftill more diftant from the
centre of the mountains, their lavas would be more ho¬
mogeneous ; becaufe the fchift, which fucceeds to the
horn-ftone, is lefs various, and hardly includes any bo¬
dies foreign to its own fubftance. Thus the lavas, in
the extinguifhed volcanoes of the Val dl Noto, which
lie 15 leagues to the fouth eaft of Etna, contain nei¬
ther granite nor porphyry ; but have for their bafes
fimple rocks, with particles of chryfolite and fome
fchorls.
To the granites which extend to Metazzo, oppo-
fite to Lipari, he afcribesthe formation of pumice ;.as
they contain an immenfe quantity of fcaly and mica¬
ceous rocks, black and white, with fofiile granites or
gneifs, the bafis of which is a very fulible feldt-fpar ;
and thefe he fuppofes to be the proper materials, of the
pumice, having found pieces of them almoft untouch¬
ed in pumice-ftones. There are beds of almoft pure
feldt-fpar ; to the femivitrification of which he afcribes
an opaque enamel like lava mentioned in other parts of
bis works. Few porphyries, however, he acknow¬
ledges, are to be met with among the Neptunian
mountains, though thefe ftones abound in the lavas of
Etna. “ They are not diftant (fays he) from the gra¬
nites ; and thofe I have found have neither the hard-
nefs nor perfection of thofe pieces which I gathered
in the gullia, and which had been apparently wafhed
«ut of the anterior parts of the mountain by water.
But though the porphyries I faw here bear no proper. Lava..
tion to thofe in the products of Etna, I was fufficient- ' v—
ly convincedof their exiftence, and their analogy with
thofe of volcanoes, by difeovering that- the centre of
thefe mountains contains a great number of them. For,
phyries,. in general, are very rare on the furface of the
earth. Nature generally conceals them from us by
burying them under calcareous ftrata, or by inclofing,
them in fchiftus rocks with which they are almoft al¬
ways mixed: but we are indebted to the labour of
volcanoes, for informing us that they are among the
moft common fubftances in the bowels of the earth $;
and they are never fo much difguifed by the fubterra-
nean fire as to be miftaken in the lavas of which they
form the bafis.”'
In Cronftedt’s Mineralogy we find all the volcanic,
produfis clafled under the general name of Slags; of
which he enumerates the following fpecies.
1. The Achates IJlandicm Niger, or Iceland Agate.
It is black, folid, and of a glaffy texture ; but in thin
pieces : it is greenilh, and iemitranfparent, like bottle-
■ glafs which contains much iron. It is found in Ice¬
land and in the ifland of Afcenfion. The jewellers
employ it as an agate, though it is too foft to refill
the wear- “ The moft remarkable thing concern¬
ing this (fays he) is, that fuch large folid maffes are
found of it, that tbtye is no polfibility of producing
the like ia any glafs-houfe. In Magellan’s notes on
this fubjeCl, we find the Iceland agate daffed among
the tranfparent bafaltes. To the fame clafs belong the
Lapis Objidianus of Pliny, and the Lapis Galiinaceus of
Peru, which by its beautiful blackneis approaches to
the colour of a large black-bird of the crow kind, in
that country called the Gallinago.
2. Lapis molaris Rhenanus, Rhenifh Millftone, is
blackilh grey, porous, and perfeCily refembling a fort
of flag produced by Mount Vcfuvius.
3. Pumex, the pumice-ftone. SccPumex.
4. The Pearl- Slag is compounded of white and.
greenilh glafs particles, which feem to have been con-
glutinated while yet foft or in fufion. It is found in
the ifland of Afcenfion.
5’ Slag-fand, or alhes, thrown out by volcanoes in>
larger or fmalier grains. “ This (fays Cronfledt) may
perhaps be the principle of the Terra Puzzolana, be-
caufe fuch an earth is faid at this time to cover the
luins of Herculaneum near Naples, which was deftroy-
ed by Vefuvius.” In the notes, we are informed, that
if the allies of a volcano be plentifully moiftened, they
produce that kind of tufa or tophi, traas, and port, all
of which arc nearly of the fame kind. Great heaps
of tufa or tophi are found in Italy, forming various
hills, and covering large tra&s of land; from whence it
is cut, and carried, for making the walls, vaults, and
upper ceilings of houfes. It is a very fofc kind of
ftone, extremely advantageous for thefe purpofes, on
account of its little weight, and being eafily cud into*
any form. The inhabitants of Umbria and other parts
of Italy dig with very little labour various fubterra-
nean excavations for the keeping of wines and provi-
fions of different kinds.
Mr Kirwan is of opinion, that the lavas ought to be
diftinguiftied from the other volcanic produ&ions. All
lavas, according to him, are magnetic, give fire with
fteel, are generally of a granular texture, and fufible
LAV [ ] LAV
&*va. per fc. They may be reduced to three varieties, i>/z.
—v—; the Cellular, the Compaft, and the Vitreous. The
cellular appear to have undergone only the firft degree
of fufion, being juft mollified and heated fufficiently to
expel the fixed air contained in the argillaceous parti¬
cles. Hence they abound in fmall cavities arifing from
the expanfion of that air after it had recovered its
elaftic ftate ; and thus they ate often fo light as to float
upon water, and have been miftaken for pumice-
ftones. They are of black, grey, brown, or reddifh
colours; and their cavities are even filled with cryftal-
lizations. Of this kind is Cronftcdt’s fecond fpecies,
the millftone of the Rhine. Thefe contain from 45
to 50per cent, of filiceous earth; from 15 to 20 of
iron ; four or five of pure calcareous earth ; the re¬
mainder being argillaceous.
The compact lavas have undergone a more perfeft
degree of fufion, though even thefe are not deftitute
of cavities. They contain finer cryftalsj or fuch as
are more completely vitrified than the former ; they
have a black or brown colour : but ftill their ffadture
is-obfcure and not glaffy. Their conftituent parts are
the fame with the preceding ones ; the ufual fluxes at¬
tack them with difficulty, and the fufible fait of urine
has fcarce any power over them.
The vitreous lava has been more completely melted,
and forms vitrifications of different colours, generally
black or a(h-coloured, but rarely blue or greenifh. A
fpecies of this was analyfed by Mr Bergman, as has
been already mentioned, and afforded ^ per cent, of-fi-
lex, 35 of argillaceous, 4 of calcareous earth, and
12 of iron. Another fpecimen from the Lipari
iflands afforded 69 parts of filex, 20 of argillaceous
earth, and 9 of iron. This kind of lava melts by it-
fclf with great difficulty. The black agate of Iceland
belongs to this fpecies, as does alfo the harder fort of
pitch ftone, which gives fire with fteel. This ftone is
of various colours, grey, green, black, red, or brown ;
has a glaffy appearance, being compofed of femivitri-
fied fubftances, and melts eafily per fe. It contains 65
per cent, of lilex, 16 of argillaceous earth, and four
of iron ; 14 parts were diffipated in the analyfis made
by Wiegleb, as Mr Kirwan afferts.
The beds of lava are deepeft and narroweft near the
crater, and broader and ffiallower as they advance,
unlefs fome valley intervenes. Pumice-ftones lie at a ftill
greater diftance : and from thefe obfervations, fays Mr
Kirwan, cxtinguiflied volcanoes may be traced.
Cronftedt conjt&ured that there might be a kind of
circulation among the different earths, from the vege¬
table mould, which he fuppofed to occupy one ex¬
treme, to the Jlags 01 volcanic produ&ions, which might
be reckoned to occupy another, and back again from
the flags to the vegetable mould. “ It is obvious
(fays he) how the old heaps of flags from the iron
furnaces decay, and at lad produce vegetables, which
cannot be afcribed folely to a black mould carried thi¬
ther by the wind. The fame may perhaps happen
with the natural flags in the open air.” Other natura-
lifts have verified this conje&ure. All lavas are found
to be decompofable by long txpofure to the air, foon-
er or later according to the quantity of iron and cal¬
careous earth they contain, and according as their fu¬
fion was more or lefs complete, bir William Hamil¬
ton has concluded that they gain only one or two feet Lavs,
mould in tooo years; from which, and Roupero’s
calculations, extravagant ideas have been formed of the
duration of the world ; but all thefe are found, when
properly examined, to be built on a falfe foundation.
See the article Earth, n' 176, 177.
The quantity of matter thrown out from vol- lz
canoes under the name of lava is prodigious. Af-^*®^*®*
ter the great eruption of Etna in 1669, ' Borelli va'thrown
went from Pifa to Sicily to obferve the effects ofou:.
it. The matter thrown out at that time amounted
to 9.1)830,750 cubical paces ; fo that, had it been
extended in length upon the furface of the earth, it
would have reached more than four timeil round
the whole earth. All this matter, however, was *
not lava, but confifted alfo of fand, ftone, gravel,
&c. The lava he computed at 6,300*000 paces,
which formed a tiver, according to our author, fome*
times two miles broad ; but according to others it was
fix or feven miles broad, and fometimes 20 or 30 yards
in depth. Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the
lavas of Etna are very commonly 15 or 20 miles in
length, fix or feven in breadth, and jo feet deep. The
moft confiderable is tcarce lefs than 30 miles long and
15 broad. The moft confiderable lavas of Vefuvius
do not exceed feven miles in length. The fame au¬
thor, however, tells us, that the lava which iffued
from Vefuvius in 1767, was fix miles long, two in
breadth, and in moft places 60 or 70 feet deep. In
one place it had run along a hollow-way made by chr-
rents of rain not lefs than 200 feet deep and 100
wide ; and this vaft hollow it had in one place fill¬
ed up. He fays, he could not have believed that fo
great a quantity of matter could have been thrown out
in fuch a ihort time, if he had not examined the whole
courfe of it himfelf. Even this quantity, however,
great as it is, appears very trifling in comparifon of
that thrown out in Iceland in the year 1783, which
covered a fpace of ground 90 miles in length and 42
in breadth, to the depth of more than 100 feet. Dr
Van Troil, in his Letters on Iceland, tells us, that he
and his companions travelled over a trad! of lava up¬
wards of 300 miles in length: and in 1728, we are {old
that an eruption of lava took place, which continued
for two years to run into a great lake, which it almoft
filled up.
As the lavas are thrown out from the volcanoes in r3
the higheft degree of ignition, it may eafily be fup- a!
pofed that fuch vaft bodies will retain their heat to'oioh1*5
for a long time. It would indeed be well worth
obferving, what length of time is required to cool a
lava perfe&Iy ; as from thence we might in fome
meafure judge how far thofe philofophers are in the
right, who argue concerning the length of time re¬
quired to cool an ignited globe of the fize of our earth
or larger. Sir William Hamilton tells us, that in the
month of April 1771, he thruft fticks into fome of the
crevices of the lava which had iffued from Vefuvius in
O&ober 1767, and they immediately took fire. On
Mount Etna, in 1769, he obferved the lava that had
been difgorged three years before to fmoke in many
parts. No particular obfervation, however, hath been
made in what proportion the heat-of lavas is gradually
loft.
Sir;
LAV [ 59* ] LAV
Sir William Hamilton informs us of a curious fa&
I,imndula. reiat;ng t0 a iava jn j{]and called Lacco. Here is
a cavern fhut up with a door; and this cavern is made
l4 ufe of to cool liquors and fruit, which it does in a
Cold and ftiort time as effectually as ice. Before the door was
noxmus va-opgpedj }ie feit the cold on his legs very fenfibly ; but
duced bv° w^en ^ was °Pene(l* the cold rufhed out fo as to give
old lava’s. him Pa'n > an(l within the grotto it was intolerable.
He was not fenfible of wind attending this cold; tho’
upon Mount Etna and Vefuvius, where there are ca¬
verns of this kind, the cold is evidently occafroned by
a fubterraneous wind: the natives call fuch places ven-
taroli. From old lavas there alfo frequently happens
an eruption of noxious vapours called mofetes. Thefe
likewife break out from wells and fubterraneous places
in the neighbourhood of a volcano before an eruption.
Our author teHs us, that the vapour affeCts the noftrils,
throat, and ftomach, juft as the fpirit of hartlhorn or
any ftrong volatile fait; and would foon prove fatal if
you did not immediately withdraw from it. Thefe
mofetes, he fays, are at all times to be met with under
the ancient lavas of Vefuvius, particularly the great
eruption of 1631.
Sir William Hamilton informs us, that the lavas of
CJfesofla. Etna and Vefuvius are much the fame, but thofe of
va. Etna rather blacker and more porous than thofe of
Vefuvius. Some kinds of lava take a fine polifti, and
are frequently manufactured into boxes, tables, &c.
In Naples, the inhabitants commonly make ufe of it
for paving the ftreet?, and even the fubttrraneous cities
of Pompeii and Herculaneum have been paved with
the fame fubftance. A fine large cubic piece of lava
is preferved in the hall of the Britifh Mufeum.
LAVANDULA, lavender: A genus of the an-
giofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
43d order, Vert mil at a. The calyx is ovate, and a little
dentated, fupported by a braCtea or floral leaf; the co¬
rolla is refupinated ; the ftamina within the tube.
Species, t. The fpica, or lavender fpike, hath a
fliort fhrubby ftalk, rifing two or three feet high; fmall
fpear-ftiaped entire leaves ; and from the ends of the
branches, numerous, long, ereCt, naked fpikes of fmall
ringent flowers, of different colours in the varieties.
The varieties of this are common narrow-leaved laven¬
der, with blue flowers, and with white flowers; broad¬
leaved lavender; dwarf lavender: all of them flower¬
ing in July. This fpecies is the common lavender;
but the narrow-leaved variety, with blue flowers, is the
fort commonly cultivated for its flowers for medicine,
&c. The ftcechas, or French lavender, hath a fhrubby
very branchy ftalk, rifing two or three feet high; very
narrow, fpear-fhaped, pointed, hoary leaves, oppofite ;
and all the branches terminated by fhort buflty fpikes
of purple flowers in June and July; fucceeded by feeds
in Auguft. There is a variety with white flowers.
3. The dentata, or dentate-leaved ftcechas, hath a
woody ftalk, branching on every fide three or four
feet high ; leaves deeply indented _ in a pinnated man¬
ner; and the branches terminated by fcaly four-cor¬
nered fpikes of flowers, appealing moft part of fum-
mer.
Culture. All the forts are propagated plentifully
by flips or cuttings of their young fhoots in fpring.
In March or April, take off a quantity of flips or cut¬
tings, fi»om three or four to fix inches long ; ft rip off Lmter*,
the under leaves; then plant them in a fhady border, ,I-nvt>t&ry\
four inches afunder j give a good watering, repeat it ' Tj
occafionally in dry weather, and the plants will be
well rooted in fummer, and each become a good plant
fit to be tranfplanted into any place early in autumn,
that is September or Odtober ; removing them, if pof-
fible, with balls of earth ; and if intended to plant
them for ufe, fet them in rows two or three feet afun-
der, and two feet diftance in each row: if any arede-
figned for the ftirubbery, they ffiould be ftationed
fingly at good diftances near the front. Thofe of the
third fort being tender, flrould be potted to move to
flicker in winter. The lavendula ftcechas is alfo often
raifed from feed, fown in March or April, in a bed of
light earth.
Ufes. The two firft fpecies are proper both for
the kitchen-garden, for medicinal and other family-
ufes; and to plant in the pleafure-ground to adorn the
front of fmall ftirubbery compartments, where they will
increafe the variety very agreeably ; and are finely-
fcented aromatics, both when growing, and their
flowers when gathered, efpecially thofe of the firft fpe¬
cies, which are in great efteem for putting among
cloaths, and for diftilling and other economical ufes.
The flowers of the firft fort are gathered for ufe in
July, which being the time of their perfection, cut oft
the fpikes dole in a dry day, and tie them in fmall
bunches for.ufe. Thefe and the fummits are in a very
eminent degree cephalic and nervine. They are given
in palfies, vertigos, lethargies, tremors, and fuppref-
fion of the menftrual evacuation. The compound fpi¬
rit difliiled from them is famous in thefe and many
other like cafes. The diftilled oil is particularly cele¬
brated for deftroying the pediculi inguinales, and other
cutaneous infcCts. If foft fpongy paper, dipt in
this oil, either alone or mixed with oil of almonds,
be applied at night to the parts infedfed, the infe&a
will certainly, fays Geoffroy, be all found dead in the
morning.
LAVATERA, in botany: A genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the polyadelphia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
37th order, Columnifera. The exterior calyx is double
and trifid; the arilli or feed -coats are very many and mo-
nofpermous. Thereare feveral fpecies, moftof them her¬
baceous flowery aanuals, or fhrubby perennials, growing
ereA from two or three to eight or ten feet high, gar-
nifhed with large roundifh, heart-lhaped, and angular
leaves, and quinquepetslous flowers of the mallow kind.
They are eafily propagated by feed in the open ground
in the fpring ; and thrive beft when fown where they
are defigned to remain. The lavatera tribe affedt a
warm fandy fituation and foil, in which they will fome-
tlmes continue to exhibit their beauties for many years;
but in general they are’ fhort-lived, continuing only
two'or three years: this renders them peculiarly eli¬
gible to be fcattered plentifully in a newly made fhrub-
bery ; they will add warmth to young plants, and will
die away themfelves before the fpaces they occupy will
be required by the furrounding fhrubs.
LAVATORY, or Lavadero, a name given to
certain places in Chili and Peru, where gold is got out
of earth by wafhing.
M. Frezier give* us the following defeription of the
lavatorit?
L A U [ 591 ] L A U
Lubacb, lavatories of Chili:—They dig deep into the earth,
LaucL in fuch places as they have reafon to expeft gold in ;
» and, in order to facilitate this digging, turn a dream
of water upon the fpot, loofening the earth as much
as poffible all the time, that the current may have the
greater effeA, and tear up the earth more ftrongly.
When they are got to the earth they want, they turn
off the dream, and dig dry.
The earth that they now get, is carried on mules,
and difcharged into a bafon, made fomewhat in the
manner of a fmith’s bellows; into which a little rivu¬
let of water runs with a great deal of rapidity, diffol-
ving the parts of the earth, and carrying every thing
away with it, excepting the particles of gold, which,
by their great weight, precipitate to the bottom of the
bafon, and mix with fine black fand, where they
are almod as much hidden as they were before in the
earth.
Sometimes they find very confiderable pieces in
lavatories, particularly pieces of 24 ounces each.—
There are feveral lavatories, where they find pepitas,
or pieces of virgin gold, of a prodigious fize. A-
mong others, they tell of one that weighed 512
ounces, bought by the count de la Moncloa, viceroy
of Peru.
Nine or ten leagues to the ead of Coquimbo, are
the lavatories of Andacoll, the gold whereof is 23
carats fine.—Their works here always turn Ip great
profit, exceptin ; when the water fails them.—The
natives maintain that the earth is creative^ that is,
it produces gold continually ; becaufe, after having
been wafhed 60 or 80 years, they find it impreg¬
nated afrelh, and draw almod as much out of it as at
fird.
LUBACH, a handfome and drong town of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Audria, and in Carniola, with
a bifhop’s fee, a cadle, and very handfome houfes. It
is feated on a river of the fame name, wherein are the
larged craw-fifh in Europe. E. Long. 14. 45. N.
Lat. 46. 20.
LAUD (William), archbifhop of Canterbury in
the 17th century, was born at Reading in 1573, and
educated in St John’s college, Oxford, of which he
was afterwards a fellow and grammar-reader. In
1610, he went into orders. In 1611, he was eledted
prefident of St John’s college ; but his eledtion being
difputed, it was confirmed by his majedy. The fame
year he was fwom the king’s chaplain. In 1621,
he was nominated bifhop of St David’s. In 1628, he
was tranflated to the bidiopric of London. In 1630,
he vras elected chancellor of the univerfity of Oxford.
In 1633, he attended the king into Scotland, and was
fworn a privy-counfellor for that kingdom. During
his ftay in Scotland, he formed the refolution of bring¬
ing that church to an exadt conformity with the church
of England. In the fame year, he fuccecded archbi¬
fhop Abbot in the fee of Canterbury; and foon after
came out his majefty’s declaration about lawful fports
on Sundays, which the archbifliop was charged with
having revived and enlarged, and that with the vexa¬
tious profecutions of fuch clergymen as refufed to
read it in their churches. In 1634-5, r^e archbifhop
was put into the great committee of trade and the
king’s revenue ; on the 4th of March following, he
was appointed one of the commiffioners of the trea-
fury ; and on the 6th of March 1635-6, he received Laudanum
the ftaff of lord high-treafurer of England. In order iaij[jer
to prevent the printing and publifhing what he thought ' .
improper books, he procured a decree to be palled in
the liar-chamber, on the nth of July 1637, whereby
it was enjoined that the mailer-printers flrould be re¬
duced to a certain number, and that none of themlhould
print any books till they were licenfed either by the
archbilhop or the bilhop of London, or fome of their
chaplains, or by the chancellors or vice chancellors of
the two univerfities. A new parliament being fum-
moned, met on the 13 th of April 1640 ; and the con¬
vocation the day following : but the commons lanch-
ing out into complaints againft the archbifhop, and in¬
filling upon a redrefsof grievances before they granted
any fupply, the parliament was diffolved on the 7th of
May. The convocation, however, continued fitting ;
and made 17 canons, which were fuppofed to be form¬
ed under the immediate direction of the archbifhop.
In the beginning of the long parliament he was at¬
tacked on account of thofe canons: and they being
condemned by the houfe of commons on the 16th of
December 1640, “ as containing many things con¬
trary to the king’s prerogative, to the fundamental
laws and llatutes of this realm, to the rights of par¬
liament, to the property and liberty of the fubjeft, and
tending to fedition, and of dangerous confequence
he was, on the 18th of December, accufed by the
commons of high treafon, and fent to the Tower.
Being tried before the houfe of lords, for endeavouring
to fubvert the laws, and to overthrow the Proteflaqj
religion, he was found guilty, and beheaded on Tower-
hill on January 10th following,, in the yzd year of his
age. This learned prelate, notwithllanding his being
charged with a defign to bring in Popery, wrote an
anfwer to Dr Fifher, which is elteemed one of the beft
pieces that has been printed againft that religion. He
was temperate in his diet, and regular in his private
life: but his fondnefs for introducing new ceremonies,
in which he fhowed a hot and indifcreet zeal, his en¬
couraging of fports on Sundays, his illegal and cruel
feverity in the ftar-chamber and high-commiffioa
courts, and the fury with which he perfecuted the dif-
fenters, and all who prefumed to contradiA his fenth-
ments, expofed him to popular hatred. Befides his
Anfwer to Fifher, he publifhed feveral Sermons, and.
other works.
LAUDANUM. See Oriuw.
LAUDA I’TO, in a legal fenfe, was anciently the
teftimony delivered in court of the accufed perfon’s
good behaviour and integrity of life. It refembled
the cuftom, which prevails in our trials, of calling per-
fons to fpeak to the charadter of the prifoner. The
leaf! number of the laudatores amongft the Romans was
ten.
LAUDER (William), a native of Scotland, was
educated at the univerfity of Edinburgh, where he fi-
nifhed his ftudies with great reputation, and acquired
a confiderable knowledge of the Latin tongue. In
May 22. 1734, he received a teftimonial from the
heads of the univerfity, certifying that he was a fit
perfon to teach humanity in any fchool or college
whatever. In 1739 he publifhed at Edinburgh an edi¬
tion of Johnfton’s Pfalms. In 1742, he was recom¬
mended by Mr Patrick Cuming and Mr Colin Mac-
laurin^
I* A U L S92 1 L A U
scantier laurin, profeflbrs of church-hlftory and mathematics,
XaJLhn t0 ^ maftcrfhip of the grammar-fchool at Dundee,
* then vacant. Whether he fucceeded in his applica¬
tion or not, is uncertain : but a few years afterwards
we find him in London, contriving to ruin the reputa¬
tion of Milton ; an attempt which ended in -the de-
ftru&ion of his own. His reafon for the attack pro¬
bably fprung from the virulence of a violent party fpi-
rit, which triumphed over every principle of honour
and honefty. He begftn firft. to retail part of his de-
fign in The Gentleman’s Magazine, 1747 ; and find¬
ing that his forgeries were not dete&ed, was encou¬
raged in 1751 to colleft them, with additions, into a
volume, intitled, “ An Eflay on Milton’s Ufe and Imi¬
tation of the Moderns in his Paradife Loft,” Svo. The
fidelity of his quotations had been doubted by feveral
people ; and the falfehood of them was foon after de-
monftrated by DrDouglas,inapamphlet intitled, “Mil-
ton vindicated from the Charge of Plagiarifm brought
againft him by Lauder, and Lauder himfelf conviAed
of feveral Forgeries and grofs Impofitions on the Pub¬
lic : In a Letter humbly addreffed to the Right no¬
ndurable the Earl of Bath, 1751,” Svo. Theappear-
-ance of this Detection overwhelmed Lauder with cort-
fufion. He fubfcribed a confeffion, dictated by a learn¬
ed friend, wherein he ingenuoufly acknowledged his of¬
fence, which he profeffed to have been occafioned by
the injury he had received from the difappointment of
his expectations of profit from the publication of john-
llon’s Pfalma. This misfortune he afcribed to a cou¬
plet in Mr Pope’s Dunciad, book iv. ver. 3. and from
thence originated his rancour againlt Milton. He af¬
terwards imputed his conduCt to other motives; abufed
the few friends who continued to countenance him ;
and, finding that his character was not to be retrieved,
quitted the kingdom, and went to Barbadoes, where
he fome time taught a fchool. His behaviour there
was mean and defpicable ; and he paffed the remain¬
der of his life in univerfal contempt. “ He died (fays
sMr Nichols) fome time about the year 1771, as my
friend Mr Reed was informed by the gentleman who
read the funeral fervice over him.”
LAUDICCENI, amongft the Romans, applauders,
who for reward entered the rehearfal-rooms, attended
sthe repetition of plays, and were in waiting when ora¬
tions were pronounced, in order to raffe or increafe the
-acclamation and applaufe.'
LAUDOHN (Field-marlhal), a celebrated general
an the imperial fervice, born in 1716, was a native of
Livonia, and defeended from a Scottilh family. He
-made his firft campaigns under Marlhal Munich, in the
war of 1738, between the Ruffians and Turks; and
was at the taking of Oczakow, Choczim, and Staw-
utzchane, where the Turks were entirely defeated.
Frederick the Gteat refufed, in 1741, to take young
Laudohn into his feryice, faying he did not like his
-countenance ; though this monarch, who was confider-
ed as the greateft general of his age, afterwards faid,
that he often admired the pofitions of other generals,
but that he had ever dreaded the battles of Laudohn.
In 1756, when but juft entered into the fervice of the
houfe of Auftria, with the rank of lieutenant-colonel,
he made fuch a rapid progrefs, that within lefs than a
year he was a general of artillery, and within three
years commander in chief of the whole army. He
refeued Olmutz, when befieged by the Pruffians 5 beat Laud*
the king himfelf at Frankfort on the Oder ; at Zorn- ii
dorf, took General Fouquet prifoner; carried Glatz Laver,
and Schweidnitz by affault; and flopped the progrefs
of Frederick in a war which might have proved fatal
to the houfe of Auftria. In 1778, when elevated to
the rank of marfhal, at the head of 60,000 men he
hindered Henry, brother to the king of Pruffia, from
joining his army to that of the king. At Dubicza,
Novi, Gradifca, and Belgrade, in the late war between
the Emperor and the Turks, he had but to prefent
himfelf before the place, and fay with Caefar, Veniyvidit
met. But at his head-quarters in Moravia, he was
feized with a fever, in cbnfequence of an operation he
underwent for an obftrudlion in the urethra. His im¬
patience under the medical applications, the impetuous
ardour of his chara&er, and the knowledge, above all,
of his importance in the war, contributed to irritate
his mind, and promote the violence of the fever. He
refilled the application of cataplafms, before and after
the incifions were made, with a fatal obftinacy which
raifed the inflammation to fuch a height, that he ex¬
pired under the acceffion of the fever on the 14th of
July 1790, in the 74th year of his age.
LAUDS, Laudes, the fecond part of the ordinary
office of the breviary, faid after matins; though, here¬
tofore, it ended the office of the night.
The laudes confift principally of pfalms, hymns,
&c. whence they took their name, from laus, laudis*
“ praife.”
LAVENHAM, or Lanham, 61 miles from Lon¬
don, is a pleafant and pretty large town of Suffolk, on
a branch of the river Bret, from whence it rifes gra¬
dually to the top of a hill, where are its church, which
is a very handfome Gothic ftru<5lure, and in which are
feveral ancient monumeuts ; and a fpacious market¬
place, encompaffed with nine ftreets or divifions, in a
very healthy free air. It had formerly a very confi-
derable trade in blue cloth ; and had three guilds or
companies, with each their hall. It has Hill a confi-
derable manufaftory of ferges, fhalloons, fays, fluffs,
and fpinning fine yarn for London ; and many hun-
drtd loads of wool are delivered in a year from its wool-
hall. It is governed by 6 capital burgeffes, who are
for life, and choofe the inferior officers. The church
and its fteeple, which is 137 feet high, are reckoned
the fineft in the county. Its tenor bell, though not
much more than a ton, has as deep a note as a bell of
twice that weight. Here is a free-fehool and a bride¬
well, part of which is a workhoufe where the poor
children, &c. of the parifli are employed in fpinning
hemp, flax, and yarn ; befides whicli, here are other
confiderable charities. The tenants of the manor and
the other inhabitants were always exempted from fer-
ving at any court held for its hamlet. They have that
tenure of land here which is called Borough Engli/h,
Its markets are on Tuefday, and on Thurfday for
wool. Its fairs are on Shrove-Tuefday, and Octo¬
ber 10.
LAVENDER. See Lavandula.
LAVER, in feripture hiltory, a facred utenfil pla¬
ced in the court of the Jewifh tabernacle, confifting
of a bafon, whence they drew water by cocks, for
wafhing the hands and feet of the officiatin; priefts,
and alfo the entrails and legs <?f the victims.
2 LAVERNAj
I.avern#
Laughter,
L A U r. J93 1 L A U
LAVERNA, in antiquity, the poddefs of thieves ignorant of what they ought to know. Having finiih- Laughter,
and cheats among the Romans, who honoured her with ed the detail of chara&ers he makes fome general re- v T,~*
public worfhip, becaufe ihe was fuppofed to favour marks on the caufe of ridicule; and explains himfelf
thofe who wifhed that their defigns might not be dif- more fully in a profe definition illuftrated by examples,
covered, Varro fays, that fhe had an altar near one The definition, or rather defcription, is in thefe words,
of the gates of Rome; hence called porta lavcrnalh. “ That which makes objefts ridiculous, is fome ground
LAUGERIA, in botany : A genus of the mono- of admiration or efteem connefted with other more ge-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandriaclafs of plants; neral circumftances comparatively worthlefs or deform-
and in the natural method ranking among thofe of ed: or it is fome circumftance of turpitude or defor*
which the order is doubtful The corolla is quinque- mity connefted with what is in general excellent or
fid; the fruit is a plum with a quinquelocularkernel. beautiful; the inconfiftent properties exifting either
LAUGHTER, an affe&ion peculiar to mankind, in the objefts themfelves, or in the apprehenfion of
•eCafioned by fomething that tickles the fancy. the perfon to whom they relate ; belonging always to
In laughter, the eye-brows are raifed about the the fame order or clafs of being ; implying fentiment
middle, and drawn down next the nofe ; the eyes are and defign, and exciting no acute or vehement com-
almoft ihut; the mouth opens and Ihows the teeth, the motion of the heart.”—4. Hutchefon has given ano-
corners of the mouth being drawn back and raifed ther account of the ludicrous quality, and feems to
up; the cheeks feem puffed up, and almoft hide the think that it is the contrail or oppofition of dignity
eyes ; the face is ufually red, the noftrils are open; and and mcannefs which occafions laughter,
the eyes wet. All thefe opinions are refuted by Dr Beattie in his
Authors attribute laughter to the fifth pair of nerves, Effay on Laughter and Ludicrous Compofition, where
which fending branches to the eye, ear, lips, tongue, he has treated the fubjeft in a mafterly manner. “ To
palate, and mufcles of the cheek, parts of the mouth, provoke laughter (fays he), is not eflential either to wit
praecordia, &c. there hence arifes a fympathy, or con- or humour. For though that unexpefted difcovery of
lent, between all thefe parts ; fo that when one of refemblance between ideas fuppofed diffimilar, which is
them is a&ed upon, the others are proportionably af- called iuit—and that comic exhibition of Angular cha-
fedted. Hence a favoury thing feen, or fmelt, affedls rafters, fentiments, and imagery, which is denomina-
the glands, and parts of the mouth ; a thing feen, or ted humour,—do frequently raife laughter, they do not
heard, that is (hameful, affefts the cheeks with blulhes: raife it always. Addifon’s poem to Sir Godfrey Knel-
on the contrary, if it pteafe and tickle the fancy, it af- ler, in which the Britilh kings are likened to heathen
fefts the praecordia, and mufcles of the mouth and face gods, is exquifitely witty, and yet not laughable. Pope’s
with laughter; if it caufe fadnefs and melancholy, it Effay on Man abounds in ferious wit ; and examples
likewife affefts the praecordia, and demonftrates itfelf of ferious humour are not uncommon in Fielding’s
ty caufing the glands of the eyes to emit tears. Dr Hiftory of Parfon Adams, and in Addifon’s account
Willis accounts for the pleafure of killing from the of Sir Roger de Coverley. Wit, when the fubjeft is
fame caufe; the branches of this fifth pair being fpread grave, and the allufions fublime, raifes admiration in¬
to the lips, the praecordia, and the genital parts ; Head of laughter : and if the comic Angularities of a
whence anfes a fympathy between thofe parts. good man appear in circumftances of real diftrefs, the
The affeftion of the mind by which laughter is pro- imitation of thefe Angularities in the epic or drama-
duced is feemingly fo very different from the other tic comedy will form a fpecies of humour, which, if
paffions with which we are endowed, that it hath en- it Ihould force a fmile, will draw forth a tear at the
gaged the attention of very eminent perfons to find it fame time. An inquiry, therefore, into the diftin-
©ut.— X. Ariftotle, in the fifth chapter of his Poetics, guifhing charafters of wit and humour has no neceffary
obferves of comedy, that “ it imitates thofe vices or conneftion with the prefent fubjeft.
meanneffes only which partake of the ridiculous:—now “ Some authors have treated of ridicule, without
the ridiculous (fays he) conlifts of fome fault or tur- marking the diilinftion between ridiculous and ludicrous
pitude not attended with great pain, and not' deftruc- ideas. Hut I prefume the natural order of proceeding
tive.” 2. “ The paflion of laughter (fays Mr Hobbes) in this inquiry, is to begin with afcertaining the na-
is nothing elfe but fudden glory arifing from fome ture of what \% purely ludicrous. Things ludicrous and
fudden conception of fome eminency in ourfelves, things ridiculous have this in common, that both ex-
by comparifon with the infirmity of others or with cite laughter ; but the former excite pure laughter, the
«ur own formerly. For men (continues he) laugh latter excite laughter mixed with difapprobation and
at the follies of themfelves paft, when they come Tud- contempt. My defign is to analyfe and explain that
denly to remembrance, except when we bring with quality in things or ideas, which makes them provoke
them any fudden difhonour.” 3. Akenfide, in the pure laughter, and intitles them to the name of ludicrous
third book of his excellent poem, treats of ridicule or laughable.
at confiderable length. He gives a detail of ridi- “ When certain objefts, qualities, or ideas, occur to
culoue charafters; ignorant pretenders to learning, our fenfes, memory, or imagination, we fmile or laugh
boaftful foldiers, and lying travellers, hypocritical at them, and expeft that other men Ihould do the
churchmen, conceited politicians, old women that talk fame. To fmik on certain occafions is not lefs natural,
of their charms and virtue, ragged philofophers who than to weep at the fight of dxftrefs, or cry out when
rail at riches, virtuofi intent upon trifles, romantic lo- we feel pain.
vers, wits wantonly fatirical, fops that out of vanity “ There are different kinds of laughter. As a boy,
appear to be difeafed and profligate, daftards who are palling by night through a church-yard, fings or
aihamed or afraid without reafon, and fools who are whiftles in order to conceal his fear even from himfelf*
Vox.. IX. Part II. 4 f fo
L A U [ 594 ] L A U
Laughter, fo there are men, who, by forcing a fmile, endeavour ludicrous ideas, {s known to every one by experience ; Laughter.
fometimes to hide from others, and from themfelves
too perhaps, their malevolence or envy. Such laugh¬
ter is unnatural. The found of it offends the ear;
the features diftorted by it feem horrible to the eye.
A mixture of hypocrify, malice, and cruel joy, thus
difplayed on the countenance, is one of the moft hate¬
ful fights in nature, and-transforms the “ human face
divine” into the vifage of a fiend. Similar to this is
the fmile of a wicked perfon pleafing himfelf with the
but, being a fimple feeling,, admits not of definition.1
It is to be diftinguifhed from the laughter that gene¬
rally attends it, as forrow is to be diftinguifhed from
tears; for it is often felt in a high degree by thofe
who are remarkable for gravity of countenance. Swift
feldom laughed, notwithftanding his uncommon ta¬
lents in wit and humour, and the extraordinary delight
he feems to have had in furveying the ridiculous fide
of tjiings. Why this agreeable emotion fhould be
hope of accomplifhing his evil purpofes. Milton gives accompanied with laughter as its outward fign, or
a ftriking pi&ure of it in that well-known paffage :
He ceas’d; for both feem’d highly pleas’d ; and Death
Grinn’d hon ib!e a ghaftiy ftnde, to hear
His famine ihould be fill’d, and bleft his maw
- Deftin’d to that good hour."
But enough of this. Laughter that makes man a
fiend or a monfter, I have no inclination to analyfe.
My inquiries are confined to that fpecies of laughter
which is at once natural and innocent.
“ Of this there are two forts. The laughter occa-
fioned by tickling or gladnefs is different from that
which arifes on reading the Tale of a Tub. The
former may be called animal-laughter: the latter (if
it were lawful to adopt a new word which has become
very common of late) I fhould termfentimental. Smiles
admit of fimilar divifions. Not to mention the fcornful,
the envious, the malevolent fmile, I would only re¬
mark, that of the innocent and agreeable fmile there
are two forts. The one proceeds from the rifible emo¬
tion, and has a tendency to break out into laughter.
The other is the effeft of good-humour, complacency,
and tender affe&ion. This laft fort of fmile renders
forrow exprefs itfelf by tears, or-fear by trembling or
palenefs, I cannot ultimately explain, otherwife than
by faying, that fuch is the appointment of the Au¬
thor of nature.—All I mean by this inquiry is, to de¬
termine, “ What is peculiar to thofe things which
produce laughter;—or rather, which raife in the mind
that pleafing fentiment or emotion whereof laughter
is the external fign.”
“ Philofophers have differed in their opinions con¬
cerning this matter. In Ariftotle’s definition quoted
above, it is clear that he means to chaiadterife, not
laughable qualities in general (as fome have thought),
but the obje&s of comic ridicule only; and in this
view the definition is juft, however it may have been
overlooked or defpifed by comic writers. Crimes
and misfortunes are often in modern plays, and
were fometimes in the ancient, held up as obje&s
of public merriment; but if poets had that reverence
for nature which they ought to have, they would not
fhock the common fenfe. of mankind by fo abfurd a
reprefentation.—The definition from Ariftotle does
not, however, fuit the general nature of ludicrous
countenance amiable in the higheft degree. Homer ideas; for it will appear by and by, that men laugh
aferibes it to Venus in an epithet (fixo^siJiu), which at that in which there is neither fault or turpitude of
Dryden and Pope, after Waller, improperly tranflate any kind.
laughter-loving; an idea that accords better with the “ The theory of Mr Hobbes would hardly have
chara&er of a romp or hoyden, than with the goddefs deferved notice, if Addifon had not fpoken of it with
of love and beauty. approbation in the 47 th paper of the Speftator. He
“ Animal-laughter admits of various degrees ; from juftly obferves, after quoting the words of Mr Hobbes
the gentle impulfe excited in a child by moderate joy, formerly mentioned, that, “according to this account.
to that terrifying and even mortal convulfion which
has been known to accompany a change of fortune.
This paffion may, as well as joy and forrow, be com-
when we hear a man laugh exceffively, inftead of fay¬
ing that die is very merry, we ought to tell him that
he is very proud.” It is ftrange, that the elegant au-
municated by fympathy ; and I know not whether the thor fhould be aware of this confequence, and yet ad-
entertainment we receive from the playful tricks of mk the theory: for fo good a judge of human nature
kitteHS and other young animals may not in part be could not be ignorant, that laughter is not confidered
refolved into fomething like a fellow feeling of their as a fign of pride ; perfons of Angular gravity being
vivacity.—Animal and fentimental laughter are fre- often fufpe&ed of that vice, but great laughers feldom
qucntly blended; but it is eafy to diftinguifh them, or never. When we fee a man attentive to the inno-
The former is often exceffive ; the latter never, unlefs cent humours of a merry company, and yet maintain
heightened by the other. The latter is always plea- a fixed folemnity of countenance, is it natural for us.
fing, both in itfelf and in its caufe; the former may to think that he is the humbleft, and the only humble.
be painful in both. But their principal difference is
this:—The one always proceeds from a fentiment or
emotion excited in the mind, in confequence of cer¬
tain ideas or objects being prefented to it, of which
emotion we may be confcious even when we fupprefs
perfon in the circle ?
“ Another writer in the Spectator, n° 249, remarks,
in confirmation of this theory, that the vainejl part of
mankind are moft addifted to the paffion of laughter.
Now, how can this be, if theproudejl part of mankind
laughter;—the other arifes not from any fentiment or are alfo moft addi&ed to it, unlefs we fuppofe vanity
perception of ludicrous ideas, but from fome bodily and pride to be the fame thing ? But they certainly
feeling, or fudden impulfe on what is called the ani- are different paffions. The proud man defpifes other
mal fpirils, proceeding, or feeming to proceed, from men, and derives his chief pleafure from the contem-
the operation of caufes purely material. The prefent plation of his own importance: the v”"
inquiry regards that fpecies that is here diftinguifhed
by the name offentimental laughter.
“ The pleafing emotion, arifing from the view of
6
(lands i;
need pf the applaufe of others, and cannot be happy
without it. Pride is apt to be referred and fullen ; va¬
nity is often affable, and officioully obliging. The
proud
L A U
[ 595 ]
L A TP
"Laughter, protrd man is fo confident of his merit, and thinks it may perhaps appear not guite fatisfadory, there is in Laaghter,
* fo obvious to all the world, that he will fcarce give the poem a paffage that deferves particular notice, as
himfelf the trouble to inform you of it: the vain man.
to raife your admiration, fcruples not to tell you, not
only the whole truth, but even a great deal more. In
the fame perfon thefe two paffions may, no doubt, be
united ; but fome men are too proud to be vain, and
fome vain men are too confcious of their own weaknefs
to be proud. Be all this, however, as it will, we have
it feems to contain a more exadt account of the ludi¬
crous quality than is to be found in any of the theo¬
ries abovementioned. This paffage we fhall foon have
occafion to quote.”
Our author now goes on to lay down his own theory
concerning the origin of laughter, which he fuppofes
to arife from the view of things incongruous united in
not as yet made any difcovery of the caufe of laugh- the fame aflemblage. “ However imperfed (fays
ter : in regard to which, I apprehend, that the vain are he) the abovementioned theories may appear, there is
not more intemperate than other people ; and I am fure
that the proud are much lefs fo.
none of them deftitute of merit; and indeed the moft
fanciful philofopher feldom frames a theory without
“ Hutchefon’s account of the origin of laughter is confulting nature in fome of her mere obvious appear-
equally unfatisfadory. Granting what he fays to be ances. Laughter very frequently arifes from the view
true, I would obferve, in the firft place, what the in- of dignity and meannefs united in the fame objed;
genious author feems to have been aware of, that there fometimes, -no doubt, from the appearance of alfumed
may be a mixture of meannefs and dignity where there inferiority, as well as of fmall faults and unimportant
is nothing ludicrous. A city, confidered as a collec- turpitudes ; and fometimes, perhaps, though rarely.
tion of low and lofty houfes, is no laughable objed.
Nor was that perfon either ludicrous or ridiculous,
whom Pope fo juftly charaderifes,
“ The greateft, wifeft, meaoeft, of mankind.”
—But, fecondly, cafes might be mentioned, of laugh¬
ter ai ifing from a group of ideas or objeds, where¬
from that fort of pride which is deferibed in the paf¬
fage already quoted from Hobbes.
“ AH thefe accounts agree in this, that the caufe of
laughter is fomething compounded ; or fomething that
difpofes the mind to form a comparifon, by palling
from one objed or idea to another. That this is ii
in there is no difcernible oppofition of meannefs or fad the cafe, cannot be proved a/rwr/; but this holds
dignity. We are told of the dagger of Hudibras, ^ ^ — —J —-1' *- r *
that
i all the examples hitherto given, and will be found
to hold in all that are given hereafter. May it not then
be laid down as a principle, That laughter arifes from
the view of two or more objeds or ideas difpofing the
mind to form a comparifon ? According to the theory
of Hobbes, this comparifon would be between the lu¬
dicrous objed and ourfelves ; according to thofe wri¬
ters who mifapply Ariftotle’s definition, it would feem
The humour of the paflage cannot arife from the mean- to be formed between the ludicrous objed and things
“ It could ferape trenchers, or chip bread,
“ Toaft cheefe or bacon, though it were
“ To bait a moufe-trap, ’twou’d not care ;
“ ’Twou’d make clean {hoes, or in the earth
“ Set leeks and onions, and fo forth.”
fs of thefe offices compared with the dignity of the orperfons in general; and if we incline to Hutchefon’
dagger, nor from any pppoficion of meannefs and dig¬
nity in the offices themfelves, they being all equally
mean ; and mull therefore be owing to fome peculia¬
rity in the defeription. We laugh, when a droll mi¬
mics the folemnity of a grave perfon ; here dignity and
meannefs are indeed united: but we laugh alfo (tho’
not fo heartily perhaps) when he mimics the peculia¬
rities of a fellow as infignificant as himfelf, and dif-
plays no oppofition of dignity and meannefs. The le-
theory, which is the bell of the three, we (hall think
that there is a comparifon of the parts of the ludicrous
objedl, full with one another, and fecondly with ideas
or things extraneous.
“ Further : every appearance that is made up of
parts, or that leads the mind of the beholder to form a
comparifon, is not ludicrous. The body of a man or
woman, of a horfe, a filh, ora bird, is not ludicrous,
though it confifts of many parts ; and it may be com-
vities of Sancho Panca oppofed to the folemnity of his pared to many other things without raifing laughter ;
mailer, and compared with his own fchemes of prefer- but the pidlure deferibed in the beginning of the e-
ment, form -an entertaining contrail : but fome of the pillle to the Pifoes, with a man’s head, a horfers neck,
vagaries, of that renowned fquire are truly laughable feathers of different birds, limbs of different beads, and
even when his preferment and his mailer are out of the the tail of a filh, would have been thought ludicrous
quedion. Men laugh at puns; .the wifed and wittied 1800 years ago, if we believe Horace, and in certain
of our fpecies have laughed at them ; queen Elifabeth, circumdances would no doubt be fo at this day. It
Cicero, and Shakefpear, laughed at them ; clowns and would feem then, that ‘ the parts of a laughable af-
children laugh at them ; and mod men, at one time or femblage mud be in fome degree unfuitable and hete-
other, are inclined to do the fame : but in this fort of rogeneous.’
low wit, is it an oppefition of meannefs and dignity
that entertains us ? Is it not rather a mixture of fame-
“ Moreover : any one of the parts of the Horatian
monder, a human head, a horfe’s neck, the tail of a
nefs and diverfity,— famenefs in the ftiund, and diver- filh, or the plumage of a fowl, is not ludicrous in it-
fity in the fignification ?
felf; nor would thofe feveral pieces be ludicrous, if at-
“ In the chatadlers mentioned by Akenfide, the tended to in fucceffion, without any view to their u-
author does not diilinguilh between what is laughable
and what is-contemptible ; fo that we have no reafon to
For to fee them difpofed on the different Ihelves
of a mufeum, or even on the fame Ihelf, nobody would
think, that he meant to fpecify the qualities peculiar laugh, except, perhaps, the thought of uniting them
to thofe things which provoke pure laughter ; and were to occur to his fancy, or the paffage of Horace
whatever account we may make of his definition, which to his memory. It feems to follow, that “ the incon-
to thofe who acquiefce in the foregoing reafonings
gruous parts of a laughable idea or objed mud either
4 F a be
L A U [ 596 ] L A U
Laughter, be combined fo as to form an aflemblage, or muft: be
fuppofed to be fo combined.”
“ May we not then conclude* ‘ that laughter arifes
from the view of two or more inconfiftent, unfuitable,
or incongruous parts or circumftances, confidered as
united in one complex objeft or aflemblage, or as ac¬
quiring a fort of mutual relation from the peculiar
manner in which the mind takes notice of them ?’ The
lines from Akenfrde formerly referred to, feem to point
at the fame do&rine :
Where-e’er the pow’r of ridicule difplays
Her quaint-.eye’d vifage, fame incongruous form.,
Some Jlulborn dijfonance of things combin’d.
Strikes on the quick obferver.
And to the fame purpofe, the learned and ingenious
Dr Gerard, in his EJfay on Tafle: * The fenfe of ri¬
dicule is gratified by an inconfitlence and diflbnance
of circumilances in the fame objett, or in objedls nearly
related in the main; or by a. fin.ilitude or a relation
unexpected between things on the whole oppofue and
unlike.’
“ And therefore, inftead of faying, with Hutchefon,
that the caufe or objeft of laughter is an ‘ oppofition
of dignity and meannefs I would fay, in more gene¬
ral terms, that it is ‘ an oppofition of fuitablenefs or
unfuitablenefs, or of relation and the want of relation,
united, or fuppofed to be united, in the fame aflem¬
blage ’ Thus the offices aferibed to the dagger of
Hudibras feem quite heterogeneous; but we difeover
a bond of connection among them, when we are told
that the fame weapon could occafionally perform them
all. Thus, even in that mimicry which difpiays no op¬
pofition of dignity and meannefs, we perceive the ac¬
tions of one man joined to the features and body of
another ; that is, a mixture of unfuitablenefs.. or want
of relation, arifing from the difference of perfons, with
congruity and iimiiitude, arifing from the famenefs of
the aftions. And here let it be obferved in general,
that the greater number of incongruities that are
blended in the fame aflemblage, the more ludicrous it
will probably be. If, as in Butler’s refemblance of
tiie morning to a boiled lobfter, there is a mixture of
dignity and meannefs, as well as of likenefs and diffi-
militude, the effeft of the contrail will be more power¬
ful, than if only one of thefe oppofitions had occurred
in the ludicrous idea. The fublimity of Don Quixote’s
mind, contrafted and conntfted with his miferable
equipage, forms a very comical exhibition ; but when
all this is Hill further connefted and contrafted with
Sancho Panca, the ridicule is heightened exceedingly.
Had the knight of the lions been better mounted and
accoutred,, he would not have made us fmile fo often ;
becaufe, the hero’s mind and circumftances being more
adequately matched, the whole group would have
nnited fewer inconfiftencies, and reconciled fewer
incongruities. Butler has combined a ftill greater
variety of uncouth and jarring circumftances in Ralpho
and fludibrasbut the pi&ure, though more elabo-
rate, is lefs natural. Yet this argues no defeft of
judgment. His defign was, to make his hero not
only ludicrous, but contemptible ; and therefore he
jumbles together, in his equipage and perfon, a num¬
ber of mean and difgufting qualities, pedantry, igno¬
rance, naftinefs; and extreme deformity. But the
knight of La Mancha, though a ludicrous, was never
intended for a contemptible, perfonage. He often Laughter,
moves our pity, he never forfeits our efteem ; and his Laving ton.
adventures and fentiroents are generally interefting ;
which could not have been the cafe if his ftory had not
been natural, and himftlf been endowed with great as
well as good qualities. To have given him fuch a
ftiape, and fuch weapons, arguments, boots, and
breeches, as Butler has beftowed on his champion,
would have deftroyed that folemnity which is fo lin¬
king a feature in Don Quixote; and Hudibras, with
the manners and perfon of the Spanifh hero, would
not have been that paltry figure which the Englifh poet
meant to hold up to the laughter and contempt of his
countrymen. Sir Launcelot Greaves is of Don Qnix-
©te’s kindred, but a different charafter. Smollet’s de¬
fign was not to expofe him to ridicule, but rather to
recommend him to our pity and admiration. He has
therefore given him youth, ftrengt'h, and beauty, as
well as courage and dig nity of mind ; has mounted him
on a generous fteed, and arrayed him in an elegant fuit
of armour. Yet, that the hiftory might have a comic
air, he has been careful to contrail and conned Sir
Launcelot with a fquire and other affociates of very
diffimilar tempers and circumftances.
“ What has been faid of the caufe of laughter does
not amount to an exad defeription, far lefs to a logi¬
cal dtfiniuon : there being innumerable combinations
of congruity and inconfiftency, of relation and contra^
riety, of iikenefs and diffimilitude, which are not lu¬
dicrous at all. ! f we could afeertain the peculiarities
of thefe, we fliould be able to chara&erife with more
accuracy the general nature of ludicrous combination.
But before we proceed to this, it would be proper to
evince, that of the prelent theory thus much at lead is
true, that though every incongruous combination is
not ludicrous, every ludicrous combination is incon¬
gruous.
“ It is only by a detail of fads or examples that
any theory of this fort can be either eilablifhed or
overthrown. By fuch a detail, the foregoing theories
have been, or may be, Ihown to be ill-iounded, or not
fufficiently comprehenfive. A fingle inltance of a
laughable objed, which*neither unites, nor is fuppo¬
fed to unite, incongruous ideas, would likewife (how the
infufficiency of the prefent ; nor will I undertake to
prove (for indeed I cannot), that no fuch inttance
can be given. A complete enumeration of ludicrous
objeds it would be in vain to attempt: and therefore
we can never hope to alcertain, beyond the poflibility
of doubt, that common quality which belongs to all
ludicrous ideas that are, or have been, or may be, imar
gined. All that can be done in a cafe of this kind is
to prove by a variety of examples, that the theory now
propofed is more comprehenfive, and better founded,,
than any of the foregoing.” This our author after¬
wards (hows at full length ; but as the variety of ex¬
amples adduced by him would take up too much room
to be Inferted here, and as every reader mull be ca¬
pable of adducing numberlefs inltances of ludicrous-
cafes to himfelf, we (hall content ourfelves with the
above explanation of the different theories of laughter,
referring thofe who defire further, fatisfadion to the.
treatife already quoted.
LAVINGTON-east, a town of Wilts, 4. mile*
fouth of the Devizes, and 89 miles from London. It
is called in our hiftories Stepult-Lavington ; but now
Cheaping
Plate ccuan.
tr/?//<') /?//'(/////'/.
y'r/f
"a/iJcufOor/Znf .
L A U
[ 597 3
LAV
lAvinluia Oieaping or Market-Lavington on account of its mar- in which the hermits in ancient times lived together in La»rs:
II kets. which ate on Monday and Wednefday, the lall a wildernefs. —Y»
a great corn-market. It is fuppofed to have been a Thefe hermits did not live in community, but each
' market-town above 200 years. Here is a charity- monk provided for himfelf in his diftindt cell. The
Ichooi for 36 children, who have books given them, mod celebrated lauras mentioned in ecclefiaftical br¬
and the girls are taught to knit and few.
LAV.INIUM (anc. geog.), a town of Latium, fix
miles to the eaft of Laurentum, according to an an¬
cient map ; fo named from Lavinia, confort of
ftory were in Paleftine : as the laura of St Euthy-
mus, at four or five leagues diltance from Jerufa-
lem; the laura of St Saba, near the brook Ce-
dron; the laura of the Towers, near the river Jor-
neas, and daughter of king Latinus, and built by dan, &c.
the Trojans. The firft town of Roman original in Poet-LAUREATE, an officer of the honfehold
Latium, and the feat of the Dii Penates, (Livy): fi- of the kings of Britain, whofe bufinefs confifts only in
tuated near the river Numicus, orNumiciusi between compofing an ode annually on his majefiy’s birth day,
which and the Tiber ./Eneas landed, according to Vir- and on the new year ; fometimes alfo, though rarely,
gil. Holftenius fuppofes the town to have ftood on on occafion of any remarkable vidlory.—Of the firft
an eminence, now called il Monte di Levano. inftitution of poets laureate, Mr Wharton has given
LAUNCE. See Lance. the following account in his hiftory of Englifh poetry.
LAUNCESTON, a town of Cornwal in Eng- “ Great confufion has entered into this fubjeft, on
land, feated on the river Tamar, 214 miles from account of the degrees in grammar, which included
London. It is alfo called Dunhivid, from its fitua- rhetoric and verfification, anciently taken in our uni-
tion on a down. King Henry III. made it a free verfities, particularly at Oxford : on which occafion,
borough. It was compofed before of two other bo- a wreath of laurel was prefented to the new graduate,
roughs, u/'z. Dunhivid and Newpbrt. It Las been the who was afterwards ufually ftyled Poeta Laureatus,
place for choofing knights of the fhire ever fince the Thefe fcholaftic laureations, however, feem to have
reign of King Edward I. and the affixes town ever given rife to the appellation in queftion. I will gjve
fince Richard II, till by a late a& of parliament the fome inftances at Oxford, which at the fame time will
. lord chancellor or lord keeper was empowered to name explain the nature of the ftudies for which our acadc-
any other place in the county for it; fince which the mical philologifts received their rewards. About the
fummer affixes have been held at Bodmin. It was in- year 1470, one John Watfon, a ftudent in grammar,,
cotporated by Queen Mary in 1555. It is governed obtained a conceffion to be graduated and laureated in
by a mayor, recorder, and eight aldermen, has a free that fcience ; on condition that he compofed one hun-
fehool which was founded by Queen Elizabeth, and is dred Latin verfes in praife ef the univerfity, and a La-
a populous trading town. Iis markets are on Thurf- tin comedy. Another grammarian was diftinguiflied
day and Saturday, and it has four fairs. In the 32d with the fame badge, after having ftipulated, that, at
of Henry VIII. an aft was made for the repair of the next public aft, he would affix the fame number
this and other decayed Cornifh boroughs} and it en- of hexameters on the great gates of St Mary’s church,
dowed this town with the privileges of a fanftuary, that they might be feen by the whole univerfity. This
though it does not appear to have ufed them. It had was at that period the moft convenient mode of publi-
a monaftery and a noble caftle, which, becaufe of its cation. About the fame time, one Maurice Byrchen-
ftrength, was called cajlle-terrible, and was given by faw, a fcholar in rhetoric, fupplicated to be admitted
King Richard I. to his brother, afterwards King to read leftures, that is, to take a degree in that fa-
John. Here are two charity fchools for 48 children of culty ; and his petition was granted, with a provifion,
both fexes, where the girls are taught to knit, few, that he fiiould write one hundred verfes on the glory
and make bonelace, and are allowed what they can of the univerfity, and not foffer Ovid’s Art of Love,
earn. Leland fays it was walled in his time, and one and the Elegies of Pamphilus, to be fludied in audi-
mile in compafs. Its lift of burgefles commences in tory. Not long afterwards, one John Bulman, ano-
the 23d of Edward I. The lower part of its ancient ther rhetorician, having complied with the terms im-
caftle is made ufe of for the gaol. ^ pofed, of explaining the firft book of Tully’s Offices,
LAUNCH, in the fea-language, fignifies to put and likewife the firft of his Epiftles, without any pe-
out: as, Launch theJhip, that is, Put her out of dock; cuniary emolument, was graduated in rhetoric; and a
launch aft, or forward, fpeaking of things that are crown of laurel was publicly placed on his head by the
flowed in the hold, is, put them more forward; launch hands of the chancellor of the univerfity. About the
ho ! is a term ufed when a yard is ho:fted high enough, year 1489, Skelton was laureated at Oxford, and in
and fignifies Zw/? no more. See alfo Lanch the year 1493 was permitted to wear his laurel at-
LAUNDER, in mineralogy, a name given in De- Cambridge. Robert Whittington affords the laft in-
vonlhire, and other places, to a long and {hallow ftance of a rhetorical degree at Oxford. He was a fe-
trough, which receives the powdered ore after it cular prieft, and eminent for his various treatifes in
comes out of the box or coffer, which is a fort of grammar, and for his facility in Latin poetry: having
mortar, ini which it is powdered with iron peftles. exercifed his art many years, and fubmitting to the
The powdered ore, which is wnfhed into the launder cuftomary demand of an hundred verfes, he was ho-
by the water from the coffer, is-always fineft neareft noured with the laurel in the year 1512.
the grate, and coarfer all the way down. “ With regard to the poet-laureate of the kings of
LAURA, in church-hitlory, a name given to a col- England, he is undoubtedly the fame that is ftyled the
Itftion of little cells at fome diftance from each other, king’s verffier, and to whom too {hillings were paid as
hia
Laureate
a
Lauren-
talia.
L A U [ 598 ] L A 0
his annual ftipend in the year 1251. But when or wolf. She afterwards married a very rich man, who Laurenti«
how that title commenced, and whether this officer brought her great wealth, which, at her death, fhe “ v””
was ever folemnly crowned with laurel at his firft inve- left to the Roman people ; in conlideration whereof
ftiture, I will not pretend to determine, after the they performed to her thefe honours ; though others re-
fearches of the learned Selden on this queftion have prefent the feaft as held in honour of Jupiter Latiaris.
proved unfuccefsful. It feems moft probable, that the See Larentinalia and Lares.
Barbarous and inglorious name of wrjifier gradually LAURENTIUS, one of the firft printers, and,
gave way to an appellation of more elegance and dig- according to fome, the inventor of the art, was born
nity : or rather, that at length thofe only were in at Haerlem about the year 1370, and executed feveral
general invited to this appointment, who had received departments of magiftracy of that city. Thofe wri-
academical fan&ion, and had merited a crown of lau- ters are miftaken who alfign to him the furname of
rel in the univerfities for their abilities in Latin com- Gojler, or affert that the office of tedituus was heredi-
pofition, particularly Latin verfification. Thus the tary in his family. In a diploma of Albert of Bava^, \
ling’s laureate was nothing more than ‘ a graduated ria in 1380, in which, among other citizens of Haer^
rhetorician employed in the fervice of the king.’ That lem, our Laurentius’s father is mentioned by the
he originally wrote in Latin, appears from the ancient name of Joannes Laurentii JUius,” Beroldus is call-
title and may be moreover colltedled from ed adituus, who was furely of another family; and
the two Latin poems, which Bafton and Gulielmus, in 1396 and 1398, Henricus a Lunen enjoyed that
who appear to have refpe&ively afted in the capacity office ; after whofe refignation, Count Albert confer-
of royal poets to Richard I. and Edward II. officially ring on the citizens the privilege of elefting their
compofed on Richard’s crufade, and Edward’s fiege of aedituus, they, probably foon after, fixed on Lauren-
Striveling caftle. tius; who was afterwards called Cojler from his of-
<< Andrew Bernard, fucceffively poet-laureate of fice, and not from his family-name, as he was defeend-
Henry VII. and VIII. affords a tlill ftronger proof ed from an illegitimate branch of the Gens Bredero-
that this officer was a Latin fcholar. He was a na- dia. His office was very lucrative ; and that he was a
live of Tholoufe, and an Auguftine monk. He was man of great property, the elegance of his houfe may
not only the king’s poet-laureate, as it is fuppofed, teftify. That he was the inventor of printing, is af-
but his hiftoriographer, and preceptor in grammar to ferted in the narrative of Junius. His firft work was
Prince Arthur. He obtained many ecclefiaftical pre- an Horarium, containing the Letters of the alphabet,
ferments in England. All the pieces now to be found, the Lord’s prayer, the apoftle’s creed, and two or
which he wrote in the charaAer of poet-laureate, are three (hort prayers; the next was the Speculum falutis,
in Latin. Thefe are, “ An Addrefs to Henry VIII. in which he introducedpiBures on wooden blocks; then
for the moft aufpicious beginning of the 10th year of Donatus, the larger fize; and afterwards the fame
his reign, with an Epithalamium on the marriage of work in a lefs fize. All thefe were printed on feparate
•Francis the dauphin of France with the king’s daugh- moveable wooden -fadened together by threads,
ter;” A New Tear's Gift for the 1515 ; and, Verfes If it be thought improbable, that fo ingenious a man
wifliing profperity to his majefty’s 13th year. He has fhould have proceeded no farther than the invention
left fome Latin hymns'; and many of his Latin profe of wooden types ; it may be anfwered, that he printed
pieces, which he wrote in the quality of hiftoriogra- for profit, not for fame; zaA wooden types were not
pher to both monarchs, are remaining. only at that time made fooner and cheaper than me*
“ I am of opinion, that it was not cuftomary for tal could be, but were fufficiently durable for the
the royal laureate to write in Englifh, till the refor- fmall impreffions of each book he muft neceffarily have
mation of religion had begun to diminiffi the venera- printed.—His prefs was nearly (haped like the cona¬
tion for the Latin language; or, rather, till the love mon wine-preffes.—He printed fome copies of all his
of novelty, and a better fenfe of things, had banifhed books both on paper and vellum.—It has been very
the narrow pedantries of monadic erudition, and taught erroneoufly fuppofed, that he quitted the profeffion,
us to cultivate our native tongue.” and died broken hearted: but it is certain, that he
LAUREL. See Prukus and Laurvs. did not live to fee the art brought to perfe&ion.—He
Laurels, piece* of gold coined in the year 1619, died in 1440, aged 70; and was fucceeded either by
with the king’s head laureated, which gave them the his fon-in-law Thomas Peter, who married his only
name of laurels ; the 2 os. pieces whereof were mark- daughter Lucia; or by their immediate defeendants,
ed with XX. the 10s. X. and the 5 s. pieces with V. Peter, Andrew, and Thomas; who were old enough
LAURENS Gas era. See Laurentum. (even if their father was dead, as it is likely he was)
LAURENT ALIA, or Larentalia, called alfo to conduA the bufinefs, the eldeft being at leaft 22
Larentinalia, Laurent ales, and Larentales, feafts cele- or 23. What books they printed it is not eafy to
brated among the Romans on the 10th of the kalends determine; they having, after the example of Lauren-
pf January, or 23d of December, in memory of Acca tius (more anxious for profit than for fame), neither
■Laurentia, wife of the ffiepherd Fauftulus, and nurfe added to their books' their names, the place where
of Romulus and Remus. _ _ they were printed, or the date of the year. Their
Acca Laurentia, from whom the folemnity took its firft effays were new editions of Donatus and the Specu~
name, is reprefented as no lefs remarkable for the beauj lum. They afterwards reprinted the latter, with a
-ty of her perfon, than her lafeivioufnefs; on account Latin tranflation, in which they ufed their grandfa-
of which, ffie was nick-named by her neighbours lupa, ther’s wooden piAures ; and printed the book partly
ei fhe-wolf;” which is faid to have given rife to the on wooden blocks, partly on wooden feparale types, ac-
•ifadition of Romulus and Remus being fuckled by a cording to Mr Meerman, who has given an exaA en-
graving
L A U
graving of each fort, taken from different parts of the
fame book, which was publifhed between the years
1442 and 1450. Nor did they flop here : they conti¬
nued to print feveral editions of the Speculum, both in
Latin and in Dutch ; and.many other works, particu¬
larly “ Hiftoria Alexandri Magni “ Flavii Vedatii
[for Veget\i\ Renati Epitome de Re Militariand
“ Opera varia a Thomas.Kempis.” Of each of thefe Mr
Meerman has given an engraved fpecimen. They were
all printed with feparate 'wooden. types; and, by their
L 599 1
L A U
Plates
CCLXlir.
CCLXlV.
valis, or deciduous bay, grows naturally in North Ame- -Lauru*,
rica. It rifes with an upright flem, covered with a k-—
purplifh bark; having oblong,oval, acuminated, veined,
deciduous leaves, two or three inches long, and half as
broad, growing oppofite ; with fmall white flowers
fucceeded by red berries. 3. The benzoin, or benja¬
min tree, is alfo a native of North America ; grows 15
or 20 feet high, divided into a very branchy head ;
with oval, acute, deciduous leaves, three or four inches
long, and half as broad ; and fmall yellowifh flowers.
great neatnefs, are a proof that the defeendants of not fucceeded by berries in this country. 4. The faf-
t   ‘ ' ‘ ' - '  fafras is a native of the fame country. It hath a flrrub-
like llraight ftem, garnifhed with both oval and three-
lobed, fhining, deciduous leaves, of different fizes, from
three to fix inches long, and near as broad, with fmall
yellowifh flowers fucceeded by blackifh berries, but not
in this country. 5. The indica, or Indian bay-tree,
rifes with an upright flraight trunk, branching regu¬
larly 20 or 30 feet high ; adorned with very large,
fpear-fhaped, plane, nervous, evergreen leaves on reddifh
footftalks ; and bunches of fmall whitifh-green flowers,
fucceeded by large oval blaek berries which do not ri¬
pen in this country. 6. The borbonia, or Carolina
red bay-tree, rifes with an upright ftraight ftem,
branching 15 or 20 feet high ; with large, fpear-fha-
Laurentius were induftrious in improving his inven¬
tion. Kempis was printed at Haerlem in 1472, and
was the laft known work of Laurentius’s defeendants,
who foon after difpofed of all their materials, and
probably quitted the employment; as the ufe of fufile
types was about that time univerfally diffufed through
Holland by the fettling of Martens at Aloft, where he
purfued the art with reputation for upwards of 60 years.
See (Hijlory of) Printing.
LAURENTIUM, or Laurens Castra, (anc.
geog.), a town of l.atium, fuppofed to be the royal
refidence of thofe moft ancient kings Latinus, Picus,
and Faunus, (Virgil). Hither the emperor Commo-
dus retired during a peftilence. Its name was from
an adjoining grove of bay-trees, midway between Oftia ped, evergreen leaves, tranfverfely veined; and long
anA A „♦;»,« s.,T,„„r»A —n bunches of flowers on red footftalks, fucceeded by-
large blue berries fitting in red cups. 7. The cam-
phora, or camphor-tree, grows naturally in the wood*
  - . . the weflern parts of Japan, and in the adjacent
at Rome in. 1623. He learned the firft rudiments illands. The root fmells ftronger of camphor than any
tV,. 0^ f-™, k.-o n-'i.i.-'A.- — l:~ ^e other parts, and yields it in greater plenty. The
bark of the (talk is outwardly fomewhat rough ; but
in Jhe innet furface ftnooth and mucous, and therefore
proficient, that in a (hort time he far furpafled his eatily feparated from the wood, which is dry and of
and Antium. Suppofed to have flood in the place
now called San Lorenzo ; which feems to be confirmed
from the Via Laurentina leading to Rome.
LAURO (Philippo), a celebrated painter, born
of the art from his father Balthafar, who was him-
felf a good painter. He afterward ftudied under An¬
gelo Carofello, his brother-in-law; and proved fo great
tutor in defign, colouring, and elegance of tafte. He
applied himfelf to painting hiftorical fubje&s in a fmall
fize, enriching the back-grounds with lively landfcapes,
that afforded the eye and the judgment equal enter¬
tainment ; but though his fmall paintings are belt ap¬
proved, he finilhed feveral grand compofitions for al¬
tar-pieces that were highly efteemed. He died in
1694; and his works are eagerly bought up at high
prices all over Europe.
Lauro, or Lauron (anc. geog.), a town of the
Hither Spain, where Cn. Pompeius, fon of Pompey
the Great, was defeated and flain. Now Lorigne, five
leagues to the north of Lliria in Valencia.
LAURUS, the bay-tree : A genus of the mono¬
white colour. The leaves ftand upon {lender foot*
{talks, have an entire undulated margin, running out
into a point; have the upper furface of a lively and
fhining green, the lower herbaceous and filky ; and are
furniihed with a few lateral nerves, which ftretch arch¬
wife to the circumference, and frequently terminate
in fmall warts ; a circumftance peculiar to this fpecicS
of laurus. The flowers are produced on the tops of
footftalks, which proceed from the arm-pits of the
leaves; but not till the tree has attained confiderable
age and lize. The flower-ftalks are {lender, branched
at the top, and divided into very {hort pedicles, each
fupporting a Angle flower. Thefe flowers are white,
and confift of fix petals, which are fucceeded by
gynia order,. belonging to the-enneandria clafs of purple and fhining berry of the fize of a pea, and iri fi-
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
x 2th order, Holoracete. There is no calyx; the corol-
u  : i . t * ^
gure fomewhat top-fhaped. It is compofed of a foft
pulpy fubftance that is purple, and has the tafte of
la is calycine, or ferving in place of the calyx, and fex- cloves and camphor; and of a nucleus or kernel of the
partite ; the ne&arium with three glandules, each ter¬
minated by two briftles furrounding the germen. The
interior filaments furnifhed- with glandules at the bafe ;
the fruit a monofpermous plum.
Species, i. The nobilis, or evergreen bay-tree, is a
native of Italy, and hath an upright trunk branching
on every fide from the bottom upward ; with fpear-
ftiaped, nervous, ftiff, evergreen leaves, three inches
long and two broad ; and Imall, yellowifh, quadrifid,
dioecious flowers, fucceeded by red berries in autumn
fize of a pepper, that is covered with a black, fhiningj
oily corticle, of an infipid tafte. 8. The cinnamo-
mum, or cinnamon-tree, is a native of Ceylon. l£
hath a large root, and divides into feveral branches,
covered with a bark, which on the outer fide is of a
greyifh brown, and on the infide has a reddifli caft.
The wood of the root is hard, white, and has no fmell.
The body of the tree, which grows to the height of
20 or 30 feet, is. covered, as well as its numerous
branches, with a bark which at firft is green and af-
and winter. Of this fpecies there are varietiesj with terwards red. The leaf is longer and narrower than-
bread, narrow, ftriped, or waved leaves. 2. The sefti- the common bay-tree ; and it is three-nerved, the-
L A U [ 600 ] L A U
Laum. nerves vamflung towards the top. When firil unfold-
”"v ed, it^is of a flame colour : but after it has been for
fome time expofed to the air, and grows dry, it
changes to a deep green on the upper furface, and to
a lighter on the lower. The flowers are fmall and
white, and grow in large bunches at the extremity of
the branches : they have an agreeable fmell, fomething
like that of the lily of the valley. The fruit is ihaped
like an acora# but is not fo large. 9. The caffia, or
bafe cinnamoh, has lanceolated leaves, triple-nerved.
10. The Perfea, avocado-pear tree, or alligator pear,
rifes to a coniiderable height, with a ftraight trunk, of
which the bark and wood are of a greyifli colour. The
leaves are long, oval, pointed, of a fubftance like lea¬
ther, and of a beautiful green colour. The flowers ate
produced in large knots or clufters at the extremities
of the branches, and confift each of fix petals difpofed
in the form of a ftar, and of a dirty white or yellow
colour, with an agreeable odour, which diffufes itfelf
to a confiderable diftance. It is a native of the Weft
Indies. .The Perfea begins to beat two years and a
half, or at moft three years after being planted ; and,
like moft of the trees in warm climates, bears twice a
year. There are two other fptcies of this genus,
but poflefled of no remarkable properties.
Culture. The firft fpecies is propagated by layers,
or by the berries. In order to raife a quantity of thefe
trees by layers, fome ftools fhould be planted for the
purpofe ; and after thefe are fhot about a yard high,
the branches muft be brought dowrt to the ground in
the winter, all the preceding fummer's ftioots laid on
it, and pegged down (being firft flit in the joint), and
the leaves taken off, which would otherwife be under
-ground. In one year’s time thefe layers will have ta¬
ken root; and in the fpring they ihould be taken up,
and planted in the nurfery afoot afunder, in rows two
feet diftance. After they are planted out, if the wea¬
ther fliould prove dry, they muft be conftantly water¬
ed ; for without fuch care, it is difficult to make this
tree grow. After they have taken well to the ground,
they will Require no farther trouble than keeping them
clean from weeds, and digging between the rows each
winter, till they are finally planted out. 2. In order
to raife this tree from the berries, they ought to hang
on the trees till about January before they are gather¬
ed. A well-iheltered fpot of ground for the feminary
mull be made choice of; and having the mould fmooth
and fine, they fliould be fown foon after they are ga-
, thered, in beds or drills, rather more than half an inch
deep. Towards the clofe of the fpring the plants will
come up, and during fummer muft be duly attended,
by watering and weeding. In the winter following,
their flickered fituation muft not be trufted to, to de¬
fend them from the froft : Furze-bufties, or fome fuch
things, ought to be ftuck in rows between the beds or
drills, to guard them from the black frofts. Indeed,
without this precaution, if the winter fliould prove
very frofty, few of the young feedlings will be alive in
fpring. During the following fummer, weeding and
watering muft be obferved, and the winter after that
they ftiould be defended wirh covering as before ; for
they will be ftillin danger of being deftroyed by fevere
frofts. In the enfuing fpring, the ftrongeft may be ta¬
ken out of the feed beds, and planted in the nurfery
way ; though, if they have not by that time made good
N0 175.
ftioots, it will be advifable to let them remain in theif Lnurjk,
beds till the third fpring ; for a fraall plant of this —v—*
kind is with more difficulty made to grow than one I
which is larger. When they, are planted in the nur¬
fery, the diitance which fliould be allowed them is the
fame as the layers, a foot afunder and two feet diftance
in the rows ; and this will not be found too clofe j -j
for notwithftanding the greateft care is exerted in
planting them in the nurfery, even making choice of
rainy and cloudy weather, which mult always be ob¬
ferved in fetting them out, many of them will be loft
by being tranfplanted. After they are thus planted
out in the nurfery, whether layers or feedlings, they
muft be ftill watered in dry weather, kept free from
weeds, and the rows dug between every winter. You
will even find, that thofe plants which fuffer leaft by be¬
ing tranfplanted will have met with a check, which they
will not recover in two or three years; and till they have
acquired new ftrength they ftiould not be taken from
the nurfery ; but when they appear to be good ftiff
plants, having the year before made a vigorous ftioot,
they will be then proper plants for planting out where
they arc to remain. Holes fhould be got ready for ;
their reception ; and as foon as the firft autumnal rains
fall, the work Ihould be fet about, efpecially if the
land be gravelly or dry j but if it be moill, the fpring
will do as well. Being now planted at one yard di¬
ftance, they will make a poor progrefs for two or
three years more; but after this, when they have ^
overcome all thefe difficulties, they, will grow very y,
fall, and arrive to be good trees in a few years. .Al¬
though this tree flourifhes beft in old gardens, wherft
the foil has been made rich and deep, and loves the
fhade, Hanbury tells us, “ it thrives neverthelefs ex- j
ceedingly well in our hotteft gravels and fands; and
after it has furmounted the hardfhips of tranfplanting,
will grow in luch fituations extremely faft, and arrive
to a large bulk.”
The propagation of the three next forts of trees may
be performed two or three ways, 1. By the feeds.
Thefe we receive, from the places where the trees grow
naturally, in the fpring. They fhould be preferred in
fand ; and as foon as they arrive, fhould be fown in
largifti pots an inch deep. The foil for their recep¬
tion fhould be taken from a rich pafture at leaft a year
before, with the fward. It fliould alfo be laid on an
heap, and frequently turned, until the fward is grown
rotten, and the whole appears well mixed and fine. If
the pafture from whence it was taken near the furface
is a fandy loam, this is the beft comport for thefe feeds;
if not, a fmall addition of drift or fea fand ftiould be
added, and well mixed with the other mould. After
filling the pots with this foil, the feeds ftiould be fown
an inch deep ; and then they fliould be plunged into
common mould up to the rim. If the foil be natural¬
ly moift, it will keep them cooler, and be better; and
if the place be well flickered and ftiaded, it will be bet¬
ter ftill. Nothing more than weeding, which muft be
conftantly obferved during the fummer, will be necef-
fary; and in this (tation they may remain until the
March following: about the middle of which month,
having prepared a good hot-bed. the pots ftibuld be ta¬
ken up and plunged therein. Soon after the feeds wili
come up ; and when the young plants have fufficient-
ly received the benefit of this bed, they ftiould be enu-
4 ted
L A U
JLaum. red by degrees to the open air. Weeding and water-
v ' Jng muft be obferved during the fummer ; and at the
approach of the cold weather in the autumn, they
(hould be removed under an hot-bed frame, or fome
cover, to be prote&ed from the frofts during the win¬
ter. In the fpring, when this danger is over, they
fhould refume their firft ftation j namely, the pots
fhould be plunged up to the rim, as when the feeds
were firlt fown ; and if this place be well flickered,
they may remain there all winter ; if not, and fevere
frofls threaten, they fliould be taken up and placed
under cover as before. After they have been thus ma¬
naged three years from the feeds, they fliould be taken
out of the pots with care, and planted in the nurfery-
ground at fmall diftances, where they may remain
until they are ftrong enough to be finally fet out. By
lowing the feeds in pots, and affifting them by an hot¬
bed, a year at leaft is faved ; for they hardly ever
come up, when fown in a natural border, under two
years from the feeds ; nay, they have been known to
remain three, and even fome plants to come up the
fourth year after fowing ; which at once fliows the
preference of the former practice, and fliould caution
ail who have not fuch convenience, not to be too hafty
in diflurbing the beds when the feeds are fown in the
natural ground; as, efpecially if they are not well pre-
ferved in mould or fand, thefe may be fome years be¬
fore they appear. Indeed, it is the long time we are
in obtaining thefe plants, either by feeds, layers, See.
that makes them at prefent fo very fcarce amongft us.
2. Thefe plants may alfo be increafed by layers; but
very flowly ; for they will be two, and fometimes three,
or even four years, before they have ftruck out good
roots; though the Benjamin tree is propagated the
fafteft by this method. The young twigs fliould be
laid in the ground in the autumn ; and it will be found
that twilling the wire round the bud, fo as in fome de¬
gree to flop the progrefs of the fap, and taking away
' with a knife a little of the bark, is a more effe&ual
method of obtaining good roots foon than by the flit
or twilling, efpecially when pra&ifed on the faflafras
tree. 3. Plants of thefe forts are Hkewife fometimes
obtained by fuckers, which they will at all times throw
out, and which may be often taken off with pretty good
roots ; but when they are weak, and with bad roots,
they ftiould be platited in pots, and affifted by a mode¬
rate heat in a bed : With fuch management they will
be good plants by the autumn, and in the fpring may.
be planted out any where. 4. Cuttings of thefe trees,
when planted in a good bark bed, and duly watered,
will alfo oftentimes grow. When this method Is prac-
tifed, and plants obtained, they mull be inured by de¬
grees to the open air, till they are hardy enough to be
finally planted out.
The Indian bay, the camphor, the avocado, and
the cinnamon4.ree, require the treatment common to
green-houfe plants; the latter, however, is rather a
Hove plant in this country.—Of its culture or propa¬
gation in its native places, no particular account has
been given by botanical writers ; but it muft now be¬
come an important confideration with us, fince this
valuable tree has been acquired by our own colonies.
Of the advantages promifed by this acquifition we are
indebted for the firft accounts to Dr Wright in 1787-)-;
wVoUiL fr°m whom alfo we learn that its propagation is very
part 3, ’ Vol. IX. Part II.
L A U
eafy, and its culture requires little care, as more parti- Lauras,
cularly noticed below. Since that time, fome obferva- —v—*
tions by Dr Dancer, relative to its cultivation, have
appeared in the Tranfadlions * of the Society of Arts, * Vol. VIII.
&c. Thefe obfervations confirm, without adding any P1 2I4' &c*
thing effential to the concife notice of Dr Wright.
We are informed, that as the tree “ puts out nume¬
rous fide-branches, with a denfe foliage, from the very
bottom of the trunk; this furnifties an opportunity
of obtaining plenty of layers, and facilitates the
propagation pf the tree, as it does not perfeft its
feeds in any quantity under fix or feven years ;
when it becomes fo plentifully loaded, that a fingle
tree is fufficient almoft for a colony. It feems to
delight in a loofe moift foil, and to require a fouth-
ern afpeft ; the trees, thus planted, flouriftiing better
than others growing in loam, and not fo well ex-
pofed to the fun. When healthy, it is (from layers)
of a pretty quick growth, reaching in eight years the
height of fifteen or twenty feet, is very fpreading, and
furniftied with numerous branches of a fit fize for de¬
cortication. The feeds, however, are a long time in
coming up, and the plants make fmall progrefs for the
firft year or two.” It is added, that “ the birds ap¬
pear to be very fond of the berries, and will probably
propagate this tree in the fame way they do many
others every where over the ifland ; fo that in a fhort
time it will grow fpontaneoufly, or without cultiva¬
tion.” The age for decortication, faid- above to be
eight years, it will be obferved, is different from that
fpecified below for the trees in Ceylon.
Ufes. Evelyn fays, he has feen bay trees near 30
feet high, and almoft two feet in diameter 5 and enu¬
merates the bay amongft ufeful trees. Hanbury
catches at this idea, and tells us in general terms, that
“ it will grow to 30 feet in height, with a trunk of
two feet in diameter ;” and accordingly he arranges it
among his foreft trees: he acknowledges, however, at
the fame time, that the wood is of little value. The
bay is neverthelefs a fine aromatic and a beautiful ever¬
green : It is faid to be the true laurus or laurel of the
ancients, with which they adorned the brows of their
fuccefsful generals. Like the holly, box, and laurel,
the bay will bear the fliade and drip of taller trees;
and it is upon the whole a very defirable, as being a
very ornamental, evergreen.
The leaves and berries of this tree have a moderate¬
ly ftrong aromatic fmell, and a warm, bitterilh, pun¬
gent talle : the berries are ftronger in both refpects
than the leaves, and afford in did illation a larger
quantity of effential aromatic oil; they yield alfo an
almoft infipid oil to the prefs, in confequence .of which
they prove unftuous in the mouth. They are warm
carminatives, and fometimes exhibited in this inten¬
tion againft flatulent colics, and likewife in hyfterical
diforders. Their principal ufe in the prefent praftice
is in glyfters, and fome external applications. . The de¬
ciduous bay, in a moift rich foil, in which it princi¬
pally delights, will grow to be about 16 feet high;
but in fome foils, that are poffeffed of the oppoiite
qualities, it will hardly arrive at half that height. The
flowers are fucceeded in May by large red berries,
which never ripen in England : fo that, notwithftand-
ing the leaves in fummer are very pretty, and the co¬
lour of the bark makes a variety in winter, it is prin-
4 G cipally
[ 60. ]
Lauren.
JCal.ni
•r>*-velt
Jluntiia,
L A U [ 6oj ] L A U
cipally the fcarcity of this plant which makes it valu- On cutting fome part of the faflafras tree, or its
J able. fhoots, and holding it to the nofe, it has a ftrong but v““
The benzoin tree will grow to a much larger fize pleafant fmell. Some people peel the root, and boil
than the other, and its branches are more numerous, the peel with the beer which they are brewing, becaufe
They are fmooth, and of a fine light-green colour, they heliere it wholefome. For the fame reafon, the
The leaves on their upper furface aro fmooth and of peel is put into brandy either whilfl it is diftilling or
a fine light-green colour, but their under furface is ve- after it is made. Profeffor Kalm informs us, that a de-
nofe, and of a whitHh caft. When bruifed, they emit co&ion of the root of faffafras in water, drank every
a fine fragrance. Tins tree was formerly miftaken morning, is ufed with fuccefs in the dropfy. — When
for that which produces the drug called benzoin ; which part of a wood is deftined for cultivation, the fafiafras
is now known to be obtained from a fpecies of ftyrax. trees are commonly left upon it, becaufe they have a
See Styrax. very thick foliage, and afford a cool (hade to the cattle
The fajfafras will grow to nearly the height of the during the great heats. Some people get their bed-
others, though the branches are not fo numerous. Its pofts made of faffafras wood, in order to expel the
bark is fmooth, and of a red colour, which beautifully bugs; for its ftrong fcent, it is faid, prevents thofe
diftinguifhes it in winter; whilft the fine (hining green of vermin from fettling in them. For two or three years
its leaves conftitutes its greateft beauty in fummer. In together this has the defired effedl, or about as long-
thefe, indeed, there is a variety, and a very extraor- as the wood keeps its ftrong aromatic fmell; but after
dinary one. Some are large, and of an oval figure; that time it has been obferved to lofe its effeft. In
others are fmaller, and of the fame fhape ; whilft o- Penfylvania fome people put chips of faflafras into
thers again are fo divided into three lobes, as to re- their chefts, where they keep all forts of woollen fluffs,
femble the leaves of fome forts of the fig-tree. In A- in order to expel the moths (or larvae or caterpillars of
merica, the faffafras generally ftands Angle in the moths or tinies) which commonly fettle in them in
woods, and along the fences round the fields. It fummer. The root keeps its fmell for a long while v
flowers in May before the leaves come out; and being .Profeffor Kalm faw one which had lain five or fix years
entirely covered with them, it is diftinguhhed at a in the drawer of a table, and ftill preferved the ftrength
great diftance by their beautiful yellow colour. of its fcent. The people alfo gather its flpwers, and
The root of the faffafras has a fragrant fmell, and a ufe it as tea.
fweetifli, aromatic, fubacrid tafte ; the bark taftes The/er/ea,or <7%^or/)Mrtree,is cultivated univerfally
much ftronger than any other part, and the fmall in the Weft Indies by all ranks of people. The fruit is
twigs ftronger than the large pieces. It is a warm pear-fliaped, and from one to two pounds in weight,
aperient and corroborant, and frequently employed On removing a green ikin or coveting, we come to a
with good fuccefs for purifying and fweetening the yellow butyraceous fubftance; and in the heart find a
blood and juices. For thefe purpofes, infufions made large round feed or ftone, which is unequal in the fur-
from the rafped root or bark may be drank as tea. In face, and exceedingly hard and woody. This fruit is
fome conftitutions indeed, fuch liquors are, by their ripe in Auguft and September, and conftitutes one of
fragrance, apt, on firft taking them, to affeft the the meft agreeable articles of diet for fix or eight
head ; but in fuch cafes they may be advantageoufly weeks to the negroes. Thefe pears, with a little fait
freed from their flavour by boiling. A decoftion of and a plantain or two, afford a hearty meal. They are
faffafras, boiled down to the confiftence of an extraft, alfo ferved up at the tables of white people as choice
proves Amply bitterilh and fubaftringent. Hoffman fruit. When the pear is ripe, the yellow or eatable
affures us, that he has frequently given this extract to fubftance is firmer than butter, -and taftes fomewhat
the quantity of a fcruple at a time, with temarkable like butter or marrow : hence it is called by fome the
fuccefs, for ftrengthening the tone of the vifeera in ca- vegetable marrow. But however excellent this fruit is
chexies'; as alfo in the decline of intermittent fevers, when ripe, it is very dangerous when pulled and eaten
and in hypochondriacal fpafms. Saffafras yields in di- before maturity. Dr Wright fays, he has repeatedly
ftillation an extremely fragrant oil of a penetrating known it to produce fever and dyfentery, which were
pungent tafte, fo ponderous (notwithftanding the removed with difficulty.—The leaves of this tree and
lightnefs of the drug itfelf) as to fink in water. Rec- thofe of the bead-vine or wild liquorice are made into
tried fpirit extrafts the whole tafte and fmdl of faffa- pe&oral deco&ionsby the common people.—The large
fras • and elevates nothing in evaporation : hence the ftone is ufed for marking linen. The cloth,is tied or
fpirituousextraa proves the rooft elegant and efficacious held over the ftone, and the letters are pricked out by
preparation, as containing the virtue of the root entire, a needle through the cloth and into the feed. The
^ The bark of this tree is ufed by the women in Pen- ftatn is a reddiffi brown, which never wafhes out.—
fylvania and other parts of North America in dying The buds of the alligator tree are faid to be ufed
worfted a fine lafting orange-colour, which does not with fuccefs in ptifans againft the venereal difeafe. An
fade in the fun. They ufe urine inftead of alum in infufion of them in water, drank in the morning faft-
flying ; and boil the dye in a brafs Boiler, becaufe in ing, is ftrongly recommended for dillodging coagula-
an iron vtffel it does not yield fo fine a colour. The ted blood in the ftomach produced by a fall or a fe-
wood is made ufe of for pofts belonging to the inclo- vere ftroke on that important entrail. “ The wild
fares, for it is faid to laft a long time in the ground : boars in the Eaft Indies (fays Labat) cat greedily of
but it is likewife faid, that there is hardly any kind of the mammeesand avocado pears, which give their fleffi
wood which is more attacked by worms than this when a lufeious and moft agreeeable favour.”
it is expofed to the air without cover; and that in a Cajfm. The bark of this fpecies is known in the
fiiort time it is quite worm-eaten through and through, (hops by the name of cajpa lignta. This bark, which
L A U [ 603 ] L A U
Laurus. imported from different parts of the Eaft Indies
—“v   and from China, has a very near refemblance to
the cinnamon; though diflinguifhable from it by
being of a thicker and coarfer appearance, and by
its breaking fhort and fmooth, while the cinnamon
breaks fibrous and fhivery.—It refembles cinnamon Hill
more exaftly in its aromatic flavour than in its external
appearance ; and feems only to differ from it in being
fomewhat weaker, in abounding more with a vifcous
mucilaginous matter, and in being lefs aftringent.
Accordingly, it ha%not only a place in the Edinburgh
pharmacopoeia, but is alfo the bafis of a diftilled wa¬
ter. It is perhaps furptifing that the London college
have given it no place in their lifts. But although
it does not enter their pharmacopoeia, yet sjwe may
venture to affert, that it will not be negle&ed by the
apothecaries. At prefent it is very common with many
of them to fubftitute the caflia in every cafe for the
more expcnfive article cinnamon : and indeed almoft
the whole of what is at prefent fold under the title
either of Ample or fpirituous cinnamon-water is en¬
tirely prepared from caffia ; and not even entirely from
the bark, but from a mixture of the bark and buds.
Cinnamon is the under bark of the cinnamomum.
The beft feafon for feparating it from the outer-
bark, which is grey and rugged, is the fpring,
when the fap flows in the greateft abundance. It
is cut into thin flices, and expofed to the fun, and
curls up in drying.—The old trees produce a coarfe
kind of cinnamon ; the fpice is in perfe&ion only when
the trees are not older than three or four years. When
the trunk has been ftripped of its bark, it receives no
further nourifhment; but the root is ftill alive, and
continues to throw out frefh fhoots. The fruit of the
tree is fhaped like an acorn, but is not fo large. Its feed,
when boiled in water, yields an oil which fwims at top,
and takes fire. If left to cool, it hardens into a white
fubftance, of which candles are made, which have an
agreeable fmell, and are referved for the ufe of the
king of Ceylon. The cinnamon is not reckoned ex¬
cellent unlefs it be fine, fmooth, brittle, thin, of a
yellow colour inclining to red; fragrant, aromatic,
and of a poignant, yet agreeable tafte. The connoif-
feurs give the preference to that the pieces of which
are long, but (lender. That which comes to us is ge¬
nerally mixed with the Caflia bark; but this laft is
eafily diftinguiftied. Cinnamon fplinters in breaking,
and has a roughnefs along with its aromatic flavour;
while the Caffia breaks over fmooth, and has a mucila¬
ginous tafte. Cinnamon is a very elegant and ufeful
aromatic, more grateful both to the palate and ftomach
than moft other fubftances of this clafs. By its aftrin¬
gent quality it likewife corroborates the vifeera, and
proves of great fervice in fev<fral kinds of alvine fluxes,
and immoderate difeharges from the uterus.
The cinnamon plant, with other valuable ones, was
taken in a French (hip by Admiral Rodney in the laft
war, and prefented by him to the aflembly of Jamaica.
One of the trees was planted in the botanic garden in
St Thomas in the Eaft; the other by Hinton Eaft,
Efq; in his noble garden at the foot uf the Blue Moun¬
tains. From thefe parent trees fome hundreds of young
trees are already produced from layers and cuttings,
and difperfed to different parts of the country, in all
which it thrives luxuriantly with little trouble ; we
may therefore hope it will foon be a valuable addition
to our commerce. Upon comparing the parts of the
tree with the defeription and figure given by Burman
and other botanifis, it appears to be the real Ceylon
cinnamon, and of the beft kind, called by the natives
Rajle Coronde : but the fpecimens of bark taken put it
out of all doubt, being, in the opinion of the beft
judges, of an equal, if not fuperior, quality to any im¬
ported from India. The fmalleft bit of the bark, Dr
Wright affures us, is quite a cordial. The cinnamon
we have from Holland, he obferves, is often inert,
and gives room to fufpeft that it has been fubje£ted to
a (light procefs in diftillation.
In regard to the trees growing in Jamaica, Dr Dan¬
ced informs us in his paper already quoted, that
“ The beft cinnamon bark, according to the diffe¬
rent trials I have made, is taken from the final!
branches, of about an inch diameter, the larger limbs
not being fo eafily decorticated, and not yielding fo
good or fo ftrong a cinnamon. The fmaller twigs, or
thofe that have not acquired a cineritious bark, are
too full of fap and mucilage, and have little aroma.
It is the liber, or inner bark, that conftitutes the
cinnamon ; from which the two external barks muft
be carefully and entirely feparated, or they vitiate the
flavour of the cinnamon ; to do which with dexterity,
and to raife the bark from the wood, requires fome
praftice. The bark being feparated, the fmaller pieces
are to be placed within the larger; which, by expofure
to the fun or the air, prefently coil up, and require na
further preparation. A dry feafon is the proper one for
taking the bark; as it is found to be weakened after long
or heavy rains. Cinnamon, though more retentive of its
virtues than any of the other fpices, yet requires to
be protefted, when taken from the air and moifture,
by clofe packing in cedar chefts.—The leaves of this
tree, whether recent or dried, are fo ftrongly impreg¬
nated with an aroma, as to afford a good fuccedaneum
for the bark both in cookery and medicine. Diftilled,
they give an excellent Ample and fpirituous water, and
an effential oil. Powdered, they are a good aromatic
fpecies, or marefchal perfume.”
Camphor, though folid, is the effential oil of the
laurus camphora ; and is obtained from it by diftillation
in the Eaft Indies. (See the article Camphora).—
This tree is another of the captured plants given to
the inhabitants of Jamaica; and, if cultivated with care,
will alfo be an ufeful acquifition.
The Abbe Grofier informs us, that in China fome
of thefe trees are found above 100 cubits in height,
and fo thick that 20 perfons cannot inciofe them. The
tree is there called tchang; and it is faid that the trunk,
when old, emits fparks of fire, but of fo fubtle a na¬
ture as not even to injure the hair of thofe who are near
it. Common camphire cofts only a penny the ounce
at Pe-king; but it is inferior to that of Borneo, hi
the judgment even of the Chinefe.
The manner in which fome authors have fpoken of
Camphire (the Abbe obferves), gives us reafon to
conclude that they have been entirely ignorant of the
procefs employed to obtain this falutary gum. The
camphire does not drop to the earth, like the gums of
certain refinous trees, which are preferved by difehar-
ging that part of their fubftance which is too oily;
neither does it diftil from the top to the bottom of the
4 G 2 ging
LaUr’is.
L A U [ 604 1 LAV
Lauras, tree through an incifion made in it. The Chinefe
IjaU9, , would praStife this method could it be employed with
^uccej-s, £or jt j3 very common jn china to make fuch
kind of incifions in rellnous trees. The method ufed
by the Chinefe for obtaining camphire is as follows.—
They take fome branches freih from the tchang, chop
them very fmall, and lay them to deep in fpring-water
for three days and three nights. After they have been
foaked in this manner, they are put into a kettle,
where they are boiled for a certain time, during which
they keep continually ftirring them with a ilick made
of willow. When they perceive that the fap of thefe
fmall chips adheres fufficiently to the dick in the form
of white frod, they drain the whole, taking care to
throw away the dregs and refufe. This juice is after¬
wards poured gently into a new earthen bafon well var-
nifhed, in which it is fuffered to remain one night.
Next morning it is found coagulated, and formed into
a folid mafs. To purify this fird preparation, they
procure fome earth from an old earthen wall, which,
when pounded and reduced to a very fine powder,
they put into the bottom of a bafon made of red cop¬
per ; over this layer of earth they fpread a layer of
camphire, and continue thus until they have laid four
flrata. The lad, which is of very fine earth, they co¬
ver up with the leaves of the plant po-bo, or penny¬
royal ; and over the whole they place another bafon,
joining it very clofely to the former by means of a
kind of red earth that cements their brims together.
The bafon thus prepared is put over a fire, which
mud be managed fo as to keep up an equal heat: ex¬
perience teaches them to obferve the proper degree.
But above all, they mud be very attentive led the pla-
fter of fat earth which keeps the bafons together fhould
crack or fall off; otherwife the fpirituous parts would
evaporate and ruin the whole procefs. When the ba¬
fons have been expofed to the neceffary heat, they are
taken off and left to cool; after which they are fepa-
rated, and the fublimated camphire is found adhering
to the cover, if this operation be repeated two or
three times, the camphire is found purer and in larger
pieces. Whenever it is neceffary to ufe any quantity
of this fubdance, it is put between two earthen veffels,
the edges of which are lurrounded with feveral bands
of wet paper. Thefe veffels are kept for about an
hour over an equal and moderate fire; and when they
are cool, the camphire is found in its utmod perfec¬
tion and ready for ufe. This method of procuring
camphire, even from the heart of the tree, may be
praftiled in all feafons of the year; which would not
be the cafe (our author obferves), were it extra&ed
like other rdinous fubdances that only flow during a
certain fhort fpace of time. Befides, by lopping the
branches of the camphire-tree, lefs hurt is done to it
than by making incifions, which are always hazardous.
LAUS, or Laos (anc. geog.), a river of Italy, fe-
paratjng Lucania from the Bruttii, and running from
call to wed into the Tufcan fea; with a cognominal
bay, and a town, the laid of Lucania, a little above
the fea ; a colony from Sybaris, according to Strabo,
Pliny, Stephanus. Both town and river are now call¬
ed Laino, in the Calabria Citrg; and the bay, called
Golfo della Scaled, or di Policajlro, two adjoining towns,
is a part of the Tufcan fea, extending between the
promontory Palinui us and the mouth of the Laus.
Lavs Pompela (anc. geog.), a town of Infubria, Laus,
fituated to the ead of Milan, between the rivers Addua ^avori'
and Lamber. A town built by the Boii after their
paffing the Alps: its ancient Gaulic name is unknown.
Strabo Pompeius, father of Pompey, leading thither
a colony, gave it a new name, and conferred the Ju,
Latii on the ancient inhabitants who remained there.
The modern Lodi is built from its ruins, at fome di¬
dance off. E. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 45. 22.
LAUSANNE, a large, ancient, and handfome
town of Switzerland, capital of tfe country of Vaud,
and in the canton of Berne, with a famous college and
bifhop’s fee. The town-houfe and the other public build¬
ings are magnificent. It is feated between three hills
near the lake of Geneva, in E. Long. 6. 35. N. Lat. 46.
30.-—The town ftands on an afeent fo deep, that in fome
places the horfes cannot draw up a carriage without
great difficulty, and foot-paffengers afeend to the up¬
per part of the town by Heps. Here is an academy
for the dudents of the country ; the profeffors are ap¬
pointed by government; and there is a pretty good pub¬
lic library. The church, formerly the cathedral, is a
magnificent Gothic building, danding on the mod ele¬
vated part of the town. Among other iepulchres it
contains that of Amadaeus VIII. duke of Savoy, dyled
the Solomon of his age; bed known by the title of
Antipope Felix V. who exhibited the lingular example
of a man twice abdicating the fovereignty, and reti¬
ring from regal pomp to a private dation.
The fame year that the country named Pays de
Vaud was conquered from the houfe of Savoy, the in¬
habitants of Laufanne put themfelves under the protec¬
tion of the .Canton of Berne, their bifhop having re¬
tired from the town. At that time its privileges were
confirmed and augmented, and it is dill governed by
its own magidrates. The citizens of the principal
dreet have the privilege of pronouncing fentence in
criminal cafes. If the criminal is found, and acknow¬
ledges himfelf guilty, the burghers of the dreet af-
femble: one of the magidrates pleads in his behalf,
and another againd him; the court of judice give their
ppinion upon the point of law; and the majority of
citizens poffeffing houfes in the principal dreet, deter¬
mine the penalty. In capital cafes there is no pardon,
according to the letter of the law, unlefs it can be ob¬
tained within 24 hours from the fovereign council of
Berne, though it generally happens that eight days
are allowed for this purpofe. When the criminal is
feized within the jurifdi&ion of the town, the fa& is
tried, and the burghers pronounce fentence, from
which there is no appeal; but if he happens to be ta¬
ken in the diilridt of the bailiff, there is an appeal to-
the government of Berne.
LAVORI (terra di), a province of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, bounded on the wed by the Cam-
pagna of Rome, and by Farther Abruzzo; on the
north by the Citerior Abruzzo, and by the county of
Moliffa ; on the ead by the Ultra Principata ; and on
the fouth by the Principata Citra. It is about 63
miles in length and 35 in breadth; and is fertile in
corn, excellent vines, and other fruits. There are alfo
feveral mineral fprings and mines of fulphurNaples i*
the capital town.
■5
LAW,
Plate CCLJ£V\
____
[ 6o5 ]
LAW.
Part I. Of the NATURE of LAWS in^ general.
0{ Laws Tr AW, in its moll general and comprehenfive fenfe,
in general, ft j fignifies a rule of aftion ; and is applied indifcri-
minately to all kinds of a&ion, whether animate or in-
Defii ition; animate, rational or irrational. Thus we fay, the laws
general, of motion, of gravitation, qf optics,' of mechanics, as
well as the laws of nature and of nations. And it is
that rule of a&ion which is prefcribed by fome fupe-
rior, and which the inferior is bound to obey.
Thus when the Supreme Being formed the univerfe,
and created matter out of nothing, he impreffed cer¬
tain principles upon that matter, from which it can
•never depart, and without which it would ceafe to be.
When he put that matter into motion, he ettablifhed
certain laws of motion, to which all moveable bodies
mull conform. And, to defcend from the greateil
operations to the fmalleft, when a workman forms a
clock, or other piece of mechanifm, he eftablilhes at his
own pleafure Certairi1 arbitrary law's for its direction ;
as, that the hand fhall defcribe a given fpace in a given
time ; to which law as long as the work conforms, fo
long it continues in perfe&ion, and anfwers the end of
its formation.
If we farther advance, from mere ina&ive matter
to vegetable and animal life, we ihall find them ftill
governed by laws; more numerous indeed, but equally
fixed and invariable. The whole progrefs of plants,
from the feed to the root, and from thence to the feed
again ; the method of animal nutrition, digeftion, fe-
cretion, and all other branches of vital economy;—
are not left to chance, or the will of> the creature it-
felf, but are performed- in a wondrous involuntary
manner, and guided by unerring rules laid down by
the great Creator.
This then is the general fignification of law, a rule
of aftion dictated by fome fuperior being: and, in
thofe creatures that have neither the power to think
nor to will, fuch laws mull be invariably obeyed, fo
long as the creature itfelf fubfifts ; for its exiftence de¬
pends on that obedience. But laws, in their more
confined fenfe, and in which it is our prefent bufinefs
to confider them, denote the rules, not of aftion in ge-
Particular. neral> but aftion or condudl: that is, the
‘ precepts by which man, the nobleft of all fublunary
beings, a creature endowed with both reafon and free¬
will,. is commanded to make ufe of thofe faculties in
the general regulation of his behaviour.
Man, confidered as a creature, mull neceffarily be
fubjedt to the laws of his Creator, for he is entirely a
dependent being. A being, independent of any other,
has no rule to purfue but fuch as he prefcribes to him-
felf: but a Hate of dependance will inevitably oblige
the inferior to take the will of him on whom he de¬
pends as the rule of his conduA; not indeed in every
particular, but in all thofe points wherein his depend¬
ance confifts. This principle therefore has more or
lefs extent and effeA, in proportion as the fuperiority
of the one and the dependance of the other is greater
©r lefs, abfolute or limited. And confequently, as man
depends abfolutely upon his Maker for every thing, of Laws
it is necelfary that he fhould in all pouts conform to in genera!,
his Maker’s will.  J
This will of his Maker is called the law of nature. t w3.£
For as God, when he created matter, and endued it
with a principle of mobility, eltablilhed certain rules
for the perpetual direAion of that motion ; fo, when
he created man, and endued him with freewill to con¬
duA himfelf in all parts of life, he laid down certain
immutable laws of human nature, whereby that free¬
will is in fome degree regulated and rellrained, and
gave him alfo the faculty of reafon to difcover the pur¬
port of thofe laws.
Confidering. the Creator only as a being of infinite
power, he was able unqueftionably to have prefcribed
whatever laws he pleated to his creature man, how¬
ever unjull or fevere. But as he is alfo a Being of in¬
finite wifdom, he has laid down only fuch laws as were
founded in thofe relations of jultice that exifted in the
nature of things antecedent to any pofitive precept.
Thefe are the eternal immutable laws of good and evil,
to which the Creator himfelf in all his difpenfations con¬
forms ; and which he has enabled human reafon to dif¬
cover, fo far as they are necetfary for the conduA of
human aAions. Such, among others, are thefe prin¬
ciples: That we fliould live honefily, fhould hurt no¬
body, and fhould render to every one his due; to which
three general precepts Juftinian has reduced the whole
doArine of law.
But if the difcovery of thefe firfl principles of the
law of nature depended only upon the due exertion of
right reafon, and could not otherwife be obtained than
by a chain of metaphyfical diiquifitions, mankind would
have wanted fome inducement to have quickened their
inquiries, and the greater part of the world would have
reiled content in mental indolence, and ignorance its
infeparable companion. As therefore the Creator is a
being, not only of infinite power and wifdom, but al¬
fo of infinite goodnefs, he has been pleafed fo to con¬
trive the conftitution and frame of humanity, that we
fhould want no other prompter to inquire after and
purfue the rule of right, but only our own felf-love,
that univerfal principle of aAion. For he has fo inti¬
mately conneAed, fo infeparably interwoven, the laws
of eternal juflice with the happinefs of each individual,
that the latter cannot be attained but by obferving the
former; and if the former be punAually obeyed, it
cannot but induce the latter. In confequence of which
mutual conneAion of juftice and human felicity, he has
not perplexed the law of nature with a multitude o£
abftraAed rules and precepts, referring merely to the
fitnefs or unfitnefs of things, as fome have vainly fur-
mifed ; but has gracioufly reduced the rule of obedience
to this one paternal precept, 11 that man fhould pur-
fue his own happinefs.” This is the foundation of
what we call ethics, or natural law *. For the feveral * See
articles into which it is branched in our fyflems, a-rality.
mount to no more than demonftrating, that this or that
aAion
£o6 L A
Of Laws a&Ion tends to man’s real happinefs; and therefore very
in general, juftly concluding, that the performance of it is a part
0f the of nature ; or, on the other hand, that this
or that aftion is deftru&ive of man’s real happinefs,
and therefore that the law of nature forbids it.
This law of nature, being coeval with mankind, and
di&ated by God himfelf, is of courfe fuperior in ob¬
ligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe;
in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are
of any validity, if contrary to this ; and fuch of them
as are valid derive all their force, and all their autho¬
rity, mediately or immediately, from this original.
But in order to apply this to the particular exigen¬
cies of each individual, it is ftill neceffary to have re-
courfe to reafon : whofe office it is to difcover, as was
before obferved, what the law of nature direfts in e-
very circumftance of life; by confidering, what method
will tend the mod effeftually to our own fubftantial
happinefs. And if our reafon were always, as in our
firft anceftor before his tranfgreffion, clear and perfedt,
unruffled by paffions, unclouded by prejudice, unim¬
paired by difeafe or intemperance, the talk would be
pleafant and eafy ; we fhould need no other guide but
this. But every man now finds the contrary in his own
experience ; that his reafon is corrupt, and his under-
ftanding full of ignorance and error.
This has given manifold occafion for the benign in-
terpofition of Divine Providence; which, in compaffion
to the frailty, the imperfe&ion, and the blindnefs of
human reafoh, hath been pleafed, at fundry times and
^ in divers manners, to difcover and enforce its laws by
feawofre- an immediate and direft revelation. The doftrines
delation, thus delivered, we call the revealed or divine law, and
they are to be found only in the Holy Scriptures. Thefe
precepts, when revealed, are found upon comparifon
to be really a part of the original law of nature, as
they tend in all their confequences to man’s felicity.
But we are not from thence to conclude, that the know¬
ledge of thefe truths was attainable by reafon in its
prefent corrupted ftate ; fince we find, that, until they
were revealed, they were hid from the wifdom of ages.
As then the moral precepts ef this law are indeed of
the fame original with thofe of the law of nature, fo
their intrinfic obligation is of equal ftrength and per¬
petuity. Yet undoubtedly the revealed law is of infi¬
nitely more authenticity than that moral fyftem which
is framed by ethical writers, and denominated the na¬
tural law : becaufe one is the law of nature, exprefsly
declared fo to be by God himfelf; the other is only
what, by the affiftance of human reafon, we imagine
to be that law. If we could be as certain of the lat¬
ter as we are of the former, both would have an equal
authority : but till then they can never be put in any
competition together.
Upon thefe two foundations, the law of nature and
the law of revelation, depend all human laws ; that is
to fay, no human laws fliould be fuffered to contradift
thefe. There are, it is true, a great number of indif¬
ferent points, in which both the divine law and the
natural leave a man at his own liberty; but which are
found neceflary, for the benefit of fociety, to be reftrain-
ed within certain limits. And herein it is that human
laws have their greateft force and efficacy: for, with
regard to fuch points as are not indifferent, human laws
are only declaratory of, and aft in fubordination to.
w. Part I.
the former. To inftance in the cafe of murder : this Of Laws
is exprefsly forbidden by the divine, and demonftrably in general>t
by the natural, law ; and from thefe prohibitions artfea '
the true unlawfulnefs of this crime. Thofe human laws
that annex a puniftiment to it, do not at all increafe it*
moral guilt, or fuperadd any freth obligation in foro
confcient’ue to abftain from its perpetration. Nay, if «
any human law fflould allow or enjoin us to commit it,
we are bound to tranfgrefs that human law, or elfe we
mull offend both the natural and the divine. But with
regard to matters that are in themfelves indifferent, and
are not commanded or forbidden by thofe fuperior laws;
fuch, for inftance, as exporting of wool into foreign
countries ; here the inferior legiflature has fcope and
opportunity to interpofe, and to make that aftion un¬
lawful which before was not fo.
If man were to live in a ftate of nature, unconnefted
with other dividuals, there would be no occafion for
any other laws than the law of nature and the law
of God. Neither could any other law pofiibly exift :
for a law always fuppofes feme fuperior who is to make
it; and in a ftate of nature we are all equal, without
any other fuperior but him who is the Author of our
being. But man was formed for fociety ; and, as is
demonftrated by the writers on tffis fubjeft, is neither
capable of living alone, nor indeed has the courage to
do it. Hdwever, as it is impoffible for the whole race
of mankind to be united in one great fociety, they milft
neceffarily divide into many; and form feparate Hates,
commonwealths, and nations, entirely independent of
each other, and yet liable to a mutual intercourfe.
Hence arifes a third kind of law to regulate this mu- 5
tual intercourfe, called the law of nations : which, as La1i'r of
none of thefe ftates will acknowledge a faperiority innaU0U**
the other, cannot be diftated by either ; but depends
entirely upon the rules of natural law, or upon mutual
compafts, treaties, leagues, and agreements, between
thefe feveral communities : in the conftruftion alfo of
which compafts we have no other rule to refort to but
the law of nature ; being the only one to which both
communities are equally fubjeft: and therefote the ci¬
vil law very" juftly obferves, that quod naturalis ratio in¬
ter omnes homines conftituit, vocatur jus gentium. ^
To the. confideration, then, of the law of nature, Mun;cipai
the revealed law, and the law of nations, fucceeds or civil law.
that of the municipal or civil law ; that is, the rule by
which particular diftrifts, communities, or nations, are
governed; being thus defined by Juftinian, “ jus ci¬
vile ejl quod quifque fibipopulus conjlituit.” We call it
municipal law, in compliance with common fpeech ; for
though, ftriftly, that expreffion denotes the particular
cuftoms of one Angle municipium or free town, yet it
may with fufficient propriety be applied to any one
ftate or nation which is governed by the fame laws and
cuftoms. y
Municipal law, thus underftood, is properly defined Defined,
to be “ a rule of civil conduft preferibed by the fu-
preme power in a ftate, commanding what is right, and
prohibiting what is wrong.” Let us endeavour to ex¬
plain its feveral properties, as they arife out of this
definition. 8
And, firft, it is a rule: not a tranfient fudden its firft pro¬
order from a fuperior to or concerning a particular per-perry,
fon; butfomething permanent, uniform, and univerfal.
Therefore a particular aft of the legillature to confif-
i cate
Part I. LA
Of Laws cate the goods of Titius, or to attaint him of high trea-
*n general. fon> (joeg not enter into the idea of a municipal law:
' for the operation of this is fpent upon Titius only,
and has no relation to the community in general; it ia
rather a fentence than a law. But an aft to declare
that the crime of which Titius is accufed (hall be
deemed high treafon; this has permanency, uniformity,
and univerfality, and therefore is properly a rufe. It
is alfo called a rule, to diftinguilh it from advice or
counfel, which we are at liberty to follow or not as we
fee proper, and to judge upon the reafonablenefs or
unreafonablenefs of the thing advifed; whereas our
obedience to the law depends not upon our approba¬
tion, but upon the Maker's iuiil. Counfel is only
matter of perfuaiion, law is matter of injunftion ;
counfel a&s only upon the willing, law upon the un«
willing alfo.
It is alfo called a rule, to diftinguifh it from a corn-
pad or agreement; for a compact is a promife proceed¬
ing from us, law is a command directed to us. The
language of a compadt is, “ I will, or will not, do this;”
that of a law is, “ Thou (halt, or {halt not, do it.”
It is true there is an obligation which a compadl carries
with it, equal in point of confcience to that of a law ;
but then the original of the obligation is difi'erent. In
compacts, we ourfelves determine and promife what
{hall be done, before we are obliged to do it; in laws,
we are obliged to aft without ourfelves determining or
promifing any thing at all. Upon thefe accounts law
9 is defined to be “ a rule.”
Second pro- Municipal law is alfo “ a rule of civil condud.”
perty. This diftinguilhes municipal law from the natural or
revealed: the former of which is the rule of moral con-
duft; and the latter not only the rule of moral conduct,
but alfo of faith. Thefe regard man as a creature;
and point out his duty to God, to himfelf, and to his
neighbour, corfidertd in the light of an individual.
But municipal or civil law regards him alfo as a citizen,
and bound to other dutieatowards his neighbour, than
thofe of mere nature and religion : duties, which he
has engaged in by enjoying the benefits of the com¬
mon union; and which amount to no more, than that
he do contribute, on his part, to the fublillence and
peace of the fociety.
It is likewife “ a rqle preferibed.” Becaufe a bare
refolution, confined in the bread of the legiflatcr, with¬
out manifeding itfelf by fome external fign, can never
be properly a law. It is requifite that this refolution
Third pro- notified to the-people who are to obey it. But the
petty. manner in which this notification is to be made, is mat¬
ter of very great indifference. It may be notified by
univerfal tradition and long praftice, which fuppofes
a previous publication, and is the cafe of the common
law of England and of Scotland. It may be notified
viva voce, by officers appointed for that purpofe; as is
done with regard to proclamations, and Inch afts of
parliament as are appointed to be publicly read in
churches and other affemblies. It may, laftly, be no¬
tified by writing, printing, or the like; which is the
general courfe taken with all our afts of parliament.
Yet, whatever way is made ufe of, it is incumbent on
the promulgators to do it in the mod public and per-
fpicuous manner ; not like Caligula, who (according
to DioCaffius) wrote his laws in a very fmall charac¬
ter, and hung them up upon high pillars, the move
W 607
effeftually to enfnare the people. There is dill a more Of Law*
unreafonable method than this, which is called making in genera..
of laws ex pojl fado ; when after an aftion (indifferent
in itfelf) is committed, the legiflator then for the iirft
time declares it to have been a crime, and inflifts a
punilhment upon the perfon who has committed it.
Here it is impoffible that the party could forefee, that
an aftion, innocent when it was done, fhould be after¬
wards converted to guilt by a fubfequent law : he had
therefore no caufe to abftain from it; and all punifh-
ment for not abdaining mud of confequence be cruel
and unjud. All laws fhould be therefore made to com¬
mence in futuro, and be notified before their commence¬
ment ; which is implied in the term “ preferibed.”
But when this rule is in the ufual manner notified or
preferibed, it is then the fubjeft’s bufinefs to be tho¬
roughly acquainted therewith ; for if ignorance, of
what he might know, were admitted as a legitimate
excufe, the laws would be of no effeft, but might al¬
ways be eluded with impunity. n
But further: Municipal law is “ a rule of civil con- Fourth pre-
duft prefet ibed by the Jupreme power in a Jlate.” ForPerly*
legiflature, as was before obferved, is the greated aft
of fuperiority that can be exercifed by one being over
another. Wherefore it is requifite to the very efience
of a law, that it be made by the fupreme power. So¬
vereignty and legiflature are indeed convertible terms;
one cannot fubfid without the other.
This will naturally lead us into a diort inquiry con¬
cerning the nature of fociety and civil government; and
the natural inherent right that belongs to the fove-
reignty of a date, wherever that fovereignty be lodged,
of making and enforcing laws. T2
The only true and natural foundations of fociety are Civil fo*
the wants and fears of individuals. Not that we can ciet>’-
believe, with fome theoretical writers, that there ever
was a time when there was no fuch thing as fociety ;
and that, from the impulfe of reafon, and through a
fenfe of their wants and weakneffes, individuals met
together in a large plain, entered into an original con-
traft, and chofe the tailed man prefent to be their go¬
vernor. This notion, of an aftually exiding uncon-
nefted date of nature, is too wild to be ferioufly ad¬
mitted : and befides, it is plainly contradiftory to the
revealed accounts of the primitive origin of mankind,
and their prefervation 2000 years afterwards ; both
which were effefted by the means of Angle families.
Thefe formed the fird fociety among themfelves,
which every day extended its limits; and when it
grew too large to fubfid with convenience in that pa-
doral date wherein the patriarchs appear to have lived,
it neceffarily fubdivided itfelf by various migrations in¬
to more. Afterwards, as agriculture increafed, which
employs and can maintain a much greater number of
hands, migrations became lefs frequent; and various
tribes, which had formerly feparated, reunited again ;
fometimes by compulfion and conqued, fometimes by
accident, and fometimes perhaps by compaft. But
though fociety had not its formal beginning from any
convention of individuals, aftuated by their wants and
their fears ; yet it is the fenfe of their weaknefs and
imperfeftion that keeps mankind together; that de-
mondrates the neceffity of this union ; and that there¬
fore is the folid and natural foundation, as well as the
cement, of fociety. And this is what-we mean by the
original.
6o8
W.
Part I.
Of Laws original contraft of fociety ; which, though perhaps meant the making of laws ; for wherever that power Of Law*
in general. no jnftance it has ever, been formally expreffed at refides, all others mull conform to and be directed by in generab
' T " the firft inllitution of a ftate, yet in nature an4 reafon it, whatever appearance the outward form and admi-
mull always be underltood and implied in the very adl
of affociating together: namely, that the whole Ihould
p rot eft all its parts, and that every part Ihould pay
obedience to the will of the whole ; or, in other
words, that the community Ihould guard the rights of
each individual member, and that (in return for this
proteftion) each individual Ihould fubmit to the laws
of the community; without which fubmiffion of all, it
was impoffible that proteftion could be certainly ex-
13 tended to any.
Govern- For when fociety is once formed, government refults
ment. cf COurfe, as neccfiary to preferve and to keep that fo¬
ciety in order. Unlefs fome fuperior be conftituted,
whofe commands and decifions all the membeis are
bound to obey, they would ftill remain as in a ftate of
nature, without any judge upon earth to define their
feveral rights, and Tedrefs their feveral wrongs. But
as all the members of fociety are naturally equal, it
may be alked, In whofe hands are the reins of govern¬
ment to be entrufted ? To this the general acfwer is
eafy ; but the application of it to particular cafes has
occafioned one half of thofe mifchiefs which are apt
to proceed from mifguided political zeal. In general,
all mankind will agree, that government Ihould be re-
pofed in fuch perfons, in whom thofe qualities are mod
likely to be found, the perfeftion of which is among
the attributes of him who is emphatically ftyled the
Supreme Being; the three grand requifites, namely, of
wifdom, of goodnefs, and of power: wifdom, to difcern
the real intereft of the community ; goodnefs, to en¬
deavour always to purfue that real intereft; and
ftrength or power to carry this knowledge and inten¬
tion into aftion. Thefe 2tre the natural foundations
of fovereignty, and thefe are the requifites that ought
to be found in every well conftituted frame of govern¬
ment.
How the feveral forms of government we now fee
in the world at firft aftually began, is matter of great
uncertainty, and has occafioned infinite difputes. It
is not our bufinefs or intention to enter into any of
them. However they began, or by what right foever
they fubfift, there is and mull be in all of them a fu-
preme, irrefiftible, abfolute, uncontrolled authority, in
which the jura fummi imperii, or the rights of fove¬
reignty, refide. And this authority is placed in thofe
hands, wherein (according to the opinion of the foun¬
ders of fuch refpeftive ftates, either exprefsly given or
colltfted from their tacit approbation) the qualities rc-
quifite for fupremacy, wifdom, goodnefs, and power,
are the moft likely to be found.
Different The political writers of antiquity will not allow
forms more than three regular forms of government: the firft,
thereof. when the fovereign power is lodged in an aggregate
affembly confifting of all the members of a community
which is called a democracy ; the fecond, when it is
lodged in a council compofed of feledl members, and
then it is ftyled an arijlocracy ; the lall, when it is en¬
trufted in the hands ol a Angle perfon, and then it takes
the name of a monarchy. All other fpecies of govern¬
ment, they fay, are either corruptions of, or reducible
to, thefe three.
By the fovereign power, as was before obferved, is
N° 176.
mftration of the government may put on. For it is at
any time in the option of the legiflature to alter that
form and adminiftration by a new edift or rule, and to
put the execution of the laws into whatever hands it
pleafes: and all the other powers of the ftate muft obey
the legiflative power in the execution of their feveral
functions, or elfe the conftitution is at an end.
In a democracy, where the right of making laws
refides in the people at large, public virtue or goodnefs
of intention is more likely to be found than either of
the other qualities of government. Popular aflemblies
are frequently foolilh in their contrivance, and weak
in their execution; but generally mean to do the thing
that is right and juft, and have always a degree of pa-
triotifm or public fpirit. In ariftocracies there is more
wifdom to be found than in the other forms of go¬
vernment ; being compofed, or intended to be com¬
pofed, of the moft experienced citizens : but there is
lefs honefty than in a republic, and lefs ftrength than
in a monarchy. A monarchy is indeed the moft
powerful of any, all the finews of government being
knit and united together in the hand of the prince ; but
then there is imminent danger of his employing that
ftrength to improvident or oppreflive purpofes.
Thus thefe three fpecies of government have all of
them their feveral perfedlions and imperfe&ions. De¬
mocracies are ufually the beft calculated to direft the
end of a law; ariftrocacies, to invent the means by
which that end ftrall be obtained ; and monarchies, to
carry thofe means into execution. And the ancients,
as was obferved, had in general no idea of any other
permanent form of government but thefe three : for
though Cicero declares himfelf of opinion, “ ejfe optime
conjiitutam rempiiblicam, qua ex tribus generibus illis, re-
gali, optima, et populari,fit modice confufa yet Tacitus
treats this notion of a mixed government, formed out
of them all, and partaking of the advantages of each,
as a vifionary whim, and one that, if effe&ed, could
never be lading or fecure.
But, happily for us of this ifland, the Britifh con- conj
ftitution has long remained, and we truft will long con- ftitution. I
tinue, a Handing exception to the truth of this obfer-
vation. For, as with us the executive power of the
laws is lodged in a Angle perfon, they have all the ad¬
vantages of ttrength and difpatch that are to be found
in the moft abfolute monarchy: and, as the legiflature
of the kingdom is entrufted to three diftindt powers,
entirely independent of each other; firft, the king; fe-
condly, the lords fpiritual and temporal, which is an
ariftocratical aflembly of perfons fele&ed for their piety,
their birth, their wifdom, their valour, or their pro¬
perty ; and, thirdly, the houfe of commons, freely
chofen by the p'eople from among themfelves, which
makes it a kind of democracy; as this aggregate body,
actuated by different fprings and attentive to different
interefts, compofes the Britifh parliament, and has the
fupreme difpofal of every thing, there can no incon¬
venience be attempted by either of the three branches,
but will be withftood by'one of the other two, each
branch being armed with a negative power fufficient
to repel any innovation which it Ihall think inexpedient
or dangerous.
Here,
Parti. L A
0( Laws Here, then, is lodged the foverexgnty of the Britilh
in general, conftitution ; and lodged as beneficially as is poffible
for fociety. For in no other (hape could we be fo cer¬
tain of finding the three great qualities of government
fo well and fo happily united. If the fupreme power
were lodged in any one of the three branches fepa-
rately, we mull be expofed to the inconveniences of
either abfolute monarchy, ariftocracy, or democracy ;
and fo want two of the three principal ingredients of
good polity, either virtue, wifdom, or power. If it
were lodged in any two of the branches ; for in fiance,
in the king and houfe of lords; our laws might be pro¬
vidently made and well executed, but they might not
always have the good of the people in view: if lodged
in the king and commons, we fiiould want that circum-
fpe&ion and mediatory caution, which the wifdom of
the peers is to afford: if the fupreme rights of legifla-
ture were lodged in the two houfes only, and the king
had no negative upon their proceedings, they might be
tempted to encroach upon the royal prerogative, or per¬
haps to abolifh the kingly office, and thereby weaken
(if not totally deftroy) the ftrength of the executive
power. But the confiitutional government of this
ifland is fo admirably tempered and compounded, that
nothing can endanger or hurt it, but deftroying the
equilibrium of power between one branch of the le-
gillature and the reft. For if ever it ffiould happen,
that the independence of any one of the three ffiotild
be loft, or that it ffiould become fubfervient 'to the
views of either of the other two, there would fcon be
an end of our conftitution. The legiflature would be
changed from that which was originally fet up by the
general confent- and fundamental a& of the fociety :
and fuch a change, however effe&ed, is, according to
Mr Locke (who perhaps carries his theory too far),
at once an entire diffolution of the bands of govern¬
ment; and the people are thereby reduced to a ftate
of anarchy, with liberty to conftitute to themfelves a
new legifiative power.
Having thus curforily confidered the three ufual
fpecies of government, and our own Angular conftitu¬
tion fele&ed and compounded from them all, we pro¬
ceed to obferve, that, as the power of making laws con-
ftitutes the fupreme authority, fo wherever the fupreme
authority in any ftate refides, it is the right of that
authority to make laws; that is, in the words of our
definition, topnfcribe the rule of civil aSion. And this
may be difcovered from the very end and inftitution of
civil ftates. For a ftate is a colle&ive body, compofed
of a multitude of individuals, united for their fafety
and convenience, and intending to aft together as one
man. If it therefore is to aft as one man, it ought
to aft by one uniform will. But, inafmuch as poli
tical communities are made up of many natural per-
fons, each of whom has his particular will and inclina¬
tion, thefe feveral wills cannot by any natural union be
joined together, or tempered and difpofed into a lad¬
ing harmony, fo as to conllitute and produce that one
uniform will of the whole. It can therefore be no
otherwife produced than by a political union; by the
confent of all perfonsto fuhmit their own private wills
to the will of one man, or of one or more affemblies of
men, to whom the fupreme authority is entrufted; and
this will of that one man, or affemblage of men. is in
, Voi. IX. Part II.
W.
different ftates, according to their different conftitu- Of Laws
tions, underftood to be law. general.
Thus far as to the right of the fupreme power to
make laws: but farther, it is its duty likewife. For
fince the refpeftive members are bound to conform
themfelves to the will of the ftate, it is expedient that
they receive direftions from the ftate declaratory of
that its will. But as it is impoffible, in fo great a
multitude, to give injunftions to every particular man,
relative to each particular aftion, therefore the ftate
eftabliffies general rules, for the perpetual information
and direftion of all petfons in all points, whether of
pofitive or negative duty : and this, in order that
every man may know what to look upon as his own,
what as another’s; what abfolute and what relative
duties are required at his hands; what is to be efteem-
ed honeft, diffioneft, or indifferent; what degree every
man retains of his natural liberty, and what he has gi¬
ven up as the price of the benefits of fociety; and af¬
ter what manner each perfon is to moderate the ufe
and exercife of thofe rights which the ftate affigns
him, in order to promote and fecure the public tran¬
quillity.
From what has been advanced, the truth of the for-g^,^
mer branch of our definition is (we truft) fufficiently branch of
evident; that “ municipal law is a rule of civil con- the defini*
duft, prefcribed by the fupreme power in a Jlate.” We l!on’ j**u‘
proceed now to the latter branch of it; that it is a ruleftraU *
fo prefcribed, “ commanding what is right, and pro¬
hibiting what is wrong.”
Now, in order to do this completely, it is firft of all
neceffary that the boundaries of right and wrong be
eftabliffied and afcertained by law. And when this is
once done, it will follow of courfe, that it is likewife
the bufinefs of the law, confidered as a rule of civil
conduft, to enforce thefe rights, and to reftrain or re-
drefs thefe wrongs. It remains therefore only to con-
fider, in what manner the law is faid to afcertain the
boundaries of right and wrong; and the methods
which it takes to command the one and prohibit the
other.
For this purpofe, every law may be faid to confift of
feveral parts: one, declaratory; whereby the rights to
be obferved, and the wrongs to be efchewed, are clearly
defined and laid down : another, direftory ; whereby
the fubjeft is inftrufted and enjoined to" obferve thofe
rights, and to abitain from the commiffion of thofe
wrongs: a third, remedial; whereby a method is
pointed out to recover a man’s private rights, or re-
drefs his private wrongs: to which may be added a
fourth, ufually termed the fanQion or vindicatory branch
of the law; whereby it is fignified what evil or penalty
ffiall be incurred by fuch as commit any public wrongs,
and tranfgrefs or negleft. their duty. v
With regard to the firft of thefe, the declaratory 18
part of the municipal law ; this depends not fo much ^
upon the law of revelation or of nature, as upon the the kw. ™
wifdom and will of the legiflator. This doftrine, which
before was flightly touched, deferves a more particular
explication. Thofe rights, then, which God and nature
have eftabliffied, and are therefore called natural rights^
fuch as are life and liberty, need not the aid of human
laws to be more effeftually invefted in every man than
they are; neither do they receive any additionalftrength
4 H when
6ro &
Of Laws wlien declared by tbe muni<>tpal laws to be inviolable.
in general. Qn t}le contrary, no human legiflature has power to
'rrr—l* abridge or deftroy them, unlefs the owner (hall him-
felf commit fome a£t that amounts to a forfeiture.
Neither do divine or natural -duties (fuch as, for in-
flance, the worfliip of God, the maintenance of chil¬
dren, and the like) receive any ftronger farnftion from
being alfo declared to be duties by the law of the land.
The cafe is the fame as to crimes and mifdemeanours,
that are forbidden by the fuperior laws, and therefore
ftyled mala in fe, fuch as murder, theft, and perjury ;
which contraA no additional turpitude from being de¬
clared unlawful by the inferior legislature. For that
legiflature in all thefe cafes afls only, as was before
obferved, in fuborahiation to the Great Lawgiver,
l tranferibing and publifhing his precepts. So that,
upon the whole, the declaratory part of the municipal
law has no force or operation at-all, with regard to
a&ions that are naturally and intrinfically right or
wrong.
But with regard to things in themfelves indifferent,
tire cafe is entirely altered. Thefe become either right
or wrong, juft or unjuft, duties or mifdenaeanors, ac¬
cording as the municipal legiflator fees proper, for
promoting the welfare of the fociety, and more effec¬
tually carrying on the purpofes of civil life. Thus
our own common law has declared, that the goods of
the wife do inftantly upon marriage become the pro¬
perty and right of the hufband ; and our ftatute law
has declared all monopolies a public offence : yet that
right, and this offence,, have no foundation in nature ;
but are merely created by the law, for the purpofes of
civil fociety. And fometimes, where the thing itfelf
has its rife from the law of nature, the particular cir-
cumftances and mode of doing it become right or wrong,
as the laws of the land fhall diredl. Thus, for inftance,
in civil duties ; obedience to fuperiors is the do&rine
of revealed as well as natural religion : but who thofe
fuperiors fhall be, and in what circumftances, or to
what degrees they fhall be obeyed, is the province of
human laws to determine. And fo, as to injuries or
crimes, it muft be left to our own legiflature to decide,
in what cafes the feizing another’s cattle fhall amount
to the crime of robbery ; and where it fhall be a jus¬
tifiable aftion, as when a landlord takes them by way
of diftrefs for rent.
®ire6tory Thus much for the declaratory part of the municipal
f>art. law : and the direftory ftands much upon the fame
footing ; for this virtually includes the former, the de¬
claration being ufually collefted from the direction.
The law that fays, “ Thou fhalt not fteal,” implies a
declaration that ftealing is a crime. And we have feen,
that, in things naturally indifferent, the very effence
of right and wrong depends upon the direction of the
9o laws to do or to omit them.
^Remedial The remedial part of a law is fo neceffary a confe-
quence of the former two, that laws mnft be very
vague and imperfeft without it. For in vain would
rights be declared, in vain directed to be obferved, if
there were no method of recovering and afferting thofe
rights when wrongfully with-held or invaded. This
is what we mean properly, when we fpeak of the pro-
te&ion of the law. When, for inftance, the declaratory
part of the law has faid, “ that the field or inheritance
which belonged to Titius’s father is veiled,by his
A W. Part L.
death in Titius," "and the dire&ory part has “ forbid- Of Laws
den any one to enter on another’s property without in general,
the leave of the owner if Gaius after this will pre-
fume to take poffeffion of the land, the remedial part
of the law will then interpofe its office ; will make
Gaius reftore the poffcffion to Titius, and alfo pay him
damages for the invafion*
With regard to the fanftion of laws, or the evil
that may attend the breach of public duties ; it is ob¬
ferved, that human legiflators have for the moft part
chofen to make the famftion of their laws rather
vindicatory than remuneratory, or to confift rather in
punilhments than in adtual particular rewards : Be-
caufe, in the firft place, the quiet enjoyment and
prote&iou of all our civil rights and liberties, which,
are the fure and general confequence of obedience
to the municipal law, are in themfelves the heft an i
moft valuable of all rewards: becaufe alfo, were the;
exercife of every virtue to be inforced by the pro-
pofal of particular rewards, it were impoffible for any
ftate to furnifh dock enough for fo profufe a bounty :
and farther, becaufe the dread of evil is a much more
forcible principle of human a&ions than the profpeft;
of good. For which reafons, though a prudent be¬
llowing of rewards is fometimes of exquifite ufe, yet
we find that thofe civil laws, which enforce and enjoin,
our duty, do feldom, if ever, propofe any privilege or
gift to fuch as obey the law ; but do conftantly come
armed with a penalty denounced again!! tranfgreffors,
either ekprefsly defining the nature and quantity of the
punifhment, or elfe leaving it to the diferetion of the
judges, and thofe who are intrufted with the care of
putting the laws in execution.
^ Of ail the parts of a law the moft effeftual is the vin- vintica-
dicatory. For it is but loft labour to fay, “ Do this, or tory psuV
avoid that,” unlefs we alfo declare, “ This ftnll be the
confequence of your non-compliance.” We muft there¬
fore obferve, that the main ftrength and force of a law
confifts in the penalty annexed to it. Herein is to be
found the principal obligation of human laws.
Legiflators and their laws are faid to compel and
oblige : not that, by any natural violence, they fo con-
ftrain a man as to render it impoffible for him to aft
otherwife than as they direft, which is the ftrift fenfe
of obligation 5 but becaufe, by declaring and exhibi¬
ting a penalty againft offenders, they bring it to pafs
that no man caa eafily choofe to tranfgrefs the law ;.
fince, byreafoitof the impending correft ton, compliance-
is in a high degree preferable to difobedience. And,
even where rewards are propofed as well as punifliments ,
threatened, the obligation of the law feems chiefly
to confift in the penalty : for rewards, in their nature,
can only perfuade and allure ; nothing is compulfory.
but punilhment.
It is true, it hath been holden, and very juftly, by.
the principal of our ethical writers, that human laws
are binding upon mens confciences. But if that were
the only or moft forcible obligation, the good only
would regard the laws, and the bad would fet them at
defiance. And, true as this principle is, it muft ftill:
be underftood with fome reftriftion. It holds, we ap¬
prehend, as to rights ; and that, when the law has de¬
termined the field to belong to Titius, it is a matter of
confcience no longer to with-hold or to invade it. So
alfo in regard to natural duties, and fuch offences as are
Part T.
L A W.
6it
Of Laws mala'infei here we are bound in confcience, becaufe
’ in genera!# we are bound by fuperior laws, before thofe human
jaws were ;n being, to perform the one and abftain
from the other. But in relation to thofe laws which
enjoin only pofitive duties, and forbid only fuch things
as are not mala in fe, but mala prohibits merely, with¬
out any intermixture of moral guilt, annexing a pe¬
nalty to non-compliance ; here feems to be confcience
no farther concerned, than by dire&ing a fubmiffion
to the penalty, in cafe of our breach of thofe laws:
for otherwife the multitude of penal laws in a ftate
would not onlybe looked upon asan impolitic, but would
alfo be a very wicked, thing ; if every fuch law were a
fnare for the confcience of the fubjeff. But in thefe
cafes the alternative is offered to every man ; “ either
abftain from this, or fubmit to fuch a penalty and
his confcience will be clear, whichever fide of the al¬
ternative he thinks proper to embrace. Thus, by the
ftatutes for preferving the game, a penalty is denounced
againft every unqualified perfon that kills a hare, and
againft every perfon who poffeffes a partridge in Au-
guft. And fo too, by other ftatutes, pecuniary pe¬
nalties are inflifted for exercifing trades without fer-
ving an apprenticeihip thereto, for ere&ing cottages
without annexing four acres of land to each, for not
burying the dead in woollen, for not performing fta-
tute-work on the public roads, and for innumerable
other pofitive mifdemeanors. Now thefe prohibitory
laws do not make the tranfgrefiion a moral offence, or
fin : the only obligation in confcience is to fubmit to
the penalty, if levied. It muft, however, be obferved,
that we are here fpeaking of laws that are Amply and
purely penal, where the thing forbidden or enjoined is
wholly a matter of indifference, and where the penalty
infii&ed is an adequate eompenfation for the civil in¬
convenience fuppofed to arife from the offence. But
where difobedience to the law involves in it alfo any
degree of public mifchief or private injury, there it falls
within our former diftin&icn, and is alfo an offence
againft confcience.
We have now gone through the definition laid down
bf a municipal law; and have (hown that it is “ a
rule- of civil conduct—prefcribed—by the fupreme
power in a ftate—commanding what is right, and pro¬
hibiting what is wrong in the explication of which
we have endeavoured to interweave a few ufeful prin¬
ciples, concerning the nature of civil government, and
the obligation of human laws. Before we conclude
this part, it may not be amifs to add a few obferva-
tions concerning the interpretation of laws.
"Of the in- When any doubt arofe upon the conftruftion of the
terpreta- Roman laws, the ufage was to ftate the cafe to the
tron of emperor in writing, and take his opinion upon it.
aws. This was certainly a bad method of interpretation.
To interrogate the legiflature to decide particulaf dtf-
putes, is not only endlefa, but affords great room for
partiality and oppreffion. The anfwers of the empe¬
ror were called hisrefcripts, and thefe had in fucceeding
cafes the force of perpetual laws» though they ought
to be carefully diftinguiftied, by every rational civilian,
from thofe general conditutions which had only the
nature of things for their guide. The emperor Ma-
crinus, as his hiftorian Capitolinus informs us, had
once refolved to abolifti thefe refcripts, and retain only
the general edifts: he could not bear that the hafty
and crude anfwers of fuch princes as Cotnrtiodus and
Caracalla (hould be reverenced as laws. But Juftinian
thought otherwife, and he has preferred them all.
In like manner the canon laws, or decretal epidles of
the popes, are all of them refcripts in the ftritteft
fenfe. Contrary to all true forms of reafoning, they
argue from particulars to generals.
The faireft and moft rational method to interpret
the will of the legiflator, is by exploring his intentions
at the time when the law was made, by figns the moft
natural and proU.ble. And thefe figns are either the
words, the context, the fubjeft-matter, the effefts
and confequence, or the fpirit and reafon of the law.
Let us take a Ihort view of them all.
i. Words are generally to be underftood in their
ufual and moft; known fignification ; not fo .much re¬
garding the propriety of grammar, as thefr general
and popular ufe. Thus the law mentioned by Puffen-
dorf, which forbad a layman to lay hands on a prieft,
was adjudged to extend to him who had hurt a prieft
with a weapon. Again : Terms of art, or technical
terms, muft be taken according to the acceptation of
the learned in each art, trade, and fcience. So in the
aft of fettlement, where the crown of England is li¬
mited “ to the princefs Sophia, and the heirs of her
body being Proteflants, it becomes neceffary to call
in the afliftance of lawyers, to afeertain the precifc
idea of the words “ heirs of her body which in a
legal fenfe comprife only certain of her lineal defeen-
dants. Laftly, where words are clearly repugnant in
two laws, the latter law takes place of the eldei : legit
pojleriores priores contrarias abrogant, is a maxim of
univerfal law, as well as of our own conftkutions. And
accordingly it was laid down by a law of the twelve
tables at Rome, Quod populus pojlremum juffit, id jus
ratum ejlo.
2 If words happen to be ftill dubious, we may
eftablifti their meaning from the contexts with which
it, may be of Angular ufe to cempaie a word or a fen-
tence, whenever they are ambiguous, equivocal, or in¬
tricate. Thus the proeme, or preamble, is often called
in to help the conftru&ion of an a& of parliament.
Of the fame nature and ufe is the comparifon of a law
with other laws that are made by the fame legiflator,
that have fome affinity with the fubjeft, or that ex-,
prefsly relate to the fame point. Thus, when the law’
of England declares murder to be felony without be¬
nefit of clergy, we muft refort to the fame law of Eng¬
land to learn what the benefit of clergy is : and, when
the common law cenfures fimoniacal contra&s, it affords
great light to the fubjedl to conlider what the canon
law has adjudged to be fimony.
3. As to the fubjeil-matter, words are always to be
underftood as having a regard thereto ; for that is al¬
ways fuppofed to be in the eye of the legiflator, and
all his expreflions direfted to that end. Thus, when
a law of Edward III. forbids all ecclefiaftical per-
fdns to purchafe provilions at Rome, it might feem to
prohibit the buying of grain and other vidlual; but
when we confider that the ftatute was made to repreiV
the ulurpations of the papal fee, and that the nomina¬
tions to benefices by the Pope were called provifions,
■wt (hall fee that the reftraint is intended to be laid
upon fuch provifiona only.
4. As to the effefts and confequence, the rule is,
4 H 2 That
Of Laws
in general.
<5
4*
4*
e*
612 L 1
Of X.sws That where words bear either none, or a very abfiird
in general. fjgnificat;on, if literally underftood, we muft a little
**" ’ deviate from the received fenfe of them. Therefore
the Bolognian law, mentioned by Puffendorf, which
ena&ed “ that whoever drew blood in the ftreets Ihould
be punifhed with the utmoft feverity,” was held after
long debate not to extend to the furgeon who opened
the vein of a perfon that fell down in the llreet with a
fit.
5. But, laftly, the moft univerfal and effe&ual way
of difcovering the true meaning of s law, when the
words are dubious, is by confidering the reafon and
Jpirit of it, or the caufp which moved the legiflator to
enaft it. For when this reafon ceafes, the law itfelf
ought likewife toceafe with it. An inftance of this is
given in a cafe put by Cicero, or whoever was the au¬
thor of the rhetorical treatife inferibed to Herennius.
There was a law, That thofe who in a ftorm forfook
the fhip fhould forfeit all property therein, and the fhip
and lading fhould belong entirely to thofe who ftaid in
it. In a dangerous tempeft, all the mariners forfook the
fhip, except only one fick paflenger, who by reafon of
his difeafe was unable to get out and efcape. By
chance the fhip came fafe to port. The fick man kept
pofTeflion, and claimed the benefit of the law. Now
here all the learned agree, that the fick man is not
within the reafon of the law; for the reafon of making
it was, to give encouragement to fuch as fhould ven¬
ture their lives to fave the veflel: but this is a merit
which he could never pretend to, who neither ftaid in
the fhip upon that account, nor contributed any thing
to its prefervatiou.
JE^uity.34 From this method of interpreting laws by the rea¬
fon of them, arifes what we call equity : which is thus
defined by Grotius, “ the corre&ion of that, wherein
the law (by reafon of its univerfality) is deficient.”
For fince in laws all cafes cannot be forefeen or expref-
fed, it is neceffary, that, when the general decrees of
^ W. Parti.
the law come to be applied to particular cafes, there Of Laws
fhould be fomewhere a power veiled of defining thofe in genera1-.
citcumftances, which (had they been forefeen) the legif-v " -
lator himfelf would have expreffed. And thefe. are
the cafes which, according to Grotius, “ kx non exaBc
dejinit,fed arbitrio boni viri permittlt ”
Equity thus depending, eflentially, upon the parti¬
cular circumftances of each individual cafe, there can
be no eftablifived rules and fixed precepts of equity laid
down, without deftroyingits very effence, and reducing
it to a pofitive law. And, on the other hand, the li¬
berty of confidering all cafes in an equitable light muft
not be indulged too far; left thereby wedeftroy all law,
and leave the decifion of every queftion entirely in the
breaft of the judge. And law, without equity, though
hard and difagreeable, is much more deiirable for the
public good, than equity without law ; which would
make every judge a legiflator, and introduce moft in¬
finite confufion: as there would then be almoft as many
difterent rules of aftion laid down in our courts, as there
are differences of capacity andfentiment in the human
mind.
Having thus confidered the nature of laws in gene- pian3of the
ral, we fhall proceed to give a view of the particular two follow,
law of our own country ; 1. Of England; 2. Of Scot-*nS P*rts«
land. The Englifh law, however, being too extenfive
to admit of detail in a body, we can only here give fuch a.
fketchof it as may be fufficient to fhow the connexion
of its parts ; but the principal of thefe parts themfelves
are explained at large, under their proper names, in
the general alphabet.—A contrary method is followed
with regard to the law of Scotland. This being lefs
extenfive, is given in a body, with all its parts not only
in regular conne&ion, but fufficiently explained ; thefe
parts, again, not being explained in the order of the
alphabet,’but marked with numerical references to their
explanations in the fyftem.
Part II. The LAW of ENGLAND.
INTRODUCTION.
rT'HE municipal law of England, or the rule of ci-
vil conduft preferibed to the inhabitants of that
kingdom, may with fufficient propriety be divided into
two kinds: the /ex non feripta, the unwritten or com¬
mon law; and the lex feripta, the written or ftatute
law.
The lex non feripta, or unwritten law, includes not
only general cuftoms, or the common law properly fo
called ; but alfo the particular cuftoms of certain parts
of the kingdom, and likewife thefe particular laws
that are by culiom obferved only in certain courts and
jurifdictions.
In calling thefe parts of the law leges non fcriptie,
we would not be underftood as if all thofe laws were at
prefent merely oral, or communicated from the former
ages to the prefent folely by word of mouth. It is
true indeed, that in the profound ignorance of letters
which formerly overfpread the whole weftern world,
all laws were entirely traditional; for this plain reafon,
that the nations among which they prevailed had but
Mttle idea of writing. Thus the Britilh as well as the
Gallic druids committed all their laws as well as learn¬
ing to memory ; and it is faid of the primitive Saxons
here, as well as their brethren on the continent, that
leges fola tnemoria et ufu retinebant. But, with us at
prefent, the monuments and evidences of our legal cu¬
ftoms are contained in the records of the feveral courts
of juftice, in books of reports and judicial decifions,
and in the treatifes of learned fages of the profeffion,
preferved and handed down to us from the times of
higheft antiquity. However, we therefore ftyle thefe
parts of our law leges non feripta, becaufe their original
inftitution ahd authority are not fet down in writing,
as afts of parliament are; but they receive their
binding power, and the force of laws, by long and,
immemorial ufage, and by their univerfal reception
throughout the kingdom : in like manner as Aulus
Geilius defines the jus non feriptum to be that which
is tacit0 et illiterato hominum confenfu et moribus ex-
prejfum.
Our ancient lawyers, and particularly Fortefcue,.
infill with abundance of warmth, that thefe cuftoms
are as old as the primitive Britons, and continued down,
through the feveral mutations of-government and in-
5 habitants.
i?Part II. ’Ll
Law of habitants, to the prefent time, unchanged and unadul-
I England. terate(3. This may be the cafe as to fotne. But in
' ’ general, as Mr Selden in his notes obferves, this afifer-
tior muft be underftood with many grains of allowance;
[ , and ought only to fignify, as the truth feems to be,
that there never was any formal exchange of one fy-
ftem of laws for another: though doubtlefs, by the
intermixture of adventitious nations, the Romans, the
Pidts, the Saxons, the Danes, and the Normans, they
muft have infenfibly introduced and incorporated many
of their own cuftoms with thofe that were before efta-
blilhed ; thereby, in all probability, improving the
texture and wifdom of the whole, by the accumu¬
lated wifdom of diva's particular countries. Our laws,
faith lor4 Bacon, .are .mixed as our language ; and as
our language is fo much the richer, the laws are the
more complete.
And indeed our antiquarians and firft hiftorians do
all pofitively affure us, that our body of laws is of this
compounded nature. For they tell us, that in the
time of Alfred the local cuftoms of the feveral provin¬
ces of the kingdom were grown fo various, that he
found it expedient to compile his dome book, or liter
judicialis, for the general ufe of the whole kingdom.
This book is faid to have been extant fo late as the
reign of Edward IV. but is now unfortunately loft. It
contained, we may probably fuppofe, the principal
maxims of the common law, the penalties for mifde-
meanors, and the forms of judicial proceedings. .Thus
much may at lead be collected from that injunftion to
obferve it, which we find in the laws of king Edward the
elder, the fon of Alfred. Omnibus qui reipubliae prafunt
etiam atque etiam mando, ut omnibus aquos fe preebeant ju
dices, perinde ac in judiciali libro fcriptum babetur : nec 'qui-
quumformident quin jus commune audatler libereque dicant.
But the irruption and eftablifhment of the Danes in
England, which followed foon after, introduced new
cuftoms, and caufed this code of Alfred in many pro¬
vinces to fall into difufe, or at leaft to be mixed and
debafed with other laws of a coarfer alloy. So that,
about the beginning of the nth century there were
three principal fyftems of laws prevailing in different
ciftridb. I. The Mcrcen-Lage, or Mercian laws,
which were obferved in many of the inland counties,
and thofe bordering on the principality of Wales, the
retreat of the ancient Britons ; and therefore very pro¬
bably intermixed with the Britiftr or Druidical cu¬
ftoms. 2 The Weft Saxon Lage, or laws of the Weft
Saxons, which obtained in the counties to the fouth
and weft of the illand, from Kent toDevonflrire. Thefe
were probably much the fame with the laws of Alfred '
above-mentioned, being the municipal law of the far
moft confidtrable part of his dominions, and particular¬
ly including Berkftiire, the feat of his peculiar rcfi-
dence. 3. The Dane Lage, or Danifh law, the very
name of which fpeuks its original and compofition.
This was principally maintained in the reft of the mid¬
land counties, and alfo on the eaftcrn coaft, the part
moft expofed to the vifits of that piratical people. As
. for the very northern provinces, they were at that time ,
under adiftindt government.
Out of thefe three laws, Roger Hoveden and Ra-
liulphus Ceftrenfis informs us, king Edward the con-
fiffor extracted one uniform law, or digeft of laws, to
fee obferved throughout the whole kingdom j though
L w. 613
Hoveden and the author of an old manufcript chronicle Law of
affure us likewife, that this work was projected and England.
begun by his grandfather king Edgar. And indeed a v——**'
general digeft of the fame nature has been conftantly
found expedient, and therefore put in practice by other
great nations, which vfere formed from an affemblage
of little provinces, governed by peculiar cuftoms. As
in Portugal, under king Edward, about the beginning of
the 15th century. In Spain, under Alonzo X. who
about the year 1250 executed the plan of his father
St Ferdinand, and colle&ed all the provincial cuftoms
into one uniform law, In the celebrated code entitled
las partidas. And in. Sweden, about the fame era, a
univerfal body of common.law' was compiled out of
the particular cuftoms eftablifhed by the laghman of
every province, and entitled the land’s lagh, being
analogous to the common law of England.
Both thefe undertakings, of king Edgar and Edward
the Confeffor, feem to have been no more than a new
edition, or freflr promulgation, of Alfred’s code or
dome-book, with fuch additions and improvements as
the experience of a century and an half had fuggefted.
For Alfred is generally ftyled by the fame hiftorians
the legum Anglicanarum conditor, as Edward the con¬
feffor is the rejlitutor. Thefe, however, are the laws
which our hiftories fo often mention under the name
of the laws of Edward the Confejfor ; which our ancef-
tors ftruggled fo hardly to maintain, under the firft
princes of the Norman line ; and which fubfequent
princes fo frequently promifed to keep and to reftore,
as the moft popular aft they could do, when preffed
by foreign emergencies or domeftic difcontencs. Thefe
are the laws, that fo vigoroufly withftood the repeated-
attacks of the civil law ; which eftabliftied in the 12th
century a new Roman empire over the molt of the
ftates on -the continent : Hates that have loft, and
perhaps upon that account, their political liberties;
while the free conttitution of England, perhaps upon
the fame account, has been rather improved than de¬
bafed. Thefe, in-fhort, are the laws which gave rife
and origin to that colleftion of maxims and cuftoms
which is now Epown by the name of the common law.
A name either given to it, in contradiftinftion toother 3%'
laws, as the ftatute law, the civil law, the law merchant,
and the like ; or, more probably, as. a law commoix
to all the realm, the jus commune or folcright, mentioned
by king Edward the Elder, after the abolition of the
feveral provincial cuftoms and particular laws before
mentioned.
But though this is the moft likely foundation of
this colleftion of maxims and.cuftoms; yet the maxims
and cuftoms, focollefted, are of higher antiquity than
memory or hiftory can reach : nothing being more
difficult than to afcertain the precife beginning and.
firft fpring' of an ancient and long eftablifhed cuftom.
Whence it is, that in our law the goodnefs of a cuftom.
depends upon its having been ufed time out of mind ;
or, in the folemnity of our legal phrafe, time whereof
the memory of man runneth not to the contrary. This
it is that gives it its weight and authority ; and of this
nature are the maxims and cuftoms which compofe the
common law, or lex non feripta, of this kingdom.
This unwritten, or common law, is properly d{*
ftinguifhable into three kinds: 1. General cuftoms;
which are the univerfal rule of the. whole kingdom,,
andl
'6i'4 £ A
Law of and form the common law in its flri&er and more
^England ufual fi^nification. 2. Particular cuftoms ; which for
v ’ the moft part afleft only the inhabitants of particular
diftii&s. 3. Certain particular laws ; which by cuftom
are adopted and ufed by fome particular courts, of pretty
39 general and extenfive juridi&ic:..
Firft branch J. As to general cuftoms, or the common law pro-
written” Perty called ; this is that law, by which proceedings
law : an<? determinations in the king’s ordinary courts of ju-
tOeneral ftice are guided and directed. This, for the moft
. cuftoms. part, fettles the courfe in which lands defeend by in*
heritance ; the manner and form of acquiring and
transferring property ; the folemnities and obligation
of contracts ; the rules of expounding wills, deeds, and
a£ls of parliament ; the refpedtive remedies of civil
injuries ; the feveral fpecies of temporal offences, with
the manner and degree of punifhment, and an in¬
finite number of minuter particulars, which diffufe
themfelves as extenfively as the ordinary diftribution
of common juftice requires. Thus, for example, that
there (hall be four fuperior courts of record, the chan¬
cery, the king’s bench, the common pleas, and the
jexchequcr;—that the eldeft fon alone is heir to his
.anceftor; —that property may be acquired and tranf-
feired by writing ;—that a deed is of no validity unlefs
fealed and delivered;—that wills lhall be conftrued
more favourably, and deeds more ftri&ly ;—that mo¬
ney lent upon bond is recoverable by aftion of debt;
—th^t breaking the public peace is an offence, and
puniftiable by fine and imprifonment:—all thefe are
oodtrines that are not fet down in any written ftatute
or ordinance ; but depend merely upon immemorial
.ufage, that is, upon common law, for their fupport.
Some have divided the common law into two prin-
xipal grounds or foundations : r. Eftabliftied cuftoms;
fuch as that, where there are three brothers, the eldeft
brother (hall be heir to the fecond, in exclufion of the
youngeft : and, 2. Eftablifhed rules and maxims; as,
“ that the king can do no wrong, that no man lhall
be bound to accufe himfetf,” and the like. But
=thefe feem to be one and the fame thing. For the
authority of thefe maxims refts entirely upon general
reception and ufage ; and the only method of proving
that this or that maxim is a rule of the common law,
is by firowing that it hath been always the cuftom to
obferve it.
But here a very natural, and very material, queftion
arifes : How are thefc cuftoms or maxims to be known,
and by whom is their validity to be determined ? The
anfwer is, By the judges in the feveral courts of juftice.
They are the depr fitory of the laws; the living oracles
■who mult decide in all cafes of doubt, and who are
dbound by an oath to decide according to the law of
.the land. Their knowledge of that law is derived from
experience and lludy; from the viginti annorum lucu-
bratwnes, which Fortefcue mentions; and from Being
long perfonally accuftomed to thejudicial decifions of
their predeceffors. And indeed thefe judicial decilions
are the principal and moft authoritative evidence, that
can be given, of the exiftence of fuch a cuftom as {hall
form a part of the common law. The judgment itfelf,
and all the proceedings previous thereto, are carefully
regiftered and preferred under the name of records, in
public repofitories fet apart for that particular purpofe;
and to them frequent recourfe it had, when any criti¬
cal queftion arifes, in the determination of which for-
w.
mer precedents may give light or afiiftance. And
therefore, even fo early as the cofiqueft, we find the
frateritorum memorta eventorum reckoned up as one of
the chief qualifications of thofe who were held to
be legibuspatria optime injlituti. For it is an eftablilhed
rule, To abide by former precedents, where the fame
points come again in litigation: as well to keep the
fcale of juftice even and fteady, and not liable to waver
with every new judge’s opinion; as alfo becaufe the
law in that cafe being folemnly declared and determi¬
ned, what before was uncertain, aod perhaps indifferent,
is now become a permanent rule, which it is not in the
breaft of any fubfequent judge to alter or vary from
according to' his private fentimet^ts: he being fworn
to determine, not according to h’s pwn private judge¬
ment, but accoiding to the known laws and cuftoms of
the land ; not: delegated to pronounce a new law, but to
maintain and expound the old one. Yet this rule ad¬
mits of exception, where the former determination
moft evidently contrary to reafon ; much more if it be
contrary to the divine law. But, even in fuch cafes,
the fubfequent judges do not pretend to make a new
law, but to vindicate the old one fiom mifreprefenta-
tion. For if it be found that the former decifion is
manifeftly abfurd or unjuft, it is declared, not that
fuch a fentence was bad law, but that it was not law ;
that is, that it is not the eftablilhed cuftom of the
realm, as has been erroueoufly determined. And hence
it is that our lawyers are with juftice fo copious in their
encomiums on the reafon of the common law ; that
they tell us, that the law is the perfection of reafon,
that it always intends to conform thereto, and that
what is not reafon is not law. Not that the particular
reafon of every rule in the law can at this dillance of
time be always precifely affigned ; but it is fufficient
that there be nothing in the rule flatly contradi&ory to
reafon, and then the law will prefume it to be well
founded. And it hath been an ancient obfervation ia
the laws of England, that whenever a {landing rule of
law, of which the reafon perhaps could noc be remem¬
bered or difeerned, hath been wantonly broke in upoa
by ftatutes or new refolutions, the wifdom of the rule
hath in the end appeared from the inconveniences that
have followed the innovation.
The doftrine of the law then is this ; That prece¬
dents and rules mutt be followed, unlefs flatly abfurd
or unjuft: for though their reafon be not obvious at
firft view, yet we owe fuch a deference to former times,
as not to fuppofe they afted wholly without confidera-
tion. To illuftrate this dodrine by examples. It has
been determined, time out of mind, that a brother of
the half blood lhall never fucceed as heir to the eftate
of his half brother, but it lhall rather efehtat to the
king, or other fuperior lord. Now this is a pofitive
law, fixed and eftablilhed by cuftom ; which cuftom is
evidenced by judicial decifions; and therefore can never
be departed from by any modern judge without a
breach of his oath and the law. For herein there is
nothing repugnant to natural juftice ; though the arti¬
ficial reafon of it, drawn from the feodal law, may not
be quite obvious to every body. And therefore, on
account of a fuppofed hardlhip upon the half brother,
a modern judge might wilh it had been otherwife
fettled ; yet it is not in his power to alter it. But if
any court were now to determine, that an elder bro¬
ther of the half blood might enter upon and feize any
lands
Part Hi
Law <j( |
England. -
Part IT. L A W.
Law of lands that were pur-chafed by his younger brother, no with fome others of ancient date, whole treatifea are
England, fubfequent judges would fcruple to declare that fuch cited as authority; and are evidence that cafes have
» prior determination was unjud, was unreafonable, and formerly happened in which fuch and fuch points were
therefore was not law. So that the law, and the opinion determined, which are now become fettled and firft
of the judge, are not always convertible terms, or one principles. One of the laft of thefe methodical writers
and the fame thing ; fince it fometimes may happen in point of time, whofe works are of any intrinfic au-
that the judge may miftake the law. Upon the whole, thority in the courts of juftice, and do not entirely
however, we may take it as a general rule, “ That the depend on the ftrength of their quotations from older
decifions of courts of jullice are the evidence of what authors, is the fame learned judge we have juft men-
is common law;” in the fame manner as in the civil tioned, Sir Edward Coke; who hath written four vo-
law, what the emperor had once determined was to lumes of Inftitutes, as he is pleafed to call them, tho’
ferve for a guide for the future. they have little of the institutional method to warrant
The decifions therefore of courts are held in the fuch a title. The firft volume is a very extenfive
bigheft regard, and arg not only preferved as authentic comment upon a little excellent treatife of tenures,
records in the treafuri^s of the feveral courts, but are compiled by judge Littleton in the reign of Ed-
handed out to public view in the numerous volumes of ward IV. This comment is a rich mine of valuable
reports which furniih the lawyer’s library. Thefe re- common-law learning, colledted and heaped together
ports are hiftories of the feveral cafes, with a (hort from the ancient reports and year-books, but greatly
fummary of the proceedings, which are preferved at defective in method (b). The fecond volume is a-
large in the record ; the arguments on both fides, and comment upon many old afts of parliament, without
the reafons the court gave for its judgment; taken any fyitematical order; the third a more methodical
down in ftiort notes by perfons prefent at the determi- treatife ol the pleas of the crown ; and the fourth an
nation. And thefe ferve as indexes to, and alfo to account of the feveral fpecies of courts (c).
explain, the records-; which always, in matters of And thus much for the firft ground and chief cornef-
confequence and nicety, the judges direct to be ftone of the laws of England ; which is general immU-
fearched. The reports are extant in a regular feries morial cuftom, or common law, from time to time
from the reign of king Edward II. inclufive ; and declared in the decifions of the courts of juftice; which
from his time to that of Henry VIII. were taken by decifrons are preferved arnnng the public records, ex-
the prothonotaries, or chief fcribes of the court, at the plained in the reports, and digefted for general ufe its
expence of the crown, and publilhed annually, whence the authofitative writings of the venerable fages of the
they are known under the denomination of the year- law.
Ibohs. And it is much to be wiftied that this beneficial The Roman law, as praftifed in the times of its li-
curtom had, under proper regulations, been continued berty, paid aifo a great regard to cuftom ; but not fo
to this day; for though king James I. at the inftance much as our law : it only then adopting it when the
of lord Bacon, appointed twp reporters, with a hand- written law was deficient. Though the reafons ah
fome ftipend, for this purpofe; yet that wife inftitu- legcd in the digeft will fully juftify our pra&ice in
tion was foon negledled, and from the reign of making it of equal authority with, when it is not con-
Henry VIII. to the prefent time this taflc has been ex- tradicfted by, the written law. “ For fince (fays Ju-
ecuted by many private and cotemporary hands ; who lianus) the written law binds us for no other reafon but
fometimes through hafte and inaccuracy, fometimes becaufe it is approved by the judgment of the people,
through miftake and want of (kill, have publifhed very therefore thofe laws which the people have approved '
crude and imperfedt (perhaps contradidlory) accounts without writing ought alfo to bind every body. For
of one and the fame determination. Someofthemoft where is the difference, whether the people declare
valuable of the ancient reports are thofe publifhed by their affent to a law by fuffrage, or by a uniform courfe
lord chief juftice Coke ; a man of infinite learning in of adting accordingly ?” Thus did they reafon while
bis profeffion, though not a little infedled with the pe- Rome had fome remains of her freedom ; but, when
dantry and quaiutnefs of the times he Jived in, which the imperial tyranny came to be fully eftablifhed, the
appear ftrongly in all his works. However, his wri- civil laws fpeak a very different language. Quodprui-
tings are fo highly efteemed, that they are generally dpi placuit legts habet 'vigoremu cum populus ei ct in emn
cited without the author’s name (a). omne fuum imperium et potejlatem conferat. fays Ulpian.
Befides thefe icporters, there are alfo other authors, Imperator fslus et condilor et interpres legis exi/limatur, .
to whom great veneration and refpeft .are paid by the fays the code. And again, Sacri/egii injlar eji refcripto
ftudents of the common law. Such are Glanvil and principis obviari. And indeed it is one of the charac-
Bra&on, Britton aad Fleta, Littleton and Fitzherbert, teriftic marks of Britifh liberty, that the common law
depends
(a) His reports, for inftance, are ftyled ffA’ns “ the reports and in quoting them we ufually fay,
I or 2 Rep. not i or 2 Coke’s Rep. as in citing other authors. The reports of judge Croke are alfo cited
in a peculiar manner, by the name of thofe princes in whofe reigns the cafes reported in his three vo¬
lumes were determined ; viz. que'en Elizabeth, king James, and king Charles I. ; as well as by the number
of each volume. For fometimes we call them t, 2, and 3 Cro. ; but more commonly Cro. Eliz. Cro. Jac.
and Cro. Car.
(b) It is ufually cited either by the name of Co. Litt. or as 1 Inft.
(c) Thefe are cited as 2, 3, or 4 Inft. without any author’s name. An honorary diftinftion, which, w«_-
©Werved, is paid to the works of no other writer; the generality of reports and other tracts being quoted in the-i
iScie of the.compiler, as 2 Yentris, 4 Leonard, t Siderfin, and the like.
6t6
Law rtf
England.
*en laws :
Particular
cuftoms.
I A
dtpertdsupon cuilom; whicli carries this internal evi¬
dence of freedom along with it, that it probably was
introduced by the voluntary confent of the people.
II. The fecond branch of the unwritten laws of
England are particular cuftoms, or laws which affedt
■ only the inhabitants of particular diftridts.
Thefe particular cuftoms, or fome of them, are
without doubt the remains of that multitude of local
cuftoms before-mentioned, out of which the common
law, as it now ftands, was colle&ed at firft by king
Alfred, and afterwards by king Edgar and Edward
the confefibr: each diftridt mutually facrificing fome
of its own fpecial ufagesj in order that the whole
kingdom might enjoy the benefit of one uniform and
univerfal fyftem of lawa. But, for reafons that have
been now long forgotten, particular counties, cities,
towns, manors, and lordihips, were very early indulged
with the privilege of abiding by their own cdftoms,
in contradiftin&ion to the reft of the nation at large :
which privilege is confirmed to them by feveral adfs of
parliament.
Such is the cuftom of gavelkind in Kent and fome
other parts of the kingdom (though perhaps it was
alfo general till the Norman conqUeft); which ordains,
among other things, that not the eldeft fon only of
the father (hall fucceed to his inheritance, but all the
fons alike; and that, though the anceftor be attainted
and hanged, yet the heir (hall fucceed to his eftate,
without any efeheat to the lord.—-Such is the cuftom
that prevails in divers ancient boroughs, and therefore
called borough-englijh, that the youngeft fon (hall inherit
the eftate, in preference to alibis elder brothers.—Such
is the cuftom in other boroughs, that a widow (hall
be entitled, for her dower, to all her hufband’s lands;
whereas at the common law (he (hall be endowed of
•one third part only.—Such alfo are the fpecial and
particular cuftoms of manors, of which every one has
more or lefs, and which bind all the copyhold tenants
that hold of the faid manors.—Such likewife is the
cuftom of holding divers inferior court?, with power
of trying caufes, in cities and trading towns; the
right of holding which, when no royal grant can
be (hewn, depends entirely upon immemorial and efta-
bliihed ufage.—Such, laftly, are many particular cu-
lloms within the city of London, with regard to
trade, apprentices, widows, orphans, and a variety of
other matters. All thefe are contrary to the general
law of the land, and are good only by fpecial ufage;
though the cuftoms of London are alfo confirmed by
aft of parliament.
To this head may moft properly be referred a parti¬
cular fyftem of cuftoms ufed only among one fet of the
king’s fubjefts, called the cuftom of merchants, or lex
mercatoria : which, however different from the general
rules of the common law, is yet ingrafted into it, and
made a part of it; being allowed, for the benefit of
trade, to be of the utmoft validity in all commercial
tranfaftions; for it is a maxim of law, that cuilibet in
fua arte credendum ejl.
The rules relating to particular cuftoms regard ei¬
ther the proof of their exiitence ; their legality when
proved ; or their ufual method oiallowance. And firft
we will confider the rules of proof.
As to gavelkind, and borough-englifh, the law takes
particular notice of them} and there is no occafion to
N° 176.
W. Part r.
prove, that fuch cuftoms aftually exift, but only that Law of'
the lands in queftion are fubjeft thereto. All other Ens|am*f j
orivate cuftoms muft be oarticularlv oleaded 2 and as 1 T
private cuftoms muft be particularly pleaded ; and as
well the exiftence of fuch cuftoms muft be (hown, as
that the thing in difpute is within the cuftom alleged.
The trial in both cafes (both to (how the exiftence of
the cuftom, as, “ that in the manor of Dale lands
(hall defeend only to the heirs male, and never to the
heirs femaleand alfo te (how “ that the lands in
queftion are within that manor”) is by a jury of is
men, and not by the judges; except the fame parti¬
cular cuftom has been before tried, determined, and
recorded, in the fame court.
The cuftoms of London differ from all others in
point of trial: for if the exiftence of the cuftom be
brought in queftion, it (hall not be tried by a jury,
but by certificate from the lord mayor and aldermen
by the mouth of their recorder ; unlefs it be fuch a cu¬
ftom as the corporation is itfelf interefted in, as a
right of taking toll, &c. for then the law permits them
not to certify on their own behalf.
When a cuilom is aftually proved to exift, the next
inquiry is into the legality of it; for if it is not a good
cuftom, it ought to be no longer ufed. Malus ufus abo-
lendus ejl, is an eftablifhed maxim of the law. To make
a particular cuftom good, the following are neceffary
requifites.
1. That it have been ufed fo long, that the me¬
mory of man runneth not to the contrary. So that,
if any one can (how the beginning of it, it is no
good cuftom. For which reafon, no cuftom can pre¬
vail againft an exprefs aft of parliament; fince the
ftatute itfelf is a proof of a time when fuch a cuftona
did not exift.
2. It muft have been continued. Any interruption
would caufe a temporary ceafing : the revival gives it
a new beginning, which will be within time of me¬
mory, and thereupon the cuftom will be void. But
this muft be underftood with regard to an interruption
of the right; for an interruption of the poffefiion only,
for 10 or 20 years, will not deftroy the cuftom. As
if the inhabitants of a parilh have a cuftomary right
of watering their cattle at a certain pool, the cuftom
is not deftroy ed though they do not ufe it for 10
years ; it only becomes more difficult to prove : but if
the right be any how difeontinued for a day, the cu¬
ftom is quite at an end.
3. Tt muft have been peaceable, and acquiefced in ;
not fubjeft to contention and difpute. For as euftoms
owe their original to common confent, their being im-
memorially difputed, either at law or otherwife, is a
proof that fuch confent was wanting.
4. Cuftoms muft be reafonable ; or rather, taken ne¬
gatively, they muft not be unreafonable. Which is
not always, as Sir Edward Coke fays, to be under¬
ftood of every unlearned man’s reafon ; but of artificial
and legal reafon, warranted by authority of law. Upon
which account a cuftom may be good, though thr par¬
ticular reafon of it cannot be affigned ; for it fufficeth,
if no good legal reafon can be affigned againft it.
Thus a cuftom in a parifti, that no man (hall put his
beads into the common till the third of Oftober, would
be good ; and yet it would be hard to (how the reafon
why that day in particular is fixed upon, rather than
the day before or after. But a cuftom, that no cattle
(hall
A
W.
617
4*
Third
branch of
the ur.wrii
tea law.
fliall be put in tilt the lord of the manor has firft put in becaufe it is moft plain, that it is not 'on account of Law of
his, is unreafonable, and therefore bad : for peradven- their being written laws, that either the canon law, or EnBlantl‘ <
tore the lord will never pur in his; and then the te- the civil law, have any obligation within this kingdom: ’ 1 v
nants will lofe all their profits. neither do their force and efficacy depend upon their
5. Cuftoms ought to be certain. A cuftom, that own intrinfic authority ; which is the cafe of our writ-
lands (hall defcend to the mod worthy of the owner’s ten laws or ads of parliament. They bind not the
blood, is void ; for how (hall this worth be determined? fubjeds of England, becaufe their materials were col-
but a cuftom to defcend to the next male of the blood leded from popes or emperors ; were digefted by Ju~
exclufive of females, is certain, and therefore good, ftinian, or declared to be authentic by Gregory. Thefe
A cuftom to pay two peace an acre in lieu of tithes, is confiderations give them no authority here : for the le-
g©od ; but to pay fometimes two pence a 1 fometimes giflature of England doth not, nor ever did, recognize
three pence, as the occupier of the land pleafes, is bad any foreign power, as fuperior or equal to it in this
for its uncertainty. Yet a cuftom, to pay a year’s im- kingdom ; or as having the right to give law to any
proved value for a fine on a copyhold eftate, is good ; the meaneft of its fubjeds. But all the ftrength that
though the value is a thing uncertain : for the value either the papal or imperial laws have obtained in this
may at any time be afeertained ; and the maxim of law realm (or indeed in any other kingdom in Europe) is
is. Id cerium ejl, quodcertum reddipotejl. only becaufe they have been admitted and received by
6. Cuftoms, though ettabliffied by confent, muft be immemorial ufage and cuftom in fome particular cafes,
(when eftabliftied) .• and not left to the op- and fome particular courts; and then they form a
tion of every man, whether he will ufe them or no. branch of the leges non feriptte, or cuftomary law: or
Therefore a cuftem, that all the inhabitants fliall be elfe, becaufe they are in fome other cafes introduced
rated toward the maintenance of a bridge, will be good; by confent of parliament, and then they owe their va-
but a cuftom, that every man is to contribute thereto lidity to the leges feripta, or ftatute law. This is ex-
at his own pleafure, is idle and abfurd, and indeed no prefsly declared in thofe remarkable words of the fta-
euftom at all. tute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21. addrefled to the king’s royal
-• 7. Laftly, cuftoms muft be conjijlent with each o- majefty.—“ This your grace’s realm, recognizing no
then One cuftnm cannot be fet up in oppofition to fuperior under God but only your grace, hath beea
another. For if both are really cuftoms, then both are and is free from fdbje&ion to any man’s laws, but only
of equal antiquity, and both eftablilhed by mutual con- to fuch as have been devifed, made, and ordained with-
fent: which to fay of contradidftory cuftoms, is abfurd. in this realm for the wealth of the fame; or to fuch
Therefore, if one man preferibes that by cuftom he other as, by fufferance of your grace and your proge-
has aright to have windows looking into another’s gar- nitors, the people of this your realm have taken at their
den ; the other cannot claim a right by cuftom to ftop free liberty, by their own confent, to be ufed among
up orobftruft thofe windows: for thefe two contradiflory them; and have bound themfelves by long ufe and
cuftoms cannot both be good, nor both ftand together, cuftom to the obfervance of the fame : not as to the
He ought rather to deny the exiftence of the former obfervance of the laws of any foreign prince, potentate,
cuftom. or prelate; but as to the cuftomed and ancient laws
Next, as to the allowance of fpecial cuftoms. Cuf- of this realm, originally eftabliftied as laws of the fame,
toms, in derogation of the common law, muft be con- by the faid fufferance, confents, and cuftom; and none
ftrued ftri&ly. Thus, by the cuftom of gavelkind, an otherwife.”
infant of 15 years may by one fpecies of conveyance 1. By the civil law, abfolutely taken, is generally un- .43
(called a deed of feoffment) convey away his lands in fee derftood the civil or municipal law of the Roman em- “w*
Ample, or for ever. Yet this cuftom does notiimpowen pire, as comprifed in the inftitutes, the code, and the
him to ufe any other conveyance, or even to leafe them digeft of the emperor Juftinian, and the novel confti-
for feven years: for the cuftom muft be ftrittly pur- tutions of himfelf and fome of his iucceffors; of which
fued. And, moreover, all fpecial cuftoms muft fub- it may not be amifs to give a ihort and general ac-
mit to the king’s prerogative. Therefore, if the king count.
purchafes lands of the nature of gavelkind, where ail The Roman law (founded firft upon the regal con-
the fons inherit equally ; yet, upon the king’s demife, ftitutions of their ancient kings, next upon the 12 tables
his eldeft fon ihall fucceed to thofe lands alone. And of the decemviri, then upon the laws or ftatutes enafted
thus much for the fecond part of the leges non feripta, by the fenate or people, the edi<fts of the prastor, and
or thole particular cuftoms which affedl particular per- the refponfa prudentum or opinions of learned law-
fons or diftrifts only. yers, and laftly upon the imperial decrees or conftitu-
III. The third branch of them are thofe peculiar laws tions of fucceffive emperors) had grown to lo great a
which by cuftom are adopted and ufed only in certain bulk, or, as Livy expreffes it, tam immenfus aliarum
peculiar courts and jurifdidtions. And by thefe are un- fuper alias acervatarum legum cumulus, that they were
>detftood the civil and canon laws, computed to be many camels load by an author who
it may feem a little improper, at firft view, to rank preceded Juftinian. This was in part remedied by the
thefe laws under the head of leges non feriptee, or un- colleSions of three private lawyers, Gregorius, Her-
written laws, feeing they are fet foith by authority in mogenes, and Papirius; and then by the emperor Theo-
their pandefts, their codes, and their inftitutions ; dofius the younger, by whofe orders a code was com-
their councils, decrees, and decretals ; and enforced by piled, A. D. 438, being a methodical collection of
an immenfe number of expofuions, decifions, and trea- all the imperial contlitutions then in force : which
lifes of the learned in both branches of the law. But Theodofian code was the only book of civil law re-
this is done after the example of Sir Matthew Hale, ceived as authentic in the weftern part of Europe, till
Vob. IX. Part. II. 4 I *■ many
6i8 L ^
i L»w of<* many ocuturics after j and to thi* it is probable that
England, j’rajjjjg an^ Q0th3 might frequently pay fome re*
v gard, in framing legal conftitutions for their newly
eredlied kingdoms. For Juftinian commanded only in
the eallern remains of the empire } and it was under
his aufpices, that the prefent body of civil law wag
compiled and finifhed by Tribonian and other lawyers,
about the yea*- 533.
6^ This confifts of, 1. The inftitutes; which contain
the elements or firft principles of the Roman law, in
four books. *. The digefts or pandeds, in 50 books;
containing the opinions and writings of eminent law*
yers, digefted in a fyftematical method. 3. A new
code, or colleftion of imperial conftitutions; the lapfe
of a whole century having rendered the former code of
Theodofius imperfeft. 4. The novels, or new con¬
ftitutions, pofterior in time to the other books, and
amounting to a fupplement to the code 5 containing
new decrees of fucceffive emperors, as new queftions
happened to arife. Thefe form the body of Roman
Jaw, or corpus juris chilis, as publiftied about the time
of Juftinian: which, however, fell foon into negle£t and
oblivion, till alxmt the year 1130, when a copy of the
digefts was found at Amalfi in Italy; which accident,
concurring with the policy of the Roman ecclefiaftics,
fuddenly gave new vogue and authority to the civil
law, introduced it into feveral nations, and occafioned
that mighty inundation of voluminous comments, with
which this fyftem of law, more than any other, is now
loaded.
a. The canon law is a body of Roman ecclefiaftical
fEanon law.law, relative to fuch matters as that’ church either has,
or pretends to have, the proper jurifdi&ion over. This
is compiled from the opinions of the ancient Latin fa¬
thers, the decrees of general councils, the decretal
epiftles and bulls of the holy fee. AH which lay in
the fame diforder and confufion as the Roman civil
laws till, about the year 1151, one Gratian an Ita¬
lian monk, animated by the difeovery of Juftinian’s
pandefts, reduced the ecclefiaflical conftitutions alfo
intoTome method, in three books 5 which he entitled
Concordia difeardantium canonum, but which are gene¬
rally known by the name of Decretum Gratiani. Thefe
reached as low as the time of Pope Alexander III. The
fubfequent papal decrees, to the pontificate of Gre*
ory IX. were publifhed in much the fame method un*
er the aufpices of that pope, about the year 1230,
in five books ; entitled, Deeretalia Gregarit noni. A
fixth book was added by Boniface VIII. about the
year 1298, which is called Sextus Decretalium- The
Clementine conftitutions, or decrees of Clement V,
were in like manner authenticated ip 1317 by bis fuc*
cefibr John XXII.; who alfo publifhed 20 conftitutions
of his own, called Extravagantes Joatims.: all which
in fome meafure anfwer to the novels of the civil law.
To thefe have been fince added fome decrees of later
popes in five books, called ExtravaganUs Communss,
And all thefe together, Gratian’s decree, Gregory’s
decretals, the fixth decretal, the Clementine conftitu¬
tions, and the Extravagants of John and his fucceflbrs,
form the corpus juris canonki, or body of the Roman
canon law,
Befideg thefc pontifical collediions, which during the
times of popery were received as authentic in this
iflandj as well as in other parts of Chriftendoro, there
> W. Part II.
is »lfo a kind of national canon law, compofed of Law of
gating and provincial conftitutions, and adapted only England.
to the exigencies of this church and kingdom, The  ^ •
Jegatine conftitutions were ccclefiafticaj laws, ena&ed
in national fynods, held under the cardinals Qtho and
Othobon, legates from Pope Gregory IX. and Pope
ClementIV, in the reign of Ring Henry HI, about
the years 1220 and 1268. The provincial conftitq.
tions are principally the decrees of provincial fynods,
held under divers archbifliops of Canterbury, from Ste¬
phen Langton in the reign of Henry III, to Henry
Chichele in the reign of Henry V.; and adopted alfo
by the province of York in the reign of Henry VI,
At the dawn of the reformation, in the reign of Ring
Henry VHI. it was enabled in parliament, that a re*,
view fhould he had of the canon law; and till fuch re¬
view fliould be made, all canons, conftitutions, ordi-.
nances and fynodala provincial, being then already
made, and not repugnant to the law of the land or the
king’s prerogative, ftioqld ftill be ufed and executed.
And, as no fuch review has yet been perfected, upon,
this ftatute now depends the authority of the canon law
in England.
As for the canons ena&ed by the clergy under
James I. in the year 1603, and never confirmed in
parliament, it has been folemnly adjudged upon the
principles of law and the conftitution, that where they
are not merely declaratory of the ancient, canon law,
but are introduftory of new regulations, they do not
bind the laity, whatever regard the clergy may think
proper to pay them, -
There are four fpecies of courts, in which the civil
and canon laws are permitted under different re-
ftriftions to be ufed. x. The courts of the archbi-
ftiops and bifliops, and their derivative officers ; ufuglly
called courts Chriflian, (curie Chrtjliamtatis), or the ec-
clefiajlical courts.t z. The military courts, 3. The courts
pf admiralty. 4, The courts of the two univerfities.
In all, their reception in general, and the different de¬
grees of that reception, are grounded entirely upon
cuftom j corroborated in tha latter inftance by aft of
parliament, ratifying thofe charters which confirm
the cuftomary law of the univerfities. The more mi¬
nute confidcration of them will fall under their pro¬
per articles. It will fuffice at prefent to remark a few
particulars relative to them all, which may ferve to in¬
culcate more ftrongly the doftrine laid down concern¬
ing them,
1. And fivft, the courts of common law have the
fuperintendency over thefe courts; to keep them within
their jurifdiftions; to determine wherein they exceed
them; to reftrain and prohibit fuch excefs; and (in cafe
of contumacy) to punifli the officer who executes, and
in fome cafes the judge who enforces, the fentence fo
declared to be illegal.
2. The common law has referved to itfelf the expo-
fnion of all fuch afts of parliament, as concern either
the extent of thefe courts, or the matters depending
before them, And therefore, if thefe courts either re-
fufe to allow thefe efts of parliament, or will expound
them in any other fenfe than what the common law
puts upon them, the king’s courts at Weftminfter will
grant prohibitions to reftrain and control them.
3. An appeal lies from all thefe courts to the king,
in the laft refort f which proves that the jurifdiftion
exercifed
Part II, L
t,4w of ejcerclfed in them U derived from the prown of Eng»
England, 3n(j nol; from forejgn potcntate, or intrinOfi
r**^ authority of their o^n.-^And. from thefe three ftrong
marka and enfigns of fuperiority, it appears beyond a
doubt, that the civil and canon laws, though admitted
in fome cafes by cuftom in fome courts, are only fob*
ordinate and legef fob gravhrt kg? i and that thus ad*
mined, reftrained, altered, new-modelled, and amende
ed, they are by no meana with us a diftinft indepen\
dent fpecies of laws, but are inferior branches of the
euftomary or unwritten laws of England, properly cab
led the kingt wkfta(}ieql, the king's military, the king's
maritime) <?r the king's aeademicah laws,
*7 . Eet us next proceed to the kges forty#, the written
tteniawf’ -w§ kingdom s which are ftatutes, afts, or
* ' edifts, made by the king’s majefty, by and with the
advice of the lords fpiritual and temporal and commons
in parliament eflembled. The oldeft of thefe now ex*
tant, and printed in our hat me books, is the famous
magna charta, as confirmed in parliament 9 Hen, III,
though doubtlefs there were many a&s before that
time, the records of which are now loft, and the deter*
minations of them perhaps at prefent currently received
for the maxims of the old common law,
The manner of making thefe ftatutes being explained
under the articles Bim, and FAamAjME^T, we (hallhere
only take notice of the different kinds of ftatutes j and
of fome general rules with regard to their couftruc*
tlon (p),
Fim, as to their feveral kinds, Statutes are either
general or public or private. A general or
public aft is an univerfai mf? *w ^gards the whole
community 1 and of this the courts of law
to take notice judicially and ex officio, without the ita*
tut? being particularly pleaded, or formerly fet forth,
by the party who claims an advantage under it, hoc*
cial or private afts arc rather exceptions than rules,
being tliofe which only operate upon particular perfons
pod private concerns ( fuch as the Romans entitled
natiis decreta, in contradiftinftion to ihv fonatns eQn'
foita, which regarded the whole community 5 and of
thefe the judge* are not bound to take notice, unleis
they be formally fhewn and pleaded. Thus, to (hew
the diftinaion, the ftatute \% m: 0. w, to prevent
fnhitual perfons from making kafes for longer tei m
than ? i year? or three lives, *9 a public aft} »t being
4*
Jftnes of
figfWK?,
\ W. 6,9
a rule preferibed to the whole body of fpiritual perfons bsw of
in the nation 1 but an aft t« enable the biihop of Gheftcr ^ng'imd*
to make a leafe to A. B. for (5q years, ia an exception
to this rule; it concerns only the parties and the hi*
{hop’s fucceffors, and is therefore a private aft,
Statutes alfo are either declaratory of the common
law, or remedial of fome defefts therein- Declaratory,
where ^ the old cuftom of the kingdom is almoft fallen
into difufe, or become difputabie 5 in which cafe th*
parliament has thought proper, in perpetuum rtf tefoh
monium, and for avoiding aft doubts and difficulties,
to declare what the common law is and ever hath been.
Thus the ftatyteof treafons, Edw, HI. cap, 8. doth
not make any new fpecies of treafons ? but only, for
the benefit of the fubjeft, declares and enumerates
thofe feveral kinds of offence which before were trea*
fon at the common law, Remedial ftatutej are thofe
which erg made to fuppiy fuch defefts, and abridge
fuch fuperfluitiea, in the common law, as arife either
from the general imperfeftion of all human laws, from
change of time and circumftances, from the miftake*
and unadvifed determinations of unlearned judges, or
from any other caufe < whatfeever, And this being
done, cither by enlarging the common Jaw where it
was too narrow and circumferibed, or by reftraining it
where it was too la* and luxuriant, hath occafioned
another fubordinate divifion of remedial afts of parlia*
ment into, enlarging and rforaining ftatutes, To in*
fiance again in tire cafe of treafon. Clipping the cur»
rent coin of the kingdom was an offence not fnfficiently
guarded agaiuft by the common law; therefore it was
tbought expedient by ftatute . ^AAu>fR»wt \q
that^this was an enlarging ftatute, At common law,
plfp, fpiritnal corporations might leafe out their edates
for any term of years, till prevented by the ftatute j 3
Elix, before mentioned i this was therefore a reffahu
ing ftatute, „ , -, ,
Secondly, the rules to be obfervsd with regard to 40
the eonfiruftion of ftatutes are principally thefe which
follow, . . „, , , , ftatutei,
r, There are three points to be confidereo in the
conftruftion of all remedial ftatutes; the old law, the
mifehief, and the remedy s that is, how the common
jaw ftood at the making of the aft « whst the mifehief
was, for which the common law did not provide j and
4 I 1 what
' - f el The method of citing thefe afts of parliament is various. Many of the ancient ftatutes are called after
the Mme of rt, *4“herf ths pwlismem wm htM tint mj* tbtm, ,#l the ft.t»Ki of Mtrtttt and Marie.
W, of will Jnfter. GtaetScr, ond Wiochtlter, Other, are denominated entirety from them fttbleft , a,
theSftatutes of Wes and Ireland, the artmll ckrU and the prerogativa regts. Some ere diftingmfeed by their
the ttatutes ot Wales ana r.eia u, v«v uf/d by ^ Jewa, in denominating the books of the
rjentpteuch» by the Qbriftien church, in diftinguHhing their hymns and diyinc offices 5 by the Romani lb, in
SefcSg their papal buUi t ^nd in ftmrt by the whole body of ancient civilians and canomfts, among whom
iu^SnfcfmLeener^ prevailed; not only with regard to chapters, but inferrior feftions alfo} m
imitation of aft which w/ftiU call iome of the old ftltute* by their initial words, as the ftatutc of ^wptyo*
and that of ^ But moft ufual method of citing them, efpecially fincc the time of
is byn^C^of taking’s reign in which the ftatutn was
wf parliamem heldin the firft year of king WiUinm and queen Mary.
620 Ij A W. Part If.-
Law of what rernedy the parliament hath provided to cure years; here A (hall hold it for hi's term of three years, Law of
* England. t^;g mjfchjep jt ;s the buline.fsof the judges fo to and afterwards it (hall go to the king. For this inter- England.
Vj"" conftrue the aft, as to fupprefs the mifchief and ad- pretation furnifhes matter for every claufe of the fta-
vance the remedy. Let us inftanee again in the fame tute to work and operate upon. But,
reftraining ftatute of 13 Eliz. c. 10. By the common 6. A faring, totally repugnant to the body of the
law, ecclefiailical corporations might let as long leafes aft, is void. If therefore an aft of parliament veils
as they thought proper: the mifchief was, that they land in the king and his heirs, faving the right of all'
kt long and unreafonable leafes, to the impoverilhment perfons whatfoever ; or veils the land of A in the king,
of theit fucceffors: the remedy applied by the llatute faving the right of A : in either of thefe cafes the fa-
was by making void all leafes by ecclefiallical bodies ving is totally repugnant to the body of the llatute,
for longer terms than three lives or z 1 years. Now in the and (if good) would render the llatute of no effcft or
conftruftion of this llatute it is held, that leafes, tho’ operation; and therefore the faving is void, and the
for a longer term, if made by a bifhop, are not void land veils abfolutely in the king.
during the bifhop’s continuance in his fee ; or, if made 7. Where the common law and a ftatute differ, the
by a dean and chapter, they are* not void during the common law gives place to the llatute ; and an old
continuance of the dean ; for the aft was made for ffatute gives place to a new one. And this upon the
the benelit and prOteftion of the fuccefibr. The mil- general principle laid down in the laft feftion, that
chief is therefore fufficiently fupprelTed by vacating leges pojieriores priores contraries abrogant. But this
them after the determination of the intereft of the is to be underilood only when the latter fiatute is
granters ; but the leafes, during their continuance,
being not within the mifchief, are not within the re-
irtedy.
2. A flatute, which treats of things or perfons of
an inferior rank, cannot by any general words be
couched in negative terms, or by its matter necelfavily
implies a negative. As if a former aft fays, that a juror
upon fuch a trial lhall have twenty pounds a'-year, and
a new ftatute comes andfays he lhall have twenty merks;
here the latter llatute, though it does not exprefs, yet
tended to thofe of a fuperior. So a ftatute, treating neceffarily implies, a negative, and virtually repeals the
of “ deans, prebendaries, parfons, vicars, and others former. For if twenty mevks be made qualification
having fpiritual promotion," is held not to extend to fufficient, the former ftatute which requires twenty
bifhop#, though they have fpiritual promotion ; deans pounds is at an end. But if both the afts be merely af-
being the higheft perfons named, and bilhops being of firmative, and the fubllatice fuch that both may Hand
a Hill higherorder. together, here the latter doe® not repeal the former, but
, Penal ftatutes mull be conllrued ftriftly. Thus they ftiall both have a concurrent efficacy-. If by a for-
I Edw. VI. c. t2. having enafted that thofe mer law an oftenr-f -•--i.eiabk at the quarter-ftffions,
r r , .1 V U 1 - ,• J —c wter law makes the fame offence indiftable at the.
benefit of clergy, the judges concaved that th.s did affizes ; here the jurifdiftion of the feffions is not taken
not extend to him who ftiould Ileal but one horfe, and away, but both have a concurrent jurifdiftion, and the
ivKSSI>r0ti.0redAa.°eV! .aa.fer ln the offcnder be profecuted at either : unlefs the new
ftatute fubjoins exprefs negative words ; as, that the
offence fhall be indiftable at the affizes, and not elfe~
, , , . , r . , w 8. If a flatute, that repeals another, is itfelf re¬
looked upon as much too loofe to create a capital of- pealed afterwards, the firlt llatute is hereby revived,
fence, the aft was held to extend to nothing but mere without any formal words for that purpofe. So when
ffieep. And therefore, in the next ftffions, it was the ftatutes of 26 and 35 Hen. VIII. declaring the
following year. And, to come nearer to our own
times, by the ftatute 14 Geo. II. c, 6 Healing fheep er
other cattle, was made felony without benefit of clergy.
But thefe general words, “ or other cattle,’' being
found neceffary to make another ftatute, 15 Geo. II.
c. 34. extending the former to bulls, cows, oxen, fleers,
bullocks, heifers, calves, and lambs, by name.
4 Statutes againft frauds are to be liberally and be-
king to be the fupremt head of the church,
ptaled by a llafute 1 and 2 Philip and Mary, and this
latter ftatute was afterwards repealed by an aft of
1 Eiiz. there needed not any exprefs words of revival
neficially expounded. This may feem a contradiftion in queen Elizabeth’s ftaiute, but thefe afts of kinij
to the laft rule ; moll ftatutes againil frauds being in Henry were impliedly and virtually revived,
their confequences penal. But this difference is here 9. Afts of parliament derogatory from the power of
to be taken : where the ftatute afts upon the offender, fubfequent parliaments bind not. So the ilatute 11
and inflifts a penalty, as the pillory or a fine, it is then Hen. VI1. c. 1. which direfts, that no perfon for af-
to be taken ftnftly ; but when the ftatute afts upon filling a king de fatto lhall be attainted of treafon
the offence, by fetting afide the fraudulent tranfaftion, by aft of parliament or otherwife, is held to be good
here it is to be conftrued liberally. Upon this footing only as to common profecutions for high treafon •
the ftatute of 13 Eliz. c. 5. which voids all gifts of but will not rellrain or clog any parliamentary at- '
goods, Set. made to defraud creditors and others, was tainder. Bccaufe the legiflature, being in truth the
held td extend by the general words to a gift made to fovereign power, is always of equal, always of abfo-
defraud the queen of a forfeiture. Hte authority: it acknowledges no fuperior upon earth
5. One part of a ftatute mult be fo conftrued by which the prior kgillature mull have been if its ordi-
tmother, that the whole may (if poffible) Hand : ut res nances could bind the prefent parliament. And upon .
magis valeat quam pereat. As if land be veiled in the the fame principle Cicero, in his letters to Atticus
king and his heirs by aft of parliament, faving the treats with a proper contempt thefe reftraining daufes’
right of A j and A has at that time a leafe ofit for three which endeavour to tie up the hands of fucceeding le-
4 gillattires.
’art IT. t
Law of glflatures. “ When you repeal the law itfelf (fays he),
Bnglai'<3. yOU at t^e fg^je t;me j-gp^gl the prohibitory claufe
which guards againft fuch repeal.”
to. Laftly, a£ls of parliament that are impoflible
to be performed are of no validity : an<>. if there an’fe
out of them collaterally any abfurtd confequences, ma-
nifeftly contradictory to common reafon, they are with
regard to thofe collateral eonfequences void. We lay
down the rule with thefe reftriftions ; though we know
it is generally laid down more largely, that a£ts of par¬
liament contrary to reafon are void. But if d'e par'ia-
ment will: pofitively enaft a thing to be done which is
tjnreafonable, we know of no power that can control
it : and the examples ufnally alleged' in fupport of
this fenfe of the rule do none of them prove, that where
the main objeft of a ftatute is nnreafonable. the judges
are at liberty to rejeCf it ; for that were to fet the ju¬
dicial power above that of the legiflatune, which would
be fubverfive of all government. But where fome col¬
lateral matter arifes out of the general words, and hap¬
pens to be unreafbnable ; there the judges are in de¬
cency to conclude that this confeqnence was not fore-
feen by the parliament, and therefore they are at li¬
berty to expound the ftatute by equity, and only quoad
hoc difregard it. Thus if an aft of parliament gives a
man power to try all caufes that arife within his ma¬
nor of Dale ; yet, if a caufe fhould arife in which he
himfelf is party, the aft is. conftrued not to extend to
that, becaufe it. is unreafonable "that any man fhould
determine his owe quarrel. But, if we could conceive
it poflible for the parliament to ennft, thar he fhould
try as well hfs own caufes as tnun. perfons,
there is no court that has'power to ffefeat the intent or
the legiflature, when couched in fuch evident and ex-
prefs words as leave no doubt whether it was the in-
A W. 621
fuflfer hfi. The laws cannot he ftrained by partiality Lsw of
to inflift a penalty beyond what the letter will warrant; e; ‘dand,
hut, in cafes where the letter induces any apparent ,epit 'mifedj
hard (hip. the crown has the power to pardon. ' "J
The- objefts of the laws of England are, t. The
rights of perfons, 2. The rights of things. 3. Ihu
vatc wrongs. 4. Public wrongs.
Sect.
CHAP. I.
Of the Ri guts. c/Persons.
Of the abfolut.e rights of individuals.
[xivl
(1.) rT^HE objefts of the Laws ol England arc,
X I. Rights, 2. IVrongs.
(2 ) Rights are the rights of perfonst or the-rights
of things.
(3 ) !'he rights of perfons are fuch as concern, and
are annexed to, the perfons of men : and, W'ben the
perfon to whom they are due is regarded, they are
called ((imply) rights ; but, when we confider the per¬
fon from whom, they are due, they are then denomina¬
ted duties.
(4.) Perfons are either natural, that is, fuch as
they are formed, by natuie ; or artificial, that is,
created by human policy, as bodies politic or corpora¬
tions.
(5.) The rights of natural | erfons are,, t. Abfolute',
or fuch as belong to individuals. 2. Relative, Or fuch
as regard members of fociety.
(6 ) The abfolute rigffts of individuals, regarded by
oVtffe'alnVPi'u aws (which pay no attention to duties,
or civil liberty,.
(7.) Political or civil liberty is the natural liberty of
mankind, fo far reiirained by human laws as is necef-
T civil liberties of Englifh-
tent of the legiflature or not. —    -
Thefe are the feveral grounds of the laws of England : favy for the good of fociety.
over and abovewhich, equity is alfo frequently called /g \ Xhe abfolute rights
— ’ ’ - ww men, as frequently declared in parliament, are princi¬
pally three ; the right of perfmal fecurity, of perfonaF
reduced to dated rules, hath been (hewn above. It
may be fufficient, therefore, to add in this place, that,
befides the liberality of fentiment with which our com¬
mon-law judges interpret a£fs of parliament, and fuch
rules of the unwritten law as are not of a pofitive kind,
there are alfo courts of 'equ'ty eflabliflied for the bene-
pally 1
liberty, and of private property.
(0.) The right of perfonalfcurity conflits in the le¬
gal enjoyment of life, limb, body, health, and repu-
(10 ) The right perfonal liberty con (ids in the
free power of loco motion, without illegal redraint or"
fit of the fubjeft, to deleft latent frauds and conceal- ban:ftmenfc.
ments, which the procefs of the courts of law is not (j j ) The right of private property confids in every
adapted to reach; to enforce the execution of fuch man,s fr£e ufe and difpuofal of his own lawful acquifi-
matters of tmd and confidence, as are binding in con- tjons> without injury or illegal diminution,
fciciice, though not cognizable in a court of law; to ^I2 ^ gefides thefe three primary rights, there are
deliver from fuch dangers as are owing to misfortune . otbers which zxt fecondary and fubordinate ; viz. f to -
or overfight; and to give a more fpecifie relief, and
more adapted to the circumdances of the cafe,, than
can always be obtained by the generality of the rules
of the pofitive or common law. This is the bufmefs
of the courts of equity, which however are only con-
verfant in matters of property. For the freedom of
our conditution will not permit, that in criminal cafes
a power fhould be lodged in any judge to Condrue the
law otherwife than according to the letter. Tins cau¬
tion, while it admirably protefts the public liberty, can
never bear hard Upon individuals. A man cannot dif¬
fer more punifliment than the law affigns, but he may
prtferve the former from unlawful attacks) 1. The
conditution and power of parliaments ; 2. The limita¬
tion of the king’s prerogative ;—And (to vindicate
them when aftually violated) 3. The regular admim-
dration of public judice ; 4- The right of petitioning
for redrefs of grievances; 5. The right of having and
ufing arms for felf defence.
Sect. II. Of the parliament.
(1.) 'Yufi relations of perfons are, Public. 2. Pri¬
vate The public relations are thofe. of magfirales and
people.
pMli
$i% LA W. Part XL
X^aw of people. Magtftratei are fupemor or fulordtnate. And
England, Qf fuprerm magiftrates, in England, the parliament ia
fpitn"11 tc .’ the fuprerae hgijlative, the ling the fupreme executive.
- y ' (2.) Parliamenti, in fame (hape, are of as high an*
tiquity as the Saxon government in this ifland ; and
have fubfifted, in their prefent form, at leaft five hnn’
dred years.
(3.) The parliament is affembled by the king’s
writs, and its fitting muft not b? intermitted above
three years.
(4.) Its eonftituent parts are the king’s majefty, the
lords fpiritual and temporal, and the commons repre¬
fen ted by their members j each of which parts has a
negative, or neceflary, voice in making laws,
(5.) With regard to the law of parliament ;
jtg power is abfolutes each houfe is the judge of its
own privileges; and all the members of either houfe are
IntitUd to the privilege of fpeech, of perfon, of their
domeftics, and of their lands and goods.
(6.) The peculiar privileges of the lords (befides
their judicial capacity), are to hunt in the king's fo*
refis; to be attended by the fages of the law 1 to make
proxies ; to enter protefts; and to regulate the ele&ipR
of the 16 peers of If mth-Britain,
(7.) The peculiar privileges of the commons are to
frame taxes for the fubjedf 4 and to determine the me¬
rits of their own elections, with regard to the qualifi¬
cations of the electors and ele&ed, and the proceed’
ings at ele&ions themfelves.
(8.) Bills are ufually twice read in each houfe, com¬
mitted, engrofiVd, and then read a third time; and
when they have obtained the concurrence of both
.houfe?,_ and received the. roy^l affent. tw »- 
(<?•) The houfes may adjourn themfelve?} but the
king only can prorogue the parliament,
(J.O-) Parliaments are difiblyed, t, At the king’s
will, ?, By the demife of the crown, that is, within
fix months after, 3. By length of time, or having
fat for the fpace of feven years,
1*^1,] Sect, III, Of the king and his title,
(1,) The fupremc emudve power of this kingdom
Is lodged in a fingle perfon j the king or queen,
(?.) This royal perfon may be confidered with re-
gard to, i, His title. His royal family, 3.'HJ«
council?, 4, His duties, Hi? prerogative, §, His
revenue,
(3,) With regard to his tide] the crown of England,
by the pofitive conilitution of the kingdom, hath ever
been defcendible, and fa continues,
(4,) The crown is defcendible in a eonrfe peculiar
to itfelf,
(f,) Th{?couvfeof defeent is fubje^ to limitation
by parliament,
($,) Notwithfianding fuch limitations, the crown
retains It? defccndible quality, and becomes hereditary
in the prince to whom'it is limited,
(7,) King Egbert, King Canute, and King Wil¬
liam I, have been fuceeffively confiituted the common
Bock*, or anceftors, of this defeent.
(8,) At the revolution the convention of eilates, or
■reprefentative body of the nation, declared, that the
sufeonduft of King James II, amounted to an abdica¬
tion of the government, and that the throne was there- 05
by vacant, Enghiid,
(9.) In confequenee of this vacancy, and from a re-
garq to the ancient line, the convention appointed the ” ^ *
next Froteftant heirs of the blood, royal of King
Charles I, to fill the vacant throne, in the old order
of faccefifan s with a temporary exception, or prefe¬
rence, to the perfon of King William HI.
(ip.) On the impending failure of the Prpteftant hne
of King Charles I, (whereby the throne might again
have become vacant) the king and parliament extended
the fettlement of the crown to the Proteftant line of
King Jame? I, vix. to the Princefs Sophia of Hanover,
and the heirs of her body, being Proteftants; And
(he !» now the common dock, from whom the heir? of
the crown muft defeend,
Sect- IV. Of the king's royal family, C*itil.J
(1.) The king’s royal family eonfifts, firft, of the
queen; who is regnant, confort, or dowager,
(1.) The queen cen/ort is a public perfon, and hath
many perfonal prerogatives and difiinm; revenues,
(3.) The Prince and Pringef? of Wales, and the
Princefs-royal, are peculiarly regarded by the law,
(4.) The other princes of the blood-royal are only
fatitled to precedence,
Sect, V, Qf the ceuncils beknging to the king,
(l.) The king1] councils are, I, The parliament,
t. The great council 3, The judges, for
—. ^raW, 4, i he prfvy council-
(?:) In privy-couffelhrs may be confidered, r, Their
creation, ?, Their qualifications, 3, Their duties,
4. Their power?, §, Their privileges, g, Their dif-
folutron,
Sect, VI, Of the king's duties, (xlix.J ]
(1,) The khg's dudes arc to govern his people ae*
cording to law, to execute judment in mercy, and to
maintain the eftablifhed religion, Thefe are bis part
of the original contraft between bimfejf and the
people} founded in thg nature of fogiety, and ex-
preffed in his oath at the coronation,
Sect, VII, Of the king's prerogative,
(i>) Prercqativi i? that fpecial power and prc«
emmeoee which the king hath above other perfans,
and out of the ordinary courfe of law, in right of hia
dignity*
-(?,) 8ucn prmgat'mt are either direft, or incidental,
The incidental, arifing out of other matters, are con»
fidered as they arife 1 We now treat only of the dlre8,
(3.) The direff prerogatives regard, t, The king's
d’gnity, or royal chamber} ?, His authority, or regal
power; j. His revenue, or royal income.
(4') The king's dignity confitt? in the legal attributes
of, x. Perfonaf fovereignty, g, Abfolufa perfeftion,
3, Political perpetuity,
(5,) In. the king's authority, or regal power, eonfifts
the executive part of government,
(6,) In foreign concern?! the king, as the reprefenu.
tive
Part II. 1 A W.
Law of tiv@ ef the nation, has the right o? prerogative, J« Of wait tut, being an annual exeife nn taalti mum, eyder,
k ^en^'n8 0n^ receiving ambaffadori, i, Of making trea^ and perry.
epi omi.gq- t;egi ^ Of proclaiming war or peace, 4, Of iiTuing (8.) The perpetual taxes are, 1, The euftoma, or
reprifal*. 5- Of granting fafe eQndu<fts, tonnage and poundage of all merchandife exported or
(7.) In «o»»2/?/V affairs j the ling is, firft, a cpnfti- imported, z. The excife-duty, or inland impofition
tuent part of the fnpreme legiflative power; hatha on a great variety of commodities. 3, The falt-duty,
negative upon all new laws ; and is bound by no fta- or excife on fait. 4. The poft, office, or duty for the
tute, unlefs fpecially named therein. carriage of letters. 5, The ftamp-duty on paper,
(8.) He is alfo conffdered a? the general of the king- parchment, &c, 6. The duty on houfes and windows,
dom, and may raife fleets and armies, build forts, ap- 7. The duty on licences for hackney coaches and chairs,
point havens, eredk beacons, prohibit the exportation 8. The duty on offices and penfions.
of arms and ammunition, and confine his fubjedfs with- (9.) Part of this revenue is applied to pay the inte-
in the realm, or reeal them from foreign parts, reft of the national debt, till the principal ig difchar-
(9.) The ling is alfo the fountain of juftice, and ged by parliament,
general confervator of the peace; and therefore may (to,) The produce of thefe feveral taxes were ori*
ere£l courts (wherein he hath a legal ubiquity), pro- ginally feparate and fpecific funds, to anfwer fpeeific
fecute offenders, pardon crimes, and iffue prodama- loam upon their refpe&ive credits; but are now con-
tions, ' folidated by parliament into three principal funds, the
(lO.) He Is llkewife the fountain of honour, of of- aggregate, general, and South,fea funds, to aufwer alt
flee, and of privilege. the debts of the nation j the public faith being alfo
(11.) He is alfo the arbiter of domejlic commerce; fuperadded, to fupply deficiencies, and ftrengthen the
(not of foreign, which is regulated by the law of mer* fecurity of the whole,
chants^; and is therefore intitled to the eredion of (11.) The furpluftes of thefe funds, after paying the
public marts, the regulation of weights and meafures, intereft of the national debt, are carried together, and
and the coinage or legitimation of money. denominated the Jinking fundi which, unlefs otherwife
(13.) The king is, laftly, the fupreme head of the appropriated by parliament, is annually to be applied
church ; and, as fuch, convenes, regulates, and dif* towards paying off feme part of the principal,
folves fynods, nominates biihops, and receives appeals (I *•) But, previous to this, the aggregate fund i«
in all ecclefiaftical caufes, now charged with an annual fum for the civil Ifli
which is the immediate proper revenue of the crown,
U, SECT, VIII, Of the king’s revenue. fettled by parliament on the king at his acceffion, for-
defraying the charges of civil government.
(l.) The king's revenue is either ordinary or extra¬
ordinary, And the ordinary is, 1. Ecckfiajlml, t. Tem* SecT.IX. Of fubardinate magijlrates.
poral,
(2.) The king's eccltfiajlkal revenue confifts in, (1) Subordinate magiftrates, of the moft gene-
j. The cuftody of the temporalties of vacant bifttop. ral ufe and authority, are, 1. Sheriffs,, z. Coroners,
rics. 2. Corodies and penfions. 3. Extra-parochial 3. Jufices of the Peace. 4. Conjlalks. 5, Surveyors
tithes. 4. The firft fruits and tenths of benefices, of the highways, 6. Qverfeers of the poor,
(3.) The king's ordinary revenue confifts (a.) The is the keeper of each county, an-
in, 1, The demefne lands of the crown. %. The here- nually nominated in due form by the king; and is
ditaiy excife; being part of the confideration for the (within his county) a judge, a confervator of the
purchafe of his feodal profits, and the prerogatives of peace, a minifterial officer, and the king’s bailiff,
purveyance and pre-emption. 3. An annual fum iffuing (3.) Comm are permanent officers of the crown in
from the duty on wine-licences j being the refidue of each county, ele&ed by the freeholders; whofe office
the fame confideration, 4. His forefts, 5. His courts it is to make inquiry concerning the death of the king's
of juftice, 6, Royal fifh, 7, Wrecks, and things jet- fubjefts, and certain revenues of the crown ; and alfo,
fam, flotfam, and Jigan. 8. Royal mines. 9. Trea- in particular cafes, to fupply the office of ftieriff.
fure trove, jo. Waifs. u.Eftrays. 12, Forfeitures (4.) fujlices of the peace are magiftrates in each
for offences, and deodands, 13. Efcheats of lands, county, ftatutably qualified, and commiffioned by the
14. Cuftody of ideots and lunatics, king’s majefty ; with authority to ccmferve the peace;
(4.) The king's extraordinary revenue, confifts in to hear and determine felonies, and other mifdemea.
aids, fubfidies, and fupplies, granted him by the com- nors; and to do many other afts committed to their
tpons in parliament, charge by particular ftatutes,
(y,) Heretofore thefe were ufually raifed by grants (5-) Conjlables are officer* of hundreds and town-
of the (nominal) *<?«!/!? or ffteenth part of the move- fhips, appointed at the leet, and empowered to preferve
able* in every townfhip; or by feutages, hydages, and the peace, to keep watch and ward, and to apprehendf
talliages i which were fucceeded by fulfidies affeffed offenders.
upon individuals, with reipeft to their lands and (<5.) Surveyors of the highways are officers appoint-
goods. ed annually in every parifti 5 to remove annoyances in,
(6.) A new fyftem of taxation took place about the and to direft the reparation of the public roads,
time of the revolution; our modern taxes are therefore, (7.) Qverfeen of the poor are officers appointed an-
j. Annual, %, Perpetual nually in every pari(h ; to relieve fuch impotent, and
(,?■) The annual taxes are, j. The land-tax, or the employ fueh fturdy poor, as are fettled in each parifti,
snekat fublidy raifed upon a new afleffment, 2, The ^by birth,-—by parentage,—by marriage,-—or by
40
'624 Tj a
Law of days refidence; accompanied with, x. Notice.
England, 2> Renting a tenement of ten pounds annual value,
■qntormfed. ^ payjng their affeffed taxations, 4. Serving an an¬
nual office. 5. Hiring and fervice for a year. 6. Ap-
prenticeftiip for feven years. 7. Having a fufficient
eftate in the parifh.
Uii. Sect. X. Of the people, ■whether aliens, denizens,
or natives.
(1.) The people axe t\\htr aliens, that is, born out
of the dominions, or allegiance, of the crown of Great
Britain ; or natives, that is, born within it.
(2.) Allegiance is the duty of all fubjefts; being
the reciprocal tie of the people to the prince, in return
for the proteftion he affords them; and, in natives, this
duty of allegiance is natural aud perpetual; in aliens,
is local and temporary only.
(3.) The rights of natives are alfo natural and per¬
petual: thofe of aliens, local and tempsrary only; un-
lefs they be made denizens by the king, or naturalifed
by parliament.
Sect. XI. Of the clergy.
(t.) The people, whether aliens, denizens, or na¬
tives, are alfo either clergy, that is all perfons in holy
orders, or in ecclefiallical offices; or laity, which com-
■prehends the reft of the nation.
(2 ) The clerical part of the nation, thus defined,
are, 1. Archbifhops and bifhops; who are elefted by
their feveral chapters, at the nominaiion of the crown,
and afterwards confirmed and confecrated by each other.
2. Deans and chapters. 3. Arch-deacons. 4. Rural
deans. 5. Parfons (under which are included appro-
priators) and vicars; to whom there are generally re-
quifite, holy orders, prefentation, inftitution, and in-
duftion. 6. Curates. To which may be added,
7. Church-wardens. 8. Parilh-clerks and fextons.
4v. Sect. XII. Of the civil Jlate.
(1.) The laity are divifible into three ftates; civil,
■military, and maritime.
(2.) The civil ftate (which includes all the nation,
except the clergy, the army, and the navy, and many
individuals among them alfo), may be divided into the
nobility and the commonalty,
(3.) The nobility are dukes, marquifes, earls, vif*
counts, and barons. Thefe had anciently duties annex¬
ed to their rdpeftive honours: they are created either
by writ, that is, by fummons to parliament; or by the
king’s letters patent, that is, by royal grant: and they
enjoy many privileges exclufive of their fenatorial ca¬
pacity.
(4.) The commonalty confift of knights of the gar¬
ter, knights bannerets, baronets, knights of the bath,
knights bachelors, efquires, gentlemen, yeomen, tradef-
men, artificers, and labourers.
ivi. Sect. XIII. Of the military and maritime Jlates.
(1) The military §.a\.e, by the Handing conftitu-
tional law, confifts of the militia of each county, rai¬
led from among the people by lot, officered by the
N° 176.
W. Parttp
principal landholders, and commanded by the lord lieu- Taw of
tenant. e^riSl
(2.) The more difciplined occafional troops of the tTlton,‘
kir.gdpm are kept on foot only from year to year by v "1
parliament; and, during that period, are governed by
martial law, or arbitrary articles of war, formed at the
pleafure of the crown.
(3.) The maritime ftate confifts of the officers and
mariners of the Britiffi navy ; who are governed by ex-
prefs and permanent laws, or the articles of the navy,
eftablifhed by aft of parliament.
Sect. XIV. Of mafier and fervanfi. Ivli, j|
(l.) The private, economical, relations of perfons
are thofe of, 1. Mafer and fervant. 2. Hujband and
wife. 3. Parent and child. 4. Guardian and iuard.t
(2.) The tirft relation may fubfift between a wafer
and four {y>zc\e.% of fervants ; (for flavery is unknown
to our laws): vi%. I. Menial fervants ; who are hired,
2. Apprentices; who are by indentures. 3. La¬
bourers ; who are cafually employed. 4. Stewards, bai¬
liffs, and faftors ; who are rather in a miniferial ftate.
(3.) From this relation refult divers powers to the
mailer, and emoluments to the fervant.
(4.) The mafter hath a property in the fervice of
his fervant; and mull be anfwerable for fuch afts as
the fervant does by his exprefs, or implied, command.
Sect. XV. Of hufband and •wife. IvKii ij
(i.) The fecond private relation is that of mar¬
riage ; which includes the reciprocal rights and duties ( I
of hufband and wife.
(2 ) Marriage is duly contrafted between perfons, > |
1. Confenting: 2. Free from canonical impediments, ; |
which make it voidable : 3. Free alfo from the civil im¬
pediments,—of prior marriage,—of want of age,—of j I
non-confent of parents or guardians, where requifite,
—and of want of reafon ; either of which make it to- :
tally void. And it muft be celebrated by a clergyman
in due form and place
(3). Marriage is diffolved, I. By death. 2. By di- j j
vorce in the fpiritual court; not a menfa et thoro only,
but a vinculo matrimonii, for canonical caufe exifting
previous to the contraft. 3. By aft of parliament, j
as for adultery.
(4.) By marriage the hulband and wife become one j
perfon in law; which unity is the principal foundation
of their refpeftive rights, duties, and difabilities.
Sect. XVI. Of parent and child. lix, 1 j
(1.) The third, and moft univerfal private relation,
is that of parent and child.
(2.) Children are, 1. Legitimate; being thofe who
are born in lawful wedlock, or within a competent time
after. 2. Baflards, being thofe who are not fo.
,(3.) The duties of parents to legitimate children are,
1. Maintenance. 2. Prpteftion. 3. Education.
(4.) The power of parents confifts principally in
correftion, andiconfent to marriage. Both may after
death be delegated by will to a guardian ; and the for
mer alfo, living the parent, to a tutor or mailer.
(5.). The duties of legitimate children to parents are j
obedience, proteftion, and maintenance.
Part IT. L &
Law of (6.) The duty of parents to bajlards is only that of
England, maintenance.
epitoroifed. The rights of a bajlard are fuch only as he can
^ ' acquire j for he is incapatble of inheriting any thing.
\v.
chap. n.
Of the Rights <?/ T h i n g s.
625
Law cf
England,
epitomifed.
Lxii.
jx Sect. XVII. Of guardian and ward.
Sect. I. Of Property in general. hlii.
(1.) The fourth private relation is that of guardian
and ward, which is plainly derived from the lalt; thefe
being, during the continuance of their relation, reci¬
procally fubjeft to the fame rights and duties.
(2.) Guardians are of divers forts: 1. Guardians by
nature, or the parents. 2. Guardians for nurture, af-
figned by the ecclefiaftical courts. 3. Guardians in fo-
cage, affigned by the common law. 4. Guardians by
ftatute, affigned by the father’s will. All fubjeft to
the fuperintendance of the court of chancery.
(3.) Full age in male or female for all purpofes is
the age of 21 years (different ages being allowed for
different purpofes) ; till which age the perfon is an in¬
fant.
(4.) An infant, in refpeft of his tender years, hath
various privileges, and various difabilities, in law;
chiefly with regard to fuits, crimes, eftates, and con¬
trails.
jxi. Sect. XVIII. Of corporations.
(1.) Bodies politic, or corporations, which are ar~
tifeial perfons, are eftabliffied for preferving in perpe¬
tual fucceffion certain rights; which, being conferred
on natural perfons only, would fail in procefs of time.
(2.) Corporations are, 1. Aggregate, confiding of
many members. 2. Sole, confiding of one perfon only.
(3.) Corporations are alfo either fpiritual, erefted to
perpetuate the rights of the church ; or lay. And the
lay are, 1. Civil; ereited for many temporal purpofes.
2. Eleemofynary; erefted to perpetuate the charity of
the founder.
(4.) Corporations are ufually ereited and named,
by virtue of the king’s royal charter; but may be crea¬
ted by ait of parliament.
(;.) The powers incident to all corporations are,
1. To maintain perpetual fucceffion. 2. To ait in their
corporate capacity like an individual. 3. To hold lands,
fubjeit to the datutes of mortmain. 4. To have a com¬
mon feal. 5. To make by-laws. Which lad power,
in fpiritual or eleemofynary corporations, may be ex¬
ecuted by the king or the founder.
(6.) The duty of corporations is to anfwer the ends
of their inditution.
(7.) To enforce this duty, all corporations may be
vfited: fpiritual corporations by the ordinary; lay cor¬
porations by the founder, or his reprtfentatives; vi%.
the civil by the king (who is the fundator incipitns of
all) reprefented in his court of king’s bench ; the elee¬
mofynary by the endower (who is the fundator perfi-
ciens of fuch), or by his heirs or affigns.
(8.) Corporations maybe diffolved, 1. By aft of
parliament. 2. By the natural death of all their mem¬
bers. 3. By furrender of their franchifes. 4. By for¬
feiture of their charter.
(l.) A LL dominion over external objefts has its ori-
-L*- ginal from the gift of the Creator to man in
general.
(2.) The fubfdnce of things was, at fird, common
to all mankind ; yet a temporary property, in the ufe
of them, might even then be acquired, and continued,
by occupancy.
(3.) In procefs of time a permanent property was
edabliffied in the fubfdnce, as well as the ufe, of things;
which was alfo originally acquired by occupancy only.
(4.) Led this property fliould determine by the
owner’s dereliftion or death, whereby the thing would
again become common, focieties have edabliffied con¬
veyances, wills, and heirfhips, in order to continue the
property of the fird occupant: and, where by accident
fuch property becomes difeontinued or unknown, the
thing ufually refults to the fovereign of the date, by
virtue of the municipal law.
(5.) But of fome things, which are incapable of per¬
manent fubdantial dominion, there dill fubfids only the
fame tranfient ufufruftuary property, which originally
fubfided in all things.
Sect. II. Of real property, and, firfl, of corpo- kiv.
real hereditaments.
(l.) lx this property, or exclufive dominion, con-
fid the rights of things; which are, 1. Things real.
2. Things perfonal.
(2.) In things real may be confidered, 1. Their fe-
veral kinds. 2. The tenures by which they may be
holden. 3. The efates which may be acquired there¬
in. 4. Their title, or the means of acquiring and lo-
fing them.
(3.) All the feveral kinds of things real are redu¬
cible to one of thefe three, viz. lands, tenements, or he¬
reditaments ; whereof the fecond includes the fird, and
the third includes the fird and fecond.
(4.) Hereditaments, therefore, or whatever may come
to be inherited (being the mod comprehenfive deno¬
mination of things real), are either corporeal or incor¬
poreal.
(5.) Corporeal hereditaments confid wholly of lands,
in their larged legal fenfe; wherein they include not
only the face of the earth, but every other objeft of
fenfe adjoining thereto, and fubfiding either above or
beneath it.
Sect. III. Of incorporeal hereditaments. jxv^
(1.) Incorporeal hereditaments are rights iffuing
out of things corporeal, or concerning, or annexed to,
or exercifable within the fame.
(2.) Incorporeal hereditaments are, 1. Advowfons.
2. ‘Tithes. 3. Commons. 4. Ways. 5. Offices. 6. Dig¬
nities. 7. Francbifes. 8. Corodies orpenfions. 9. An¬
nuities. 10. Rents.
+K (s-)
Voi.IX. Part II.
626 ^ A
i^awof (3.) An advowfon is a right of prefentation to an
Enghml, ecclefiaftical benefice; either appendant, or in grofs.
This may be, 1. Prefentative. 2. Collative. 3. Do¬
native.
(4.) Tithes are the tenth part of the increafe yearly
arifing from the profits and ftock of lands, and the per-
fonal induftry of mankind. Thefe, by the ancient and
pofitive law of the land, are due of common right to
the parfon, or (by endowment) to the vicar; unlefs
fpecially difcharged, 1. By real compofition. 2. By
prefcription, either de modo decimandi, or de non deci-
tnando.
(5.) Common is a profit which a man hath in the
lands of another; being, x. Common of palturej which
is either appendant, appurtenant, becaufe of vicinage,
or in grofs. 2. Common of pifcary. 3. Common of
turbary. 4. Common of eltovers, or botes.
(6.) Ways are a right of paffing over another man’s
ground.
(7.) Offices are the right to exercife a public or
private employment.
(8.) For dignities, which are titles of honour, fee
Chap. I. Sefl. 12.
(9.) Franchijes area royal privilege, or branch of
the king’s prerogative, fubfifting in the hands of a fub-
jed.
(10.) Corodies viz allotments for one’s fuftenance ;
which may be converted into penfions, fee Chap. L
Sed. 8.
(it.) An annuity is a yearly fum of money, char¬
ged upon the perfon, and not upon the lands of the
gran ter.
(12.) Rents area certain profit ifftiing yearly out
of lands and tenements ; and are reducible to, 1. Kent-
fervice. 2. Rent-charge. 3. Rent-feck.
Sect IV. Oi the Feodal Syfiem.
(1.) The dodrine of tenures is derived from the
feodal law ; which was planted in Europe by its nor¬
thern conquerors at the diffolution of the Roman em¬
pire.
(2.) Pure and proper feuds were parcels of land allot¬
ted by a chief to his followers, to be held on the con¬
dition of perfonally rendering due military fervice to
their lord.
(3.) Thefe were granted by inveftiture ; were held
under the bond of fealty ; were inheritable only by de-
fcendants ; and could not be transferred without the
mutual confent of the lord and vaffal.
(4.) Improper feuds were derived from the other;
but differed from them in their original, their fervices
and renders, their defcent, and other circumftances.
(5.) The lands of England were converted into
feuds, of the improper kind, foon after the Norman
conqueft ; which gave rife to the grand maxim of te¬
nure, viz. That all lands in the kingdom are holden,
mediately or immediately, of the king.
1^.. Sect. V. Of the ancient Englifh Tenures.
(1.) The diftinftion of tenures confifted in the na¬
ture of their fervices : as, 1. Chivalry, or knight-fervice;
where the fervicc was free, but uncertain. 2. Free fo-
tage; where the fervice was free, and certain. 3. Pure
villenage; where the fervice was bafe, and uncertain.
W. Part II.
4. Privileged villenage, or villein focagc} where the fer- Law of
vice was bafe, but certain. England,
(2.) The moft univerfal ancient tenure was that in6?1101*116 .
chivalry, or by knight-fervice ; in which the tenant of
every knight’s fee was bound, if called upon, to attend
his lord to the wars. This was granted by livery, and
perfe&ed by homage and fealty ; which ufually drew
after them fuit of court.
(3. ) The other fruits and confequences of the tenure
by knight-fervice were, 1. Aid. 2. Relief. 3. Primer
feifin. 4. Wardlhip. 5. Marriage. 6. Fines upon
alienation. 7. Efcheat.
(4.) Grandferjeanty differed, from chivalry princi¬
pally in its render, or fervice ; and not in its fruits and
confequences.
(5.) Hie perfonal fervice in chivalry was at length
gradually changed into pecuniary aireflrnents, which
were called feutage or efeuage.
(6.) Thefe military tenures (except the fervices of
grand ferjeanty) were, at the reftoration of King
Charles, totally abolilhed, and reduced to free focage
by aft of parliament.
Sect. VI. Of the modern Englifh Tenures. kvim
(1.) Free focage is a tenure by any free, certain,
and determinate fervice.
(2.) This tenure, the relic of Saxon liberty, in¬
cludes petit ferjeanty, tenure in burgage, and gavelkind.
(3.) Free focage lands partake ftrongly of the feo¬
dal nature, as well as thofe in chivalry: being holden;
fubjeft to fome fervice, at the leaf! to fealty and fait
of court ; fubjeft to relief, to wardlhip, and to ef¬
cheat, but not to marriage ; fubjeft alfo formerly to
aids, primer feifin, and fines for alienation.
(4.) Pure villenage was a precarious and flavifh te¬
nure, at the abfoluce will of the lord, upon uncertain
fervices of the bafeft nature.
(5.) From hence, by tacit confent or encroachment,
have arifen the modern copyholds, or tenure by copy of
court-roll; in which lands may be ftiil held at the
(nominal) will of the lord, (but regulated) according
to the cuftom of the manor.
(6.) Thefe are fubjeft, like focage lands, to fer¬
vices relief, and efcheat; and alfo to heriots, wardfhip,
and fines upon defcent and alienation,
(7.) Privileged villenage, or villein focage, is arj ex¬
alted ipecies of copyhold tenure, upon bafe, but cer¬
tain, fervices; fubfifting only in the ancient demefnes
of the crown ; whence the tenure is denominated the
tenure in ancient demefne.
(8.) Thefe copyholds of ancient demefne have di¬
vers immunities annexed to their tenure ; but are ftiil
held by copy of court-roll, according to the cuftom of
the manor, though not at the will of the lord,
(9.) Frankalmoign is a tenure by fpiritual fervices at
large, whereby many ecclefiaftical and eleemofynary
corporations now hold their lands and tenements ; be¬
ing of a nature diftinft from tenure by divine fervice in
certain.
Sect. VII. Of freehold eftates of inheritance. hd»
(1.) Estates in lands, tenements^ and heredita¬
ments, are fuch intereft as the tenant hath therein ; to
afeertain which, may be conlxdered, 1. The quantity
of
Part II. L A W.
Law of of interejl. 2. The time of enjoyment. 31 The number (6.) This eftate partakes both of the Incidents to an
e^tomifcri an<^ connexions of the tenants. eftate tail, and thofe of an eftate for life.
epi omi e . ^ ^ Eftates, with refpedl to their quantity of inte- (7.) Tenancy by the curtefy of England is where a
refly or duration, are either freehold, or left than free- man’s wife is feifed of an eftate of inheritance ; and he
hold. by her has iflue, born alive, which was capable of in-
(3.) A freehold eftate, inlands, is fuch as is crea- heriting her eftate; in which cafe he {hall, upon her
ted by livery of feifin at common law; or, in tene- death, hold the tenements for his own life, as tenant
ments of an incorporeal nature, by what is equivalent by the curtefy.
thereto. (8.) Tenancy in dower is where a woman’s hulband
(4.) Freehold eftates are either eftates of inheri- is feifed of an eftate of inheritance, of which her iflue
-lance, or not of inheritance, viz. for life only : and in- might by any pofiibility have been heir ; and the huf-
heritances are, 1. Alfolutc, or fee fimplc. 2. Limited band dies : the woman is thereupon intitled to dower,
fees. or one third part of the lands and tenements, to hold
(5.) Tenant in feefimple is he that hath lands, te- for her natural life,
nements, or hereditaments, to hold to him and bis heirs (9.) Dower is either by the common law ; by fpe-
for ever. cial cuftom ; ad ojlium ecclefue ; or, ex affenfu patris.
(6.) Limited fees are, I. Qualified, or bafe, fees. (10.) Dower may be forfeited or barred, particu-
2. Fees conditional at the common law. larly by an eftate in jointure.
(7.) Qualified or bafe fees are thofe which, having
a qualification fubjoined thereto, are liable to be de- Sect. IX. Of ejlates left than freehold.
feated when that qualification is at an end.
(8.) Conditional fees, at the common law, were fuch (i-) Estates lefs than freehold are, 1. Eftates for
as were granted to the donee, and the heirs of his bo- years. 2. Eftates at will. 3. Eftates at fufferance.
dy, in exclufion of collateral heirs. (2.) An eftate for jrarr is where a man, feifed of
(9.) Thefe were held to be fees, granted on condi- lands and tenements, letteth them to another for acer-
tion that the donee had iffue of his body ; which con- tain period of time, which transfers the intereft of the
dition being once performed by the birth of iffue, the term ; and the leffee enters thereon, which gives him
donee might immediately aliene the land : but the poffeffion of the term, out not legal feifin of the
ftatute de don'is being mad* to prevent fuch alteration, land.
thereupon from the divifion of the fee (by conftruftion (3.) Incident to this eftate are eftovers; and alfo
of this ftatute) into a particular eftate and a reverfion, emblements, if it determines before the full end of the
the conditional fees began to be called fees tail. term.
(10.) All tenements real, or favouring of the realty, (4 ) An eftate at will is where lands are let by one
are fubjeft to entails. man to another, to hold at the will of both parties;
(11.) Eftates-tail maybe, 1. general, or fpecial; and the leffee enters thereon.
2. male, or female ; 3. given in frank marriage. (5.) Copyholds are eftates held at the will of the lord,
(12.) Incident to eftates tail are, 1. Wafte. 2. (regulated) according to the cuftom of the manor.
Dower. 3. Curtefy. 4. Bar ;—by fine, recovery, or (6.) An eftate zt fujerance is where oqe comes into
lineal warranty with affets. poffefiion of land by lawful title, but keeps it after-
(13.) Eftates tail are now, by many ftatutes and re- wards without any title at all.
folutions of the courts, almoft brought back to the
ftate of conditional fees at the common law. Sect. X. Of ejlates upon condition.
Sect. VIII. Offreeholds, not of inheritance.
(1.) Freeholds, not of inheritance, or for life only,
are, 1. Conventional, or created by the aft of the par¬
ties. 2. Legal, or created by operation of law.
(2.) Conventional eftates for life are created by an
exprefs grant for term of one’s own life, or pur outer
vie; or by a general grant, without expreffing any
term at all.
(3,) Incident to this, and all other eftates for life,
are eftovers, and emblements : and to eftates per outer
vie general occupancy was alfo incident; as fpecial oc¬
cupancy ftill is, if cefluy que vie furvives the tenant.
(4.) I.egal eftates for life are, I. Tenancy in tail,
after poffibility of iffue extinct. 2. Tenancy by the
curtefy of England. 3. Tenancy in dower.
(5.) Tenancy in tail, after pojjibiHty of iffue extinB,
is where an eftate is given in fpecial tail; and, before
iffue had, a perfon dies from whofe body the iffue was
to fpring; whereupon the tenant (if furviving) becomes
tenant in tail, after poffibility of iffue extind.
(1.) Estates (whether freehold or otherwife) may
alfo be held upon condition; in which cafe their ex-
iftence depends on the happening, or not happening,
of fome uncertain event.
(2.) Thefe eftates are, f. On condition implied.
2. On condition expreffed. 3. Eftates in gage. 4. E-
ftates by Jlatute, merchant or ftaple. 5. Eftates by
elegit.
(3.) Eftates on condition implied are where a grant
of an eftate has, from its effence and conftitution, a
condition infeparably annexed to it; though none be
expreffed in words.
(4.) Eftates on condition expreffed ■xie. where an ex¬
prefs qualification or provifion is annexed to the. grant
of an eftate.
(5.) On the performance of thefe conditions either
expreffed or implied (if precedent) the eftate may be
veiled or enlarged ; oyf on the breach of them (if
fubfequent) an eftate already vefted may be defeated.
(6.) Eftates in gage, in vadio, or in pledge, are e-
ftates granted as a fecurity for money lent; being,
4 K 3 i. /«
628 L ^
Law of i. In vivo vadioj or living gage ; where the profits of
^England, jan(j are grante(j tiu a (jgbt be paid, upon which pay-
tpi omi e . ment tjle granter>6 eftate will revive. 2. In mortuo va-
dio, in dead, or mart gage / where an eftate is granted,
on condition to be void at a day certain, if the gran-
ter then repays the money borrowed ; on failure of
which, the eftate becomes abfolutely dead to the
granter.
(7.) Edates by 7?rf/«te-merchant, or j?a/«/e-ftaple,
are alfo eftates conveyed to creditors, in purfuance of
certain ftatutes, till their profits fhall difeharge the
debt.
(8.) Eftates by elegit are where, in confequence of a
judicial writ fo called, lands are delivered by the fheriff
to a plaintiff, till their profits ftiall fatisfy a debt ad¬
judged to be due by law.
Ixxiii. Sect. XL Of ejlates in pojfejfion, remainder, and
reverfion.
^I-) Estates, with refpeft to their time of enjoy¬
ment, are either in immediate pojfejfion, or in expectan¬
cy ; which eftates in expectancy are created at the fame
time, gnd are parcel of the fame eftates, as thofe upon
which they are expe&ant. Thefe are, t. Remainders.
2. Reversions.
(2.) A remainder is an eftate limited to take effeft,
and be enjoyed, after another particular eftate is de¬
termined.
(3.) Therefore, 1. There muft be a precedent par¬
ticular eftate, in order to fupport a remainder, z. The
remainder muft pafs out of the granter, at the creation
of the particular eftate. 3. The remainder muft veft
in the grantee, during the continuance, or at the de¬
termination, of the particular eftate.
(4.) Remainders are, 1. Veiled; where the eftate
is fixed to remain to a certain perfon, after the particu¬
lar eftate is fpent. 2. Contingent; where the eftate
is limited to take effedt, either to an uncertain perfon,
or upon an uncertain event.
(5.) An executory devife is fuch a difpofition of
lands, by will, that an eftate lhal! not veft thereby at
the death of the devifor, but only upon fome future
contingency, and without any precedent particular
eftate to fupport it.
(6.) A reverjion is the refidue of an eftate left in the
granter, to commence in pofiefiion after the determi¬
nation of [amt particular eftate granted to which are
incident fealty, and rent.
(7.) Where two eftates, the one lefs, the other
greater, the one in poffeffion, the other in expectan¬
cy, meet together in one and the fame perfon,. and
in one and the fame right, the lefs is merged in the
greater.
ImIv. Sect. XII. Of ejlates, in feveralty, joint tenancy,
coparcenary, and common.
(1.) Estates,, with refpeft to^the number and con¬
nections of their, tenants, may be held, 1. In feveral¬
ty. 2. In joint-tenancy. 3. In coparcenary. 4. In
common.
(2.) An eftate in feveralty is where one tenant holds
H in his own foie right, without any other perfon be¬
ing joined with him.
t W. Part II.
(3.) An eftate in joint-tenancy is where an eftate is Law of
granted to two or more perfons 5 in which cafe the Engla?‘J»
law conftrues them to be joint-tenants, unlefa the epitQ™“ed;
words of the grant exprefsly exclude fuch conftruc-
tion.
(4.) Joint-tenants have an unity of intereft, of title,
of time, and of pofleflion : they are feifed per my & per
tout : and therefore upon the deceafe of one joint-te¬
nant, the whole intereft remains to the furvivor.
(5.) Joint-tenancy may be diflblved, by deftroying
one of its four conftituent unities.
(6.) An eftate in coparcenary is where an eftate of
inheritance defeends from the anceftor to twp or more
perfons; who are called parceners, and all- together
make but one heir.
(7.) Parceners have an unity of intereft, title, and
poffefiion ; but are only feifed per my, and not per tout:
wherefore there is no furvivorlhip among parceners.
(8.) Incident to this eftate is_the law of hotchpot.
(9.) Coparcenary mjiy alfo be diflblved, by deftroy¬
ing any of its three conftituent unities.
(10.) An eftate in common is where two or more per¬
fons hohHands, pofiibly by diftinft titles, and for di-
ftindl interefts ; but by unity of pofltffion, becaule
none knoweth his own feveralty.
(u.) Tenants in common have therefore an unity
of pofllfiion, (without furvivorlhip ; being feifed pier
my, and not per tout ;j but no neceflary unity of title,
time, or intereft.
(12.) This eftate may be created, 1. By diffblving
the conftituent unities of the two former; 2; By ex-
prefs limitation in a grant: and may, be deftroyed,
1. By uniting the feveral titles in one tenant; 2. By
partition of the land;
Sect. XIII. Of the title to things real, in gene-
J neral. /
(1-) A title to things real is the means whereby a
man cometh to the juft poffefiion of his property.
(2.) Herein may be confidered, 1. A mere or naked
poffefiion. 2. The right of pofiefiion; which is, \Jl, an
apparent, idly, an adtual right. 3. The mere right
of property. 4. The conjun&ion of a&ual poflef-
fion with both thefe rights; which conftitutes a per¬
fect title.
Sect. XIV. Of title by defeent.
Ixxvi.
(1.) The title to things real may be reciprocally ac¬
quired or loft, \.¥>y deftent. 2. Pry pur chafe.
(2.) Defeent h thz means whereby a man, on the
death of his anceftor, acquires a title to his eftate, in
right of reprefeatationj.as his heir at law.
( 3.) To underhand the do&tine of defeents, we muft
form a clear notion of confanguinity ; which is the con¬
nexion, or relation, of perfons defeended from the fame
flock or common anceftor ; and it is, 1. Lineal, where
one of the kinfmen is lineally defeended from the
other. 2. Collateral, where they are lineally defeended',
not one from the other, but both from the fame com¬
mon anceftor.
(4.) The rules of defeent, or canons, of inheritance,
obferved by the laws of England, are thefe :
\Jl, Inheritances fliall lineally defend to the iffue of
tber
w.
Part II. LA
Law of the perfon laft aftually feifed, in injinitum ; but fhall
EngUnd, never lineflly afcend,
tpitoiinfed rpjie maie j^ae ^ a(jm;ttc^ before the female.
^ $dt Where there are two or more males in equal de¬
gree, the eldejl only {hall inherit j but • the females
all together.
j^thy The lineal defendants, in infinitum, of any per¬
fon deceafed {hall reprefent their anceftor j that is,
{hall ftand in the fame place as the perfon himfelf
would have done, had he been living.
$th, On failure of lineal defendants, or ifiue, of the
perfon lafl. fifed, the inheritance {hall defend to the
blood of thefirfi pur chafer ; fubject to the three pre¬
ceding rules. To evidence which blood, the two
following rules are eftablifhed.
6th, The collateral heir of the perfon laft feifed mull
be his next collateral kinfman, of the whole blood.
•]th. In collateral inheritances, the maleJlocks {hall be
preferred to the female; that is, kindred derived
from the blood of the male anceltors {hall be admit¬
ted before thofe from the blood of the female : Un-
lefs where the lands have, in fait, defended from a
female.
fcuvii. Sect. XV. Of title by pur chafe, and firfi by
efcheat.
( i.) Purchase, or perquifnion, is thepofleffion of
an eftate which a man hath by his own adt or agree¬
ment ; and not by the mere aft of law, or defcent from
any of his anceftors. This includes, i. Efcheat.
2. Occupancy. 3. Prefcription. 4.. Forfeiture. 5. A-
lienation.
(2.) Efcheat is where, upon deficiency of the te¬
nant’s inheritable blood, the eftate falls to the lord of
the fee.
(3.) Inheritable blood is wanting to, 1 Such as are
not related to the perfon laft fifed. 2. His maternal
relations in paternal inheritances, and viceverfa. 3. His
kindred of the half blood. 4. Monfters. 5. Baftards.
6. Aliens, and their iffue. 7. Perfons attainted of
treafon or felony. 8. Papifts, in refpeft of themfelves
only, by the ftatute law.
l*xviii. Sect. XVI. Of title by occupancy.
(1.) Occupancy is the taking poffeffion of thofe
things which before had no owner.
(2.) Thus, at the common law, where tenant pur
auter vie died during the life of cfiuy que vie, he, who
could firft enter, might lawfully retain the poffeflion ;
unlefs by the original grant the heir was made a fpeciul
occupant.
(3.) The law of derelictions and alluvions has nar¬
rowed the title by occupancy.
Sect. XVII. Of title by prefcription.
(1 ) Prescription (as diftinguiftied from is
tipcrfonal immemorial ufage of enjoying a right in fome
incorporeal hereditament, by a man, and either his an¬
ceftors or thofe whole eftate of inheritance he hath: of
which the hi ft is called />nfiribhig tr. his ancefiarj, the
latter in a que efiate.
629
Sect. XVIII. Of title by forfeiture.
(1.) Forfeiture is a punifliment annexed by law
to fome illegal aft, or negligence, in the owner of
things real; whereby the eftate is transferred to ano¬
ther, who is ufually the party injured.
(2.) Forfeitures are occafioned, 1. Yby crimes. 2. By
alienation, contrary to law. 3. By lapfe. 4. Byfimony.
5. By nonperformance of conditions. 6. By wafie. 7. By
breach of copyholdcufioms. 8. By bankruptcy.
( 3.) Forfeitures tor crimes, or mifdemeanors, are for,
1. Treafon. 2. Felony. 3. Mifprifion of treafon.
4. Pramunire. 5. Affaults on a judge, and batteries,
fitting the courts. 6. Popifh recufancy, &c.
(4 ) Alienations, or conveyances, which induce a
forfeiture, are, 1. Tht fe in mortmain, made to cor¬
porations contrary to the ftatute law. 2. Thofe made
to aliens. 3. Thofe made by particular tenants, whea
larger than their eftates will warrant.
(5.) Lapfe is a forfeiture of the right of prefenta-
tion to a vacant church, by negleft of the patron to
prefent within fix kalendar months.
(6.) Simony is the corrupt prefentation of any one
to an ecclefiaftical benefice, whereby that turn becomes
forfeited to the crown.
(7*) For forfeiture by nonperformance of conditions,
feeSeft. 10.
Law of
England,
epitomifed.
Ixxx.
(8.) Wafie is a fpoil, or deftruftion, in any corporeal
hereditaments, to the prejudice of him that hath the in¬
heritance.
(g.)Copyholdeftates may have alfo other peculiarcaufes
of forfeiture, according to the cuftom of the manor.
(10.) Bankruptcy is the aft of becoming a bank,
rupt; that is, a trader who feoretes himfelf, or does
certain other afts tending to defraud his creditors,
(See Seft. 22ft
(1 '•) By bankruptcy all the eftates 0/the bankrupt
are transferred to the affigntes of his commiffioneis, to
be fold for the benefit of his creditors.
Sect. XIX. Of title by alienation.
(t.) Alienation, conveyance, or purchafe in its
real
\"J -aaa-ax: iv-n x » V-V-m VL cWIUCj pu
more limited fenfe, is a means of tran
eftates, wherein they are voluntarily refigjBte^by one
man, and accepted by another. ’
(2.) This formerly could not be done by a tenant,
without licence from his lord ; nor by a bird, without
attornment of his tenant.
( 3.) All perfons are capable- of purebafing ; and all
that are in pofTefiTion of any eftates, are capable of con¬
veying them : unlefs under peculiar difabilities by law;
as being attainted, non compotes, infants, under durefs,
feme-coverts, aliens, or papifts.
(4.) Alienations are made by common affurances;
which are, 1. By deed, or matter in pais. z.^By mat¬
ter of record. 3. By fpecial cujlom. 4. By devife.
Sect. XX. Of alienation by deed. kxxik
(1.) In affurancesby deed may be conlidtred, 1. Its
general nature. 2. Its feveralfpecies.
(2.) A deed, in general, is the folemn aft of the
l' parties'5.
630 L A
Law of parties ; being ufually a writing fealed and delivered ;
England, ancj jt m I# A deed indented, orindentnre. 2. A
deed-poll/
(3.) Hhz requifites of a deed are, r. Sufficient
ties, and proper fubjecl-matter. 2. A good and fuffi-
cient conjtderatwn. 3. Writing on paper, or parchment,
duly ftarnped. 4. Legal and orderly parts: (which
are ufually, itl, the premifes; 2dly, the habendum;
jdly, the tenendum ; 4thly, the reddendum ; 5thly, the
conditions ; 6thly, the warranty, which is either lineal
or collateral; 7thly, the covenants; 8thly, the con-
clufion, which includes the date). 5. Reading it, if
defired. 6. Sealing, and, in many calcs,Jigning it alfo.
7. Delivery. 8. Attejlation.
(4.) A deed maybe avoided, 1. By the want of
any of the requifites before-mentioned. 2. By fubfe-
quent matter; as, ill, Rafure, or alteration, adly, De¬
facing its feal. 3dly, Cancelling it. 4thly, Difagree-
ment of thofe whofe confent is neceflary. ythly, Judg¬
ment of a court of juftice.
(5.) Of the feveral^eaw of deeds, fome ferve to
convey real property, fome only to charge and difeharge it.
(6.) Deeds which ferve to convey real property, or
conveyances, are either by common law, or by Jlatute.
And, of conveyances by common law, fome are original
or primary, others derivative or fecondary.
(7.) Original conveyances are, x. Feoffments. 2. Gifts.
3. Grants. 4. Leafes. 5. Exchanges. 6. Partitions.
Derivative are, 7. Releafes. 8. Confirmations. 9. Sur¬
renders. 10. Alignments. l\. Dejeazances.
(8.) A feoffment is the transfer of any corporeal he¬
reditament to another, perfe&ed by livery offefm, or
delivery of bodily poffeffion from the feoffer to the
feoffee ; without which no freehold eftate therein can
be created at common law.
(9.) A gift is properly the conveyance of lands in
tail.
| (10.) A. grant is the regular method, by common
law, of conveying incorporeal hereditaments.
(11.) A leaf is the demife, granting, or letting to
farm of any tenement, ufually for a lefs term than the
leffor Rath therein ; yet fometimes poffibly for a great¬
er ; according to the regulations of the rellraining and
enabling ftatutes.
(12.) An exchange is the mutual conveyance of equal
interefts, the one in confideration of the other.
(13.) A partition is the divilion of an eftate held in
joint-tenancy, in coparcenary, or in common, between
the refpe6tive' tenants ; fo that each may hold his di-
ftinft part in feveralty.
(14.) A releafe is the difeharge or conveyance of a
man’s right, in lands and tenements, to another that
hath fome former eftate in poffeffion therein.
(15.) A confirmation is the conveyance of an eftate
or right in effe, whereby a voidable eftate is made fure,
or a particular eftate is increafed.
(16.) Afurrender is the yielding up of an eftate
for life, or years, to him that hath the immediate re¬
mainder or reverfion; wherein the particular eftate may
merge.
(17.) An affignment the transfer, or making over
to another, of the whole right one has in any eftate ;
but ufually in a leafe, for life or years.
(18.) A defeazance is a collateral deed, made at
the fame time with the ^original conveyance; contain-
w.
Part II
ing fome condition, upon which the eftate may be de- Law of I
feated. England,]
(19.) Conveyances hyfiatute depend much on the!plto>"lfe<ii
do&rine of ufes and trufis : which are a confidence re-
pofed in the terre tenant, or tenant o^ the land, that
he (hall permit the profits to be enjoyed, according to
the directions of cefiuy queufe, or cefiuy que trufi.
(20.) The ftatute of ufes, having transferred all ufes
into adtual poffeffion, (or, rather, having drawn the
poffeffion to the ufe), has given birth to divers o-
ther fpecies of conveyance: 1. A covenant to ftand feifed
to ufe. 2. A bargain and fale, enrolled. 3. A leafe
and releaf. 4. A deed to lead or declare the ufe of
other more direft conveyances. 5. A revocation of
ufes ; being the execution of a power, referved at the
creation of the ufe, of recalling at a future time the ufe
or eftate fo creating. All which owe their prefent o-
peration principally to the ftatute of ufes.
(21.) Deeds which do not convey, hnt only charge
real property, and difeharge it, are, 1. Obligations. 2. Re¬
cognizances. 3. Defeazances upon both.
Sect. XXI. Of alienation by matter of record. |
(1.) Assurances by matter of record are where the
fanction of fome court of record is called in, to fub-
flantiate and witnefs the transfer of real property.
Thefe are, 1. Private a8s of parliament. 2. The king’s
grants. 3. Fines. 4. Common recoveries.
(2.) Private a8s of parliament are a fpecies of af-
furances, calculated to give (by the tranfeendent au¬
thority of parliament) fuch reafonable powers or re¬
lief as are beyond the reach of the ordinary courfc of
law.
(3.) The king’s grants, contained in charters or
letters patent, are all entered on record, for the dig¬
nity of the royal perfon, and fecurity of the royal re¬
venue.
(4.) A fine (fometimes faid to be a feoffment of re¬
cord) is an amicable compofition and agreement of
an adlual, or fiftitious, fuit; whereby the eftate in
queftion is acknowledged to be the right of one of the
parties.
(5.) 'Theparts of a fine are, 1. The writ of cove¬
nant. 2. The licence to agree. 3. The concord.
4. The note. 5. The foot. To which the ftatute
hath added, 6. Proclamations.
(6.) Fines are of four kinds: t. Sur cognizance de
droit, come ceo que il ad defion done. 2. Sur cognizance
de droit tantum. 3. Sur cone fit. 4. Sur done, grant,
et render ; which is a double fine.
(7.) The force and effeft of fines (when levied by
fuch as have themfelves any intereft in the eftate) are
to affure the lands in queftion to the cognizee, by
barring the refpeftive rights of parties, privies, and
ftrangers.
(S.) A common recovery is by an a&ual, or fi£!i-
tious, fuit or adfion for land, brought againft the te¬
nant of the freehold ; who thereupon vouches another,
who undertakes to warrant the tenant’s title: but, up¬
on fuch vouchee’s making default, the land is recovered
by judgment at law againft the tenant; who, in re¬
turn, obtains judgment againft the vouchee to recover
lands of equal value in recompenfe.
(9.) The force and effeft of a recovery are to affure
5 lands
fiPartll. ^ J
j! Law of lands to the recoverer, by barring eftates tail, and all
remainders and reverfions expe&ant thereon; provided
the tenant in tail either fuffers, or is vouched in, fuch
recovery.
(ic.) The ufes of a fine or recovery may be dire&ed
by, i. Deeds to lead fuch ufes; which are made pre¬
vious to the levying or fuffering them. i. Deeds to de¬
clare the ufes; which are made fubfequent.
Sect. XXII. Of alienation by fpecial cufiom.
(i ) Assurances by fpecial cuftom are confined to
the transfer of copyhold eftates.
(2.) This is effedted by, 1. Surrender by the tenant
into the hands of the lord to the ufe of another, ac¬
cording to the cuftom of the manor. 2. Prefentment,
by the tenants or homage, of fuch furrender. 3, Ad¬
mittance of the furrenderee by the lord, according to
the ufes expreffed in fuch furrender.
(3.) Admittance may'alfo be had upon original
grants to the tenant from the lord, and upon defcents
to the heir from the anceftor.
1 Ixxxv. Sect. XXIII. Of alienation by devife.
(1.) Devise is a difpofition of lands and tenements,
contained in the laft will and teftament of the owner.
(2.) This was not permitted by the common law, as
it ftood fince the conqueft; but was introduced by
the ftatute law, under Henry VIII. fince made more
univerfal by the ftatute of tenures under diaries II.
with the introdudiion of additional folen.nities by the
ftatute of frauds and perjuries in the fame reign.
(3.) The conjlrudtion of all common ajfurances fiiould
be, 1. Agreeable to the intention. 2. To the words
of the parties. 3. Made upon the entire deed. 4. Bear¬
ing ftrongeft againft the contradlor. 5. Conformable
to law. 6. Rejedting the latter of two totally repug¬
nant claufes in a deed, and the former in a will. 7. Moft
favourable in cafe of a devife.
fcxxvi Sect. XXIV. Of things perfonal.
(1.) Things/>fr/o«a/ are comprehended under the
general name of chattels; which includes whatever
wants either the duration, or the immobility, attend¬
ing things real.
(2.) In thefe are to be confidered, 1. Their
bution. 2. The property of them. 3. The title to that
property.
(3.) As to the diflribution of chattels, they are, 1.
Chattels real a. Chattels perfonal.
(4.) Chattels real are fuch quantities of intereft, in
things immoveable, as are ftiort of the duration of free¬
holds ; being limited to a time certain, beyond which
they cannot fubfift. (See Sedt. 7.)
(5.) Chattels perfonal are things moveable; vrhich
may be transferred from place to place, together with
the perfon of the owner.
inxxvii. Sect. XXV. Of property in things perfonal.
( 1.) Property, in chattels perfonal, is either inpof-
fejjion, or in action.
(2.) Property in pojfefwn, where a man has the ac¬
tual enjoyment of the thing,, is, u Abfohte. z. Qua¬
lified^
(3.) Alfolute property is where a man has fuch an
exclufive right in the thing, that it cannot ceafe to be
his, without his own ad! or default.
(4.) Qualified property is fuch as is not, in its na¬
ture, permanent; but may fometimes fubfift, and at
other times not fubfift.
(5.) This may arife, 1. Where the fubjedl is inca¬
pable of abfolute ownerfhip. 2. From the peculiar cir-
cumftances of the owners.
(6.) Property in attion, is where a man hath not
the adiual occupation of the thing ; but only a right to
it, arifing upon fome contradt, and recoverable by an
adfion at law.
(7.) The property of chattels perfonal is liable to
remainders, expedtant on eftates for life; to joint-te¬
nancy ; and to tenancy in common.
Sect. XXVI. Of title to things perfonal by hxxviii,
occupancy.
(1.) The title to things perfonal may be acquired
or loft by, 1. Occupancy. 2. Prerogative. 3. Forfei¬
ture. 4. Cufiom. 5. SucceJJion. 6. Marriage. 7. Judge¬
ment. 8. Gift, or grant. '9. Control. 10. Bank¬
ruptcy. 11. Tef ament. 12. Adminiflration.
(2.) Occupancy ftill gives the lirft occupant a right
to thofe few things which have no legal owner, or
which, are incapable of permanent ownerftiip. Such
as, 1. Gflods of alien enemies. 2. Things found.
3. The benefit of the elements. 4. Animals fera na¬
tures. 5. Emblements. 6. Things gained by accef-
lion ; or, 7. By confufion. 8. Literary property.
Sect. XXVII. Of title by prerogative, and for- 1yyt.^.
feiture.
(1.) By prerogative is veiled in the crown, or its
grantees, the property of the royal revenue, (fee
Chap. I. Sedt. 8.); and alfo the property of all game
in the kingdom, with the right of purfuing and ta¬
king it.
(2.) 'Ey forfeiture, for crimes and mifdemeanors,
the right of goods and chattels may be transferred from
one man to another ; either in part or totally.
(3.) Total forfeitures of goods arife from convidfion
of, 1. Treafon, and mifprifion thereof. 2. Felony.-
3. Excufable homicide. 4. Outlawry for treafon or
felony. 5. Flight. 6. Standing mute. 7. Affauhs
on a judge; and batteries, fitting the courts. 8. Pra-
munire. 9. Pretended prophecies. 10. Owling. 11.
Refiding abroad of artificers. 12. Challenges to fight,
for debts at play.
Sect. XXVIIT. Of title by cuftom. ^
(l.) "StY cuftom, obtaining in particular places, a
right may be acquired in chattels : the moft ufual of
which cuftoms are thofe relating to, 1. Heriots. 2. Mor¬
tuaries. 3. Heir looms.
(2.) Heriots are either hcrlot-fervice, which dif¬
fers little from a rent; or heriot-cuftom, which is a
cuftomary tribute, of goods and chattels, payable to
the lord of the fee on the deceafe of the owner of
lands.
(3.) Mortuaries are a cuftomary gift, due to the
minifter in many parilhes, on the death of his pa-
riftiioners.-
632
Law
euitomifed. fpec‘al cuftom to the heir, along with the inheri-
tanpe of his anceftor.
w.
Part If
Sect. XXXI. Of title by bankruptcy
xci. Sect. XXIX. Of title by fuccejfion^ marriage^ and
judgment.
(i.) By fuccefion the right of chattels ia veiled in
corporations aggregate; and likewife in fuch corpora¬
tions foie as are the heads and reprefentatives of bo¬
dies aggregate.
(2.) Hy marriage the chattels real and perfonal of
the wife are veiled in the huiband, in the fame degree
of property, and with the feme powers, as the wife
when foie had over them; provided he reduces them to
pofleffion.
(3.) The wife alfo acquires, by marriage, a property
in her own paraphernalia.
(4.) By judgment, confequent on a fuit at law, a man
may in fome cafes, not only recover., but originally ac¬
quire, a right to perfonal property. As, 1. To penal¬
ties recoverable by aftion popular. 2. To damages.
3. To coils of fuit.
Sect. XXX. Of title by gift, grant, and con¬
trail.
(1.) Pi. gift, or grant, is a voluntary conveyance of
a chattel perfo.nal in pofleffion, without any coniidera-
tion or equivalent.
(2.) K contraS is an agreement, upon fufficient con-
fideration, to do or not to do a particular thing: and,
by fuch contraft, any perfonal property (either in pof-
feffion or in aftion) may be transferred.
(3.) Contradls may either be exprefs or implied;
either executed or executory.
(4.) The conftderation of contrails is, r. A good
Confideration. 2. A valuable confideration ; which is,
•1. Do, ut des. 2. Facto, ut facias. 3. Facio, ut des.
4. Do, ut facias.
(5.) The moil ufual fpecies of perfonal contrails
are, 1. Sale or exchange. 2. Bailment. 3. Hiring or
borrowing. Debt.
(6.) hale or exchange is a tranfmutation of property
from one man to another, in confideration of fome re-
compenfe in value.
(7.) Bailment is the delivery of goods in truft ; up¬
on a contrail, exprefs or implied, that the trull ihall
be faithfully performed by the bailee.
;(8.) Hiring or borrowing is a contrail, whereby the
pofTeffion of chattels is transferred for a particular time,
on condition that the identical goods (or fometimes
their value) be retlored at the time appointed : toge¬
ther with (in cafe of hiring) a {Upend or price for the
ufe. .
(9.) This price, being calculated to anfwer the ha¬
zard as well as inconvenience of lending, gives birth
to the doilrine of interejl, or ufury, upon loans ; and,
confequently, to the dodrine of bottomry or refpondentia,
and infurance.
(10.) Debt is any contrad, whereby a certain fum
of Mowey becomes due to the creditor. This is, 1. A
debt of record. 2. A debt upon fpecial contrad. 3. A
debt upon Jimple contrad; which lail includes paper
-credit, or bills of exchange, and proiniiTorv notes.
N 176.
fi.) Bankruptcy (as defined in Sed. 18.) is the
ad of becoming a bankrupt.
(2.) Herein maybe confidered, 1. Who may be¬
come a bankrupt. 2. The ads whereby he may be¬
come a bankrupt. 3. The proceedings on a commif-
fion of banbrupt. 4. How his property is transferred
thereby.
(3.) Perfons of full age, uftng the trade of merchan¬
dize, by buying, and felling, and feeking their liveli¬
hood thereby, are liable to become bankrupts ; for
debts of a fufficient amount.
(4.) A trader, who endeavours to avoid his credi¬
tors, or evade their juft demands, by any of the ways
fpecified in the feveral ftatutes of bankruptcy, doth
thereby commit an a(l of bankruptcy.
(5.) The proceedings on a commiffion of bankrupt,
fo far as they affed the bankrupt himfelf, are princi*
pally by, 1. Petition. 2- Commiffion. 3. Declara¬
tion of bankruptcy. 4. Choice of affignees. y. The
bankrupt's furrender. 6. His examination. 7. His
difcovery. 8. His certificate. 9. His allowance.
10. His indemnity.
(6.) The property of a bankrupt’s perfonal eftate is*
immediately upon the ad of bankruptcy, veiled by
conftrudion of law in the affignees: and they, when
they have colleded, diftribute the whole by equal di¬
vidends among all the creditors.
Law of's
England, j>
epitomifed.
Sect. XXXII. Of title by teflament, and admini- xciil.
Jl rat ion.
(1.) Concerning tjlaments admirijlrations, con-
fidered jointly, are to be obferved, 1. Their original
and antiquity. 2. Who may make a teftament. 3. Its
nature and incidents. 4. What are executors and admi-
niftrators. 5. Their office and duty.
(2.) Teflaments have fubfifted in England immemo-
rially ; whereby the deceafed was at liberty to difpofe
of his perfonal eftate, referving anciently to his wife
and children their reafonable part of his effeds.
(3.) The goods of intejlates belonged anciently to
the;king; who granted them to the prelates to be dif-
pofed in pious ufes: but, on their abufe of this truft
in the times of popery, the legiflature compelled them
to delegate their power to adminiflrators exprefsly pro¬
vided by law.
(4.) All perfons may make a teftament unlefs dif-
abled by, 1. Want of difcretion. 2. Want of free-will.
3. Criminal condud.
(5.) Tef aments are the legal declaration of a man’s
intentions, which he wills to be performed after his
death. Thefe are, 1. Written. 2. Nuncupative.
(6.) An executor is he, to whom a man by his will
commits the execution thereof.
(7.) Adminijlrators are, I. Durante minore estate of ait
infant executor or adminiftrator; or durante abfentia;
or pendente lite. 2. Cum teflamento annexo ; when no ex¬
ecutor is named, or the executor refufes toad. 3. Ge¬
neral admitiiftrators ; in purfuance of the ftatutes of
Edward III. and Henry VIII. 4. Adminiftrators de
bonis non\ when a former executor or adminiftrator dies
without completing his truft.
(8.)
Part II. LAW. 633
Law of (8.) The office and duty of executors (and, in many
England, p0jnts> 0f adminiftrators alfo), are, I. To bury the
epnomifed. (jecea(-ejt 2. To prove the will, or take out admini-
- ' " ftration. 3. To make an inventory. 4. To colleA
the goods and chattels. 5. To pay debts; obferving
the rules of priority. 6. To pay legacies, either ge¬
neral or fpecific ; if they be veiled, and not lapfed.
7. To diftribute the undevifed furplus, according to
the ftatute of diftributions.
CHAP. III.
0/Private Wrongs.
xcv. Sect. I. Of the redrefs of private -wrongs, by the
mere aft of the parties-
(1.) TTTRongs are the privation of right; and are,
vV Private. 2. Public.
(2.) Private wrongs, or civil injuries, are an in¬
fringement, or privation, of the civil rights of indivi¬
duals, confidered as individuals.
(3.) The redrefs of civil injuries is one principal ob-
jeft of the laws of England.
(4.) This redrefs is effefted, 1. By the mere afi of
the parties. 2. By the mere operation of law. 3. By
both together, or fuit in courts.
(5.) Redrefs, by the mere ad of the parties, is that
•which arifes, 1. From the fok aft of the party inju¬
red. 2. From the joint aft of all the parties.
(6.) Of the firft fort are, 1. Defence of one’s felf,
or relations. 2. Recaption of goods. 3. Entry on
lands and tenements. 4. Abatement of nufances. y. Di-
flrefs ; for rent, for fuit or fervice, for amercements,
for damage, or for divers ftatutable penalties ; — made
of fuch things only as are legally diftrainable ;—and
taken and difpofed of according to the due courfe of
law. 6. Seifing of heriots, &c.
(7.) Of the fecond fort aie, 1. Accord. 2. Arbi¬
tration.
icv;# Sect. II. Of redrefs by the mere operation of law.
neys; and advocates or counfel, viz. either barrifters Law of
or ferjeants at law. ephoSd.
Sect. IV. Of the public courts of common law and xcviii.
equity.
(1.) Courts of juftice, with regard to their feveral
fpecies, are, r. Of a public, or general, jurifdiftion
throughout the realm. 2. Of a private, or fpecial, ju¬
rifdiftion.
(2.) Public courts of juftice are, 1. The courts of
common law and equity. 2. The ecclefiafical courts.
3. The military courts. 4. The maritime courts.
(3.) Thv general and public courts of common law
and equity are, 1. The court of piepoudre. 2. The
court-baron. 3. The hundred court. 4. The county
court. 5. The court of common pleas. 6. The court
of king’s bench. 7. The court of exchequer- 8. The
court of chancery. (Which two laft are courts of e-
quity as well as law). 9. The courts of exchequer-
chamber. 10. The houfe of peers. To which may
be added, as auxiliaries, x 1. The courts of affize and
nift prius.
Sect. V. Of courts ecclefiafical, military, and xci*.
maritime.
(1.) Ecclesiastical courts (which were feparated
from the temporal by William the Conqueror), or courts
Chrifiian, are, 1. The court of the archdeacon. 2. The
court of the biftiop’s confillory. 3. The court of
arches. 4. The court of peculiars. 5. The preroga¬
tive court. 6. The court of delegates. 7. The court
of review.
(2.) The only permanent military court is that of
chivalry; the courts martial, annually eftabliftied by
aft of parliament, being only temporary.
(3.) Maritime coyrts are, 1. The court of admi¬
ralty and vice admiralty. 2. The court of delegates.
3. The lords of the privy council, and others, autho-
lifed by the king’s commiffion, for appeals in prize*
caufes.
Redress, effected by the mere operation of law, is,
1. In the cafe of retainer; where a creditor is executor
or adminiftrator, and is thereupon allowed to retain
his own debt. 2. In the cafe of remitter', where one,
who has a good title to lands, &c. comes into poffef-
fion by a bad one, and is thereupon remitted to his
ancient good title, which protefts his ill-acquired pof-
fefiion.
Sect. III. Of courts in general.
(1.) Redress, that is effefted by the a# both of
law and of the parties, is by fuit or utllon in the courts
of juftice.
(2.) Herein may be confidered, 1. The courts them-
felves. 2. The cegwisawre of wrongs or injuries there¬
in. And, of courts, 1. Their nature and incidents.
2. Their feveral
(3.) A court is a place wherein juftice is judicially
adminiftered, by officers delegated by the crown; be¬
ing a court either of record, or not of record.
(4.) Incident to all couits are a plaintiff, defendant,
and judge : and, with us, there are alfo ufually attor-
Vol. IX. Part II,
Sect. V I. Of courts of a fpecial jurifdiftion.
Courts of a fpecial or private jurifdiftion are,
1. The foreft courts ; including the courts of attach¬
ments, regard, fwienmote, and juftice feat. 2. The
court of commiffioners of fewers. 3. The court of po¬
licies of affurance. 4 The court of the marffialfea and
the palace court. 5. The courts of the principality of
Wales. 6. The court of the duchy chamber of Lan-
cafter. 7. The courts of the counties palatine, and
other royal franchifes. 8. The (tannery courts. 9. The
courts of London, and other corporations:—To which
may be referred the courts of requefts or courts of con-
fcience ; and the modern regulations of certain courts
baron and county courts. 10.. The com ts of the two
univerfities.
Sect. VII. Of the cognifance of private wrongs.
(1.) All private wrongs or civil injuries are cogni-
fable either in the courts ecclefiafiical, military, maritime,
or thofe of common law.
4L (2.)
634
LAW.
Part IT.
JLaw of (2.) Injuries cognifable in the eccleftajlical courts are,
England, j pecm[ary, 2. Matrimonial. 3. Tejlamentary.
epi omi e ^ j Pecuniary injuries, here cognifable, are, 1. Sub-
" traction of tithes. For which the remedy is by fuit to
compel their payment, or an equivalent; and alfo their
double value. 2. Nonpayment of ecclefiaftical dues.
Remedy : by fuit for payment. 3. Spoliation. Re¬
medy : by fuit for reftitution. 4. Dilapidations. Re¬
medy : by fuit for damages. 5. Non-repair of the
church, &c.; and non-payment of church-rates. Re¬
medy : by fuit to compel them.
(4.) Matrimonial injuries are, 1. JaBitatioH of mar¬
riage. Remedy : by fuit for perpetual filence. 2. Sub-
traction of conjugal rights. Remedy : by fuit for re¬
ftitution. 3. Inability for the marriage ftate. Reme¬
dy : by fuit for divorce. 4. Refufal of decent mainte¬
nance to the wife. Remedy : by fuit for alimony.
(5.) Tefcamentary injuries are, 1. Difputing the va¬
lidity of •wills. Remedy : by fuit to eftablilh them.
3. ObjlruBing of adminijlrations. Remedy: by fuit for
the granting them. 3. SublraSion of legacies. Re¬
medy : by fuit for the payment.
(6.) The courfe of proceedings herein is much con¬
formed to the civil'and canon law : but their only com-
pulfive procefs is that of excommunication ; which is
enforced by th(e temporal writ of Jignificavit, or de ex¬
communicato capiendo.
(7.) Civil injuries, cognifable in the court military,
or court of chivalry, are, 1. Injuries in point of ho¬
nour. Remedy: by fuit for honourable amends.
3. Encroachments in coat-armour. See. Remedy: by
fuit to remove them. The proceedings are in a fum-
mary method.
(8.) Civil injuries cognifable in the courts maritime,
are injuries, in their nature of common-law cognifance,
but arifing wholly upon the fea, and not within the
precinfts of any county. The proceedings are herein
alfo much conformed to the civil law.
(9.) All other injuries are cognifable only in the
courts of common law: of which in the remainder of
this chapter.
(10.) Two of them are, however, commiffible by
thefe and other inferior courts; viz. 1. Refufal, or
negleB, of jujlice. Remedies : by writ of procedendo,
or mandamus. 2. Encroachment of jur'fdiaion. Reme¬
dy : by writ of prohibition.
fit Sect. VIII. Of wrongs, and their remedies, re-
fpcdling the rights of perfons.
(1.) In treating of the cognifance of injuries by the
courts of common law, may be confidered, 1. The in¬
juries themfelves, and their refpe&iye remedies. 2. l ire
purfuit of thofe remedies in the feveral courts.
(2.) Injuries between fubjeft and fubjed, cogni¬
fable by the courts of common law, are in general re¬
medied by putting the party injured into poffeffion of
that right whereof he is unjullly deprived.
(3.) This is effefted, 1. By delivery of the thing de¬
tained to the rightful owner. 2. Where that remedy
is either impofiible or inadequate, by giving the party
injured a fatisfafiion in damages.
(4.) The inilruments, by which thefe remedies may
be obtained, are fuits or actions ; which are defined to
4
be the legal demand of one’s right: and thefe are, Law of
1. Perfonal. 2. Real. 3. Mixed. England,
(5.) Injuries (whereof feme are with, others without, elmotm e<?
force) are, 1. Injuries to the rights of/vr/onr. 2. In¬
juries to the rights of property. And the former are,
1. Injuries to the abfolute. 2. Injuries to the relative,
rights of perfons.
(6.) The abfolute rights of individuals are, t. Per¬
fonalfecurity. 2 Perfonal liberty. 3. Private property
(See Chap. I. Sed. 1.). To which the injuries mull
be correfpondent.
(7.) Injuries to perfondl fecurity are, I. Againft a
man’s life. 2. Againit his limbs. 3, Againft his body.
4. Againft his health. 5. Againft his reputation.—
The fir ft muft be referred to the next chapter.
(8.) Injuries to the limbs and body, are, x. Threats.
2. AJfault. 3 . Battery. 4. Wounding. 5. Mayhem.
Remedy : by adion of trefpafs, vi et armis; for da¬
mages.
(9.) Injuries to health, by any unwholefome prac¬
tices, are remedied by a fpecial adion of trefpafs, on
the cafe ; for damages.
(io.) Injuries to reputation are, 1. Slanderous and
malicious words. Remedy : by adion on the cafe }
for damages. 2. Libels. Remedy : the fame. 3. Ma¬
licious profecutions. Remedy: by adion of confpiracy,
or on the cafe ; for damages.
(ll.) The foie injury to perfonal liberty is falfe im-
prifonment. Remedies: I. By writ of, xft, Main-
prize ; 2dly, Odio et atia; 3dly, Homine replegiando.
4thly, Hajeas corpus ; to remove the wrong. 2. By
adion of trefpafs ; to recover damages.
(r2.)For injuries to private property, fee the next
fedion.
( $3.) Injuries to relative rights affed, 1. Hufbands.
2. Parents. 3. Guardians. 4. Maflers.
(14.) Injuries to an hufband are, 1. Abduction, or
taking away his wife. Remedy: by adion of trefpafs,
de uxore rapta et alduBa ; to recover pofleffion of his
wife, and damages. 2. Criminal converfation with her.
Remedy: by adion on the cafe; for damages. Beat¬
ing her. Remedy: by adion on the cafe, per quod con-
fortium amiftt; for damages.
(15.) The only injury to a parent or guardian is the
abduction of their children or wards. Remedy: by
adion of trefpafs, de fliis, vel cujlodiis, raptis vel alduc-
tis } to recover poffeffion of them, and damages.
(16.) Injuries to a mafler are, 1. Retaining his fer-
vants. Remedy : by adion oh the cafe; for damages.
2. Beating them. Remedy: by adion on the cafe,
per quod fervitium amifit; for damages.
Sect. IX. Of injuries to perfonal property. ^
(1.) Injuries to the rights of property we. either to
thofe of perfonal or real property.
(2.) Perfonal property is either in poffefjion or in
aStion.
(3.) Injuries to perfonal property in poffdfion are„
1. By dsfpaffefwn. 2. By damage, while the owner re¬
mains in poffeflion.
(4.) Difpojfefwn may be effeded, 1. By an unlawful
tahing. 2. By an unlawful detaining.
(5.) For the unlawful taking of goods and chattels
perfonal.
Fart II, L A
Law perfonat, the remedy fa, t, Aftual reftitutlon, which
Bngiawl, cafe q£ R wroogftil diftref?) is obtained by aftion of
.tpttuimctl repjevjn> ^ Satisfaftion in damages; I/?, in cafe of
re/coui, by action of refcous, poundbreach, or on the
cafe } tdh, in cafe of other unlawful takings, by aftion
of trefpals or trover.
(6 ) For the unlawful detaining of goods lawfully
taken, the remedy is alfo, i. A filial reftitution ; by
B&ion of replevin or detinue- z. Satigfaflion in da¬
mages ; by afiion on the cafe, for trover and conver*
fion,
(7.) For damage to perfonal property, while in the
owner's poflTeffion, the remedy is in damages { by ac¬
tion of trefpafs vi et armis, in cafe the aft be immedi¬
ately injurious; or by action of trefpafs on the cafe, to
redrefs confequential damage.
(8.) Injuries to perfonal property, in aBion, arife
by breach of contrails, 1. Exprefs. 2. Implied.
(§.) Breaches of exprefs contracts are, 1. By non¬
payment of debts. Remedy ; ijl. Specific payment;
recoverable by adtion of debt, idly, Damages for non¬
payment ; recoverable by aftion on the cafe. 2. By
nonperformance of covenants. Remedy; by aftion of
covenant, ijl, to recover damages, in covenants per¬
fonal ; idly, to compel performance, in covenants real.
5. By nonperformance of promifes, or ajfumpfts. Re¬
medy j by aftion on the cafe ; for damages.
(io.) Implied contracts are fuch as arife, i. From
the nature and conftitution of government. 2. From
reafon and the conftruftion of law.
(n.) Breaches of contrafts, implied in the nature
of government, are by the nonpayment of money which
the laws have direfted to be paid- Remedy; by action
of debt (which, in fuch cafes, is frequently a popular,
frequently a qui tarn, aflion); to compel the fpecific
payment j—or, fometimes, by aftion on the cafe ; for
damages.
( i2.) Breaches of contrafts, implied in reafon and
conftruftion of law, are by the nonperformance of legal
prefuroptive ajfvmpfts : for which the remedy is in da¬
mages ; by an aftion on the cafe on the implied af-
fumpfits, 1. Of a quantum meruit. 2. Of a quantum
vakbat- 3. Of money expended for another. 4. Of
receiving money to another's ufe. 5. Of an infimul
tomputuffent, on an account ftated (the remedy on an
account undated being by aftion of account). 6. Of
performing one’s duty, in any employment, with inte¬
grity, diligence, and Ikill. In fome of which cafes an
action of deceit (or on the cafe, in nature of deceit)
will he.
Sect. X. Of injuries to real property ; and, Jirjl,
of dijpoffeffion, or oujier, of the freehold.
( 1.) Injukies affefting real property are, 1. Oujier.
2- Trefpafs. 3. Nufance. 4. Wajle. 5. Subtraction.
6. Difturbance.
(2.) Oufer is the amotion of poflefiion; and is,
I. Ft O' freeholds 2. From chattels real.
(3.) Oufter from freeholds is effected by, 1. Abate-
■ meat 2. Intrufon. 3. Dijfeifn. 4. Difcontinuance.
5. deforcement.
(4.) Abatement is the entry of a ftranger, after the
death of the anceftor, before the heir.
(5.) Intrifion it the entry of a ftranger, after a par-
W. 63s
ticular efiate of freehold is determined, before him in Law of
remainder or reverfion. England,
(6.) Dipfeifm is a wrongful putting out of him that ePlt0‘ni c _*
is feifed of the freehold.
(7.) Difcontinuance is where tenant in tail, or the
hulband of tenant in fee, makes a larger eftate of the
land than the law alloweth.
(8.) Deforcement is any other detainer of the free¬
hold from him who hath the property, but who never
had the pofleflion.
(9.) The univerfal remedy for all thefe is reftitution
or delivery of pofiefliqn ; and, fometimes, damages for
the detention. This is effe&ed, 1. By mere entry.
2. By aft ion poffejfory. 3. By writ of right.
(10.) Mere esfry, on lands, by him who hath the
apparent right of polfeffion, will (if peaceable) diveft
the mere pojfejjion of a wrongdoer. But forcible entries
are remedied by immediate reftitution, to be given by
a juftice of the peace.
(11.) Where the wrongdoer hath not only mere pof-
fefiion, but alfo an apparent right of pofldfion, this
may be devefted by him who hath the aitual right of
pofieflion, by means of the pojfejfory aftions of writ of
entry or ajjife.
(12.) A writ of entry is areal aftion, which dif-
proves the title of the tenant, by Ihowing the unlawful
means under which he gained or continues poflelfion.
And it may be brought either againft the wrongdoer
himfelf, or in the degrees called the per, the per and
cui, and the pofl.
(13.) An afftft is a real aftion, which proves the
title of the demandant, by fliowing his own or his an-
ceftor’s pofleffion. And it may be brought either to
remedy abatements; via., the afiife of mart d’ancejlor,
&c.: Or to remedy recent diffeifins; via., the affife of
novel diffeifin.
( 14.) Where the wrongdoer hath gained the aftual
right oipoffejfion, he who hath the right of property can
only be remedied by a writ of right, or fome writ of a
fimilar nature. As, 1. Where fuch right of poffeffion
is gained by the difcontinuance of tenant in tail. Re¬
medy, for the right of property : by writ of formedon.
2. Where gained by recovery in a pofleffory aftion, had
againft tenants of particular eftates by their own de¬
fault- Remedy: by writ of quod ei deforceat. 3. Where
gained by recovery in a pofTeffory aftion, had upon the
merits. 4. Where gained by the Jlatute of limitations.
Remedy, in both cafes: by a mere writ of right, the
higheft writ in the law.
Sect. XI. Of difpoffefjion, or oufter, of chattels cy»
real.
(1.) Ouster from chattels real s, 1. From eftates
by Jlatute and elegit. 2. From an eftate lor years.
(2 ) Oufter from drates by Jlatute or ekgit, is ef¬
fected by a kind of dijfeiftn Remedy; reftitution and
damages; by affife ot novel dijfeiftn
(3.) Oufter from an eitat. tor years, is effefted by
a like diffeifin, or jedment. Remedy : reftitution, and
damages; 1. By wru - f ejeihoneftrime. 2. By writ of
quare ejecit infra terminum.
(4.) A writ of ejeitione firm/e, or aftion of trefpafs
in ejeftment, lieth where lands, &c. are let for a term
of years, and the leffte is culled or ejefted from his
4 L 2 term ;
636 L
Law of term ; in which cafe he fhall recover pofleffion of hia
England, t;erm) an(j damages.
epi omi e ^ J This is now the ufual method of trying titles
to land, inftead of an adlion real: viz. By, i. The
claimant’s making an aftual (or fuppofed) leafe upon
the land to the plaintiff. 2. The plaintiff’s aftual (or
fuppofed) entry thereupon. 3. His aftual (or fuppo¬
fed) oufter and eje&ment by the defendant. For which
injury this a&ion is brought either againft the tenant,
or (more ufually) againft: fome cafual or fiftitious e-
jecftor; in whofe Head the tenant may be admitted de¬
fendant, on condition that the leafe, entry, and oufter,
be confeffed, and that nothing elfe be difputed but the
merits of the title claimed by the leffor of the plaintiff.
(6.) A writ of quare ejecit infra terminum is an ac¬
tion of a fimilar nature ; only not brought againft the
wrongdoer or ejector himfelf, but fuch as are in pof-
feffion under his title.
A W. Part II.
to another, withdraws or negle&s to perform them. Law of
This may be, 1. Of rents, and other fervices, due by
tenure. 2. Of thofe due by cujlom. cpitomifed.
(2.) For fubtra&ion of rents and fervices, due by "
tenure, the remedy is, 1. By diftrefs ; to compel the
payment or performance. 2. By a&ion of debt.
3. By affife. 4. By writ de confuetudinibus et fervitiis }
—to compel the payment. 5. By writ of cejfavit ;—
and, 6. By writ of right fur difclaimer ;—to recover the
land itftlf.
(3.) To remedy the oppreffion of the lord, the law
has alfo given, 1. The writ of Ne'injufle vexes : 2. The
writ of mefne.
(4.) For fubtra&ion of fervices, due by cujlom, the
remedy is. 1. By writ of Se3a ad molcndinum, furnum,
torrale, &c. to compel the performance, and recover
damages. 2. By adtion on the cafe; for damages
only.
Sect. XII. Of trefpafs.
Sect. XVI. Of diflurbance. $$
Trespass is an entry upon, and damage done to,
another’s lands, by one’s felf, or one’s cattle ; with¬
out any lawful authority, or caufe of juftification :
which is called a breach of his clofs. Remedy : da¬
mages ; by a&ion of trefpafs, quare claufum fregit :
befides that of diftrefs, damage feafant. But, unlefs
the title to the land came chiefly in queftion, or the
trefpafs was wilful or malicious, the plaintiff (if the da¬
mages be under forty ihillings) fhall recover no more
cofts than damages.
evil. _ Sect. XIII. Of nufance.
(i.)Nusance, or annoyance, is any thing that
worketh damage or inconvenience : and it is either a
public and common nufance, of which in the next chap¬
ter ; or, a private nufance, which is any thing done to
the hurt or annoyance of, 1. The corporeal; 2. The
incorporeal, hereditaments of another.
(2.) The remedies for a private nufance (befides
that of abatement) are. f. Damages ; by a&ion on
the cafe ; (which alfo lies for fpecial prejudice by a
public nufance). 2. Removal thereof, and damages j
by aflife of nufance. 3. Like removal, and damages;
by writ of $>uodpermttat proflernere.
*vli!- Sect. XIV. Of-wap.
(1.) Waste is a fpoil and deftru&ion in lands and
tenements, to the injury of him who hath, 1. An im¬
mediate intereft (as, by right of common) in the lands.
2. The remainder or reverffon of the inheritance.
(2.) The remedies, for a commoner, are reftitution,
and damages ; by affife of common 1 Or, damages on¬
ly ; by aftion on the cafe.
(3.) The remedy, for him in remainder, or rever-
fion, is, 1. Preventive : by writ of ejlrepement at law,
or injun&ion out of chancery; to ftay wafte. 2. Cor-
reftive : by a&ion of wafte; to recover the place
wafted, and damages.
Ulx. Sect. XV. Of fubtraBion.
(t.) Subtraction is when one, who owes fervices
(1.) Disturbance is the hindering, or difquieting,
the owners of an incorporeal hereditament, in their re¬
gular and lawful enjoyment of it
(2.) Difturbances are, 1. Offranchifes. 2, Of com¬
mons. 3. Of ways. 4. Of tenure. 5. Of patro¬
nage.
(3.) Difturbance or/rarcc^i/kf, is remedied by a fpe¬
cial a&ion on the cafe ; for damages.
(4.) Difturbance of common, is, I. Intercommoning
without right. Remedy: Damages; by an aftion on
the cafe, or of trefpafs: befides diftrefs, damage fea¬
fant ; to compel fatisfaftion. 2. Surcharging^ the com¬
mon. Remedies: diftrefs, damage feafant ; to compel
fatisfadfion : Aftion on the cafe ; for damages : or,
Writ of admeafurement of pafture; to apportion the
common; and writ de fecunda Juperoneratione; for the
fupernumerary cattle, and damages. 3. Inclofure, or
obftru&ion. Remedies : Reftitution of the common,
and damages; by affife of novel dijfeifn, and by writ of
quodpermittat: or, Damages only ; by adlion on the
cafe.
(5.) Difturbance of ways, is the obftru&ion, 1. Of
a way in grofs, by the owner of the land. 2. Of a
way appendant, by a ftranger. Remedy, for both :
damages; by a&ion on the cafe.
(6.) Difturbance of tenure, by driving away te¬
nants, is remedied by a fpecial aftion on the cafe; for
damages.
(7.) Difturbance of patronage, is the hindrance of
a patron to prefent his clerk to a benefice ; whereof
ufurpation, within fix months, is now become a fpe-
cies.
(8.) Diftuibers may be, 1. The pfeudo-patron, by
his wrongful prefentation. 2. His clerk, by demand¬
ing inftitution. 3. The ordinary, by refufing the clerk
of the true patron.
(9.) The remedies are, 1. By affife of darrein pre¬
ferment ; 2. By writ of quare impedit ;—to compel in-
ftitution and recover damages : Confequent to which
are the writs of quare incumbravit, and quare non ad-
mi/it} for fubfequent damages. 3. By writ of right
of advowfon ; to compel inftitution, or eftablifti the
permanent right.
Sect.
I Part II. L
4 Law of Sect. XVII. Of injuries proceeding from, or af-
t . Lnjiiand, fefting, the crown.
u leDitomiiee. °
(i.) Injuries to which the crown is a party are,
i. Where the crown is the aggreflbr. 2. Where the
crown is the fufferer.
(2.) The crown is the aggreffor, whenever it is in
poffefiion of any property to which the fubjeft hath a
right.
(3.) This is remedied, 1. "by petition of right; where
the right is grounded on fa&s difclofed in the petition
itfelf. 2. By monfrans de droit; where the claim is
grounded on fafts, already appearing on record. The
effeft of both which is to remove the hands (or poffef-
fion) of the king.
(4.) Where the crown is the fufferer, the king’s re¬
medies are, j. By fuch common-law a&ions as are
confiftent with the royal dignity. 2. By inquejl of
office, to recover pofieffion : which, when found, gives
the king his right by folemn matter of record; but
may afterwards be traverfed by the fubjeft. 3. By
writ of fcire facias, to repeal the king’s patent or
grant. 4. By information of intrufion, to give damages
for any trefpafs on the lands of the crown ; or of debt,
to recover moneys due upon contrail, or forfeited by
the breach of any penal flatute ; or fometimes (in the
latter cafe) by information in rem : all filed in the ex¬
chequer ex ojfficio by the king’s attorney-general. 5. By
writ of quo warranto, or information in the nature of
fuch writ ; to feife into the king’s hands any franchife
ufurped by the fubjeil, or to ouft an ufurper from any
public office. 6. By writ of mandamus, unlefs caufe ;
to admit or reftore any perfon intitled to a franchife or
office: to which if a falfe caufe be returned, the re¬
medy is by traverfe, or by ailion on the cafe for da¬
mages ; and, in confequence, a peremptory mandamus,
or writ of rellitution.
fix;;. Sect. XVIII. Of the purfuit of remedies by attion;
and, fir ft, of the original writ.
(1.) The purfuit the fcveral remedies furniffied
by the laws of jfngland, is, 1. By aBion in the courts
of common law. 2 ¥>y proceedings in the courts of equity.
(2.) Of an aBion in the court of common pleas (ori¬
ginally the proper court for profecuting civil fuits) the
orderly parts are, 1. The original writ. 2. T\\t pro-
cefs. 3. The pleadings. 4. The iffiue, or demurrer.
5. The trial. 6. The judgment. 7. The proceedings
in nature of appeal. 8. The execution.
(3.) The original writ is the beginning or founda¬
tion of a fuit, and is either optional (called a pracipe),
commanding the defendant to do fomethingiri certain,
or otherwife fhow caufe to the contrary ; or peremptory
called zfifecerit te fecurum), commanding, upon fecu-
rity given by the plaintiff, the defendant to appear in
court, to fhow wherefore he hath injured the plaintiff:
both iffuing out of chancery under the king’s great
feal, and returnable in bank during term-time.
Sect. XIX. Of procefs.
(1.) Process is the means of compelling the de¬
fendant to appear in court.
A W. 63^
(2.) This includes, I. Summons. 2. The writ of Law of
attachment, or pone; which is fometimes the firft or E.nSla"d>
original procefs. 3. The writ of dijlringas, or'diflrefs ePltomi e •
infinite. 4. The writs of capias ad refpondendum, and
tejlatum capias : or, inftead of thefe, in the king’s bench,
the bill of Middlefex, and writ of latitat;—and, in the
exchequer, the writ of quo minus. 5. The alias and
pluries writs. 6. The exigent, or writ of exigi facias,
proclamations, and outlawry. 7. Appearance, and com¬
mon bail. 8. The arreft. 9. Special bail, firft to the
fheriff, and then to the a&ion
Sect. XX. Of pleadings. cxiit.
Pleadings are the mutual altercations of the plain¬
tiff and defendant in writing ; under which are com-
prifed, 1, The declaration or count ; (wherein, inci¬
dentally, of the vifne, nonfuit, retraxit, and difeonti-
nuance). 2. The defence, claim of cognizance, im¬
parlance, view, oyer, aid-prayer, voucher, or age;
3. The plea; which is either z dilatory plea (19?, to
the jurifdi&ion ; idly, in difability of the plaintiff;
3%, in abatement), or it is a p\es.totheaflion; fome¬
times confeffing the a&ion either in whole or in part;
(wherein of a tender, paying money into court, and
fet off) : but ufually denying the complaint, by plead¬
ing either, \Jl, the general iffue ; or, zdly, a fpecial
bar (wherein of juflifications, the ftatutes of limitation,
&c.). 4. Replication, rejoinder, furrejoinder, rebut¬
ter, furrebutter, &c. Therein of eftoppels, colour,
duplicity, departure, new affignment, proteftation, a-
verment, and other incidents of pleading.
Sect. XXL Of ijjue and demurrer. CV]
(1.) Issue is where the parties, in a courfe of
pleading, come to a point affirmed on one fide and de¬
nied on the other ; which, if it be a matter of law, is
called a demurrer; if it be a matter of fa£t, ftill re¬
tains the name of an iffue, of fadt.
(2.) Continuance is the detaining of the parties in
court from time to time, by giving them a day certain
to appear upon. And, if any new matter arifes fines
the laft continuance or adjournment, the defendant may
take advantage of it, even after demurrer or iffue, by-
alleging it in a plea puis darrein continuance.
(3.) The determination of an iffue in law, or de¬
murrer, is by the opinion of the judges of the court ;
which is afterwards entered on record.
Sect. XXII. Of the fever al fpecies of trial. cxv£,
(x.) Trial is the examination of the matter of fadt
put in iffue.
(2.) The fpecies of trials are, 1. By the record.
2. By infpedion. 3. By certificate. 4. By witnefies,
5. By wager of battel. 6. By wager of law. 7. By jury.
(3.) Trial by the record'had, when the exiftence
of fuch record is the point in iffue.
(4.) Trial by inJpeBion or examination is had by the
court, principally when the matter in iffue is the evi¬
dent objedt of the fenfes.
(5.) Trial by certificate is had in thofe cafes, where
fuch cer tificate jnuft have been concluiive to a jury.
638 L . A
Law of (6.) Trial by nvhnejfa (the regular method in the
England, cjvjj onjy u[-etj on a 0f dawer, when the
fpitom'fcd- death of the huftand is in iflue. _
1 (7.) Trial by wager of battel, in civil cafes, is only
had on a writ of right 5 but, in lieu thereof, the tenant
may have, at his option, the trial by the grand afife.
(8.) Trial by wager of law is only had, where the
matter in iffue may be fuppofed to have been privily
ttanfadled between the parties themfelves, without the
intervention of other witneffes.
«Kvii. Sect. XXIII. Of the trial by jury.
(1.) Trial by jury is, I. Extraordinary; as, by
the grand affize, in writs of right; and by the grand
jury, in writs of attaint. 2. Ordinary *
(2.) The method and procefs of the ordinary trial
by jury is, t. The writ of venire facias to the fheriff,
coroners, or elifors ; with the fubfequent compuifive
procefs of habeas corpora, or dijlringas. 2. The car¬
rying dWn of the record to the court of nifi prius.
3. The ftreriff’s return ; or panel of, ift, fpecial, adly,
common jurors. 4. The challenges ; ift, to the ar¬
ray ; 2dly, to the polls of the jurors ; either, propter
honoris refpeBum, propter defectum, propter affeSum (which
is fcmetimes a principal challenge, fometimes to the
favour), or propter delidum. 5. The tales de cir-
cumf antibus. 6. The oath of the jury. 7. The evi¬
dence; which is either by proofs, ift, written ; 2dly,
parole :—or, by the private knowledge of the jurors.
6. The verdidt ; which may be, ift, privy ; 2dly,
public; jdly, fpecial.
wvilL Sect. XXIV. Of judgment, and its incidents
W. Part II,,
3. A writ oterror, from one court of record to sno- haw of j
ther ; to correft judgments, erroneous in point of law, E.ng*a"A!
and not helped by the ftatutes of amendment and jeo- cp>! _u
fails.
(2.) Writs of error lie, X. To the court of king's
bench, fiom all inferior courts of record; from the
court of common-pleas at Weftminfter; and from the
court of ling s bench in Ireland. 2. To the courts of
exchequer-(hamber, from the law fide of the court of
exchequer} and from proceedings in the court of king's
bench by bill. 3. To the houfe of peers, from pro-
ceedings in the court of king's-bench by original, and
on writs of error j and from the feveral courts of ex-
thequer-chamber.
Sect. XXVI. Of execution. ert*
Execution is the putting in force of the fen-
tence or judgment of the law. Which is effe&ed,
1. Where poffeflion of any hereditament is recovered :
by writ of habere facias feifinam, pojfejfionem, cSV.
2. Where any thing is awarded to be done or render¬
ed, by a fpecial writ for that purpofe: as, by writ ot
abatement, in cafe of nufance ; retorna habendo, and ca¬
pias in withernam, in replevin ; dtftringas and feire fa¬
cias, in detinue. 3. Where money only is recovered ;
by writ of, ift, capias ad fatisfaciendum, againft the
body of the defendant; or, in default thereof, feire fa¬
cias againft his bail, zdly. Fieri facias, againft hig
goods and chattels, jdly, Levari facias, againft his
goods and the profits of his lands. 4thly, Elegit, a-
gainft his goods, and the poffeffion of his lands, ythly,
Extendi facias, and other procefs, on ftatutes, recog¬
nizances, &c. againft his body, lands, and goods.
(1.) Whatever is tranfa&ed at the trial, in the
court of nifi prius, is added to the record under the
name of a pcfiea : confequent upon which is thejz^o
ment.
(2.) Judgment may be arrefedor ftayed for caufes,
I. Extrinfic, or dehors the record; as in the caie of
new trials. 2. Intrinfic, or within it; as where the
declaration varies from the writ, or the verdift from
the pleadings, and iflue; or where the cafe, laid in the
declaration, is not fufficient to fupport the adtion in
point of law.
(3.) Where the iflue is immaterial, or inlufficient,
the court may award a repleader.
(4.) Judgment is the fentence of the law, pronoun¬
ced by the court, upon the matter contained in the re¬
cord.
(5.) Judgments are, 1. Interlocutory; which are in¬
complete till perfe&ed by a writ of inquiry. 2. Final.
(6.) Cojls, orexpencesof mit, are now the neceflary
confequtnce of obtaining judgment.
Sect. XXV. Of proceeding, in the nature of ap¬
peals.
(1.) Proceedings, in the nature of appeals from
judgment, are, 1. A writ of attaint; to impeach the
verdid of a jury ; which of late has been fuperfeded
by new trials. 2. A writ of audita querela; (o dif-
charge a judgment by matter that has iince happened.
S£ct. XXVII. Of proceedings in the courts of erth
equity.
(1.) Matters of equity which belong to the pe¬
culiar jurifdidion of the court of chancery, are, t. The
guardianfhip of infants. 2. The cuftody of ideots and
lunatics. 3. The fuperintendance of charities. 4. Com-
millions of'bankrupt.
(2.) The court of exchequer and the duchy-court of
Lancajler, have alfo fome peculiar caufes, in which the
intcreft of the king is more immediately concerned.
(3.) Equity is the true fenfe and found interpreta¬
tion of the rules of law; and, as fuch, is equally at¬
tended to by the judges of the courts both of common
law and equity.
(4.) The eflential differences, whereby the Englifli
courts of equity are diftinguiflied from the courts of
law, are, 1. The mode of proof by a difeovery on the
oath of the party ; which gives a jurifdi&ion in mat¬
ters of account, and fraud. 2. The mode of trial; by
depefitions taken in any part of the world. 3. The
mode of relief; by giving a morefpecinc and extenfive
remedy than can be had in the courts of law ; as, by
carrying agreements into execution, ftayir.g wafte or
other injuries by injunction, directing the fale of in-
cumbered lands, &c. 4. The true conftruCtion offe-
curities for money, by confidering them merely as a
pledge. 5. The execution of trufls, or fecood ufes, in
a manner analogous to the law of legal eftates.
Tj'artll. L A
($.) The proceedings in the court of chancery fto
^ which thafe in theexchequer. See. very nearly conform)
“are, i. Bill. 2. Writ offubpana; and, perhaps, in¬
junction. 3. Procefs of contempt ; viz. (ordinarily)
attachment, attachment with proclamations, commif
fion of rebellion, ferjeant at arms, and fequeftrations.
4. Appearance. 5. Demurrer. 6. Plea. 7. Anfwer.
8. Exceptions; amendments ; crofs, or fupplemental,
bills ; bills of revivor, interpleader, See. 9. Replica¬
tion. ID. Iffue. 11. Depofitions, taken upon inter¬
rogatories ; and fubfequent publication thereof. 11.
Hearing. 13. Interlocutory decree; feigned iffue,
and trial; reference to the mafter, and report; Sec.
14. Final decree. 15. Rehearing, or bill of review.
16. Appeal to parliament.
CHAP. IV.
O/’Pubi.ic Wrongs.
Ku1, Sect. I. Of the nature of crimes, and their
punifhment.
(1. )TN treating of public wrongs maybe confidered,
1. The general nature of crimes and punifh-
ments. 2. The perfons capable of committing crimes.
3. Their feveral degrees of guilt. 4. The feveral fpe-
cies of crimes, and their refpe&ive punifhments. 5.
The means of prevention. 6. The method of punifh¬
ment.
(2.) A crime, or mifdemeanor, is an aft committed,
or omitted, in violation of a public law either forbid¬
ding or commanding it.
(3.) Crimes are diftinguifhed from civil injuries, in
that they are a breach and violation of the public
rights, due to the whole community, confidered as a
community.
(4.) Punifhments may be confidered with regard to,
1. The power ; z. The end i 3. The meafure ;—of their
infliftion.
(5.) The power, or right, of inflifting human pu¬
nifhments for natural crimes, or fuch as are mala in fe,
was by the law of nature veiled in every individual ;
but, by the fundamental contraft of. fociety, is now
transferred to the fovereign power; in which alfo is
veiled, by the fame contraft, the right of punilhing
pofitive offences, or fuch as are mala prohibita.
(6.; The end oi human punjlhments is to prevent
future offences ; 1. By amending the offender himfelf.
2. By deterring others through his example. 3. By
depriving him of the power to do future mifehief.
(7.) The meafure of human punilhments mull be
determined by the wifdom of the fovereign power, and
not by any uniform univerfal rule : though that wif-
dom may be regulated, and afiifted, by certain gene¬
ral, equitable, principles.
stxiv. Sect. II. Of the perfons capable of committing
crimes.
(1.^ All perfons are capable of committing crimes,
unlefs there be in them a defeat of will: for, to con-
ftitute a legal crime, there mull be both a vitious will,
and a vitious aft.
(2.) The will does not concur with the aft, 1. Where
W. 639
there is a deleft of underf ending. 2. Where no will Law of
is exerted. 3. Where the aft is conflrained by force Ln^land,
and violence \ epnomded.
(3.) A vitious will may therefore be wanting, in the
cafes of, 1. Infancy 2. Idiocy, or .lunacy. 3. Drunk-
ennefs; which doth not, however, excufe. 4. Mis¬
fortune. 5. Ignorance, or mi lake of faft. 6. Com-
pulfion, or neceffity : which is, ill, that of civil fub-
jeftion ; 2dly, that of durefs per minas ; 3dly, that of
choofing the leall pernicious of two evils, where one is
unavoidable ; 4thly, that of want, or hunger ; which
is no legitimate excufe.
(4.) The king, from his excellence and dignity, is
alfo incapable of doing wrong.
Sect. III. Of principals and acceffories.
(l.) The different degrees of guilt in criminals are,
I. As principals. 2. As acceffories.
(2.) A. principal in a crime is, I. He who commits
the faft. 2. He who is prefent at, aiding, and abet¬
ting, the commlfiion.
(3.) An dcceffory is he who doth not commit the
faft, nor is prefent at the commiflion : but is in fome
fort concerned therein, either before of after.
(4.) Acceffories can only be in petit treafon, and
felony : in high treafon, and mifdemeanors, all are prin¬
cipals.
(5.) An acceffory, before the faft. is one who, be¬
ing abfent when the crime is commirted, hath pro¬
cured, counfelled, or commanded, another to commit
it.
(6.) An acceffory after the faft, is where a perfon,
knowing'a felony to have been committed, receives,
relieves, comforts, or affifts, the felon. Such accef¬
fory is ufually intitled to the benefit of clergy; where
the principal, and acceffory before the faft, are excluded
from it.
Sect. IV. Of offences againfl Gov> and religion. cxxvi>
(1.) Crimes and mifdemeanors cognizable by the
laws of England are fuch as more immediately offend,
1. God, and his holy religion. 2. The law of nations.
3. The king, and his government. 4. The public, or
commonwealth. 5. Individuals.
(2.) Crimes more immediately offending God and
religion are, 1. Apofacy For which the penalty is
incapacity, and imprifonment. 2. Herefy. Penalty,
for one fpecies thereof: the fame. 3. Offences againft
the eiiablifhed church :—Either, by reviling its ordinan¬
ces. Penalties: fine; deprivation; imprifonment; for¬
feiture.— Or, by nonconformity to its worfhip : ift.
Thro’ total irreligion. Penalty : fine. 2dly, Thro’ pro-
tdlant diffentmg. Penalty: fufpended by the tolera¬
tion aft. 3dly, Through popery, either in profeffora
of the popilh religion, popifh recufants, convift, or
popifh priells. Penalties: incapacity; double taxes;,
imprifonment ; fines ; forfeitures ; abjuration of the
realm ; judgment of felony, without clergy ; and
judgment of high treafon. 4. Blafphemy. Penalty 1
fine, imprifonment, and corporal punifhment. 5. Pro¬
fane fwearing and curftng. Penalty : fine, or houfe of
correftion. 6. Witchcraft; or, at lead, the pretence
thereto. Penalty : imprifonment, and pillory. 7. Re¬
ligious impoflurcs. Penalty : fine, imprifonment, and
640
England,
epi'omifed
cxxvii.
exxvili.
corporal punlftunent. 8. Simony.
ture of double value ; incapacity.
ing. Penalty : fine. \o. Drunkennefs
or Hocks. 11. Lewdnefs. Penalties
ment; houfe of corre&ion.
L A
Penalties : forfei-
9. Sabbath-break- £
Penalty : fine,
fine; imprifan-
\v.
Of fdomes injurious to the king's
■prerogative.
Sect. V. Of offences againjl the law of nations.
(1.) The law of nations is a fyftem of rules, dedu-
cible by natural reafon, and dlablifhed by univerfal
confent, to regulate the intercourfe between indepen¬
dent Hates.
(2.) In England, the law of nations is adopted in
its full extent, as part of the law of the land.
(3.) Offences againft this law are principally inci¬
dent to whole Hates or nations ; but, when committed
by private fubjedts, are then the objedts of the muni¬
cipal law.
(4.) Crimes againfi the law of nations, animadverted
on by the laws of England, are, 1. Violation of fafe-
conduds. 2. Infringement of the rights of embaffadors.
Penalty, in both : arbitrary. 3. Piracy. Penalty :
judgment of felony, without clergy.
(1.) Felony is that offence which occafions the
total forfeiture of lands or goods at common law; now
ufually alio punifhable with death, by hanging; unlefs
through the benefit of clergy.
(2.) Felonies injurious to the king’s prerogative (of
which fome are within, others without, clergy) are,
1. Such as relate to the coin: as, the wilful uttering
of counterfeit money, &c.; (to which head fome infe¬
rior mifdemeanors affedting the coinage may be alfo
referred). 2. Confpiring or attempting to kill a privy
counfellor. 3. Serving foreign Hates, or enlifling fol-
diers for foreign fervice. 4. Embezzling the king’s ar¬
mour or fores. 5. Defection from the king’s armies,
by land or fea.
Sect. VIII. Of prcemunire.
Sect. VI. Of high treafon.
are fiich as relate, 1. To papffs : as, the repeated de¬
fence of the pope’s jurifdiftion ; the coming from be¬
yond fea of a natural-born popiih prieH ; the renoun¬
cing of allegiance, and reconciliation to the pope or
other foreign power. 2. To the coinage, or other fig-
natures of the king: as, counterfeiting (or, import¬
ing and uttering counterfeit) foreign coin, here cur¬
rent ; forging the fign manual, privy fignet, or privy
feal ;* falfifying, &c. the current coin. 3. To the
protefantfucceffion : as, correfponding with, or remit¬
ting to, the late Pretender’s fons; endeavouring to
impede the fucceffion;-writing or printing, in defence w/ - o . . ..
of any Pretender’s title, or in derogation of the adl of fon. Penalty : forfeiture and imprifonment. . 2. Mif-
fettlement, or of the power of parliament to limit the
defcent of the crown.
(4.) The punfhment of high treafon, in males, is (ge¬
nerally) to be, 1. Drawn. 2. Hanged. 3. Embowei-
led alive. 4. Beheaded. 5. Quartered. 6. The head
and quarters to be at the king’s difpofal. But, in trea-
fons relating to the coin, only to be drawn, and hanged
till dead. Females, in both cafes, are to be drawn,
and burned alive.
N0 176.
(l.) Praemunire, in .its original fenfe, is the of¬
fence of adhering to the temporal power of the Pope,
in derogation of the regal authority. Penalty : out¬
lawry, forfeiture, and imprifonment: which hath fince
been extended to fome offences of a different nature.
(1.) Crimes and mifdemeanors more peculiarly (2.) Among thefe are, 1. Importing PopiHi trin-
offending the king and his government are, 1. High kets. 2. Contributing to the maintenance of Popiih
treafon. 2. Felonies injurious to the prerogative. 3. feminaries abroad, or Popiih priefls in England. 3.
Prtemunire. 4. Other mifprifions and contempts. Moleffing the poffeffors of abbey-lands. 4. Ailing as
(2.) High treafon may, according to the Hatute of broker in an ufurious contract, for more than ten per
Edward III. be committed, 1. By comparing or ima- cent. 5. Obtaining any Hay of proceedings in fuits
fining the death of the king, or queen-confort, or their for monopolies. 6. Obtaining an exclufive patent for
eldeH fon and heir ; demonfirated by fome overt a&. gunpowder or arms. *7. Exertion of purveyance or
2. Bythe king’s companion, his eldeH daugh* pre-emption. 8. Afferting a legillative authority in
ter, or the wife of his eldeH fon. 3. By fome overt ail both or either houfe of parliament. 9. Sending any
of levying war againH the king in his realm. 4. By fubjeft a prifoner beyond fea. xc. Refufing the oaths
adherence to the king’s enemies. 5. ¥>y counterfeiting of allegiance and fupremacy. 11. Preaching, teach-
the king’s great &r privy fcal. 6. By counterfeiting ing, or advifed fpeaking, in defence of the right of
the king’s money, or importing counterfeit money. 7. any pretender to the crown, or in derogation of the
By killing the chancellor, treafurer, or king’s juHices, power of parliament to limit the fucceffion. 12. Treat-
in the execution of their offices. ing of other matters by the affembly of peers of Scot-
(3.) High treafons, created by fubfequent flatutes, land, convened for ele&ing their reprefentatives
parliament. 15. Unwarrantable undertakings by un¬
lawful fubfcriptions to public funds.
Se£l. IX. Of mifprifions and contempts affcding
the king and government.
(1.) Misprisions and contempts are all fuch high
offences as are under the degree of capital.
(2.) Thefe are, 1. Negative, in concealing what
ought to be revealed. 2. Poftive, in committing what
ought not to be done.
(3.) Negative mifprifions are, 1. Mifprifion of trea-
prifion of felony. Penalty : fine and imprifonment.
3. Concealment of treafure trove. Penalty : fine and
imprifonment.
(4.) Poftive mifprifions or high mifdemeanors and
contempts, are, 1. Mal-adminif ration of public truHs,
which includes the crime of peculation. Ufual penal¬
ties : banifhment; fines; imprifonment; difability.
2. Contempts againff the king’s prerogative. Penalty;
fine, and imprifonment. 3. Contempt againff his
6 per-
¥anlT. L A \V.
Law of perfon and government. Penalty: fine, imprifonment, times forfeiture. 13. Libels. Penalty: fine, impri-
England an^ infamous corporal punifhment. 4. Contempts fonment, and corporal punifhment.
ejitomifed. aga;nft ^/P> Penalties: fine, and imprifonment;
■ ' or fine, and difability. 5. Contempts againft his
palaces, or courts of jultice. Penalties: fine ; imprifon¬
ment; corporal punifhment; lefs of right hand; for¬
feiture.
Sect. XII. Of offences againjl public trade.
Sect. X. Of offences againfi public juftice.
Offences againfi; the public frWe, are, t. Owling.
Penalties : fines ; forfeiture ; imprifonment; lofs of left
hand; tranfportation ; judgment of felony. 2. Smug¬
gling. Penalties : fines ; lofs of goods ; judgment of
felony, without clergy. 3. Fraudulent bankruptcy.
(1.) Crimes efpecially affedting the commonwealth Penalty: judgment of felony without clergy* 5. U-
ere offences, 1. Againft the publicyry/?/re. 2. Againft fury. Penalty : fine, and imprifonment. 5. Cheating.
the public peace. 3. Againft the public trade. 4. A- Penalties: fine ; imprifonment ; pillory ; tumbrel;
gain ft the public health. 5. Againft the' public police whipping, or other corporal punifhment, tranfporta-
ox economy. tion.— 6. Forefalling. 7. Regrating. 8. Engrojfing.
(2.) Offences againft the pubbcjuftice,' are, \. Em- Penalties, for all three; lofs of goods; fine; impri-
bezzling or vacating records, and perfonating others in fonment; pillory. 9. Monopolies, and. combinations to
courts of juftice. Penalty: judgment of felony, ufually raife the price of commodities. Penalties: fines; im-
without clergy. 7. Compelling prifoners to become prifonment ; pillory; lofs of ear; infamy ; and, fome-
upprovers. Penalty: judgment of felony. 3. Obfruc- times, the pains ofpramunire. 10. Exercifing a trade,
ting the execution of procefs. 4. Efcapes. 5. Breach not having ferved as an apprentice. Penalty; fine,
ef prifon. 6. Refcue. Which four may (according n. Tranfporting, or refiding abroad, oiartificers. Pe-
to the circumftances) be either felonies, or mifde- nalties; fine; imprifonment; forfeiture; incapacity;
meanors punifhable by -fine and imprifonment. 7. Re- becoming aliens.
turning from tranfportation. This is felony, without
clergy. 8. Taking rewards to help one to his ftolen
goods. Penalty: the fame as for the theft. 9. Receiving
ftolen goods* Penalties : tranfportation ; fine ;' and
imprifonment.—10. Fheftlote. 11. Common barretry
Sect. XIII. Of offences againfi the public healthy
and public police or economy.
(1.) Offence? againft the public health are, 1. lr-
and fuing in a feigned name. 12. Maintenance. 13. regularity, in the time of the plague, ox oiquarantine.
Champerty. Penalty, in thefe four: fine, and impri- Penalties: whipping ; judgment of felony, with and
fonment. 14. Compounding profecutions on penal ita- without clergy. 2. Selling unwholefome provforts.
tutes. Penalty : fine, pillory, and difability. 15. Cot;- Penalties: amercement; pillory; fine ; imprifonment;
[piracy; and threats of accufation in order to extort abjuration of the town.
money, &c. Penalties: the villenous judgment; fine; (2*) Offences againft the public police economy
imprifonment; pillory; whipping; tranfportation. 16. or domeftic order of the kingdom, are, 1. Thofe re-
Petjury, and fubordination thereof. Penalties: in- lating to clandejline and irregular marriages. Penal-
famy; imprifonment; fine, or piHory; and, fome- t‘es: judgment of felony, with and without clergy,
times, tranfportation or houfe of correftion. 17. Bri- 2 Pigumy, or (more properly) Penalty:
bery. Penalty : fine, and imprifonment. 18. Embra- judgment of felony—3. Wandering, by foldiers or maw
tery. Penalty: infamy, fine, and imprifonment. 19. Finers. 4. Remaining in England, by Egyptians; or
Falfe verdid. Penalty : the judgment in attaint. 20. being in their fellowjhip one month. Both thefe are
Negligence of public officers, &c. Penalty: fine, and felonies, without clergy. 5. Common nufances, \Jl, by
forfeiture of the office. ixFOppreffton by magi- annoyances or purpreftures in highways, bridges, and
ftrates. 22. Extortion oi officers. Penalty, in both: rivers; idly, by offenfive tracks and manufa&ures ;
imprifonment, fine, and fometimes forfeiture of the of- idly, by diforderly houfes; c^thly, by lotteries; ^thly, by
See. cottages ; by fireworks; qthly, by evefdropping.
Penalty, in all; fine,—Sthly, By common fcolding.
■Sect. XI. Of offences againft the public peace. Penalty: the cucking ftool. 6. Idlenefs, diforder, va¬
grancy, and incorrigible roguery. Penalties : imprifon-
Offences againft the public peace are, x. Riotous ment; whipping; judgment of felony. 7. Luxury, in
qffemblies to the number of twelve. 2. Appearing diet. Penalty, diferetionary. 8. Gaming. Penalties:
armed, or hunting ixi dfguife. ^ Threatening, ox de- to gentlemen, fines; to others, fine and imprifonment;
manding any valuable thing, by letter.—All thefe are to cheating gamefters, fine, infamy, and the corporal
felonies, without clergy. 4. Deitroying of turnpikes, pains of perjury. 9. Defraying the^/we,. Penalties:
&c. Penalties : whipping ; imprifonment ; judge- fines, and corporal punffhment.
ment of felony, with and without clergy.—5. /Iffrays.
6. Riots, routs, and unlawful affemllies. 7. Tumul- Sect. XIV. Of homicide.
tuous petitioning. 8. Forcible entry, and detainer.
Penalty, in all four : fine, and imprifonment. 9. Go- (1.) Crimes efpecially affe&ing individuals are,
ing unufually armed. Penalty : forfeiture of arms, and 1- Againft their perfons. 2. Againft their habitations.
imprifonment. 10. Spreading news. Penalty: 3. Againft their/royer/j.
fine, and imprifonment. 11. Pretended prophecies. Pe- (2.) Crimes againft perfons of individuals, arc,
nalties: fine; imprifonment; and forfeiture. 12. Chal- X. ihy homicide, or deftroying life. 2. By other cor-
(pnges to fight. Penalty : fine, imprifonment, and fome- poral injurie*.
.Vou JX. Part II. . 4M
cxxxflf
CXXXYlj -
(3)
642 k ^
Law of (3.) Homicide is, I. JuJlifiable. 2. Excufalle.
England - Felonious.
f^‘r .* (4.) Homicide is juflifiable, 1. By neceffity, and
command of law. 2. By permiffion of law; ift, for
the furtherance of public juftice ; zdly, for prevention
of fome forcible felony.
(5.) Homicide is excufable. 1. Per infortunium, .or
by mif-adventure. 3. Se defendendo, or in felf-defence,
by chance-medley. Penalty, in both : forfeiture of
goods; which however is pardoned of courfe.
(6.) Felonious homicide is the killing-; of a human
creature without juftification or excufe. This is, l.Kil-
ling one’s felf. 2. Killing another.
(7.) Killing one’s felf or felf murder, is where one
deliberately, or by any unlawful malicious aft, puts
arv end to his own life. This is felony ; punifhed by
ignominitus burial, and forfeiture of goods and chattels.
(8.) Killing ano^er is, 1. Manjlaughter. 2. Murder.
(9 ) Manjlaughter is the unlawful killing of another,
without malice, exprefs or implied. This is either,
1. Voluntary, upon a fudden heat. 2. Involuntary,
in the commiffion of fome unlawful aft. Both are fe¬
lony, but within clergy ; except in the cafe of fobbing.
(10.) Murder is when a perfon, of found memory
and diferetion, unlawfully killeth any reafonable crea¬
ture, in being, and under the king’s peace ; with ma¬
lice aforethought, either exprefs or implied. This is
felony, without clergy ; punifhed with fpeedy death,
and hanging in chains, or diifeftion.
(11.) Petit treafon (being an aggravated degree of
murder) is where the fervant kills his mafter, the wife
her auiband, or the ecclefiaftic his fuperior. Penalty :
in men, to be drawn and hanged; in women, to be
drawn, and burned.
.. Sect. XV. Of offends againfl. the perfons of indi-
viduals.
Crimes affefting the perfons of individuals,by other
corpora! injuries not amounting to homicide, are,
Mayhem; and alfofooting at another. Penalties:
fine; imprifonment ; judgment of felony, without cler¬
gy. 2. Forcible abdutlwn, and marriage or deflement,
of an heirefs; which is felony : rMo,fealing, and de¬
flowering or marrying any woman-child under the age
oifxteen years; for which the penalty is imprifonment,
fine, and temporary forfeiture of her lands. 3. Rape,
and alfo carnal knowledge, of a woman child under the
age of ten years. 4. Buggery, with man or beaft.
Both thefe are felonies, without clergy.—5. Affault.
6. Battery; efpeeially of clergymen. 7. Wounding.
Penalties, in all three : fine ; imprifonment; and other
corporal punifhment. 8. Falf imprifonment. Penal¬
ties : fine ; imprifonment; and ^in tome atrocious cafes)
the pains ofpramunire, and incapacity of office or par¬
don 9. Kidnapping, or forcibly itealing away the king’s
fubjefts. Penalty : fine ; imprifonmentand pillory.
a, Sect. XVI. Of offences againfi the habitations of
U ' individuals. .
(1.) Crimes, affefting the habitations of individuals
are, 1. Arfon. 3. Burglary.
w.
Eart IT*
(2.) Arfon is the malicious and wilful burning of Law of
the houfe, orout-houfe, of another man. This is fe- y
lony; in fome cafes within, in others without, cler- cp‘ 1
%y-
(3.) Burglary is the breaking and entering, by
night, into a manfion-houfe ; with intent to commit
a felony. This is felony, without clergy.
Sect. XVII. Of offences againf private property.
(1.) Crimes affefting the private property of indi¬
viduals are, 1. Larciny. 2, Malicious mfehief. 3.
Forgery.
(2.) Larciny is, 1. Simple. 2. Mixed, or com¬
pound.
(3.) Simple larciny is the felonious taking, and car¬
rying away, of the perfonal goods of another. And
it is, 1. Grand larciny ; being above the value of
twelve pence Which is felony; in fome cafes with¬
in, in others without, clergy. 2. Petit larciny ; to the
value of twelve pence or under. Which is alfo felony,
but not capital; being punilhed liCth whipping, or
tranfportation.
(4.) Mixed, or compound, larciny is that wherein
the taking is accompanied with the aggravation of be¬
ing, 1. From the. houfe. 2. From the perfon.
(5.) Larcinies from the houfe, by day or night, are
felonies without clergy, when they are, 1. Larcinies,
above twelve pence, from a church ; or by breaking a
tent or booth in a market or fair, by day or night, the
owner or his family being therein ;—or by breaking a
dwelling-houfe by day, any perfon being therein ;—or
from a dwelling-houfe by day, without breaking, any
perfon therein being put in fear ;—or from a dwelling-
houfe by night, without breaking, the owner, or his
family being therein and put in fear. 2. Larcinies, of
fve fillings, by breaking the dweliing-houfe, fhop, or
warehoufe by day, though no perfon be therein ;—
or, by privately Healing in any (hop, warehoufe, coach-
houfe, or liable, by day or night, without breaking,
and though no perfon be therein. 3. Larcinies, of
forty fillings, from a dwelling-houfe or its out-houfes,
without breaking, and though no ptrfon be therein.
(6.) Larciny from the perfon is, 1. By privately
fealing, from the perfon of another, above the value of
twelve pence. 2. By robbery; or the felonious and
forcible taking, from the perfon of another, in or near
the highway, goods or money of any value, by put¬
ting him in fear. Thefe are both felonies without
clery. An attempt to rob is alfo felony.
(7.) Malicious mifehief, by deftroying dikes,
goods, cattle, Ihips, garments, filh-ponds, trees, woods,
churches, chapels, meeting-houfes, houfes, out houfes,
corn, hay, ftraw, fea or river banks, hop-binds, coal¬
mines (or engines thereunto belonging), or any fences
for inclofures by aft of parliament, is felony ; and, itt
moft cafes, w ithout benefit of clergy .
(8.) Forgery is the fraudulent making or alteration
of a writing, in prejudice of another’s right. Penal¬
ties : fine; imprifonment; pillory ; lofs of nofe and
ears; forfeiture; judgment of felony, without cler¬
gy-
Sect,.
CXXXl^i
Part IT. L A
Law of Sect. XVIII. Of the means of preventing
cxl. C1*) Crimes and mifdemeanors may bt prevented,
by compelling fufpefted perfons to give fecurity :
which is effe&ed by binding them in a conditional re¬
cognizance to the king, taken in court, or by a magi-
ilrate.
(2.) Thefe recognizances may be conditioned, 1. To
keep the peace. 2. To be oigood behaviour.
(3.) They may be taken by any juftice or confer-
vator of the peace, at his own diferetion ; or, at the
requeft of fuch as are intitled to demand the fame.
(4.) All perfons, who have given fufficient caufe to
apprehend an intended breach of the peace, may be
bound over to keep the peace; and all thofe, that be
not of good fame, may be bound to the good behaviour^;
and may, upon refufal in either cafe, be committed to
gaol.
Sect. XIX. Of courts of criminal jurifdiftion.
(1.) In the method of pmifhment may be confider-
ed, 1. The feveral courts of criminal jurifdiclion. 2.
The feveral proceedings therein.
(2.) The criminal courts are, 1. Thofe of a public
and general jurifdidlion throughout the realm. 2.Thofe
of a private and fpecial jurifdidtion.
(3.) Public criminal courts are, I. The high court
of parliament; which proceeds by impeachment. 2 . The
court of the lord high Iteward ; and the court of the
king in full parliament: for the trial of capitally in¬
dited peers. 3. The court of king’s bench. 4. The
court of chivalry. 5. The court of admiralty, under
the king’s commiffion. 6. The courts of oyer and
terminer, and general gaol-delivery. 7. The court of
quarter-feffions of the peace. 8- ihe flieriff’s tourn.
9. The court left. 10. The court of the coroner.
11. The court of the clerk of the market.
(4.) Private criminal courts ate, 1. The court of
the lord Iteward, &c- by llatute of Henry VII. 2.
The court of the lord iteward, &c. by ilatuteof Hen¬
ry VIII. 3. The univerfity courts.
tdih Sect. XX. Of fummary conviftions.
(1.) Proceedings in criminal courts are, Sum¬
mary. 2. Regular.
(2.) Summary proceedings are fuch, whereby a man
may be convifted of divers offences, without any formal
procefs or jury, at the dil'eretion of the judge or
judges appointed by a& of parliament, or common
law.
(3.) Such are, 1. Trials of offences and frauds a-
gainft the laws of excife and other branches of the
king’s revenue. 2. Convictions before jujhces of the
peaie upon a variety of minute offences, chiefly againft
the public police. 3. Attachments for contempts to
the fuperior courts of juftice.
Sect. XXL Of arrefls.
(1.) Regular proceedings in the courts of com-
W. 643
mon law, are, I. Arref. 2. Commitment and bail. Law of
3. Profecution. 4. Procefs. 5. Arraignment, and Ellhla.r’d
its incidents. 6. Plea and ijfue. 7. Trial and con- ■e^>lfo*ni ^ .
viclion. 8. Clergy. 9. Judgment, and its confequen-
ces. IO. Reverfal of judgment. 11. Reprieve or par¬
don. 12. Execution.
(2.) An arref is the apprehending, or rellraining,
of one’s perfon ; in order to be forthcoming to anfwer
a crime whereof one is accufed or fufpedted.
(3*) This may be done, 1. By warrant. 2. By an
officer, without warrant. 3. By a private perfon,
without warrant. 4. By hue and cry.
Sect. XXII. Of commitment and bail. srii/l
(1.) Commitment is the confinement of one’s per¬
fon in prifon, for fafe cuftody, by warrant from pro¬
per authority ; unlefs, in bailable offences, he puts
in fufficient bail, or fecurity for his future appearance.
(2.) The magiftrate is bound to take reafonable bail,
if offered; unlefs the offender be not bailable.
(3.) Such are, 1. Perfons accufed of treafon ; or,
2. Of murder ; or, 3. Of manflaughter, by indidf-
ment; or if the prifoner was clearly the flayer. 4. Pri¬
fon-breakers, when committed for felony. 5. Out¬
laws. 6. Thofe who have abjured the realm. 7. Ap¬
provers, and appellees. 8. Perfons taken with the
mainour. 9. Perfons accufed of arfon. 10. Excom¬
municated perfons.
(4.) The magiftrate may, at his diferetion, admit
to bail, or otherwife, perfons not of good fame, char¬
ged with other felonies, whether as principals or as ac*
ceffories.
(5.) If they be of good fame, he is bound to admit
them to bail.
(6.) The court of king’s bench, or its judges in
time of vacation, may bail in any cafe whatfoever.
Sect. XXIII. Of the feveral modes of pro* cxlv*.
fecution.
(1.) Prosecution, or the manner of accufing of¬
fenders, is either by a previous finding of a grand
jury; as, 1. By prefentmext. 2. By indiament. Or,
without fuch finding. 3. By information. 4. By
appeal.
2. A preferment is the notice taken by a grand
jury of any offence,- from their own knowledge or ob*
fervation.
(3.) An indiftment is a written accufation of one or
more perfons of a crime or mifdemeanor, preferred to,
and prefented on oath by, a grand jury ; expreffing,
with fufficient certainty, the perfon, time, place, and
offence.
(4). An information is, r. At the fuit of the king
and a fubjeA, upon penal ftatutes. 4. At the fuit of
the king only. Either, 1. Filed by the attorney-ge¬
neral ex officio, for fuch mifdemeanors as affe£t the
king’s perfon or government: or, 2. Filed by the ma¬
iler of the crown-office (with leave of the court of
king’s bench) at the relation of fome private fubjedt,
for other grofs and notorious mifdemeanors. All dif-
4 M 2 fering
644 £
Law of fering from Indi&ments in this ; that they are exhibited
England ^ jnformer or the king’s officer ; and not on the
. epuomifed. J , c , . °
. , oath or a grand jury.
($ ) An appeal is an accufation or fait, brought by
one private fubjeft again ft another, for larciny, rape,
mayhem, arfon, or homicide ; which the king can¬
not difcharge or pardon, but the party alone can re-
leafe.
cxlvi. Sect. XXIV. Of procefs upon an indiftment.
(i.) Process to bring in an offender, when indi&ed
in his abfence, is, in mifdemeanors, by venire facias,
diftrefs infinite, and capias: in capital crimes, by ca¬
pias only : and, in both, by outlawry.
(a.) During this ftage of proceedings,, the indift-
ment may be removed into the court of king’s bench
from any inferior jurifdidtion, by writ of certiorari fa ¬
cias : and cognizance muft be claimed in places of ex-
clufive jurifdidion.
Sect. XXV. Of arraignment, and its incidents.
(i.) Arraignment is the calling of the prifoner to
the bar of the court, to anfwer the matter of the in-
di&me-nt.
(2.) Incident hereunto are, 1. The Handing mute
of the prifoner; for which, in petit treafon, and felo¬
nies of death, he (hall undergo the peine fort & dure.
2. His confeffion ; which is eitherfunplc, or by way of
approvement.
{klviii. Sect. XXVI. Of plea, and iffue.
(1.) The plea, or defen five matter alleged by the
prifoner, may be, 1. A plea to the jurifdidion. 2. A
demurrer in point of law. y. A plea in abatement.
4. A fpecial plea in bar; which is, rft, Auterfoits ac¬
quit i zdly, Auterfoits convict; jdly, Auterfoits attaint ;
4thly, A pardon. 5. The general iffue, not guilty.
(2.) Hereupon ifue is joined by the clerk of the ar¬
raigns, on behalf of the king.
'«jl!x Sect. XXVII. -Of trial, and conviHion.
(1.) Trials of offences, by the laws of England,
were and are, 1. By ordeal, of either fire or water.
2. B*y the corfned. Both thefe have been long aboliihed.
3. By battel, in appeals and improvements. 4. By the
peers of Great Britain. 5. By jury.
(2.) The method and proeefs of trial by jury is,
1. The impannelling of the jury. 2. Challenges ;
iff, for caufe ; 2dly, peremptory. 3. Tales de circum-
Jlantibus. 4. The oath of the jury, y The evidence.
6. The verdid, either general or fpecial.
(3.) Conviaion is when the prifoner pleads, or is
found guilty: whereupon, in felonies, the profecutor
is intitled to, x. His expences. 2. Reftitution of his
goods.
^ Sect. XXVIII. Of the benefit of clergy.
(1.) Clergy, or the benefit thereof, was original¬
ly derived from the ufurped jurifdidion of the Popilh
A W. Part It,
ecclefiaftics; but hath fince been new-modelled by fe- Law it
veral ftatutes. England^
(2.) It is an exemption of the clergy from any othercpit;oimfe'^
fecular punilhment for felony, than imprifonment for
a year, at the court’s diferetion ; and it is extended
likewife, abfolutely, to lay peers, for the fir ft offence;
and to all lay-commoners,, for the firft offence alfo,
upon condition of. branding, imprifonment, ,or tranf-
portation.
(3.) All felonies are intitled to the benefit of cler¬
gy, except fuch as are now oufted by particular fta¬
tutes.
(4.) Felons, on receiving the benefit of clergy,
(though they forfeit their goods to the crown), are
difeharged of all clergyable felonies before committed,
and reftored in all capacities and credits.
Sect. XXIX. Of judgment, and its confequences. cl$.
(1.) Judgm ent (unlefs any matter be offered in ar-
reft thereof) follows upon convidion; being the pro¬
nouncing of that punilhment which is exprefsly ordain¬
ed by law.
(2.) Attainder of a criminal is the immediate con-
fequence, 1. Of having judgment of death pronounced
upon him. 2. Of outlawry for a capital offence.
(3.) The confequences of attainder are, 1. Forfeir
ture to the king. 2. Corruption of blood.
(4.) Forfeiture- to the king, is, 1. Of real eftates,.
upon attainder;—in high treafon, abfolutely, till the
death of the late Pretender’s fons;—in felonies, for the
king’s year, day, and wafte;—in mifprifion of treafon,
affaults on a judge, or battery fitting the courts ; du¬
ring the life of the offender. 2. Of perfonal eftates,
upon conviftionin all treafon, mifprifion of treafon,
felony, excufable homicide, petit larceny, Handing
mute upon arraignment, the above-named contempts
of the king’s courts, and flight.
(5.) Corruption of blood is an utter extin&ion of aH
inheritable quality therein : fo that, after the king^s
forfeiture is firft fatisfied, the criminal’s lands efeheat
to the. lord, of the fee ; and he can never afterwards in¬
herit, be inherited, or have any inheritance derived
through him.
Sect. XXX. Of reverfal of judgment.
(1.) Judgments, and their confequences, may be
avoided, 1. By falfifying, or revetfing, the attainder.
2. By reprieve, or pardon.
(2.) Attainders may befalfified, or reverfed. 1. With¬
out a writ of error; for matter dehors the record. 2. By
writ of error ; for miftakes in the judgment, or record-
3. By aft of parliament; for favour.
(3.) When an outlawry is reverfed, the party is re¬
ftored to the fame plight as if he had appeared upon
the capias.' When a judgment, on conviftion, is re¬
verfed, the party Hands as if never accufed.
Sect. XXXI. Of reprieve, and pardon.
(1.) A reprieve >9 a temporary fufpenfion of the
judgment, 1. Ex arbitrib judicis. 2. Ex necejjitate legis ;
for pregnancy, infanfty, or the trial of identity of per-
fon, which muft always be tried injlanter.
(*•)
fart TIT.
Tj A '*W.
643
: Law of (2.) A pardon is a permanent avoider of the judg-
jScotland. by the king’s majefty, in offences againft his
'•—"V—1 crown and dignity; drawn in due form of law, allowed
in open court, and thereby making the offender a new
(3.) The king cannot pardon, x. Imprifonment of
the fubjeft beyond the feas. 2. Offences profecuted
by appeal. 3. Common nuifances. 4- Offences againft
popular or penal ftatutes, after information brought by
a fubjeft. Nor is his pardon pleadable to an impeach¬
ment by the commons in parliament.
Sect. XXXII. Of execution.
Law of
Scotland.
(1.) Execution is the completion of human pu-
nifhment, and muft be ftriclly performed in the man¬
ner which the law direfts.
(2.) The warrant for execution is fometimes under
the hand and feal of the judge; fometimes by writ
from the king ; fometimes by rule of court; but com--
monly by the judge’s figning the calendar of prifoners,
with their feparate judgments in the margin.
Part III. The LAW of SCOTLAND.
clv. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
Municipal j. r | * H E municipal law of Scotland, as of rnoft
^ -I- other countries, confifts partly of ftatutory or
written law, which has the exprefs authority of the le-
giflative power; partly of cuftomary or unwritten law,
which derives force from its prefumed or tacit confent.
Statutory 2. Under our ftatutory or written law is compre-
aw. ^ bended, (1.) Our a<fts of parliament: not only thofe
lamentwhich were macle in t^ie re‘gn Jame8 I- Scot¬
land, and from thence down to our union with Eng*-
land in 1707, but fuch of the Britifh flatutes enaded
fince the union as concerned this part of the united
kingdom.
Itegiam 3* The remains of our ancient written law were pu-
Majeftatemblilhed by Sir John Skene clerk regifter, in the begin¬
ning of the laft century, by licence of parliament .- The
books of Regiam Majejlatem, to which the whole col-
leftion owes its title, feem to be a fyftem of Scots law,
written by a private lawyer at the command of Da¬
vid I.; and though no exprefs confirmation of that
treatife by the legiflature appears, yet it is admitted
to have been the ancient law of our kingdom by ex¬
prefs ftatutes. The borough laws, which were alfo
enafted by the fame King David, and the ftatutes of
William, Alexander II. David II. and the three Ro¬
berts, are univerfally allowed to be genuine. Our
parliaments have once and again appointed commiffions
to revife and amend the Regiam Majejlatem, and the
other ancient books of our law, and to make their re¬
port : but, as no report appears to have been made,
nor confequently any ratification by parliament, none
of thefe remains are received, as of proper authority,
in our courts ; yet they are of excellent ufe in proving
and illuftrating our molt ancient cuftoms.
Wtsoffe- 4- Our written law comprehends, (2.) The afts of
ierunt. federunt, which are ordinances for regulating.,the forms
of proceeding before, the court of fefiion in the admini-
ftration of juftice, made by the judges, who have a
delegated power from the legifiature for that purpofe.
Some of thefe afts dip upon matter of right, which de¬
clare what the judges apprehend to be the law of Scot¬
land, and what they are to obferve afterwards as a rule
of judgment.
Authority 5- The civil, or Roman and canon laws, though
if the civil they are not perhaps to be deemed proper parts of our
"d canon written law, have undoubtedly had the greateft in-
aws’ fluence in Scotland. The powers exercifed by our fo-
vereigns and judges have been juftified upon no other
ground, than that they were conformable to the civil
or canon laws; and a fpecial ftatute was judged neceB
fary, upon the reformation, to refeind fuch of their
- conftitutions as were repugnant to the Proteftant doc¬
trine. From that period, the canon law has been little
refpe&ed, except in queftions of tithes, patronages,
and fome few more articles of ecclefiaftical right: but
the Roman continues to have great authority in all
cafes where it is not derogated from by ftatute or cu-
ftom, and where the genius, of our law fuffers us to
apply it.
6. Our unwritten or cuftomary law, is that which, CHflomary'
without being exprefsly enafted by ftatute, derives its ')r c°minoflf
force from the tacit confent of king and people ; whichla *
oonfent is prefumed from the ancient cuftbm of the
community. Cuftom, as it is equally founded in the
will of the lawgiver with written law, has therefore the
fameeffedts: hence, as one ftatute may be explained
or repealed by another, fo a ftatute may be explained
by the uniform pradtice of the community, and even
go into difufe by a pofterior contrary cuftom. But
this power of cuftom to derogate from prior ftatutes
is generally confined by lawyers to ftatutes concerning
private right, and does not extend to thofe which re¬
gard public policy.
7. An uniform trad! of the judgments or decifions Decifiorfs o'!
of the court of feffion is commonly confidered as part *-he felfibn,
of our cuftomary law; and without doubt, where a par¬
ticular cultom is thereby fixed or proved, fuch cuftom
of itfelf conftitutes law: but decifions, though they
bind the parties litigating, have not, *in their own na¬
ture, the authority of law in fimilar cafes; yet, where
they continue uniform, great weight is juftly laid on
them. Neither can the judgments of the houfe of peers Judgments
of Great Britain reach farther than to the parties in the of the houfa?
appeal, fince in thefe- the peers adi as judges, not asof Peers’
lawgivers.
8. Though the laws of nature are fufficiently pub-Promulga-
lilhed by the internal fuggeftion of natural light, civiltionoflawt*
laws cannot be confidered as a rule for the condudt of
life, till they are notified to thofe whofe condudl'they
are to regulate. The Scots adfs of parliament were, by
our moft ancient cuftom, proclaimed in all the different
fhires, boroughs, and baron-courts, of the kingdom.
But after our ftatutes came to be printed, that cuftom
was gradually negledted; and at lad, the publication
of our laws, at the market-crofs of Edinburgh, wasi.
declared fufficient; and they became obligatory 40
days thereafter. Britifh ftatutes are deemed fufficient-
ly notified, without formal promulgation ; either be-
caufe the printing is truly a publication ; or becanfe
every.
l'
X< . A
Law of every fufejeft is, by a maxim of the Englifli law, party
^ Scotland, to t}jem, as being prefent in parliament, either by him-
' felf or his reprefentative. After a law is publilhed, no
pretence of ignorance can excufe the breach of it.
9. As laws are given for the rule of our conduft,
they can regulate future cafes only ; for pall aftions,
being out of our power, can admit of no rule. Decla¬
ratory laws form no exception to this ; for a ftatute,
where it is declaratory of a former law, does no more
than interpret its meaning; and it is included in the
notion of interpretation, that it mull draw back to the
date of the law interpreted.
fh^emrcta IO’ ^ ru^es interPre,:“1g Hatute-law received
<ionoHawl'n Scotland, an argument may be ufed from the title
to the aft itfelf, a rulro ad nigrum; at lead, where
the rubric has been either originally framed, or after¬
wards adopted by the legiflature. The preamble or
narrative, which recites the inconveniences that had
arifen from the former law; and the caufes inducing the
enaftment, may alfo lead a judge to the general mean¬
ing of the llatute. But the chief weight is to be laid
on the ftatutory words.
11. Laws, being direfted to the unlearned as well
as the learned, ought to be conftrued in their moil ob¬
vious meaning, and not explained away by fubtle di-
ftinftions; and no law is to fuffer a figurative interpre¬
tation, where the proper fenfe of the words is as com¬
modious, and equally fitted to the fubjeft of the lla¬
tute. Laws ought to be explained fo as to exclude ab-
furdities, and in the fenfe which appears moll agreeable
to former laws, to the intention of the lawgiver, and
to the general frame and ftrufture of the conllitution.
In prohibitory laws, where the right of afting is ta¬
ken from a perfon, folely for the private advantage’Of
another, the confent of him, in whofe behalf the law
was made, lhall fupport the aft done in breach of it;
but the confent of parties immediately interelled has no
effeft in matters which regard the public utility of a
Hate. Where the words of a llatute are capable but of
one meaning, the ftatute mult be obferved, however
hard it may bear on particular perfons. Neverthelefs,
as no human fyllem of laws can comprehend all pof-
fible cafes, more may fometimes be meant by the law
giver than is exprefled ; and hence certain ftatutes,
where extenfion is not plainly excluded, may be ex¬
tended beyond the letter, to fimilar and omitted cafes :
others are to be confined to the ftatutory words,
gtridh 12. A drift interpretation is to be applied, (1.) To
correftory ftatutes, which repeal or reftrift former laws;
and to ftatutes which enaft heavy penalties, or reitrain
the natural liberties of mankind. (2.) Laws, made on
occafion of prefent exigencies in a Hate, ought not to
be drawn to fimilar cafes, after the preflure is over.
(3.) Where ftatutes eftabiilh certain folemnities as re-
quifite to deeds, fuch folemnities are not fuppliable by
equivalents; for folemnities lofe their nature, when they
are not performedjTpecificslly. (4.) A ftatute, which
enumerates fpecial cafes, is, with difficulty, to be ex¬
tended to cafes not exprelfed ; but, where a law does
not defcend to particulars, there is greater reafon to
extend it to fimilar cafes. (5.) Statutes, which carry
a difpenfation or privilege to particular perfons or fo-
cieties, fuffer a ftrift interpretation ; becaufe they de¬
rogate from the general law, and imply a burden upon
the reft of the community. But at no rate can a pri-
W* Part IT
vilege be explained to the prejudice of thofe in whofe Lawofcv
behalf it was granted. As the only foundation of cu- Scotland h
ftomary law is ufage, which confifts in faft, fuch law  
can go no farther than the particular ufage has gone.
13. All ftatutes, concerning matters fpecially fa- Amplel jt
voured by law, receive an ample interpretation; as laws 11
for the encouragement of commerce, or of any ufeful 11
public undertaking, for making effectual the wills of | [
dying perfons, for reftraining fraud, for the fecurity
of creditors, &c. A ftatute, though its fubjeft-matter
Ihould not be a favourite of the law, may be extended
to fimilar cafes, which did not exift when the ftatute
was made ; and for which, therefore, it was not in the
lawgiver’s power to provide.
14. Every ftatute, however unfavourable, mull re¬
ceive the interpretation neceffary to give it effeft: and,
on the other hand, in the extenfion of favourable laws,
fcope mult not be given to the imagination, in difco-
vering remote refemblances; the extenfion mult be li¬
mited to the cafes immediately fimilar. Where there
is ground to conclude that the legiflature has omitted
a cafe out of the ftatute purpofely, the flatute cannot
be extended to that cafe, let it be ever fo fimilar to the
cafes expreffed.
15. The objefts of the laws of Scotland, accordinor
to Mr Erlkine, one of the hteft writers on the fubjeft,
are, Perfons, Things, and Aftions.
CHAP. I.
^Persons.
AMong perfons, judges, who are invefted with ju-
rifdiftion, deferve the firft confideration.
Sect. I. Of jurifdi Elion and judges in general. clvl. ;
Jurisdiction is a power conferred upon a judge orJ"^1^
magiftrate, to take cognifance of and decide caufes
according to law, and to carry his fentences into execu¬
tion. That t raft of ground, or diftrift, within which
a judge has theTight of jurifdiftion, is called his ter¬
ritory : and every aft of jurifdiftion exercifed by a
judge without his territory, either by pronouncing fen-
tence, or carrying it into execution, is null.
2. The fupreme power, which has the right of cn- j!^mS ‘j1* j
afting laws, fa'ls naturally to have the right of erec j^^^J
ting courts, and appointing judges, who may applyJ
thefe laws to particular cafes: but, in Scotland, this
right has been always intrufted with the crown, as ha¬
ving the executive power of the ftate.
3. Jurifdiftion is either fupreme, inferior, or mixed. Diftinc- '1
That jurifdiftion is fupreme, from which there lies no tl”n.s
appeal to a higher court. Inferior courts are thofe ,.ai l0°* ]
whofe fentences are fubjeft to the review of the fupreme |
courts, and whofe jurifdiftion is confined to a part.icu- I
lar territory. Mixed jurildiftion participates of the
nature both of the fupreme and inferior : thus the
judge of the high court of admiralty, and tbecommif-
far.es of Edinburgh, have an univerfal jurifdiftion over
Scotland, and they can review the decrees of inferior
admirals and commiffaries ; but fince their own decrees 1
are fubjeft to the review of the courts of feffion or ju-
fliciary, they are, in that refpeft, inferior courts.
4. Jurifdiftion is either civil or criminal: by the firft,
queflions of private right are decided ; by the other,
crimes are pupilhed. But, in all jurifdiftion, though
merely
ifartlll. k ^ W* 647
■ w.Law of merely civil, there is a power inherent in the judge to defender, if his eftate be heriiable, is confidered as law of
• kfj’cotland. punilh either corporally, or by a pecuniaiy fine, thofe fully fummoned to that court, by a citation at the mar- Scotlai|d..
' who offend during the proceedings of the court, or ket crofs of Edinburgh, and pier and fhore of Leith: ' v ^
| who fhall afterwards obftrua the execution of the fen- but where a ftranger, not a native of Scotland, has on-
tence. If a moveable eftate in this kingdom, he is deemed to
5. Jurifdi&ion is either privative or cumulative, be fo little fubjeft to the jurifdidion of our courts, that
Privative jurifdi&ion, is that which belongs only to one aftion cannot be brought againft him till his effe&s be
court, to the exclufion of all others. Cumulative, o- firft attached by an arreftment jun/diaionis fundanda
therwife called concurrent, is that which may be exer- caufa; which is laid on by a warrant iffuing from the
cifed by any one of two or more courts, in the fame fupreme courts of feflion, or admiralty, or from thjt
caufe. In civil cumulative jurifdiiaion, the private pur- within whofe territory the fubjed is iituated, at the
fuer has the right of ele&ion before which of the courts fuit of the creditor.
he fhall fue ; but as, in criminal queftions which are 1 X. A judge may, in fpecial cafes, arreft or fecure ArreftmeftS.
profecuted by a public officer of ccurt, a collifion of the perfons of fuch as have neither domicile nor eftate ofItrangeri*
jurifdidion might happen, through each of the judges within his territory, even for civil debts. Thus, on the
claiming the exercife of their right, that judge, by border between Scotland and England, warrants are
whofe warrant the delinquent is firft cited or appre- granted of courfe by the judge ordinary of either fide,
bended (which is the firft: ftep of jurifdiction), acquires againft thofe who have their domicile upon the oppo-
thereby (jure pravcntionis) the exclufive right of jud
ging in the caufe.
6. All rights of jurrfdi&ion, being originally grant-
file fide, for arrefting their perfons, till they give c
tion judiclo JiJli : and even the perfons of citizens or na¬
tives may be fo fecured, where there is juft reafon to fuf-
ed in confideration of the fitnefs of the grantee, were peft that they are in meditatione fug/e, i. e. that they
therefore perfonal, and died with himfelf. But, upon intend fuddenly to withdraw from the kingdom ; upon
the introdu&ion of the feudal fyftem, certain jurifdic- which fufpicion, the creditor who applies for the war-
tions were annexed to lands, and descended to heirs, as rant muft. make oath. An inhabitant of a borouafti-
wellas the lands to which they were.annexed ; but now royal, who has furnifhed one who lives without thebo-
all heritable jurifdidlions, except thofe of admiralty and
a fmali pittance referved to barons, are either abolifh-
ed, or refumed and annexed to the crown.
7. Jurifdiftion is either proper or delegated. Pro-
!ivil jurif-
*<3ion,
vhtrein
ounded.
ivtrsnf 10' Where one, who has not his domicile within the intereft of the crown cannot be hurt by the negligence
tjfcpplement territory, is to be futd bifore an inferior court rvtione of its officers.
rough in meat, clothes, or other merchandize, and who
has no fecurity for it but his own account-book, may
arreft his debtor, till he give fecurity judicioJifti.
. . . . . 12. A judge may be declined, ». e. his jurifdi<aionGronn(Jgo£
per jurifdidion, Is that which belongs to a judge or difowned judicially, 1. Raticne caufa, from his incom- rlmar^r^.
magi (Irate himfelf, in virtue of his office. Delegated, —0,1 l. - n
is that which is communicated by the judge to another
who ads in his name, called a depute or deputy. Where
a deputy appoints one under him, he is called a fulfti-
tute. No grant of jurifdidion, which is an office re-
petency to the fpecial caufe brought before him. 2. Ra-
tione fujpe8i judicis ; where either the judge himfelf, or
his near kinlman, has an intereft in the fuit. No judge
can vote in the caufe of his father, brother, or fon, ei¬
ther by confanguinity or affinity ; nor in the caufe of
quiring perfonal qualifications, can be delegated by his uncle or nephew by confanguinity. 3. RaUant
the grantee to another, without an e^prefs power in the privilegti; where the paity is by privilege exempted
grant.
8. Civil jurifdidion is founded, 1. Rat tone domicilii,
if the defender has his domicile within the judge’s ter¬
ritory. A domicile is the dwelling place where a per-
fixed it as a rule, that refidence for 40 days founds j;’-
rifdidion. If one has no fixed dwelling-place, e. g.
from their jurifdidion.
13. Prorogated jurifdidion (juri/diak in confentien? Prorogated
tei) is that which is, by the confent of parties, confer-
red upon a judge, who, without fuch confent, would
fon lives with an intention to remain ; and cuftom has be incompetent. Where a judge is incompetent, every
~ ‘k-* —-c-t-—- J-—r j~ ftgp he takes muft. be null, till his jurifdidion be mad?
competent by the party’s adual fubmiffion to it. It is
foldier, or a travelling merchant, a perfonal citation otherwife where the judge is competent, bat may be
againft him within the territory is fufficient to found declined by the party upon privileg<
the judge’s jurifdidion over him, even in civil que-
ftions. As the defender is not obliged to appear be¬
fore a court to which he is not fubjed, the purfuer muft
follow the defender’s domicile.
4. In order to prorogation, the judge muft. have
jurifdidion, fuch as may be prorogated. Hence, pro¬
rogation cannot be admitted where the judge’s juri fdic-
tion is excluded by ftatute. Yet where the caufe is of
9. It is founded, 2. Rutione reifita, if the fubjed the fame nature with thofe to which the judge iscom-
m queftion lie within the territory. If that fubjed be petent, though law may have confined his jurifdidion
immoveable, tht judge, whofe jurifdidion is founded within a certain fum, parties may prorogate it above
in this way, is the foie judge competent, excluding the
judge of the domicile.
that fum unlefs where prorogation is prohibited. Pro¬
rogation is not admicted in the king’s caufes; for the
■eijiu, the court of ftffion muft be applied to, whofe
juriididion is univerfal, and who, >'f contfe, grants let¬
ters of fupplement to cite the defender to appear be¬
fore the inferior judge. Where the party to be fued
refides in another kingdom, and has an tftate in this.
15. All judges muft at their admiflion fwear, 1. The 0atl $
oath of allegiance, and fubfcribe the aflurance ; 2. Thejudge?. *
oath of abjuration ; 3. The oath of fupremacy ; laftly,
The oath deJideli adminiftratione..
6. A party who has either properly declined the Letters ol;
the court of fefiiun is the only proper court, as the jurifdidion of the judge before whom he had been ci- advocay^R#-
txmmme forum to all perfons refiding abroad j and the ted, or who thinks himfelf aggrieved by any proceed-
5 ^
Law of ings 'n ihe caufe, may, before decree, apply to the court
^Scotland. 0p fefljon t0 iffue letters of advocation for calling the
''u"r~y'~ aftion from before the inferior court to themfelves.
The grounds, therefore, upon which a party may pray
for letters of advocation, are incompetency and iniqui¬
ty. Under incompetency, is comprehended not only
defect of jurifdiftion, but all the grounds of declining
a jurifdiftion, in itfelf competent, ariiing either from
fufpicion of the judge, or privilege in the parties. A
judge is faid to commit iniquity, when he either delays
juftice, or pronounces ientence, in the exercife of his
jurifdidtion, contrary to .law.
Advocation 17. That the court of fefiion may not wafte their
bow limit- time in trifles, no caufe for a fum below twelve pounds
■ Sterling can be advocated to the court of feffion from
the inferior judge competent : but if an inferior judge
(hall proceed upon a caufe to which he is incompetent,
the caufe may be carried from him by advocation, let
the fubjedt be ever-fo inconliderable.
•dvii. Sect. II. Of the fupreme judges and courts of
Scotland.
King, I • The king, who is the fountain of jurifdidtion,
might by our conftitution have judged in all caufes,
and either in his own perfon, or by thofe whom he was plea-
led to veft with jurifdi&ion.
parliament. 2. The parliament of Scotland, as our court of the
laft refort, had the right of reviewing the fentences of
all our fupreme. courts.
parliament g. By the treaty of union, 1707, the parliaments of
■Brita*31 Scotland and England are united into one parliament
1 In' of Great Britain. From this period, the Brkiflr houfe
of peers, as coming in place of the Scots parlia-
.ment, is become our court of the laft refort, to which
appeals lie from all the fupreme courts of -Scotland :
{jut that court has no original juiifdidlion in civil mat¬
ters, in which they judge only upon appeal. By art. 2 2.
of that treaty, the Scots fhare of the reprefentation in
the Tioufe of peers is fixed to 16 Scots peers ele&ive ;
f and in the houfe of commons, to 45 commoners, of
which 30 are ele&ed by the freeholders of counties,
and 15 by the royal boroughs. The Scots privy coun¬
cil was alfo thereupon aboliftied, and funk into that of
Great Britain, which for the future is declared to have
no other powers than the Englifh privy council had at
the time of the union.
^pourt of 4. A court was ereAed in ^25, confiding of cer-
fsiffion. tain perfons to be named by the king, out of the three
.eftates of parliament, which was veiled with the jurif-
diftion formerly lodged in the council, and got the
name of tke fefton, becaufe it was ordained to hold
annually a certain number of feffions at the places to
be fpecially appointed by the king. This court had a
jurifdi£tion, cumulative with the judge ordinary, in
ipuilzies, and other pofleffory adfions, and in debts; but
they, had no cognifance in queftions of property of he¬
ritable fubjefts. No appeal lay from its judgments to
the parliament. The judges of this court ferved by
rotation, and were changed from time to time, after
■having fat 40 days; and became fo negligent in the
adminiftration of juftice, that it was at laft thought
necelfary to transfer the jurifdidlion of this court to a
council to be named by the king, called the daily
pounc'd.
■if017 7.
5. The prefent model of the court of fefljon, or col- Law
lege of juftice, was formed in the reign of James V. Scotian
Tlje judges thereof, who were veiled with an univerfal 1 j
civil jurifdiction, confided originally of feven church-.Col.iege
men, feven laymen, and a prefident, whom it behoved^u^lce’
to be a prelate; but fpiritual judges were in 1584
partly, and in 1640 totally, prohibited. The judges
of fefiion have been always received by warrants from whom n
the crown. Anciently his majefly feems to have trans-racd.
ferred to the court itfelf the right of choofing their own
prelident; and in a federunt recorded June 26. 1593.
the king condefcended to prefent to the lords, upon
every vacancy in the bench, a lift of three perfons, out
of which they were to choofe one. But his majefty foon
refumed the exercife of both rights, which continued
with the crown till the ufurpation ; when it was or¬
dained, that the king Ihould name the judges of the
feffion, by the advice of parliament. After the refto-
ration, the nomination was again declared to be foiely
in the fovereign.
6. Though judges may, in the general cafe, be na-Their quip
med at the age of 21 years, the lords of feffion muft'ificati mq «i
be at leaft 25. No perfon can be named lord of feffion,an(*
who has not ferved as an advocate or principal clerk of
feffion for five years, or as a writer to the fignet for j
ten : and in the cafe of a writer to the fignet, he muft
undergo the ordinary trials upon the Roman law, and
be found qualified two years before he can be named.
Upon a vacancy in the bench, the king prefents the
fuccelfor by a letter addreffed to the lords, wherein he «
requires them to try and admit the perfon prefented.
The powers given to them to rejedb the prefentcc upon
trial are taken away, and a bare liberty to remonftrate
fubftituted in its place.
7. Befides the f 5 ordinary judges, the king was al¬
lowed to name three or four lords of his great council, , '
who might fit and vote with them. Thefe extraordi¬
nary lords were fuppreffcd in the reign of Geo. I.
8. The appellation of the college of jufice is not con-Privilege* g!
fined to the judges, who are diftinguithed by the name'f the col a
of fenators ; but comprehends advocates, clerks of fef-^S^fjk |
fion, writers to the lignet, and others, as defcribed, ;
u48 S. 23d Feb. 1687. Where, therefore, the college
of juftice is intitled to any privilege, it extends to all
the members of the college. They are exempted from
watching, warding, and other fervices within borough;
and from the payment of minifters ftipends, and of aU
cuftoms, &c. impofed upon goods carried to or from
the city of Edinburgh. Part of thefe privileges and
immunitiee were lately called in queftion by the city
of Edinburgh ; but they were found by the court oif
feffion (affirmed -upon appeal) to be in full force.
9. Though thejurifdidlion of the feffion be properly Jurifdi&k &
limited to civil caufes, the judges have always fuftained®^thc ^11
themfelves as competent to the crime of falfehood.llon*
Where the falfehood deferves death or demembration,
they, after finding the crime proved, remit the crimi¬
nal to the court of judiciary. Special ftatute has given
to the court of feffion jurifdidfion in contraventions of
law-burrows, deforcements, and breach of arreftment;
and they have been in ufe to judge in battery pendente i' j
lite, and in ufury.
10. In certain civil caufes, the jurifdiftion of the'fef¬
fion is exclufive of all inferior jurifdi&ions; as in de¬
clarators of property, and other competitions of heri*
2 table
PartllT. L A
Law of table rights, provings of the tenor, cejjiones bonorum,
Scotland. reftitution of minors, reductions of decrees or ofwritings,
£ajeg o£ tjie e)jates 0f m;nor8 or bankrupts, fcff. In a
fecond clafs of caufes, their jurifdi&ion can be only
exercifed in the way of review, after the caufe is brought
from the inferior court ; as in maritime and confiftorial
caufes, which muft be purfued in the firil inftance be¬
fore the admiral or commilfary ; and in aCtions below
twelve pounds Sterling, which muft be commenced be¬
fore the judge-ordinary. In all civil aftions, which
fall under neither of thefe claffes, the jurifdiCHon of the
feflion is concurrent, even in the firft inftance, with that
of the judge-ordinary. The feffion may proceed as a
court of equity by the rules of confcience, in abating
the rigour of law, and giving aid in proper cafes to
fuch as in a court of law can have ne remedy : and this
power is inherent in the fupreme court of every coun¬
try, where feparate courts are not eftabliftied for law
and for equity.
This court formerly met upon the 12th day of
June and rofe upon the nth day of Auguft for the
fummer feffion ; but now, in confequence of an adt
paffed in the feffion of parliament 1790, it meets on the
12th of May and rifes on the 1 ith of July for the fum¬
mer feffion ; the winter federunt ftill remaining as for¬
merly, viz,, from the *2th of November to the nth
of March inclufive.
Judiciary 11. The fupreme criminal judge was ftyled the
court. Jufticiar} and he had anciently an aniverfal civil ju-
rifdiftion, even in matters of heritage. He was obli¬
ged to hold two juftice courts or ayres yearly at E-
dinburgh or Peebles, where all the freeholders of the
kingdom were obliged to attend. Befides this univer-
fal court, fpecial juftice ayres wrere held in all the diffe¬
rent (hires in the kingdom twice in the year. Thefe laft
having gone into difufe, eight deputies were appointed,
two for every quarter of the kingdom, who ftiould make
their circuits over the whole in April and O&ober.
12. The office of deputies was fuppreffed in 1672 ;
and five lords of feffion were added, as commiffioners of
judiciary, to the juftice-generaland juftice clerk. The
juftice-general, if prefent, is conftant prefident of the
court, and in his abfence the juftice-clerk. The king¬
dom is divided into three diftri&s, and two of the judges
are appointed to hold circuits in certain boroughs of
each diftridl twice in the year; one judge may pro¬
ceed to bufinefs in the abfence of his colleague. In
trials before this court the evidence was always taken
down in writing till the a& 23d Geo. III. was paffed ;
by which the judges may try and determine all caufes
by the verdift of an affize upon examining the witnef-
fes viva voce without reducing the teftimony into wri¬
ting, unlefs it {hall appear more expedient to proceed
in the former way, which they have it in their power
to do. This aft was at firft temporary, but is now
made perpetual by 27th Geo. III. cap. 18.
13. By an old ftatute, the crimes of robbery, rape,
murder, and wilful fire raifing, (the four pleas of the.
Crown), are faid to be referved to the King’s court of
jufticiary ; but the only crime in which, de praxi, the
jurifdiftion of jufticiary became at laft excluiive of all
inferior criminal jurifdiftion, was that of high treafon.
The court of jufticiary, when fitting at Edinburgh, has
a power of advocating caules from all inferior criminal
judges and of fufpending their fentences.
Vol. IX. Part II.
W. 649
14. The circuit-court can alfo judge in all criminal Law of
caufes which do not infer death or demembration, up- Scotiand..
on appeal from any inferior court within their diftrift ;
and has a fupreme civil jurifdiftion, by way of appeal,
in all caufes not exceeding twelve pounds Sterling, in
which their decrees are not fubjeft to review ; but no
appeal is to lie to the circuit, till the caufe be finally
determined in the infeior court.
15. The couit of exchequer, as the King’s cham-Court of
berlain court, judged in, all queftions of the revenue. In exchequetC
purfuance of the treaty of Union, that court was abo-
lilhed, and a new court erefted, confiding of the Lord
High Treafurer of Great Britain, and a chief Baron,
with four other Barons of Exchequer; which Barons
are to be made of ferjeants at law, Englifli barrifters,
or Scots advocates of five years Handing. This court
has a privative jurifdiftion conferred upon it, as to the
duties of cuftoms, excife, or other revenues appertain¬
ing to the king or prince of Scotland, and as to all ho¬
nours and eftates that may accrue to the crown ; in
which matters, they are to judge by the forms of pro¬
ceeding ufed in the Engliih court of exchequer, under
the following limitations; that no debt due to the
crown {hall affeft the debtor’s real eftate in any other
manner than fuch eftate may be affefted by the laws of
Scotland, and that the validity of the Crown’s titles to
any honours or lands {hall continue to be tried by (he
court of feffion. The barons have the powers of the
Scots court transferred to them, of paffing the accounts
of fheriffs, or other officers who have the execution of
writs iffuing from, or returnable to, the court of ex¬
chequer, and of receiving refignations, and paffing fig-
natures of charters, gifts of cafualties, &c. But tho*
all thefe muft pafs in exchequer, it is the court of fef¬
fion only who can judge of their preference after they
are completed.
16. The jurifdiftion of the admiral in maritime Admiralty
caufes was of old concurrent with that of the feffibn. court.
The high-admiral is declared the king’s juftice gene¬
ral upon the feas, on freftr water within flood-mark, and
in all harbours and creeks. His civil jurifdiftion ex¬
tends to all maritime caufes; and focomprehends que¬
ftions of charter-parties, freights, falvages, bottomries,
&c. He exercifes this fupreme jurifdiftion by a dele¬
gate, the judge of the high court of admiralty ; and he
may alfo name inferior deputies, whofe jurifdiftion is
limited to particular diltrifts, and whofe fentences are
fubjeft to the review of the high court. In caufes which
are declared to fall under the admiral’s cognizance, his
jurifdiftion is foie; in fo much, that the feffion it-
felf, though it may review his decrees by fufpenfion
or reduftion, cannot carry a maritime queftion from
him by advocation. The admiral has acquired, by u-
fage, a jurifdiftion in mercantile caufes, even where
they are not itriftly matitime, cumulative with that of
the judge-ordinary.
17. All our fupreme courts have feals or fignets, pro- 3- „ ^
per to their feveraljurifdiftions. The courts of ftffion
and jufticiary ufed formerly the fame fignet, which was
called the king’s, becaufe the writs iffuing from thence
run in the king’s name;-and though the jufticiary got
at laft a feparate fignet foritfclf, yet that of the feffion
ftill retains the appellation of the king’s fignet. In this
office are fealed iummonfes for citation, letters of exe¬
cutorial diligence, or for flaying or prohibiting of dili-
4 N gencc .
L A
gence, and generally whatever paffes by the warrant of
.the feflion, and is to be executed by the officers of the
court. All thefe muft, before fealing, be figned by the
writers or clerks of the fignet: But letters of diligence,
where they are granted in a depending procefs, merely
for probation, though they pafs by the fignet, mull be
fubferibed by a clerk of feifion. The clerks of the iig-
net alfo prepare and fubferibe all fignatuies of charters,
or other royal grants, which pafs in exchequer.
^viii. Sect. III. Of the inferior judges and courts of
Scotland.
Sheriff. Si-rrruFF, (from reeve, governor, and /heer to cat
or divide), is the judge-ordinary conftituted by the
crown over a particular divifion or county. The file-
riff’s jurifdiclion, both civil and criminal, was, in an¬
cient times, nearly as ample within his own territoiy as
that of the fupreme courts of feffion and jufticiary was
over the whole kingdom.
2. His civil jurifdiftioti now extends to all aftions
upon contracts, or other perfonal obligations; forth¬
comings, poindings of the ground, mails and duties ;
and to all poffeffory actions, as removings, ejections,
fpuilzies. See. ; to all brieves iffuing from the chancery,
as of inqueft, terce, divifion, tutory, &c. ; and even to
adjudications of land eflates, when proceeding on the
renunciation of the apparent heir. His prefent crimi¬
nal jurifdi&ion extends to certain capital crimes, as
theft, and even murder, though it be one of the pleas
of the crown ;~and he is competent to mod qudlions of
public police, and has a cumulative jurifdidtion with juf-
tices of the peace in all riots and breaches of the peace.
3. Sheriffs have a minifierialpower, in virtue of which
they return juries, in order to the trial of caufes that
require juries. The writs for elefting members of par¬
liament have been, fince the union, dire&ed to the fire-
riffs, who, after they are executed, return them to the
crown-office from whence they iffued. They alfo exe¬
cute writs iffuing from the court of exchequer and in
general, take care of all eftates, duties, or cafualties
that fall to the crown within their territory, for which
they muff account to the exchequer. _
tord of re- ^ A lord of regality was a magiftrate who had a
grant of lands from the fovereign, with royal jurifdic-
tion annexed thereto. His civil jurifdiftion was equal
to that of a fheriff; his criminal extended to the four
pleas of the crown. He had a right to repledge or re¬
claim all criminals, fubje& to his junfdi£tk>n, from any
Other competent court, though it were the jufticiary
itfelf, to his own. He had alfo right, accoiding to the
moft common opinion, to the fingle efeheat of all de¬
nounced perfons refiding within his jurifdiftibn, even
though fuch privilege bad not been expreffed in the
grant of regality.
■ikewart. 5‘ The llevvaTt v?as the mag‘ftrate appointed by the
king over fuch regality landff as happened to fall to the
crown by forfeiture, &c. and therefore the ftewart’s
jurifdiftion was equal to that of a regality. The two
ftewartries of Kirkcudbright, and of Orkney and Zet¬
land, make (hires or counties by themfelves, and fend
each a reprefentative to parliament.
JaUis. 6. Where lands not ereaed into a regality fell into
the king’s hands, he appointed a bailie over them,
whofe jurifdiaion was equal to that of a (heriff.
w. Pmiir.
7. By the late jurifdi&ton-a&, 20 Geo. II. all heri- Law of
table regalities and bailievies, and all fuch heiitable Scodamf.
(heriffsbips and ftewartrics as were o->ly parts of a (hire, ''
are diffolvcd ; and the powers formerly veiled in them
are made to devolve upon fuch of the king’s courts as
thefe powers would have belonged to if the jurifdidtions
diffolved had never been granted. All fheriftships and
ftewartries that were no part of a (hire, where they had
been granted, either heritably or for life, are relumed
and annexed to the crown. No high fheriff or (lew-art
can hereafter judge perfonally in any caufe. One {heriff
or ftewart-depute is to be appointed by the king in
every (hire, who muff be an advocate of three years
(landing ; and whofe office as IherifF or ftewart-depute
is now by 28. Geo. II. held ad wtam aut cu’pam.
8. The appanage, or patrimony, of the prince °f pr;nce 0r:
Scotland, has been long eredied into a regality-jurif-Scotlard.
didiion, called the Principality. It is perfonal to the
king’s eldeff fon, upon whofe death or fucceffion it re¬
turns to the crown. The prince has, or may have, his
own chancery, from which his writs ifftie, and may
name his own chamberlain and other officers for re¬
ceiving and managing his revenue. The vaffals of the
princes are intitled to cleft, or to be ekfted, members
of parliament for counties, equally with thofe who hold
of the crown.
9. Juitices of the peace are magiftrates named by
the fovereign over the feveral counties of the kingdom,
for the fpecial purpofe of preferving the public peace.
Anciently their power reached little farther than to
bind over diforderly perfons for their appearance before
the privy council or jufticiary; afterwards they were
authorifed to judge in breaches of the peace, and in
moft of the laws concerning public policy. They may
compel workmen or labourers to ferve for a reafonable
fee, and they can condemn mailers in the wages due to
their fervants. They have power to judge in queftions
of highways, and to call out the tenants with their cot¬
tars and fervants to perform fix days work yearly for up¬
holding them. It has been lately, however, found by the
court of feffion, that jullices have no jurifdiftion what¬
ever in common aftionsfor debt. So that it now feems
fixed, that they are incompetent in fuch aftions, except
where they are declared competent by fpecial ftatute.
10. Since the union, our jullices of the peace, over
and above the powers committed to them by the laws
of Scotland, are authorifed to exercife whatever be¬
longed to the office of an Englifh juftice, in rela¬
tion to the public peace. From that time, the Scots
and the Englifh commifiions have run in the fame
(lyle, which contain powers to inquire into and judge
in all capital crimes, witchcrafts, felonies, and feveraj
others fpecially enumerated ; with this limitation fub-
joined, of which jujlicet of the peace may lawfully in¬
quire. Two juftices can conftitute a court. Special
llatute has given the cognizance of feveral matters of
excife to the juftices, in which their fentences are fi¬
nal. As to which, and the powers thereby veiled in
them, the reader muft of necefihy be referred to the
excife laws; it, not falling within the plan of this
work, to enter into fo very minute a detail as that
would prove.
11. A borough is a body-corporate, made up c
the inhabitants of a certain traft of ground erefted by
the fovereign, with jurifdiftion annexed to it. Bo-
5 roughs
Part III, t* A
J^vr of rough* are ertfted, either to be holdca of the fomeign
.‘jtotland., which ie the general cafe of royal borough*;
or of the fuperiof of the lands ere&ed, as boroughs of
regality and barony. Boroughs royal have power, by
their charters, to choofe annually certain office-bearers
or magiftrates; and in boroughs of regality and ba¬
rony, the nomination of magiftrates is, by their char¬
ter, lodged fometimes in the inhabitants, fometimes io
the fuperior. Bailies of boroughs have jurifdi&ion in
matters of debt, fervices, and quettions of pofl'effion
betwixt the inhabitants. Their criminal jurifdi&ion
extends to petty riots, and recklefs fire-ratting. The
dean of guild is that cnagiftrate of a royal borough
who is head of the merchant-company; he has the cog¬
nizance of mercantile caufes within borough; and the
infpection of buildings, that they encroach neither on
private property, nor on the public ftreets; and he
may direft infufficient houfts to be pulled down. His
jurifdi&ion has no dependence on the court of the bo¬
rough, or bailie-court.
Baron* 12, -‘^•^jaron* the large fenfe.of that word, is one
who holds his lands immediately of the crown ; and, as
fuch, had, by our ancient conditution, right to a feat
in parliament, however frtlall his freehold might have
been. The leffer barons were exempted from the bur¬
den of attending the fervice of parliament. This ex¬
emption grew infenfibly into an utter difability in all the
lefl'er barons from fitting in parliament, without elec¬
tion by the county ; though no ftatute is to be found
exprefsly excluding them.
13. Toconftitute a baron in the drift law- Ten fie, his
lands mud have been erefhed, or at lead confirmed, by
the king, in liheram haroniam; and fuch baron had a
certain jurifdiction, both civil and criminal, which he
might have exercifed, either in hie own perfon, or by
his bailie.
14. By the late jurifdiftion-aft, the civil jurifdic¬
tion of a baron is reduced to the power of recovering,
from his valfals and tenants, the rents of his lands, snd
of condemning them in mill-fervice* ; and of judging
in caufes where the debt and damages do not exceed
40 e. Sterling. His criminal jurifdiftion is, by the
fame datute, limited to aflaults, batteries, and other
final er offences, which may be pufriihed by a fine not
exceeding aos. Sterling, or by fetting the offender in
the docks in the day-time not above three boors ; the
fine to be levied by poinding, or one month’s itnprifon-
ment. The jurifdi&ion formerly competent to pro¬
prietors of mines, and coal or fait works, over their
workmen, is referred; and alfc that which was com¬
petent to proprietors who had the right of fairs or
markets, for correffing the diforders that might hap¬
pen during their continuance ; provided they fhall ex-
ereife no jurifdiftion inferring the lofs of life or demem¬
bration.
Conhabu- 15- The high condable of Scotland had no fixed ter-
rrtorial jtirifdiflion, but followed the court ; and bad,
jointly with the marifclral, the cognisance of all crimes
committed within two leagues of it. All other con-
ftabularics were dependent on him': thefe had caftles,
and fometimee boroughs, fubjefl to their jurifdiftion,
at Dundee, Montrofe, &c. and among other powers,
ntMt little known, they had the right of exercifing cri¬
minal jurifdiftion within their refpeftive territories du-
w. 651
ring the continuance of fairs. By the late jurifdiftion- Law of
aft, all jurifdiftiens of conltabulary are diffolved, ex- Scotland.^
cept that of high-conftable. ——y—w
16. The office of the Lyon King of arms was chief- Lyon king
ly minifterial, to denounce war, proclaim peace, carry3t arms-
public meffages, &c. But he has alfo a right of ju-
rifiliftion, whereby he can punilh all who ufurp arms
contrary to the law of arms, and deprive or fufpend
meffengers, heralds, or purfuivants, (who are officers
named by himfelf); but be has no cognizance of the
damage arifing to the private party through the mel-
fenger’s fault. Meffengers are fubfervient to the fu-
preme courts of feffion and jufticiary ; and their proper
bufinefs is to execute all the king’s letters either in ci¬
vil or criminal caufes. They muff find caution for the
proper difeharge of their duty qua meffengers; and in
cafe of any malverfation, or negkft, by whic.* damage
arifes to their employers, their fureties may be recur¬
red upon for indemnification. Thefe fureties, however,
are not anfw erable for the conduft of the meffenger in
any other capacity but qua fuch ; and therefore, if a
tneffenger is authorifed to uplift payment from a debt¬
or, and fails to account to his employer, the cautioner
is not liable ; his obligation extending only to the re¬
gular and proper duties of the office in executing the
diligence, or the like.
17. Our judges had, for a long time, no other ffi-Sentence
laries or appointments than what arofe from the fen-money,
tences they pronounced. Our criminal judges applied
to their own ufe the fines or iffues of their feveral
courts ; and regalities had a right to the fingle eCcheat
of all perfons denounced, who refided within their ju-
rifdhftion ; and our civil judges got a certain propor¬
tion of the fum contained in the decree pronounced.
Bat thefe were all prohibited upon regular falaries be¬
ing fettled upon them.
Sect. V. Of ecclefwfiical perfom. £jjx.
The Pope, or bifhop of Rome, was long acknow*„,
ledged, over the weltern part of Ctuiftendom, for theTie^C'
head of the Cliriflian church, The papal junfdiftion
was aboli!hed in Scotland anno 1560. The king was,
by a& 1-669, declared to have fupreme authority over
all peribne, and in all caufes eccleiiaftical; but this atd
was repealed by 1690, as inconfiftent with Prelbyterian
cburch-governtneut, which was then upon the point of
being etiablifhed.
2. Before the reformation from Popery, the clergy .
was divided into fecuiar and regular. Tlie fecular had er^v
a particular traft of ground given them in charge,
within which they exercifed the paftoral office of bi-
(hop, prefbyter, or other church-officer. The regular
clergy had no cure of fouls ; but were tied down to re-
fidence in their abbacies, priories, or other monafte-
ries : and they got the name of regular, from the rules
of mortification to which they were bound, according
to the in Hi tut ion of their feveral orders. Upon the va¬
cancy of any benefice, whether fecular or regular, co,m-
mendators were frequently appointed to levy the fruits,
as fadlors or ffewards during the vacancy. The Pope
alone could give the higher benefices in commendam ;
and at laft, from the plenitude of his power, he came
to name commendators for life, and without any obli-
4 N 2 gation
652 L
3. Upon abolifhing the Pope*s authority, the regular
clergy * ere totally fnpprtfTed ; and, in place of all the
different degrees which didinguifhed the fecular cler¬
gy, we had at firft only parochial prefbyters or mini-
fters, and fuperintendants, who had the orerfight of
the church within a certain diftricf : foon thereafter
the church-government became epifcopal by archbi-
fhops, bifhops, &c.; and after fome intermediate turns,
is now prelbyterian by kirk-fellions, prefbyteries, fy-
nods, and general alfemblies.
4, Prelate, in our ftatutes, fignifies a bifhop, abbot,
•r other digniired clergyman, who in virtue of his of¬
fice had a feat in parliament. Every bilhop had his
chapter, which confided of a certain number of the
minifters of the diocefe, by whofe affiflance he ma¬
naged the affairs of the church within that diftrift.
The nomination of bilhops to vacant fees has been in
the crown fince 1540, though under the appearance of
continuing the ancient right of election, which was in
the chapter. The confirmation by the crown under the
great feal, of the chapter’s ele&ion, conferred a right
to the fpirituality of the, benefice ; and a fecond grant,
upon the confecration of the bilhop-eledf, gave a title
to the temporality ; but this fecond grant fell foon in¬
to difufe.
Patronage. S’ w^° funded or endowed a church was in-
titled to the right of patronage thereof, or advocatio
ecclejia; whereby, among other privileges, he might
prefent a churchman to the cure, in cafe of a vacancy.
The prefentee, after he was received into the church,
had a right to the benefice proprio jure; and if the
church was parochial, he was called a pdrfon. The
Pope claimed the right of patronage of every kirk to
which no third party could fhew a fpecial title ; and,
fince the reformation, the crown, as coming in place
of the Pope, is confidered as univerfal patron, where
no right of patronage appears in a fubjedf. Where
two churches are united, which had different patrons,
each patron preferits by turns.
6. Gentlemen of ellates frequently founded colleges
or collegiate churches; the head of which got the name
ofprovojt, under whom were certain prebendaries, or
canons, who had their feveral ftalls in the church, where
they fung maffes. Others of leffer fortunes founded
chaplainries, which were donations granted for the
finging of maffes for deceafed friends at particular al¬
tars in a church. Though all thefe were fuppreffed
npon the reformation, their founders continued pa¬
trons of the endowments ; out of which they were al¬
lowed to provide burfars, to be educated in any of the
univerfities.
7. Whjre a fund is gifted for the effablifliment of a
fecond minifter in a parilh where the cure is thought
too heavy for one, the patronage of fuch benefice does
not belong to the donor, but to him who was patron
of the church, unlefs either where the donor has re-
ferved to himfelf the right of patronage in the dona¬
tion, or where he and his fucceffors have been in the
conftant ufe of prefenting the fecond miniller, without
challenge from the patron. The right of prefenting in¬
cumbents was by 1690, c. 23. taken from patrons, and
Tsited.. in the heritors and elders of the parifh, upon
A W. Partin
payment to b« made by the heritors tr the patron of Law of
600 merks ; but it was again reftored to patrons, 10 Sc0[!ani}.
yin. c. 12. with the exception of the prefentation fold
in purfuance of the former ail.
8. Patrons were not Amply adminiftrators of the Patron*
church ; for they held the fruits of the vacant benefice
, as their own, for fome time after the reformation. But
that right is now’ no more than a truft in the patron,
who mud apply them to pious ufes within the parifh,
at the fight of the heritors, yearly as they fall due. If
he fail, he lofes his right of adminiftering the vacant
flipend for that and the next vacancy. The king,
who is exempted from this rule, may apply the va¬
cant dipend of his churches to any pious ufe, though
not w ithin the parifh. If one fhould be ordained to a
church, in oppofition to the prefentee, the patron,
whofe civil right cannot be affefted by any fentence of
a church-court, may retain the ftipend as vacant. Pa¬
trons are to this day intitled to a feat and burial-place
in the churches of which they are patrons, and to the
right of all the teisds of the parilh not heritably dif-
poned.
9. That kirks may not continue too long vacant, the
patron muff prefent to the prelbytery (formerly to the
bilhop), a fit pcrfon for fupplying the cure, within
fix months from his knowledge of the vacancy, other-
wife the right of prefentation accrues to the prelbytery
jure devoluto. Upon prefentation by the patron, the
bilhop collated or conferred the benefice upon the pre¬
fentee by a writing, in which he appointed certain mi¬
nifters of the diocefe to induce or inllitute him into the
church ; which induction completed his right, and was
performed by their placing him in the pulpit, and de¬
livering to him the bible and keys of the church. The
bilhop collated to the churches of wdiich himfelf was
patron, plena jure, or without prefentation ; which he
alfo did in menfal churches, whofe patronages were
funk, by the churches being appropriated to him, as
part of his patrimony. Since the revolution, a judicial
aft of admiffion by the prefbytery, proceeding either
upon a prefentation, or upon a call from the heritors
and elders, or upon their own jus devolutum, completes
the minifter’s right to the benefice.
10. Soon after the reformation, the Popilh church- pr )V;fIon
men were prevailed upon to refign in the fovereign’s tor the re¬
hands a third of their benefices ; which was appropri-formed
ated, in the firft place, for the fubfiftence of the reform-clerSy*
ed clergy. To make this fund effeftual, particular lo¬
calities were alligned in every benefice, to the extent
of a third, called the ajjumption of thirds ; and for the
farther fupportof minitters, Queen Mary made a grant
in their favour of all the fmall benefices not exceeding
300 merks. Bilhops, by the aft which reltored them
to the whole of their benefices, were obliged to main¬
tain the minifters within their diocefes, out of the
thirds ; and in like manner, the laic titulars, who got
grants of the teinds, became bound, by their accepta¬
tion thereof, to provide the kirks within their erec¬
tions in competent ftipends.
11. But all thofe expedients for the maintenance of Commif-
the clergy having proved ineffeftual, a commiffion of lion for
parliament was appointed in the reign of James VL.Plan'"ig
for planting kirks, and modifying ftipends to minifttrs va*
out of the teinds; and afterwards ftveral other com*teinds &ct_
millions were appointed, with the more ample powers
0/
tj5art Ilf. Ii A W. 653
v Law of of dividing large pariiTies, ere&ing new ones, &c. all • 16. All minifters, where there is any landward or Law of
^ iSootland. 0f which were, in 1707, transferred to the court of country parilh, are, over and above their ftipend, in- Sco'land.
'ju’" v T " feflion, with this limitation, that no parifh Ihould be titled to a glebe, which comprehends four acres of a- . v
disjoined, nor new church erefted, nor old one re- rable land, or iixteen fowms of paflure-ground whereGc e> an<*
moved to a new place, without the confent of three- there is no arable land (a fowm is what will graze ten
fourths of the heritors, computing the votes, not by Iheep or one cow) ; and it is to be defigned or marked
their numbers, but by the valuation of their rents by the bifliop or prefbytery out of fuch kirklands
within the parilh. The judges of feffion, when fitting within the parilh as lie neareft to the kirk, and, in de¬
in that court, are confidered as a commiffion of par- fault of kirk-lands, out of temporal lands,
liament, and have their proper clerks, macers, and o- 17 A right of relief is competent to the heritors,
ther officers of court, as fuch, whofe lands are fet off for the manfe or glebe, againll
$5tipends. 12. The lowtft ftipend that could be modified to a the other heritors of the parilh. Manfes and glebes,
minifter bjr the firft commiffion, was 500 merks, or being once regularly defigned, cannot be feued or fold
five chalders of vi&ual, unlefs where the whole teinds by the incumbent in prejudice of his fucceffors, which
of the parilh did not extend fio far : and the higheft is in pra£Hce extended even to the cafe where fuch alie-
was toco merks, or ten chalders. The parliament nation evidently appears profitable to the benefice.
1633 raifed, the minimum to eight chalders of vi&ual, 18. Minifters, befide their glebe, are intitled toGra£
and proportionably in filver; but as neither the com- grafs for a horfe and two cows. And if the lands,
miffion appointed by that aft, nor any of the fubfe- out of which the grafs may be defigned, either lie at
quent ones, was limited as to the maximum, the com- a diltance, or are not fit for pafture, the heritors are
miffioners have been in ufe to augment ftipends confi- to pay to the minifter L. 20 Scots yearly as au equiva-
derably above the old maximum, where there is fuffici- lent. Minifters have alfo freedom of foggage, pallur-
ency of free teinds, and the cure is burdenfome, or age, fuel, feal, divot, loaning, and free ilh and en-
living expenfive. try, according to ufe and wont : but what thele pri-
13. Where a certain quantity of ftipend is modified vileges are, mult be determined by the local cuftom of
to a minifter out of the teinds of a parilh, without pro- the feveral parilhes.
portioning that ftipend among the feveral heritors, the 19. The legal terms at which ftipends become due penns of
decree is called a decree of modification : but where to minifters are Whitfunday and Michaelmas. If the payment of
the commiffioners alfo fix the particular proportions incumbent be admitted to his church before Whitfun-r ltipends,
payable, by each heritor, it is a decree of modification day (till which term the corns are not prefumed to be
and locality. Where a ftipend is only modified, it is fully fown), he has right to that whole year’s ftipend ;
fecured on the wdiole teinds of the parilh, fo that the and, if he is received after Whitfunday, and before
minifter can infill againft any one heritor to the full Michaelmas, he is intitled to the half of that year;
extent of his teinds; fueh heritor being always in- becaufe, though the corns were fown before his en¬
titled to relief againft the reft for what he lhall have try, he was admitted before the term at which they
paid above his juft ffiare: but where the ftipend is al are prefumed to be reaped. By the fame reafon, if
fo localled, each heritor is liable in no more than his he dies or is tranfported before Whitfunday, he has
own proportion. r*ght to no part of that year; if before Michaelmas,
Manfe. I4< Few of the reformed minifters were, at firft, to the half; and if not till after Michaelmas, to the
provided with dwelling houfes ; moft of the Popilh whole.
clergy having, upon the firft appearance of the refor- 20. After the minifter’s death, his executors have^
mation, let their manfes in feu, or in long racks: mi- right to the annat; which, in the fenfe of the canon °J
nifters therefore got a right, in 1563, to as much of law, was a right referved to the Pope, of the firft
thefe manfes as would ferve them, notwithftanding year’s fruits of every benefice. Upon a threatened in-
fuch feus or tacks. Where there was no parfon’s nor vafion from England anno 1547, the annat was given
vicar’s manfe, one was to be built by the heritors, at by our parliament, notwithilanding this right in the
the fight of the bilhop, (now the prefbytery), the Pope, to the executors of fuch churchmen as Ihould
charge not exceeding L. 1000 Scots, nor below 300 fall in battle in defence of their country : but the word
merks. Under a manfe are comprehended (table, barn, annat or ann, as it is now underftood, is the right
and byre, with a garden ; for all which it is ufual to which law gives to the executors of minifters, of half
allow half an acre of ground. a year’s benefice over and above what was due to the
15. Every incumbent is intitled at his entry to have minifter himfelf for his incumbency,
his manfe put in good condition ; for which purpofe, 21. The executors of a minitler need make up no
the prefbytery may appoint a vifitation by tradefmen, title to the ann by confirmation : neither is the right
and order eftimates to be laid before them of the fums affignable by the minifter, or affedlable with his debts;
neceffary for the repairing, which they may proportion for it never belonged to him, but is a mere gratuity
among the heritors according to their valuations. The given by law to thofe whom it is prefumed the de-
prefbytery, after the manfe is made iufficient, ought, ceafed could not fufficiently provide; and law has gi-
upon application of the heritors, to declare it a free ven it exprefsly (o executors : and if it were to be go-
manfe ; which lays the incumbent under an obligation verned by the rules of fucceffion in executory, the wi-
to uphold it in good condition during his incumbency, dow, in cafe of no children, would get one half, the
otherwife he or his executors fhall be liable in damages ; other would go to the next of kin ; and where there
but they are not bound to make up the lofs arifing are children, fhe would be intitled to a third, and the
from the neceffary decay of the building by the wafte other two thirds would fall equally among the children,
of time. But the court of (effion, probably led by the general
pradice,,
6J4 ^ *
I.iivvof praftice, have in this lad cafe divided the aim into two
Scotland. eqUai parts, of which one goes to the widow, and the
* other among the children in capita.
TurifdidUon z2‘ From ^e great confidence that was, in the firft
ol bifliops. a.?es °f Chriftianity, repofed in churchmen, dying per-
forrs frequently committed to them the care of their
eftates, and of their orphan children ; but thefe were
limply rights of trull, not of jurifdiftion. The clergy
foon had the addrefs to eftabhih to themfelves a proper
jutifdiftion, not confined to points of ecclefialtical
right, but extending to questions that had no concern
with the church. They judged not only in teinds,
patronages, teftaments, breach of vow, fcahdal, See.
but in queftions of marriage and divorce, becaufe
marriage was a facrament; in tochers, becaufe thefe
were given in canfideration of marriage ; in all que-
Itions where an oath intervened, on pretence that
oaths were a part of religious worfhip, &c. As
churchmen came, by the means of this extenlive jurif-
diftion, to be diverted from their proper fun&ions,
they committed the cxercife of it to their officials or
commiffaries : hence the commiflary-court was called
the Bifoop’s Court, and Curia Chrijlianitatis ; it was alio
flyled the Confijlorial Court; from conjijlory, a name firll
given to the court of appeals of the Roman emperors,
and afterwards to the courts of judicature held by
churchmen.
Gommif- 23. At the reformation, all epifcopal jurifdi&ion,
fory. exercifed under the authority of the bifhop of Rome,
was abolifhed. As the courfe of juftice in confiftorial
caufes was thereby flopped, QJMary, befides naming
a com miffary for every diocefe, did, by a fpecial grant,
eflablifli a new commiffary-court at Edinburgh, con¬
fiding of four judges or commiffaries. This court is
veiled with a double jtirifdiftion ; one diocefan, which
is exercifed in the fpecial territory contained in the
grant, viz. the counties of Edinburgh, Haddington,
Linlithgow, Peebles, and a great part of Stirlingfliire ;
and another univerfal, by which the judges confirm the
tettaments of all who die in foreign parts, and may re¬
duce the decrees of all inferior commiflaries, provided
the reduftion be purfued within a year after the de¬
cree. Bilhops, upon their re-eftablilhment in the reign
of James VI. were reftored to the right of naming
their feveral commiffaries.
24. As the clergy, in times of Popery, affumed a
jurifdi&ion independent of the civil power or any fe-
cular court, their fentences could be reviewed only by
the Pope, or judges delegated by him ; fo that, with
regard to the courts of Scotland, their jurifdi&ion was
fupreme. But, by an a<9t 1560, the appeals from our
bifliops courts, that were then depending before the
Roman confiftories, were ordained to be decided by
the court of feffion : and by a pofterior aft, 1609, the
feffion is declared the king’s great confiftory, with
power to review ail fentences pronounced by the Com-
miffaries. Neverthelefs, fince that court had no inhe¬
rent jutifdiftion in confiftorial caufes prior to this fta-
tute, and fince the flatute gives them a power of
judging only by way of advocation, they have not, to
this day, any proper confiftorial jurifdiftion in the fis fl:
inftance ; neither do they pronounce fentence in any
confiftorial caufe brought from the commiffaries, but
remit it back to them with inftruftions. By the prac¬
tice immediately fubfequent to the aft before quoted.
dx. \
i W. Part I|
they did not admit advocations from the inferior com-
miffaries, till the caufe was firft brought before the ScotlM
commiffaries of Edinburgh ; but that praftice is now
in difufe.
25. The commiffaries retain to this day an exclufive
power of judging in declarators of marriage, and of
the nullity of marriage; in aftions of divorce and of
non-adherence, of adultery, baftardy, and confirma¬
tion of teftaments; becaufe all thefe matters are ftifl'
confidered to be properly confiftorial. Inferior com¬
miffaries are not competent to queftions of divorce, un¬
der which are comprehended queftions of baltardy and
adherence, when they have a conneftion witii the law-
fulnefsof marriage, or with adultery.
26. Commiffaries have now no power to jroaounce
decrees in abfence for any fum above L. 40 Scots, ex¬
cept in caufes properly confiftorial: but they may au¬
thenticate tutorial and curatorial inventories ; and all
bonds, contrafts, &c. which contain a claufe for reg>
ftration in the books of any judge competent, and pro-
tefts on hills, may be regillered in their books.
Sect. VI. Of marriage.
Persons, when confidered in a private capacity, are
chiefly diftinguiftted by their mutuai relations* as huf-
band and wife, tutor and minor, father and child,
mailer and fervant. The relation of hufband and Marriagei p
wife is conftituted by marriage ; which is .the con-
junftion of man and wife, vowing to live infeparably
till death.
2. Marriage is truly a contraft, and fo requires the
confent of parties. Idiots, therefore, and furious per-
fons, cannot marry. As no perfon is prefutned capable
of confent within the years of pupillarity, which, by
our law, lafts till the age of 14 in males, and >z in
females, marriage cannot be contrafted by pupils; but
if the married pair (hall cohabit after puberty, fuch
acquiefcence gives force to the marriage. Marriage is
fully perfected by confent; which, without confum-
mation, founds all the conjugal right* and duties. 'The
confent requifite to marriage mult be de pretfenti. A
promife ci man iage (Jiipulntio fponfalitia) may be re¬
filed from, as long as matters are entire; but if any
thing be done by one of the parties, whereby a pr..«
jndice arifes from the non-performance, the party re¬
filing is liable in damages to the other. The cano-
nifts, and after them our courts of juftice, explain a
copula fubfequent to a promite of marriage into adtual
marriage.
3. It is fi t neceffary, that marriage fhould be cele- pormof
brated by a clergyman. The confent of parties may celebration,
be declared before any magiftrate, or limply before
witneffis: and though no formal confent ihoakl ap¬
pear, marriage is prefumed from the cohabitation, or
living together at bed and board, ot a man and wo¬
man who are generally reputed hulband and wife.
One’s acknowledgment of his marriage to the midwife
whom he called to his wife, and to the minifter who
baptized his child, was found fufficient prefumptive e-
vidence of marriage, without the aid either of cohabi¬
tation, or of habits and repute. The father’s jeonfent
was, by the Roman law, effential to the marriage of
children in familia: but, by our law, children may
enter into marriage, without the knowledge, and even
againft the remonftrances, of a father.
4. Mar
MI HI. . . L
ILsw of Marriage is forbidden within certain degrees of
cotiaad. gy the law of Mnfes (Leviticus xviii,), which,
T:., by the aft 1567. c. 15. has been adopted by us, fe-
irees.611 cond3 in blood, and all remoter degrees, may all law¬
fully marry. By fecondsin blood are meant firft cou-
fins. Marriage in the dire& line is forbidden in itifi-
nitum; as it is alfo in the collateral line in the fpecial
cafe where one of the parties is loco parentis to the
other, as grand-uncle, great grand-uncle, &c. with re-
fpe£t to his grand niece, &c. Th< fame degrees that
ate prohibited in confanguinity, are prohibited in af¬
finity ; which is the tie arifing from marriage, betwixt
one of the married pair, and the blood relations of the
other. Marriage alfo, where either of the parties is
jiunds of naturally unfit for generation, or (lands already mar-
lily- ried to a third perfon, is ipfo jure null.
5. To prevent bigamy and incetluous marriages,
! 0f th- church has introduced proclamation of banns ;
Ls. which is the ceremony of publifliing the names and
defignations of thofe who intend to intermarry, in the
churches where the bride and bridegroom refide, after
the congregation is affembled for divine fervice 5 that
all perfons who know any obje&ion to the marriage
may offer it. When the order of the church is ob*
ferved, the marriage is called regular; when otherwife,
clandejline. Marriage is valid when entered into in
either of thefe ways ; but when clandeftine, there are
certain penalties impofed upon the parties as w’dl as
the celebrator and witnefles.
6. By mairiage, a fociety is created between the
married pair, which draws after it a mutual communi¬
cation of their civil interefts, in as far as is necefiary
for maintaining it. As the fociety lads only for the
joint lives of the focii; therefore rights that have the
nature of a perpetuity, which our law ftyles heritable,
are not brought under the partnerfliip or communion
of goods; as a land-eflate, or bonds bearing a yearly
intereft : it is only moveable fubjedls, or the fruits pro¬
duced by heritable fubjetts during the marriage, that
become common to man and wife.
'7. The bufhand, as the head of the wife, has the
foie right of managing the goods in communion, which
is called jus mariti. This right is fo abfolute, that it
bears Tut little refemblance to aright of adminiftering
a common fubjeft. For the huftand can, in virtue
thereof, fell, or even gift, at his pleafure, the whole
goods falling under communion ; and his creditors
may aft’eft them -for the payment of his proper debts :
fo that the jus mariti carries all the characters of an
affignation, by the wife to her hufband, of her move¬
able eflate. It arifes (£/£>,/«/-? from the marriage; and
therefore needs no other conflitution. But a ((ranger
may convey an eftate to a wife, fo as it (hall not be
fubjeft to the hufband’s adminiftration ; or the huf¬
band himfelf may, in the marriage-contraft, renounce
his jus mariti in all or any part of his wife’s moveable
efiate.
8. From this right are excepted paraphernal goods,
which, as the word is underftood in our law, compre¬
hends the wife’s wearing apparel, and the ornaments
proper to her perfon ; as necklaces, ear-rings, bread
or arm jewels, buckles, &c, Thefe are neither alie¬
nable by the hulband, nor affeftable by his creditors.
Things of promifeuous ufe to hufband and wife, as
plate, medals, &c. may become paraphernal, by the
A W. 655
hufband’s giving them to the wife, at or before mar- Law of
riage ; but they are paraphernal only in regard to Si:otland-t
that hufband who gave them as fuch, and are efteem-
ed common moveables, if the wife, v/hofe paraphema-
lia they were, be afterwards married to a fecond huf¬
band ; unlefs he (hall in the fame manner appropriate
them to her.
9. The right of the hufband to the wife’s moveable Burdens af-
eftate, is burdened with the moveable debts contra&ed feeing the
by her before marriage : and as his right is univerfafA'
fo alfo is his burden ; for it reaches to her whole
moveable debts, though they fhould far exceed her
moveable edate. Yet the hufband is not conikkred as
the true debtor in his wife’s debts. In all actions for
payment, fire is the proper defender; the hufband is
only cited for his interett, that is, as curator to her,
and adminiftrator of the fociety-goods. As foon there¬
fore as the marriage is diffolved, and the fociety goods
thereby fuffer a divifion, the hufband is no farther
concerned in the (hare belonging to his deceafed, wife;
and confequently is no longer liable to pay her debts,
which mud be recovered from her reprefentatives, or
her feparate edate,
10. This obligation upon the hufband is, however, „
perpetuated againtt him (1.) Where his proper eilate,
real or perfonal, has been affected, during the marriage, gaind the
by complete legal diligence ; in which cafe, the huf- hufbanci.
band mult, by the common rules of law, relieve his
property from the burden with which it (lands charged:
but the utmod diligence againd his perfon is not fuf-
ficient to perpetuate the obligation ; nor even incom¬
plete diligence againd his edate. (2.) The hufband
continues liable, even after the wife’s death, in fo far
as he is lucraius or profited by her edate : Still, how¬
ever, the law does not confider a hufband who has got
but a moderate tocher with the wife as lucratus by the
marriage ; it is the excefs only which it eoplkltrs. as
lucrum, and that mud be edimated by the quality of
the parties and their condition of life.-—As he was at
no time the proper debtor in his wife’s moveable debts;
therefore, though he (hould be lucratus, he is, after
the diffolution, only liable for them fubjidiarie, i. e.
if her own feparale eftate is not fufficient to pay them
off.
11. Where the wife is debtor in that fort of debt,
which, if it had been due to her, would have excluded
thejttr mariti, e, g. in bonds bearing intered, which,
we (hall afterwards fee (clxiii. 4,), continues heritable
as to the rights of hufband and wife, notwithdanding
of the enactment of the datute j66i, which renders
them moveable in certain other refpe^ts, the hufband
is liable only for the bygone interelts, and thofe that
may grow upon the debt during the marriage; became
his obligation for her debts mult be commenfurated to
the intereft he has in her eftate. It is the hufband
alone who is liable in petfonal diligence for his wife’s
debts, while the marriage fubfiils ; the wife, who is
the proper debtor, is free from all perfonal execution
upon them while fhe is ■vejlita viro.
12. The hufoand by marriage becomes the perpe-The bH%.
tual curator of the wife. From this right it arifes,t>a.Ild*s dr®
1. That no fuit can proceed againft the wife till theW)fe s CU£®* -
hufband be cited for his intereft. 2. All deeds, donet0r’
by a wife without the hufband’s confent, are null; nei¬
ther can fhe fue in any a&ion without the hufband’a
COIN
6j6
LAW.
Scotland ccncurrence* where the hufband refafes, or by
■- reafon of forfeiture, &c. cannot concur ; or where the
aftion is to be brought againft the huft>and himfelf,
for performing his part of the marriage articles; the
judge will authorife her to fue in her own name. The
effects arifing from this curatorial power difcover them-
felves even before marriage, upon the publication of
banns; after which the bride, being nolongeryki juris,
can contract no debt, nor do any deed, either to the
prejudice of her future hufband, nor even to her own.
But in order to this, it is neceffary that the banns
fhall have been publifhed in the bride’s parifhfchurch
as well as in that of her hufband.
Separate a- 13. If the hufband fhould either withdraw from his
limony. wife, or turn her out of doors; or if, continuing in
family with her, he fhould by fevete treatment en¬
danger her life; the commiffaries will authorife a repa¬
ration a menfa et thoro, and give a feparate alimony to
the wife, fuitable to her hufband’s eftate, from the time
of fnch reparation until either a reconciliation or a fen-
tence of divorce.
’What of It- 14. Certain obligations of the wife are valid, not-
tbe'wifeva-withflanding her being >3 cura mariti; ex.gr. obli-
■lid- gations arifing from delift; for wives have no privilege
to commit crimes. But if the punifhment refolvei in¬
to a pecuniary mulft, the execution of it muff, from
her incapacity to fulfil, be fufpended till the diffolution
of the marriage, unlefs the wife has a feparate eftate
exempted from the jus mariti.
15. Obligations arifing from contraft, affeft either
the perfon or the eftate. The law has been fo careful
to proteft wives while fub cura marita, that all per-
fonal obligations granted by a wife, though with the
hufband’s confent, as bonds, bills, &c. are null; with
the following exceptions: (1.) Where the wife gets
a feparate peculium or flock, either from her father or
a ftranger, for her own or her children’s alimony, fhe
may grant pei fonal obligations in relation to fuch flock:
and by ftronger reafon, perfonal obligations granted
by a wife are good, when her perfon is aftually with¬
drawn from the hufband’s power by a judicial fepara-
tion. (2.) A wife’s perfonal obligation, granted in
the form of a deed inter vivos, is valid, if it is not to
take effeft till her death. (3.) Where the wife is by
the hufband prapoftta negotiis, intrufted with the ma¬
nagement either of a particular branch of bufinefs or
of his whole affairs, all the contrafts fhe enters into iii
the exercife of htvpreepofitura are effeftual, even though
they be not reduced to writing, but fhould arife mere¬
ly ex re, from furnifhings made to her : but fuch obli¬
gations have no force againft the wife; it is the huf¬
band only, by whofe commiffion fhe afts, who is there¬
by obliged.
16. A wife, while fhe remains in family with her
hufband, is confidered as prtepojita negotiis domeJBcis;
and confequcntly may provide things proper for the fa¬
mily; for the price whereof the hufband is liable, tho’
they fhould be mifapplied, or though the hufband
fhould have given her money to provide them elfe-
Irihibiuon wiierc> A hufband who fufpefts that his wife may
yMc' 3 hurt his fortune by high living, may ufe the remedy of
inhibition againft her ; by which all perfons are inter-
pelled from contrafting with her, or giving her credit.
After the completjng of this diligence, whereby the
prapofitura falls, the wife cannot bind the hufband, un-
N" 177. 1
*
lefs for fuch reafonable furnifhings as he cannot in-
ftruft that he provided her with aliunde. As every man, Scot’
and confequently every hufband, has a right to remove
his managers at pleafure, inhibition may pafs at the
fuit of the hufband againft the wife, though he fhould
not offer to juftify that meafure by an aftual proof of
the extravagance or profufion of her temper.
17. As to rights granted by the wife affefting her Right!
eftate; fhe has no moveable eftate, except her ^ar,3-fe*‘ng
phernalia; and thefe fhe may alien Or impignorate,e^aLC*
with confent of the hufband. She can, without the
hufband, bequeath by teftament her fhare of the goods
in communion ; but fhe cannot difpofe of them inter
vivos-, for fhe herfelf has no proper right to them while
the marriage fubfifts. A wife can lawfully oblige her¬
felf, in relation to her heritable eftate, with confent of
her hufband : for though her perfon is in fome fenfe
funk by the marriage, fhe continues capable of hold¬
ing a veal eftate ; and in fuch obligations her eftate is
confidered, and not her perfon. A hufband, though
he be curator to his wife, can, by his acceptance or in¬
tervention, authorife rights granted by her in his own
favour: for a hufband’s curatory differs in this refpeft
from the curatory of minors, for it is not merely in¬
tended for the wife’s advantage, but is confidered as a
mutual benefit to both.
J 8. All donations, whether by the wife to the huf- Donat
band, or by the hufband to the wife, are revocable byj^°fV^
the donor; but if the donor dies without revocation, ca],ie<1
the right becomes abfolute. Where the donation is ”
not pure, it is not fubjeft to revocation: thus, a grant
made by the hufband, in confequence of the natural
obligation that lies upon him to provide for his wife, is
not revocable, unlefs in fo far as it exceeds the meafure
of a rational fettlement ; neither are remuneratory
grants revocable, where mutual grants are made in con-
fideration of each other, except where an onerous caufe
is fimulated, or where what is given bine inde bears no
proportion to each other. All voluntary contrafts of
feparation, by which the wife is provided in an yearly
alimony, are effeftual as to the time paft, but revocable
either by the hufband or wife.
19. As wives ate in the ftrongeft degree fubjeft to Rati!
the influence of their hufbands, third parties, in whofe ,>yvv
favours they had made grants, were frequently vexed
with aftions of reduftion, as if the grant had been ex¬
torted from the wife through the force or fear of the
hufband. To fecure the grantees againft this danger,
ratifications were introduced, whereby the wife, ap¬
pearing before a judge, declares upon oath, her huf¬
band not prefent, that fhe was not induced to grant
the deed ex vi aut metu. A wife’s ratification is not
abfolutely neceflary for fecuring the grantee : law in¬
deed allows the wife to bring reduftion of any deed fhe
has not ratified, upon the head of force or fear; of
which, if fhe bring fufficient evidence, the deed will be
fet afide ; but if fhe fails in the proof, it will remain
effeftual to the receiver.
20. Marriage, like other contrafts, might, by thej>;fl-u
Roman law, be diffolved by the contra;y confent ofofm
parties; but, by the law of Scotland, it cahnot be dif- r«g<
folved till death, except by divorce, proceeding either
upon the head of adultery or of wilful defertion.
21. Marriage is diffolved by death, either •witbin
year and day from its being contrafted, ov after yc&r
and
Part III. t A
Law of and day. If it is difTolved within year and day, all
^ Scotland. r;ghts granted in coniideration of the marriage (unlefs
' guarded againft in the contraft) become void, and
things return to the fame condition in which they ftood
before the marriage ; with this reftri£tion, that the
hulband is confidered as a Iona jlde poflelfor, in rela¬
tion to what he has confumed upon the faith of his
right; but he is liable to_ repay the tocher, without
any deduftion, in confideration^qf his family-expence
during the marriage. If things cannot be reftored on
both fides, equity hinders the reftoring of one party
■and not the other. In a cafe which was lately before
the court of feffion, it was determined, after a long
hearing in prefence, that where a marriage had been
^iffolved within the year without a living child, by the
death of the hufband, the widow was intitled to be ali¬
mented out of an eftate of which he died poifeffed,
though there were no conventional provifions itipula-
ted in favour of the wife.
22. Upon the diifolution of a marriage, after year
nnd day, the furviving hufband becomes the irrevocable
proprietor of the tocher; and the wife, where (he fur-
vives, is intitled to her jointure, or to her legal provi¬
fions. She has alfo right to mournings, fuitable to
the hufband’s quality; and to alimony from the day of
his death till the term at which her liferent proviiion,
either legal or conventional, commences. If a living
child be procreated of the marriage, the marriage has
the fame effeft as if it had fubfilted beyond the year.
A day is adjefted to the year, in majorem evidentiam,
that it may clearly appear that the year itfelf is elap-
■fed ; and therefore, the running of any part of the
•day, after the year, has the fame effe& as if the whole
were elapfed. The legal right of courtefy compe¬
tent to the furviving hufband is explained below,
N°clxx. 28.
plvorce. 23‘ -D‘vorce *8 a feparation of married perfons,
during their lives, as loofes them from the nuptial tie,
and leaves them at freedom to intermarry with others.
But neither adultery, nor wilful defertion, are grounds
which muft neceffarily diffolve marriage ; they are on¬
ly handles, which the injured party may take hold of
*to be free. Cohabitation, therefore, by the injured
party, after being in the knowledge of the a£ts of a-
dultcry, implies a palling from the injury ; and no-di-
-vorce can proceed, which is carried on by coilufion be¬
twixt the parties, left, contrary to the firil inftitution
of marriage, they might difengage themfelves by their
own confent : and though, after divorce, the guilty
perfon, as well as the innocent, may contrail fecond
marriages; yet, in the cafe of divorce upon adultery,
marriage is by fpecial ftatute (1600. c. 20.) prohibi¬
ted betwixt the two adulterers.
24. Where either party has deferted from the other
for four years together, that other may fue.,for adhe¬
rence. If this has no effedt, the church is to proceed,
firft by admonition, then by excommunication ; all
which previous fteps are declared to be a fufficient
ground for purfuing a divorce. De praxi, the commif-
faries pronounce fentence in the adherence, after one
year’s defertion ; but four years mult intervene between
the firft defertion and the decree of divorce.
25. The legal effeits of divorce on the head of de¬
fertion are, that the offending hulband (hall reftore the
tocher, and forfeit to the wife all her provifions, legal
Vot. IX. Part II. »■
W. <557
and conventional; and, on the other hand, the offend- Law t
ing wife lhall forfeit to the hulband her tocher, and all Sco^an>1',
the rights that would have belonged to her in the cafe v
of her furvivance. This was alfo elleemed the rule in
divorces upon adultery. But by a decifion of the court
of feffion 1662, founded on a trafl of ancient decifions
recovered from the records, the offending hulband was
allowed to retain the tocher.
SecI. VII. Of Minors, and their tutors and cbd. ]
curators.
1. The ftages of life principally diftinguilhed inPupillarity,
law are, pnpillarity, puberty or minority, and majority. c*
A child is under pupillarity, from the birth to 14 years
of age if a male, and till 12 if a female. Minority
begins where pupillarity ends, and continues till majo¬
rity ; which, by the law of Scotland, is the age of
2J years complete, both in males and females: but
minority, in a large fenfe, includes all under age, whe¬
ther pupils orpuberes. Becaufe pupils cannot in any
degree a<ft for themfelyes, and minors feldom with dif-
cretion, pupils are put by law under the power of tu¬
tors, and minors may put themfelves under the direc¬
tion of curators. Tutory is a power and faculty to T ,,
govern the perfon, and adminifter the eftate, of a pupil. U°
Tutors are either nominate, of law, or dative.
2. A tutor nominate is he who is named by a fa¬
ther, in his teftament or other writing, to a lawful
child. Such tutor is not obliged to give caution for
the faithful difeharge of his office ; becaufe his fidelity
is -prefumed to have been fufficiently known to the fa¬
ther.
3. If there be no nomination by the father, or if
the tutors nominate do not accept, or ?f the nomina¬
tion falls by death or otherwife, there is place for a
tutor of law. This fort of tutory devolves upon the
next agnate ; by which we underftand he who is neareft Agnates,
related by the father, though females intervene.
4. Where there are two or more agnates equally
near to the pupil, he who is intitled to the pupil’s legal
fucceffion falls to be preferred to the others. But as
the law fufpefts that he may not be over careful to pre-
ferve a life which ftands in the way of his own intereft,
this fort of tutor is excluded from the cuftody of the
pupil’s perfon ; which is commonly committed to the
mother, while a widow, until the pupil be feven years
old ; and, in default of the mother, to the next cog¬
nate, i. e. the nigheft relation by the mother. The
tutor of law muft (by aft 1474) be at leaft 25 years of
age. He is ferved or declared by a jury of fworn
men, who are called upon abriefiffuing from the chan¬
cery, which is dire&ed to any judge having jurifdic-
tioft. He muft give fecurity before he enters upon the
management.
5. If no tutor of law demands the office, any per¬
fon, even a ftranger, may apply for a tutory-dative.
But becaufe a tutor in law ought to be allowed a com¬
petent. time to deliberate whether he will ferve or not,
no tutory dative can be given till the elapfing of a year
from the time at which the tutor of law had firft a
right to ferve. It is the king alone, as the father of
his country, who gives tutors-dative, by his court of
exchequer; and by aft 1672, no gift of tutory can
pafs in exchequer, without the citation or confent of
4 O paft'
6SS
Judicial
a&or.
L A
Law of the nest of kin to the pupil, both by the father and
Scotland. ^ mother, nor till the tutor give fecurity, recorded in
^ v ' the books of exchequer. There is no room for a tu¬
tor of law, or tutor-dative, while a tutor-nominate can
be hoped for: and tutors of law, or dative, even after
they have begun to a&, may be excluded by the tutor-
nominate, as foon as he offers to accept, unlefs he has
exprefsly renounced the office. If a pupil be without
tutors of any kind, the court of feffion will, at the fuit
of any kinfman, name a faftor (fteward) for the ma¬
nagement of the pupil’s ellate.
6. After the years of pupillarity are over, the mi¬
nor is confidered as capable of afting by himfelf, if he
has confidence enough of his own capacity and gru-
tgurators. dence. The only two cafes in which curators are im-
pofed upon minors are. (i.) Where they are named
by the father, in a ftate of health. (2.) Where the
father is himfelf alive ; for a father is ipfo jure," with¬
out any fervice, adminillrator, that is, both tutor and
curator of law, to his children, in relation to whatever
eflate may fall to them during their minority. This
right in the father does not extend to »Tandchildren,
nor to fuch even of his immediate children as are fo¬
risfamiliated. Neither has it place in fuhjcfts which
are left by a ftranger to the minor, exclufive of the fa¬
ther’s adminiftration. If the minor choofes to be un¬
der the direction of curators, he muft raife and execute
a fummons, citing at leaft two of his next of kin to
appear before his own judge-ordinary, upon nine days
warning (by a£t 1555-) At the day and place of ap¬
pearance, he offers to the judge a lift of thofe whom
he intends for his curators: fuch of them as refolve
to undertake the office muft fign their acceptance,
and give caution; upon which an aft of curatory is
extrafted.
7. Thefe curators are ftyled ad negotia; to diftinguifh
them from another fort called curators ad Hies, who
are authorifed by the judge to concur with a pupil or
minor in aftions of law, either where he is without tu¬
tors and curators, or where bis tutors and curators are
parties to the fuit. This fort is not obliged to-give
caution, becaufe they have no intermeddling with the
minor’s eftate : they are appointed for a fpecial pur-
Who de- P0^ 5 an<^ when that is over, their office is at an end.
barred from Women are capable of being tutors and curators, under
tutory and the following reftriftions: (<•) The office of a female
curatory. tutor or cura{0r falls by her marriage, even though the
nomination fliould provide otherwife; for fhe is no
longer fui juris, and incapable of courfe of having ano¬
ther under her power. (2.) No woman can be tutor
of law. Pa pi fts are (by aft 1700) declared incapable of
tutory or curatory. Where the minor has more tutors
and curators than one, who are called in the nomina¬
tion to joint management, they muft all concur in
every aft of adminiftration ; where a certain number is
named for a quorum, that number muft concur : where
any one is named fine quo non, no aft is valid without
that one’s fpecial concurrence. But if they are named
without any of thefe limitations, ‘he concurrence of
difference t^e maj6r^y t^le nominees then alive is fufficient.
betwee tu_ 8. In this, tutory differs from curatory, that as pa-
toryand pils are incapable of content, they have no perfon ca-
suratory. pabk of afting -j which defeft the tutor fupplies : but
3 minor pubes can aft for, himfelf. Hence, the tutor
W. Part nr.
fubferibes alone all deeds of adminiftration : but in cu- Law of
ratory, it is the minor who fubferibes as the proper Scotland.^
party; the curator does no more than content. Hence •
alfo, the perfons of pupils are under the power either
of their tutors or of their neareft cognates; but the mi¬
nor, after pupillarity, has the difpofal of his own per¬
fon, and may refide where he pleafes. In moft other
particulars, the nature, the powers, and the duties of
the two offices coincide. Both tutors and ^curators Judicial in-
muft, previous to their adminiftration, make a judicial Tent0-*e&
inventory, fubferibed by them and the next of kin, be¬
fore the minor’s judge-ordinary, of his whole eftate
perfonal and real; of which,' one fubferibed duplicate
is to be kept by the tutors or curators themfelves; an¬
other, by the next of kin on the father’s fide * and a
third, by the next of kin on the mother’s. If any eftate
belonging to the minor fhall afterwards come to their
knowledge, they muft add it to the inventory within
two months after their attaining poffeffion thereof.
Should they negleft this, the minor’s debtors are not
obliged to make payment to them : they may be re¬
moved from their offices as fufpefted ; and they are in-
titled to no allowance for the fums difburfed by them
in the minor’s affairs (aft 1672), except the expence
laid out upon the minor’s entertainment, upon his lands ■
and houfes, and upon completing his titles. tuurs'and
9. Tutors and curators cannot grant leafes of thecurator8,
minor’s lands, to endure longer than their own office ;
nor under the former rental, without either a warrant
from the court of feffion, or fome apparent Beceffity.
10. They have power to fell the minor’s moveables;
but cannot fell their pupil’s land-eftate, without the
authority of a judge, yet this reftraint reaches not to
fuch alienations as the pupil could by law be compel¬
led to grant, e. g. to renunciations of wadfets upon
redemption by the reverfer; for in fuch cafe, the
very tenor of his own right lays him under the obli¬
gation ; nor to the renewal of charters to heirs ; but
the charter muft contain no new right in favour of
the heir. The alienation, however, of heritage by a
minor, with confent of his curators, is valid.
11. Tutors and curators cannot, contrary to the na¬
ture of their truft, authorife the minor to do any deed
for their own benefit; nor can they acquire any debt
affefting the minor’s eftate : and, where a tutor or cu¬
rator makes fuch acquifition, in his own name, for a
lefs fum than the right is intitled to draw, the benefit
thereof accrues to the minor. It feems, however, that
fuch put-chafe would be confidered as valid, provided it
were bona fide acquired at a public fale ; for in fuch
cafe it occurs that the tutor or curator is in faft me¬
liorating the fituation of his ward b^- enhancing the
value of his property by a fair competition. In ge¬
neral, it feems to be the genius and fpirit of our law,
that tutors and curators fhall do every thing in their
power towards the faithful and proper difeharge of
their refpeftive offices. _ .
t2 By the Roman law, tutory and curatory, being ^
munera pullica, might be forced upon every one whoK
had not a relevant ground of excufe: but, with us, the
perfons named to thefe offices may either accept or de¬
cline : and where a father, in liege poufiie (w-hen in a
ftate of health), names certain perfons both as tutors
and curators to his children, though they have afted
3 as' *
PartHI. L A . , W-. 639
Law of as tutors, they may tlecline the office of curatory. Tu- ed in their minority, that are hurtful to them. Deeds, Law of
_Scotland. tors an(j clirators having once accepted, are liable in in themfelves void, need not the remedy of reftitution; Scotland.^
diligence, that is, are accountable for the confequences but where hurtful deeds are -granted by a tutor in his ^ ^
of their negleft in any part of their duty from the time pupil’s affairs, or by a minor who has no curators, as
of their acceptance. They are accountable Jinguli in thefe deeds fubfift in law, reditution is neceffary : and
folidum, i. e. every one of them is anfwerable, not only even where a minor, having curators, executes a deed
for his own diligence, but for that of his co-tutors; hurtful to himfelf with their confent, he has not only
and any one may be fued without citing the reft : but action againft the curators, but he has the benefit of
he who is condemned in the whole, has aAion of relief reftitution againft: the deed itfelf. The minor cannot
againft his co-tutors. be reftored, if he does not raife and execute a fummons
13. From this obligation to diligence, we may ex- for reducing the deed, ex capke minorennitatis et l/tji-
cept, { 1.) Fathers or adminiftrators in law, who, from onis, before he be 25 years old. Thefe four years, be-
the prefumption that they aft to the beft of their tween the age of 21 and 25, C2t\\t& quadriennium utile,
power for their children, are liable only for adfual in- are indulged to the minor, that he may have a reafon-
tromiffions. (2.) Tutors and curators named by the able time, from that period, wheti he is firft prefumed
father in confequence of the aA 1696, with the fpe-
cial provifos, that they (hall be liable barely for intro-
miflions, not for omiflions; and that each of them fhall prejudicial to him.
be liable only for himfelf, and not in folidum for the 18. Queftions of reftitution
• ' ‘ t ' . •  o : or r~
is limited to the eftate defeending from the father him
felf. Tutors or curators are not intitled to any falary
; a falary has been exprefsly
contained in the teftator’s nomination } for their office
is prefumed gratuitous.
14. Though no perfon is obliged to accept the of-
to have the perfeft ufe of his reafon, to confider with
himfelf what deeds done in his minority have been truly
proper to the courtTts teepfi#
co-tutors : but this power of exemption from diligence of feffion. Two things muft be proved by the minor, **tcs.*
? i* •- j -- -1-- -n--*- j-r—J-’ c -1-- c—e-..l-„ jn or(jer to tjjC reduction of the deed : (i.) That he
, was minor when it was figned; (2.) That he is hurt
or allowance for pains, unlefs a falary has been exprefsly or lefed by the deed. This lefion muft not proceed
contained in the teftator’s nomination i for their office merely from accident ; for the privilege of reftitution
was not intended to exempt minors from the common
misfortunes of life; it muft be owing to the impru-
fice of tutor or curator ; yet having once accepted, he dence of negligence of the minor, or his curator.
cannot throw it up or renounce it without fufficient
caufe ; but, if he ffiould be guilty of mifapplying the
Howtuto- minor’s money, or fail in any other part of his duty,
19. A minor cannot be reftored againft his own de-c^d! *
lift or fraud 5 e.g. if he ffiould induce one to bargain
with him by faying he was major. (2.) Reftitution is
ry and cu- he may be removed at the fuit of the minor’s next in excluded, if the minor, at any time after majority, has
ratory ex- kin> or by a co-tutor or co-curator. Where the mif- approved of the deed, either by a formal ratification
Pire* conduft proceeds merely from indolence or inatten- or tacitly by payment of intereft, or by other afts in-
tion, the court, in place of removing the tutor, either ferring approbation. (3.) A minor, who has taken
join a curator with him, or, if he be a tutor nominate, himfelf to bufmefs, as a merchant-ffiopkeeper, &c. can-
they oblige him to give caution for his paft and future not be reftored againft any deed granted by him ii
the courfe of that bufinefs, efpecially if he was proxi-
15. The offices of tutory and curatory expire alfo by tnus majorennitati xt figning the deed. (4.) According
the pupil’s attaining the age of puberty, or the minor’s to the more common opinion, a minor cannot be re¬
attaining the age of 21 years complete; and by the ftored in a queftion againft a minor, unlefs fome grofs
death either of the minor, or of his tutor and curator, unfairnefs (hall be qualified in the bargain.
Curatory alfo expires by the marriage of a female mi 20. The privilege of refticution does not always dieH°wtranf.
nor, who becomes thereby under the coverture of her with the minor himfelf. (x.) If g minor fucceeds to mit,ed.to
Own huftand. After expiry of the office, reciprocal a minor, the time allowed for reftitution is governedthe heir*
aftions lie at the inftance both of the tutors and cura- by the minority of the heir, not of the ancefl^r. (2 ) If
tors, and of the minor. That at the infiance of the a minor fncceeds to a major, who was not full ay, the
minor is called adio tutela dire£ta, by which he can com¬
pel the tutors to account ; that at the inftance of the
tutors. a8io tutela contraria, by which the minor can be
compelled to repeat what has been profitably expended
during the adminiftration : but this laft does, not lie
privilege continues with the heir during his minority ;
but he cannot avail himfelf .of the anni utiles, except
in fo far as they were unexpired at the anceftor’s death.
(3.) If a major fucceeds to a minor, he has only the
quadriennium utile^ after the minor’s death ; and ;if he
till after accounting to the minor; for till then the fucceeds to a major dying within the quadriennium, no
tutors are prefumed intus halere to have effefts in more of it can be profitable to him than what remain-
EffeAof
deeds by
minors.
their own hands for anfwering their diffiurfements.
16. Deeds either by pupils, or by minors having cu¬
rators »ithout their confent, are null; but they oblige a defende
ed when the anceftor died.
2 1. No minor can be compelled to (late himfelf asncn
any aftion, whereby his heritable eftate
the granters, in as far as relates to fums profitably ap- flowing from afeendants may be evifted from him, by
22. This privilege is intended merely to fave minrfr®
from the neceflity of difputing upon queftions of prefe¬
rence. It does not therefore take place, (1.) Where
the aftion is purfued on the father’s falfehood or delift.
(2.) Upon his obligation to convey heritage. (3.) On
his liquid bond for a fum of money, though fuch ac-
a.: a 1.4 , .
plied to their ufe. A minor under curators can indeed
make a teftament by himfelf; but whatever is execu¬
ted in the form of a deed inter vivos, requires the cu¬
rator’s confent. Deeds by a minor who has no cura¬
tors, are as effeftual as if he had had curators, and fign-
ed them with their confent; he may even alien his he¬
ritage, without the interpofition of a judge.    _7, „.^Ll JUtn ac.
fleflitution. *7- Minors may be reftored againft all deeds grant- tion ffiould have the effeft to carry off the minor’s
4 O 2 eftate
66o LA
Law of eftate by adjudication, (4.) Nor in aftions purfued by
^Scotland. tj)e m;nor»g fUperior, upon feudal cafualties. (5.) This
k ’ privilege cannot be pleaded in bar of an aftion which
had been firft brought againft the father, and is only
continued againft the minor ; nor where the father was
not in the peaceable pofleffion of the heritable fubjeft
at his death. Before the minor can plead it, he muft
be ferved heir to his father. The perfons of pupils are
by faid aft 1696 protefted from imprifonment on ci¬
vil debts.
Curators of 23. Curators are given, not only to minors, but in
idiots and getleral to every one who, either through defeft of
YonsT1* ^er"jU(*£rnent> or tmfitnefs of difpofition, is incapable of
rightly managing his own affairs. Of the firft fort, are
idiots and furious perfons. Idiots, or fatui, are en¬
tirely deprived of the faculty of reafon. The diftemper
of the furious perfon does not confift in the defeft of
reafon ; but in an overheated imagination, which ob-
ftrufts the application of reafon to the purpofes of life.
Curators may be alfo granted to lunatics ; and even to
perfons dumb and deaf, though they are of found judge¬
ment, where it appears that they cannot exert it in the
management of bufinefs. Every perfon, who is come
of age, and is capable of afting rationally, has a natu¬
ral right to conduft his own affairs. The only regular
way, therefore, of appointing this fort of curators, is
by a jury fummoned upon a brief from the chancery ;
which is not, like the brief of common tutory, di-
refted to any judge ordinary, but to the judge of the
fpecial territory where the perfon alleged to be fatuous
or furious refides; that, if he is truly of found judge¬
ment, he may have an opportunity to oppofe it: and
for this reafon, he ought to be made a party to the
brief. The curatory of idiots and furious perfons be¬
longs to the neareft agnate ; but a father is preferred
to the curatory of his fatuous fon, and the hufbahd to
that of his fatuous wife, before the agnate.
24. A claufe is inferted in the brief, for inquiring
bow long the fatuous or furious perfon has been in that
condition ; and the verdift to be pronounced by the
inqueft has a retrofpeftive effeft ; for it is declared a
fufficient ground, without further evidence, for redu¬
cing all deeds granted after the period at which it ap¬
peared by the proof that the fatuity or furiofity began.
But, as fatuous and furious perfons are, by their very
Hate, incapable of being obliged, all deeds done by
them may be declared void, upon proper evidence of
their fatuity at the time of figning, though they ihould
never have been cognofced idiots by an inqueft.
25. We have fome few inftances of the fovereign’s
giving curators to idiots, where the next agnate did not
claim ; but fuch gifts are truly deviations from our law,
fmce they pafs without any inquiry into the ftate of the
perfon upon whom the curatory is impofed. Hence
the curator of law to an idiot, ferving quandocunque, is
preferred, as foon as he offers himfelf, before the cura¬
tor-dative. This fort of curatory does not determine
by the lucid intervals of the perfon Jub cura; but it
expires by his death, or perfeft return to a found judge¬
ment ; which laft ought regularly to be declared by
the fentence of a judge.
Inter die- 26. Perfons, let them be ever fo profufe, or liable to
Sion. be impofed upon, if they have the exercife of reafon,
can effeftually oblige themfelves, till they are fettered
by law. This may be done by InterdiU'm, which is
W. PartlH.
a legal reftraint laid upon fuch perfons from figning Law of
any deed to their own prejudice, without the confent Scotland;
of their curators or interdiftors. ' -"v-"•)*?
27. There could be no interdiftiom, by our ancient
praftice, without a previous inquiry into the perfon’s
condition. But as there were few who could bear the
lhame that attends judicial interdiftion, however ne-
ceffary the reftraint might have been, voluntary inter¬
diftion has received the countenance of law ; which is-
generally executed in the form of a bond, whereby the
granter obliges himfelf to do no deed that may afftft
his eftate, without the confent of certain friends there¬
in mentioned. Though the reafons induftive of the
bond fhould be but gently touched in the recital, the
interdiftion Hands good. Voluntary interdiftion, tho’
it be impofed by the foie aft of the perfon interdifted,
cannot be recalled at his pleafure : but it may be taken,
off, (1.) By a fentence of the court of feflion, decla¬
ring, either that there was, from the beginning, no fuB
ficient ground for the reftraint; or that the party is,,
fince the date of the bond, become rei fui providus.
(2.) It falls, even without the authority of the lords,,
by the joint aft of the perfon interdifted, and his in¬
terdiftors, concurring to take it off. (3 ) Where the
bond of interdiftion requires a certain number as a
quorum, the reftraint ceafes, if the interdiftors lhall
by death be reduced to a Idler number.
28. Judicial interdiftion is impofed by a fentence of
the court of feffion. It commonly proceeds on an ac¬
tion brought by a near kinfman to the patty ; and
fometimes from the nobik officium of the court, when
they perceive, during the pendency of a fuit, that any
of the litigants is, from the facility of his temper, fub-
jeft to impofition. This fort muft be taken off by the
authority of the fame court that impofed it.
29. An interdiftion need not be ferved agaiuft the RegilVa-
perfon interdifted ; but it muft be executed, or pub- tion ofJin-
lifhed by a meffenger, at the market crofs of the jii-ter(ft<aions*
rifdiftion where he refides, by publicly reading the in¬
terdiftion there, after three oyeffes made for convoca-
ting the lieges. A copy of this execution muft be af¬
fixed to the crofs; and thereafter, the interdiftion, with
its execution, muft (by the aft 1581) be regiftered in
the books both of the jurifdiftion where the perfon
interdifted refides and where his lands lie, or (by the
aft 1600) in the general regifter of the feffion, within
40 days from the publication. An interdiftion, before
it is regiftered, has no effeft againft third parties, tho'*
they Ihould be in the private knowledge of it ; but it
operates againft the interdiftors themfelves, as foon as
it is delivered to them.
30. An interdiftion, duly regiftered, has this effeft,
that all deeds done thereafter, by the perfon interdic¬
ted, without the confent of his interdiftors, affefting
his heritable eftate, are fubjeft to reduftion. Regi-
ftration in the general regifter fecures 4II l*is lands
from alienation, wherever they lie ; but where the in¬
terdiftion is recorded in the regifter of a particular
Ihire, it covers no lands except thofe fituated in that
{hire. But perfons interdifted have full power to difi-
pofe of their moveables, not only by teftament, but by
prefent deeds of alienation r And creditors, in perfonal
bonds granted after interdiftion, may ufe all execution
againft their debtor’s peifon and moveable eftate : fuch
bonds being only fubjeft to reduftion in fo far as di-
■* ligence
Fart III.
W.
66s
them.
* 31. All onerous or rational deeds granted by the
■perfon interdi&ed, are as effectual, even without the
Confent of the interdiftors, as if the granter had been
laid under no reflraint; but he cannot alter the fuccef-
fion of his heritable eftate, by any fettlement, let it be
Sl,aw of Kgence againft. the hetitable eftate may proceed upon timated was begotten ; and hence, if he be a male, he °f
Scotland. excludes, by his right of primogeniture, the fons pro- Scotland.^
created after the marriage, from the fucceffion of the *
father’s heritage, though thefe fons were lawful chil¬
dren from the birth. Hence, alfo, thofe children only
can be thus legitimated, who are begotten of a woman
whom the father might at that period have lawfully
ever fo rational. No deed, granted with confent of married. (2.) Baftards are legitimated by letters of
the interdiftors, is reducible, though the itrongeft le- legitimation from the fovereign. N°clxxxii. 3.
fion or prejudice to the granter fiiould appear: the on- 34. As to the power of mafters over their fervants : Servant^
ly remedy competent, in fuch cafe, is an a&ion by the All fervants now enjoy the fame rights and privileges
granter againft his intevdi&ors, for making up to him with other fubjedts, unlefs in fo far as they are tied
0®ce ofin'what he has loti through their undue confent. It is no down by their engagements of fervice. Servants are
terdi tors. part 0f ;iie j^ty of interdiftors, to receive fums or ma- either neceffary or voluntary. Neceffary are thofe
nage any eftate ; they are given merely ad auBoritatem whom law obliges to work without wages, of whom
prajlandam, to interpofe their authority to reafonable immediately. Voluntary fervants engage without corn-
deeds : and fo are accountable for npthing but their pulfion, either for mere fubfitlence, ot alfo for wages,
fraud or fault, in confenting to deeds hurtful to the Thofe who earn their bread in this way, if they fhould
perfon under their c
Hand off. from engaging, may be compelled to it by
32. The law concerning the date of children falls the juflices of the peace, who have power to fix the
next to be explained. Children are either born in wed- rate of their wages.
lock, or out of it. All children, born in lawful mat - 35. Colliers, coal-bearers, falters, and other per- Colliersin4
riage or wedlock, are prefumed to be begotten by the fons neceffary to collieries and falt-works, as they are^ter'“
perfon to whom the mother is married; and confe- 1— - a ./cx.  r 1- —
quently to be lawful children. This prefumption is fo
ftrongly founded, that it cannot be defeated but bydf
particularly defcribed by aft 1661, were formerly tied
down to perpetual fervice at the works to which they
a once entered. Upon a fale of the works, the right
reft evidence that the mother’s hufband could not be of their fervice was transferred to the new proprietor.
the father of the child, e. g. where he is impotent, or
'“'ivas abfent from the wife till within fix lunar months
of the birth. The canonifts indeed maintain, that the
concurring tefiimony of the hufband and wife, that the
All perfons were prohibited to receive them into their
fervice, without a tefiimonial from their lafl mailer; and
if they deferted to another work, and were redemanded
within a year thereafter, he who had received them
child was not procreated by the hufband, is fufficient was obliged to return them within twenty-four hours,
to elide this legal prefumption for legitimacy : but it under a penalty. But though the proprietor fhould
is an agreed point, that no regard is to be paid to fuch
teftimony, if it be made after they have owned the
negleft to require the deferter within the year, he did
not, by that fhort prefcription, lofe his property in him.
child to be theirs. A father has the abfolute right of Colliers, &c. where the colliery to which they were re-
difpofing of his childrens perfon, of direfting their edu¬
cation, and of moderate chafiifement ; and even after
they become puberes, he may compel them to lifre in
flrifted was either given up, or not fufiicient for their
maintenance, might lawfully engage with others ; but'
if that work fhould be again fet a-going, the proprie-
family with him, and to contribute their labour and tor might reclaim them back to it.
induftry, while they continue there, towards his fervice. 36. But by 15 Geo. III. c. 28. thefe rellraints, theRe^rain^
A child who gets a feparate flock from the father for only remaining vefliges of flavery in the law of Scotland,
carrying on any trade or employment, even though he are abrogated; and, after the 1 ft July 1775, all col-ten °
fhould continue in the father’s houfe, may be faid .to liers, coal-bearers, and falters, are declared to be upon
be emancipated or forisfamiliated, in fo far as concerns the fame footing with other fervants or labourers. The
aft fubjefts thofe who were bound prior to the ift July
1775, to a certain number of years ferviee for their
freedom, according to the age of the perfon.
37. The poor make the loweft clafs or order of per- The poot*
fons. Indigent qhildren may be compelled to ferve any
of the king’s fubjefts without wages, till their age of
that flock ; for the profits arifing from it are his own.
Forisfamiliation, when taken in this fenfe, is alfo infer¬
red by the child’s marriage, or by his living in a fepa¬
rate houfe, with his father’s permiffion or good-will.
Children, after their full age of twenty-one years, be¬
come, according to the general opinion, their own ma¬
fters: and from that period are bound to the father thirty years. Vagrants and fturdy beggars may be alfo
JBaftards.
only by the natural ties of duty, affeftion, and grati¬
tude. The mutual obligations between parents and
children to maintain each other, are explained after¬
wards, N° clxxiii. 4.
33. Children bor-.i out of wedlock, are ftyled natu¬
ral children, or baftards. Baftards may be legitima¬
ted or made lawful, (1.) By the fubfequent inter¬
marriage of the mother of the child with the father.   ^ 
And this fort of legitimation intitles the child to all immediately preceding their being apprehended or
the rights of lawful children. The fubfequent mar- their applying for the public charity. Where the con*-
compelled to ferve any manufafturer. And becaufe
few perfons were willing to receive them into their fer¬
vice, public work-houfes are ordained to be built for
fetting them to work. The poor who cannot work*
mult be maintained by the parifhes in which they were
born ; and where the place of their nativity is not
known, that burden falls upon the parilhes where they
have had their molt common refort, for the three vear.V
riage, which produces legitimation, is confidered by
the law to have been entered into when the child legi-
tributions collected at the churches to which they be -
lo»g are not fufficient for theit maintenance, they ;
<562 L A
s;La7 °I receive tadges from the mlnifter and kirk-fefllon, in
. ctl^and- virtue of which they may afk alms at the dwelling-
houfes of the inhabitants of the parilh.
CHAP. II.
Of Things.
property.
Things ir
W. Part nr.
5. In that fort of moveables which never had an Law of
owner, as wild-beafts, fowls, filhes, Jor pearls found on ScotUad,;.
the fliore, the original law takes place, that he who firll ’ -
apprehends, becomes proprietor; in fo much, that
though the right of hunting, fowling, and fifhing, be
refttained by ftatute, under certain penalties, yet all
game, even what is catched in contravention of the
law, becomes the property of the catcher (unlefs where
rT',HE things, or fubje&s, to which perfons have the confifcation thereof is made part of the penalty),
right, are the fecond objeft of law. the contravener being obnoxious, however, to the pe¬
nal ena&ment of the ftatutes in coafequence of his
Sect. I. Of the divifion of rights^ and the feveral tranfgreffion. It was not for a long time a fixed point
'ways by which a right may be acquired. whether a perfon, though poflefled of the valued rent
by law intitling him to kill game, could hunt upon ano-
The right of enjoying and difpofing of a fubjeft at ther perfon’s grounds without confent: but it was
one’s pleafure, is called property. Proprietors are re- lately found by the court of fcffion, and affirmed upon
ftrained by law from ufing their property" emuloufly to appeal, that he could not it being repugnant to the
their neighbour’s prejudice. Every ftate or fovereign idea of property, that any perfon, however qualified,
has a power over private property, called, by fome law- fhould have it in his power to traverfe and hunt upon
yers, dominium eminens, in virtue of which, the proprie- another’s grounds without confent of the proprietor,
tor may be compelled to fell his property for an ade- Although certain things become the property of the
quate price, where an evident utility on the part of the firft occupant, yet there are others which fall not un¬
public demands it. der this rule. Thus, whales thrown in or killed on our
2. Certain things are by nature itfelf incapable of coafts, belwng neither to thofe who kill them, nor to
capable of appropriation ; as the air, the light, the ocean, &c. :
one perfon, though their ufe be common to all. Others
the proprietor of the grounds on which they are call j
but to the king, providing they are fo large as
they cannot be drawn by a wane with fix oxen.
are by law exempttd from private commerce, in refpeft 6. Accession is that way of acquiring property, by Accefli 1
deftined. Of this laft which, in two things which have a conneftion with or |
of the ufes to which they are
kind are, (1.) Res publics, as navigable rivers, high¬
ways, bridges, &c.: the right of which is^vefled in the
king, chiefly for the benefit of his people, and they are Thus the owner of
dependence on one another, the property of the prin¬
cipal thing draws after it the property of its accefibry.
Ways of
acquiring
property.
called regalia. (2.) Res univerfitatis, things which
belong in property to a particular corporation or fo-
ciety, and whofe ufe is common to every individual in
it, but both property and ufe are fubjeft to the regu¬
lations of -the fociety ; as town-houfes, corporation-
halls, market-places, church-yards, &c. The lands or
other revenue belonging to a corporation do not fall un¬
der this clafs,but art juris privati, yuoadlhz corporation.
3. Property may bt acquired, either by occupation
or acccfion; and transferred by tradilon or preferip-
tion : but prefeription being alfo a way of lofing pro¬
perty, falls to be explained under a ftparale title. Oc¬
cupation, or occupancy, is the appropriating of things
which have no owner, by apprehending them, or fei-
r becomes _the owner of the
calf; a houfe belongs to the owner of the ground on
which it ftands, though built with materials belonging
to and at the charge of another; trees taking root in our
ground, though planted by another, become ours.
Thus alfo, the infenfible addition made to one’s ground
by what a river waffies from other grounds (which is
called alluvia), accrues to the matter of the ground
which receives the addition: but where it happened
that a large piece of ground was disjoined and annexed
to another perfon’s by the force of a river or any other
accident, and which was by the Romans called avulfo,
they confidered the owner’s right of property ttiil to
fubfift, $21, Injl. de rer. divis; and it is probable
that, in a fimilar cafe, our courts would countenance
zing their pofftffion. This was the original method of the dittinftion. The Romans excepted from this rule
acquiring property : and continued, under certain r e- the cafe of paintings drawn on another man’s board or
ftridlions, the dodttrine of the Roman law, §>uod nullius canvas, in coniideration of the excellency of the art;
ejl,ft occupantis : but it can have no room in the feu- which exception our practice has for a like reafon ex-
dal plan, by which the king is looked on as the origi- tended to fimilar cafes.
nal proprietor of all the lands within his dominions. 7. Under acceffion is comprehended SpEciFicATtONjSpecIfica*
. T;\„»n Jr, tW fm t nf mnveahle omods which nrp hy which is meant, a perfon’s making a new fpecies ortion.
prefumed to have once had an owner, this rule obtains
by the law of Scotland, ^uod nullius ejl, ft domini
by which is meant, a perfon’s making a new fpecies a
fubjedt, from materials belonging to another. Where ‘
the new fpecies can be again reduced to the matter of
pis. Thus, the right of treafure hid under ground is which it was made, law confiders the former mafs as
45 • ii  _ u..*  4-,. 1.:    *.1 r  a.i  r •
not acquired by occupation, but accrues to the king,
Thus alfo, where one finds llrayed cattle or other
ftill exitting ; and therefore, the new fpecies, as an ac-
ceffory to the former fubjeft, belongs to the proprietor
moveables, which have been loft by the former owner, ‘ of that fubjedl: but where the thing made cannot be
the finder acquires no right in them, but mutt, give fo reduced, as in the cafe of wine, which cannot be a-
public notice thereof; and if, within year and day alter gain turned into grapes, there is no place for the fflio
fuch notice, the proprietor does not claim his goods, juris ; and therefore the workmanfhip draws after it
they fall to the king, ffieriff, or other perfon to whom the property of the materials. But the perfon who
the king has made a grant of fuch efeheats. thus carries the property from the other is bound to
indemnify
3 Pi
uPart III. L A
Law ef indemnify him according to the true value ; and in
. Scotland. ^ cafe jt was ,3onc mala jhle> he may be made liable in the
pretium aJfeBionis or utmoft value.
8. Though the new fpecies fhould be produced from
the Com mixtion or confufion of different fubftances
belonging to different proprietors, the fame rule holds;
but where the mixture is made by the common confent
of the owner, fuch confent makes the whole a com¬
mon pioperty, according to the fhares that each pro¬
prietor had formerly in the feveral fubjt&s. Where
things of the fame fort are mixed without the confent
of the proprietors, which cannot again be feparated,
e. g, two hogflieads of wine, the whole likewife be¬
comes a common property ; but, in the after-divifion,
regard ought to be had to the different quality of the
wines : if the things fo mixed admit of a feparation,
e. g. two flocks of iheep, the property continues di-
. ftindt.
tradition. ^ Property is carried from one to another by Tra¬
dition ; which is the delivery of poffeffion by-the pro¬
prietor, with an intention to transfer the property to
the receiver. Two things are therefore requifite, in
order to the tranfmitting of property in this way :
i. The intention or content of the former owner to
transfer it on fome proper title of alienation, as fale,
exchange, gift, &c. (2.) The aftual delivery in pur-
fuance of that intention. The firft is called the caufa,
the other the modus transferendi dominii: which laft is
fo neceffary to the acquiring of property, that he who
gets the laft right, with the firft tradition, is preferred,
according to the rule, !Traditionibus, non nudis paths,
transferuntur rcrufh donimia.
to. Tradition is either real, where the iff a corpora
of moveables are put into the hands of the receiver ; or
fyrnbolical, which is ufed where the thing is incapable
of real delivery, or even when aflual delivery is only
inconvenient. Where the pofftffion or cuftody of the
fubjedf has'bten before with him to whom the pro¬
perty is to b^ transferred, there is no room for tradi¬
tion.
•offeffion; (1> p0ffeffion, which is effential both to the acqui-
fition and enjoyment of propeity, is defined, the deten¬
tion of a thing, with a defign or animus in the detainer
of holding it as his own. It cannot be acquired by
the foie a£t of the mind, without real detention ; but,
being once acquired, it may be continued folo ammo.
Poffeffion is either natural, or civil. Natural poffeffion
is, when one poffeffesby himfelf; thus, we poffefs lands
by cultivating them and reaping their fruits, houfes by
inhabiting them, moveables by detaining them in our
•ivil, and hands. Civil pofftffion is our holding the thing, either
by the foie atl of the mind, or by the hands of another
who holds it in our name : thus, the owner of a thing
lent pi-fftffes it by the borrower; the proprietor of lands,
by his tackfman, trullee, or fteward, &c. T^he fame
fubjeft cannot be pufllffed entirely, or in foMum, by
tw'o different perfons at one and the fame time; and
therefore pofftffion by an a61 of the mind ceafes, as
foon as the natural poffeffion is fo taken up by another,
that the former pofffforis not iuflered tore-enter. Yet
two perfons may, in the judgment of law, poffefs the
fame tubjett, at the fame time, on diffeieut lights:
thus >n the cafe of a pledge, the creditor poffeffes it in
bis own name, in virtue ot th. right ol impignoration;
while the proprietor is conhdered as pcffeffing, in and
natural,
W. 663
through the creditor, in fo far as is neceffary for fup- Law of
porting his right of property. The fame doftrine holds Scotland.^
in liferenters, tackfmen, and, generally, in every cafe “v "
where there are rights affecting a fubjedt did in cl from
the property.
12. A bonaJide poffellor is he who, though he is notbo.wfdc*
really proprietor of the fubjedt, yet believes himfelf pro¬
prietor on probable grounds. A mala jide poffeffor is he
who knows, or is prefumed to know, that what he pcffef-
‘ fes is the property of another. A poffeffor Iona fide ac¬
quired right, by the Roman law, to the fruits of the
fubjedt poffeffed, that had been reaped and confumed
by himfelf, while he believed the fubjedts his own. By
cur cuftoms, perception alone, without confumption,
fecures the pofftffor : nay, if he has fown the ground,
while his fonayfitar continued, he is intitled to reap the
crop, propter curam ct culturam. But this dodtriF.e
does not Teach Jo civil fruits, e g. the intereft of mo¬
ney, which the bona fide receiver muft reftore, together
with the principal, to the owner,
13. Bonafides neceffarily ceafeth by the conficientia-
rei alienee in the poffeffor, whether fuch confcioufnefs
fhould proceed from legal interpellation, or private
knowledge. Mala fides is fometimes induced by the
true owner’s bringing his adtion againft the pofftffor,
fomttimes not till litifeonteftation, and, in cafes uncom¬
monly favouiable, not till fentence be pronounced a-
gain ft the poffeffor.
14. The property of moveable fuhjedts is prefumed ot;
by the bare adt of pofft ffion, until the contrary be P0®5®00*-
proved ; but poffeffion of an immoveable fubjedf, tho*
for a century of years together, if there is no feifm,
does not create even a prefumptive right to it: Nulla
fiafima, nulla terra. Such fubjedt is confidtred as ca-
duciary, and fo accrues to the fovereign. Where the
property of a fubjsdt is contefted, the lawful poffeffor
is iqtitled to continue his poffeffioii, till the point of
right be dilcuffed; and, if he has loft it by force or
Health, the judge will, upon fummary application, inn-
mediately reftore it to him.
15. Where a poffeffor has feveral rights in his per-
fon, affecting the fubjedt poffeffed, the general rule is,
that he may aferibe his poffeffion to which of them be
pleafes; but one cannot aferibe his poffeffion to a title
other than that on which it commenced, in prejudice
ol him from whom his title flowed.
Sect. II. Of heritable and moveable rights.
For the better underftanding the dbdtrine of this
title, it muft be known, that by the law of Scotland,
and indeed of moft nations of Europe fince the intro-
dudlion of feus, wherever there are two or more in
the fame degree of confanguinity to one who dies in-
teftate, and who are not all females, fuch rights belong¬
ing to the deceafed as are either properly feudal, or
have any refemblance to feudal rights, defeend wholly
to one of them, who is confideredas his proper heir ;
the others, who have the name of next of kin or execu¬
tors, muft be contented with that portion of the eltate
which is of a more perifhable nature. Hence has arifen
the divifion of rights to be explained under this title :
the fubjedls defeending to the heir, are ftyled heritable ;
and thofe that fall to the next of kin moveable.
2. All rights of; or affedting lands, under which are
. com?-
cl*&
664 LAW. Part XU.,
Xaw of eofnprfchendeci houfe», mills, fidiings, teinds ; and all followed, may be affe&ed at the fuit of credltofS, either Law of :
. cot an • rights of fnbjects that are {undo annexa, whether com- by adjudication, which is a diligence proper to heritage; Si:otlan<bJ
pleted by feilln or not, are heritable ex fua natura. On or by arreftment, which is peculiar to moveables. Bonds '
Divifion of t^ie ot^er hand, every thing that moves itfelf or can be fecluding executors, though they defeend to the credi-
rights into moved, and in general whatever is not united to land, tor’s heir, are payable by the debtor’s executors, with-
heritable is moveable: as houfehold-furnitare, corns, cattle, cafh, out relief again it the heir ; llnce the debtor’s fuccef-
and move* arrears 0f rent Qf intereft, even though they (hould
* be due on a right of annualrent: for though the arrears
la!l mentioned are fecured on land, yet being prefently
payable, they are confideredas cafh.
3. Debts, (noniina debit or um when due by bill,
promifl’ory note, or account, are moveable. When con-
ftituted by bond, they do not all fall under any one
head ; but are divided into heritable and moveable, by
the following rules. All debts conftituted by bond
bearing an obligation to infeft the creditor in any he¬
ritable fubjeft in fecurity of the principal fum and an-
-irualrent, or annualrent only, are heritable ; for they
not only carry a yearly profit, but are fecured upon
land.
4. Bonds merely perfoflal, though bearing a'claufe
of intereft, are, by a& 1661, declared to be moveable
. as to fucceffioh ; i. e. they go, not to the heir, but to
»the next of kin or executors : but they are heritable
with refpeft to the fifk, and to the rights of hufband
-and wife ; that is, though, by the general rule, move-
able rights fall under the communion of goods confe-
tjuent upon marriage, and the moveables of denounced
perfons fall to the crown or filk by fingle efeheat, yet
fuch bonds do neither, but are heritable in both re-
fpefts.
5. Bonds taken payable to heirs and aflignees, feclu-
ding executors, are heritable in all refpefts, from the
deftination of the creditor. But a bond, which is made
payable to heirs, without mention of executors, de-
icends, not to the proper heir in heritage, though heirs
are mentioned in the bond, but to the executor; for
-the word heir> which is a generic term, points out him
-who is to fucceed by law in the right ; and the execu¬
tor, being the heir in mobilibus, is confidered as the per-
- :fon to whom fuch bond is taken payable. But where
a bond is taken to heirs-male, or to a feries of heirs,
one after another, fuch bond is heritable, becaufe its
deftination necefiarily excludes executors.
#Jowmnve- 6. Subjects originally moveable become heritable,
able tights By the proprietor’s deftination. Thus, a jewel, or
become he- any other moveable fubjeft, may be provided to the
.citable. jie;r> flom right competent to every proprietor to
fettle his property on whom he pleafes. (2.) Move-
.able rights may become heritable, by the fupervening
of an heritable fecurity : Thus, a fum due by a perso¬
nal bond becomes heritable, by the creditor’s accepting
an heritable right for fecuring it* or by adjudging up¬
on it.
7. Heritable rights do not become moveable by ac-
ceflbry moveable fecurities; the heritable right being
in fuch cafe the jar nobilius, which draws the other af¬
ter it.
SRiehts 8. Certain fubje&s partake, in different refpe&s, of
partly heri-the nature both of heritable and moveable. Perfonal
table! part-^ bonds are, by the above cited a& 1661, moveable in
ly move- refpe& Gf fuccefiion ; but heritable as to the fifk, and
the rights of hufband and wife. All bonds, whether
merely perfonal, or even heritable, on which no feifia has
-N° 177*
fion cannot be affe&ed by the deftination of the credi¬
tor.
9. All queftions, whether a right be heritable orWhatperi-j
moveable, muft be determined according to the condi-od makes a
tion of the fubjeft'at the time of the anceftor’s death,
If it was heritable at that period, it muft belong to the moveable^
heir* if moveable, it muft fall to the executor, without
regard to any alterations that may have affe&ed the
fubjeft in the intermediate period between the ancef¬
tor’s death and the competition.
I. HERITABLE RIGHTS.
Sect. HI. Of the.conjlituticn of heritable rights clxlv. j
by charter and fcifin.
Heritable rights are governed by the feudal law, Origin of ;
which owed its origin, or at leaft its firft improvements,the feutla^1
to the Longobards; whofe kings, upon having pene- aw’
trated into Italy, the better to preferve their conquefts,
made grants to their principal commanders of great
part of the conquered provinces, to be again fubdivided
by them among the lower officers, under the conditions
of fidelity and military fervice.
2. The feudal conftitutions and ufages were firft re¬
duced into writing about the year 1150, by two law¬
yers of Milan, under the title of Confuetudines Feudo-
rum. None of the German emperors appear to have
exprefsly confirmed this colle&ion by their authority;
but it is generally agreed, that it had their tacit appro¬
bation, and was confidered as the cuftomary feudal law
of all the countries fubjeft to the empire. No other
country has ever acknowledged thefe books for their
law; but each ftate has formed to itfelf fuch a fyftem
of feudal rule?, as heft agreed with the genius of its
own conftitution. In feudal queftions, therefore, we
are governed, in the firft place, by our own ftatutes
and cuftoms; where thefe fail us, we have regard to
the pra&ice of neighbouring countries, if the genius of
their law appears to be the fame with ours; and fhould
the queftion ftill remain doubtful, we may have re-
couife to thofe written books of the feus, as to the
original plan on which all feudal fyItems have pro¬
ceeded.
3. This military grant got the name, firft of benef-
cium, and afterwards offeudum; and was defined a gra- of feus,
tuitous right to the property of lands, made under the
conditions of fealty and military fervice, to be per¬
formed to the granter by the receiver; the radical right
of the lands (till remaining in the granter. Under lands,
in this definition, are comprehended all rights or fub-
jefts fo connected with land, that they are deemed a
part thereof; as houfes, mills, filhings, jurifdiftions,
patronages, &c. Though feus in their original nature
were gratuitous, they foon became the fubjedt of com¬
merce; fervices of a civil or religious kind were fre¬
quently fubftituted in place of jnilitary; and now, -of a
long time, fervices of every kind have been entirely dif-
2 puffed
Part III. t>
Law of penfed within -certain feudal tenures. He who makes
Scotland tj,e grant ;s called the fuperwr, and he who receives it
g' l '' >, the ’uajfal The fubjeft of the grant is commonly call*
and vaflati, ed the feu ; t lough that word is at other times, in
our law, ufed to fignify one particular tenure. {See
SeA- iv. 2.). The intereft retained by the fuperior
in the feu is ftyled dominium diredum, or the fuperiori
ty ; and the inttreft acquired by the vaflal, dominium
vtile, or the property. The word fee is promifcuoufly
applied to both.
Allodial 4. Allodial goods are oppofed to feus; by which
<goods. are underllood goods enjoyed by the owner, independ¬
ent of a fuperior. All moveable goods are allodial}
lands only are fo when they are given without the
condition of fealty or homage. By the feudal fyftem,
the fovereign, who is the fountain of feudal rights,
referves to himfelf the fuperiority of all the lands of
which he makes the grant ; To that, with us, no lands
are allodial, except thofe of the king’s own property,
the fuperiorities which the king referves in the proper¬
ty-lands of his fubje&s, and manfes and glebes, the
right of which is completed by the prelbytery’s defig-
nation, without any feudal grant.
Who can 5’ Every perfon who is in the right of an immove-
grantfeudal able fubjeA, provided he has the free adminiftration
rights. of his eftate, and is not debarred by ftatute, or by
the nature of his right, may difpofe of it to another.
Nay, a vaflal, though he has only the dominium utile,
can fubfeu his property to a fubvaflal by a fubaltern
right, and thereby raife a new dominium diredum in
himfelf, fubordinate to that which is in his fuperior ;
and fo in infinitum. The vaflal who thus fubfeus is call¬
ed the fubvaflal’s immediate fuperior, and the vaflal’s
fuperior is the fubvaflal’s mediate fuperior.
6. All perfons who are not difabled by law, may
acquire and enjoy feudal rights. Papifls cannot pur-
chafe a land eftate by any voluntary deed. Aliens,
who owe allegiance to a foreign prince, cannot hold
a feudal right without naturalization : and therefore,
where fuch privilege was intended to be given to fa¬
voured nations or perfons, ftatutes of naturalization
were neceflary, either general or fpecial; or at leaft,
letters of naturalization by the fovereign.
What fub- 7* Every heritable fubjedt, capable of commerce,
jeitfc can may be granted in feu. From this general rule are ex
be granted cepted, i. The annexed property of the crown, which
an *eu* is not alienable without a previous diflblution in par¬
liament. 2. Tailzied lands, which are devifed under
condition that they (hall not be aliened. 3. An eftate
in hareditate jacente cannot be effectually aliened by
the heir-apparent (i. e. not entered); but fuch aliena¬
tion becomes effedtual upon his entry, the fupervening
right accruing in that cafe to the purchafer ; which is
a rule applicable to the alienation of all fubje&s not
belonging to the vender at the time of the fale.
8. The feudal right, or, as it is called, invfliture,
is conftituted by charter and feifin. By the charter,
we underftand that writing which contains the grant
of the feudal fubjeft to the vaffal, whether it be exe¬
cuted in the proper form of a charter, or of a difpofi-
tion. Charters by fubjeA fuperiors are granted, ei¬
ther, A me de fuperiore meo, when they are to be
holden, not of the granter himfelf, but of his fuperior.
This fort is called a public holding, becaufe vaffals were
Vol. IX. Part II.
Who a
receive
them.
Itfcudal
charter-
A W. 665’
in ancient times publicly received in the fuperior’s I'aw
court before the pares cur'ue or co-vaffals. Or, 1. Dt Scotland^_
me, where the lands are to be hoiden of the granter. v——*
Thefe were called fome times bafe rights, from has, loos¬
er : and fometimes private, becaufe, before the efta-
blifhment of our records, they were eafily concealed
from third parties i the nature of all which will be
more fully explained, Se&. vii. An original charter
is that by which the fee is firft granted: A charter
by progrefs is a renewed difpofition of that fee to the
heir or aflignee of the vaffal. All doubtful claufes in
charters by progrefs ought to be conftrued agreeably
to the original grant; and all claufes in the original
charter are underftood to be implied in the charters
by progrefs, if there be no exprefs alteration. ft* conftt-
9. The firft; claufe in an original charter, whichtueot
follows immediately after the name and defignation of
the granter, is the narrative or recital, which expreffes
the caufes indu&ive of the grant. If the grant be
made for a valuable confideration, it is faid to be one¬
rous ; if for love and favour, gratuitous. In the dif-
pofitive claufe of a charter, the fubjects made over are
deferibed either by fpecial boundaries or march-ftones,
(which is called a bounding charter'), or by fuch other
charafters as may fufficiently diftinguilh them. A
charter regularly carries right to no fubje&s but what
are contained in this claufe, though they (hould be
mentioned in fome other claufe of the charter. It
has been however found, that a right to falmon-fifh-
ing was carried by a claufe cum pifeariis in the tenen-
das of a charter, the fame having been followed with
poffelfion.
10. The claufe of tenendas (from its firft words te-
nendas pradidas terras) expreffes the particular tenure
by which the lands are to be holden. The claufe of
reddendo (from the words reddendo inde annuatim) fpe-
cifies the particular duty or fervice which the vaffal is
to pay or perform to the fuperior.
11. The claufe of warrandice is that by which the Warns-
granter obliges himfelf that the right conveyed (hall d*'®*
be effe&ual to the receiver. Warrandice is either per-
fonal or real. Perfonal warrandice, where the granter
is only bound perfonally, is either, 1. Simple, that
he (hall grant no deed in prejudice of the right; and
thjs fort, which is confined to future deeds, is implied
even in donations. 2. Warrandice from fad and deed,
by which the granter warrants that the right neither
has been, nor (hall be, hurt by any fad of his. Or,
3. Abfolute warrandice contra omnes mortales, whereby
the right is warranted againft all legal defe&s in it
which may carry it off from the receiver either wholly
or in part. Where a fale of lands proceeds upon an
onerous caufe, the granter is liable in abfolute warrant
dice, though no warrandice be expreffed; but in af-
fignations to debts or decrees, no higher warrandice
than from faft and deed is implied.
12. Gratuitous grants by the crown imply no war¬
randice ; and though warrandice (hould be expreffed,
the claufe is ineffedual, from a prefumption that it
has crept in by “the negligence of the crown’s officers.
But where the crown makes a grant, not jure corona,
but for an adequate price, the fovereign is in the fame
cafe with his fubje&s.
13. Abfolute warrandice, in cafe of evi&ion, affords Effe<5b of
4p a0 warrandice;
m
precept of
fcillu.
A W. Part III.
lands of Scotland, Is conftltuted jure eorotue without I-aw of
felfin. In feveral parcels of land that lie contiguous Scotland,
to one another, one feifm ferves for all, unlefs the right
of the feveial parcels be either holden of different fu-
periors, or derived from different authors, or enjoyed
by different tenures under the fame fuperior. In d'if-
contiguous lands, a feparate feifin muft be taken on
every parcel, unlefs the fovereign has united them in¬
to one tenandry by a charter of union ; in which cafe,
if there is no fpecial place expreffed, a feifin taken on
any part of the united lands will ferve for the whole,
even though they be fituated in different fhires. The
only effeft of union is, to give the difcontiguous lands
the fame quality as if they had been contiguous or na¬
turally united ; union, therefore, does not take off the
neceffity of feparate feifins, in lands holden by differ¬
ent tenures, or the rights of which flow from different
fuperiors, thefe being incapable of natural union.
21. The privilege of barony carries a higher right Barony im-
than union does, and confequently includes union in it PIies unwo^
firft lands, given in exchange for as the kffer degree. This right of barony can neither
be given, nor tranfmitted, unkfs by the crown ; but
the quality of Ample union, being once conferred on
lands by the fovereign, may be communicated by the
vaffal to a fubvaffal. Though part of the lands united
or erefted into a barony be fold by the vaffal to be
holden a me, the whole union is not thereby diffolved:
what remains unfold retains the quality.
22. A charter, not perfected by feifin, is a right a charter
merely perfonal, which does not transfer the property becomes
(fee N° clxxiii. I.); and a feifin of itfelf bears nor®alonly
faith without its warrant: It is the charter and feifin after fe,£in*
joined together that conftitutes the feudal right, and
fecures the receiver againft the effect of all pofterior
feifins, even though the charters on which they pro¬
ceed fliould be prior to his-
Law of an action to the grantee againft the granter, for ma-
Scotland. k[ng Up to him all that he (hall have fuffered through
the defedt of the right; and not Amply for his indem¬
nification, by the granter’s repayment of the price to
him. But as warrandice is penal, and confequently
JlriRi juris, it is not eafily prefumed, nor is it incur¬
red from every light fervitude that may affect the fub-
jedt ; far lefs does it extend to burdens which may af-
fedt the fubjedt pofterior to the grant, nor to thofe
impofed by public ftatute, whether before or after,
unlefs fpecially warranted againft.
Real war- 14. Real warrandice is either, I. Exprefs, whereby,
randice. jn fecur;ty of the lands principally conveyed, other
lands, called warrandice-lands, are alfo made over, to
which the receiver may have recourfe in cafe the prin¬
cipal lands be evidted. Or, 2. Tacit, which is con-
Exeam- ftituted by the exchange or excambion of one piece of
bion. ground with another; for, if the lands exchanged are
carried off fiom either of the parties, the law itfelf,
without any padrion, gives that party immediate re-
courfe upon his o
the lands evidled.
15. The charter concludes with a precept of feifin,
which is. the command of the fuperior granter of the
right to his bailie, for giving feifin or polfeflion to the
vaffal, or his attorney, by delivering to him the pro¬
per fymbols. Any perfon, whofe name may be in-
ferted in the blank left in the precept for that pur-
pofe, can execute the precept as bailie ; and whoever
has the precept of feifin in his hands, is prefumed to
have a power of attorney from the vaffal for receiving
poffeffion in his name.
Inftrument 16. A feifin is the inftrument or atteftatxon of a no-
<jf feifin. tary, that poffeffion was adtually given by the fuperior
or his bailie, to the vaffal or his attorney ; which is
confidered as fo neceffary a folemnity, as not to be
fuppliable, either by a proof of natural poffeffion, or
even of the fpecial fadi that the vaffal was duly enter¬
ed to the poffeffion by the fuperior’s bailie.
17. The fymbels by which the delivery of poffef-
23 . No quality which is defigned as a lien or real All burdens
burden on a feudal right, can be effedtual againft fin - J5? in*
gular fucceffors, if it be not inferted in the inveftiture. ^etnvTftk
If the creditors in the burden are not particularly men- ture.
Symbols -, , , , . . .
nfed in fei- flon ;3 expreffed, are, for lands, earth, and ftone j for tioned, the burden is not real; for no perpetual un-
^ns‘ rights of annualrent payable forth of land, it is alfo known incumbrance can be created upon lands. Where
earth and ftone with the addition of a penny money j the right itfelf is granted with the burden of the funv
for parfonage teinds, a Iheaf of corn; for jurifdi&ions, therein mentioned,
the book of the court; for patronages, a pfalm-book,
and the keys of the church; for fifhings, net and
coble ; for mills, clap and happer, &c. The feifin
isuft be taken upon the ground of the lands, except
where there is a fpecial difpenfation ia the charter
From the crown.
Rsgiftra- 18. All .feifins muft be regiftered within 60 days
tion of fei- after their date, either in the general regifter of feifins
fins’ at Edinburgh, or in the regifter of the particular Ihire
appointed by the aft 1617 ; which, it muft be obfer-
ved, is not, in every cafe, the {hire within which the
lands lie. Burgage feifins are ordained to be regifter¬
ed in the books of the borough.
19. Unregiftered feifins are ineffeftual againft third
parties, but they are valid againft the granters and fuperior’s occafions required it. As all feudal rights
their heirs. Seifins regularly recorded, are preferable, were originally held by this tenure, ward-holding was
not according to their own dates, but the dates of in dubio prefumed. Hence, though the reddendo had
One feifin their regiftration.
Serves in 20. Seifin neceffarily fuppofes a fuperior by whom
and^unf ** >s given 5 the right therefore which the fovereign,
tedtene- who acknowledges no fuperior, has over the whole
menu.
where it is declared void if the
fum be not paid againft a day certain, the burden is
real; but where the receiver is fimply obliged by his
acceptance to make payment, the claufe is effeftual
only againft him and his heirs.
Sect. IV. Of the feveral kinds of holding. clsv;
Feudal fubjefts are chiefly diftinguifhed by their
different manners of holding, which were either ward,
blanch, feu, or burgage. Ward holding, (which is Ward-hold-
now abolilhed by 20 Geo. II. c. 50.) was that which ing.
was granted for military fervice. Its proper reddendo
was, fervices, or firvices ufid and wont; by which laft
was meant the performance of fervice whenever the
contained fome fpecial fervice or yearly duty, the hold¬
ing was prefumed ward, if another holding was not
particularly expreffed.
2. holding is that whereby the vaffal is obliged feu-hold-
Part II. L
Law'f to pay to the fupenor a yearly rent in money or grain,
^Stoclgid. ancj fometimes alfo in fervices proper to a farm, as
' ""'’+v ploughing, reaping, carriages for the fuperior’s ufe.
See. nomine feudi firmx. This kind of tenure was in¬
troduced for the encouragement of agriculture, the
improvement of which was confiderably obftrufted by
the vaflal’s obligation to military fervice. It appears
to have been a tenure known in Scotland as far back as
leges burgorum.
Ulanch- 3. JS/aw^-holding is that whereby the vaffal is to
holding. pay t0 the fuperior an elufory yearly duty, as a penny
money, a rofe, a pair of gilt fpurs, &c. merely in
acknowledgment of the fuperiority, nomimt albaJirma.
This duty, where it is a thing of yearly growth, if it
be not demanded within the year, cannot be exacted
thereafter; and where the words ft petatur tantum are
fubjoined to the reddendo, they imply a releafe to the
valfal, whatever the quality of the duty may be, if it
is not afked within the year.
Burgage. 4- Burgage-hoXdsng is that, by which boroughs*
holding, royal hold of the fovereign the lands which are con¬
tained in their charters of ereftion. This, in the opi¬
nion of Craig, does not conftitute a feparate tenure,
but is a fpecies of ward-holding; with this fpecialty,
that the vaflal is not a private perfon, but a communi¬
ty ; and indeed, watching and warding, which is the
nfual fervice contained in the reddendo of fuch char*
ters, might be properly enough faid, fome centuries
ago, to nave been of the military kind. As the royal
borough is the king’s vaffal, all burgage holders hold
immediately of the crown: the magillrates, therefore,
when they receive the refignations of the particular
burgeffes, and give feifin to them, aft, not as fupe*
riors, but as the king’s bailies fpecially authorifed
thereto.
Mortifica- 5- Feudal fubjefte*' granted to churches, monafte-
tion. ries> or other focieties for religious or charitable ufes,
are faid to be mortified, or granted ad manum mor-
tuam } either becaufe all cafualties muft neceffarily be
loft to the fuperior, where the vaflal is a corporation,
which never dies; or becaufe the property of thefe
fubjeftsis granted to a dead hand, which cannot tranf-
fer it to another. In lands mortified in times of Po¬
pery to the church, whether granted to prelates for
the behoof of the church, or in puram eleemofynam;
the only fervices preftable by the vaffals were prayers,
and finging of maffes for the fouls of the deceafed,
which approaches nearer to blanch-holding than ward.
The purpofes of fuch grants having been, upon the
reformation, declared fuperftitious, the lands mortified
were annexed to the crown; but mortifications to uni-
verfities, hofpitals, &c, were not affefted by that an¬
nexation 5 and lands may, at this day, be mortified to
any lawful purpofe, either by blanch or by feu hold*
ing. But as the fuperior muft Jofe all the cafualties
of fuperiority in the cafe of mortifications to churches,
univerfities, &c. which being confidered as a corpora¬
tion, never dies ; therefore lands cannot be mortified
without the fuperior’s confent. Craig, lib. I, dkg. 1 u
§ tu
clxvi. Sect. V- 0/ the cafualties due to the fuperior.
Fixedright* The right of the fuperior continues unimpaired,
ciityPeri" n0tw^‘^3n<^llo feudal grant, unlefs in £0 far as
A W. 667
the dominium utile, or property, is conveyed to his Law of
vaffal. The fuperiority carries a right to the fervices Scotland.
and annual duties contained in the reddendo of the vaf-
fal’s charter. The duty payable by the vaffal is a de*
bitum fundi, i. e. it is recoverable, not only by a per-
fonal aftion againft himfelf, but by a real aftion
gainft the lands.
2. Befides the conftant fixed rights of fuperiority, cafual
there are others, which, becaufe they depend upon un- rights,
certain events, are called cafualties.
3. The cafualties proper to a ward-holding, while Ward-hold*
that tenure fubfilled, were ward, recognition, and ing.
marriage, which it is now unncceffary to explain, as
by the late flatutes 20 and 25 Geo. II. for abolifhing
ward-holdings, the tenure of the lands holden ward of
the crown or prince is turned into blanch, for payment
of one penny Scots yearly, /?petatur tantum ; and the
tenure of thofe holden of fubjefts into feu, for pay¬
ment of fuch yearly feu-duty in money, viftual, or
cattle, in place of all fervices, as fliould be fixed by the
court of fefiion. And accordingly that court, by aft
of federunt Feb. 8. 1749, laid down rules for afeer-
taining the extent of thefe feu-duties. A full hiftory
of their cafualties, and of the effefts confequent upon
their falling to the fuperior, will be found in Erlkine’s
large Inftitute, B. 2. T. 5. § 5. et fequen ; to which
the reader is referred.
4. The only cafualty, or rather forfeiture, proper „ , ,,.
to feu-holding, is the iofs or tinfel of the- feu-right, 10 '
by the negleft of payment of the feu duty for two full
years. Yet where there is no conventional irritancy in
the feu- right, the vaffal is allowed to purge the legal
irritancy at the bar ; that is, he may prevent the for¬
feiture, by making payment before fentence : but where
the legal irritancy is fortified by a conventional, he is
not allowed to purge, unlefs where he can give a good
reafon for the delay of payment.
5. The cafualties common to all holdings are, Non-entry.
non entry, relief, liferent efcheat, difclamation, and pur.
prejlure. Non-entry is that cafualty which arifes to
the fuperior out of the rents of the feudal fubjeft,
through the heir’s neglefting to renew the inveftiture
after his anceftor’s death. The fuperior is intitled to
this cafuaky, not only where the heir has not obtained
himfelf infeft, but where his retour or infeftment is
fet afide upon nullities. The heir, from the death of
the anceftor, till he be cited by the fuperior in a pro-
cefs of general declarator of non-entry, lofes only the
retoured duties of his lands, (fee next parag.) ; and he
forfeited thefe, though his delay fliould not argue any
contempt of the fuperior, becaufe the cafualty is con¬
fidered to fall, as a condition implied in the feudal
right, and not as a penalty of tranfgreffion : but rea-
fonable excufes are now admitted to liberate even from
the retoured duties before citation,
6. For underftanding the nature of retoured duties, r
it muft be known, that there was anciently a general
valuation of all the lands in Scotland, defigned both
for regulating the proportion of public fubfidies, and
for afeertaining the quantity of non-entry and relief-
duties payable to the fuperior; which appears, by a
contract between K,. R, Bruce and his fubjefts anno
1327, preferved in the library of the Faculty of Advo¬
cates, to have been fettled at leaft as far back as the
reign of Alexander III. This valuation became in the
4 F 3 cotirfe
668 L A
Law of courfe of time, by the improvement of agriculture, and
.Scotland, p^aps alf0 by the heightening of the nominal value
* of our money, from the reign of Robert I. downwards
to that of James III. much too low a llandard for the
fuperior’s cafualties : wherefore, in all fervices of heirs,
the inqueft came at laft to take proof likewife of the
prefent value of the lands contained in the brief (quan-
. , turn nunc valent), in order to fix thefe cafualties. The
new m- was called the old, and the other the new, extent.
tent*. Though both extents were ordained to be fpecified in
all retours made to the chancery upon brieves of in¬
queft ; yet by the appellation of retoured duties in a
queftion concerning cafualties, the new extent is always
tmderftood. The ®ld extent continued the rule for le¬
vying public fubfidies, till a tax was impofed by new
proportions, by feveral afts made during the ufurpa-
tion. By two afts of Cromwell’s parliament, held at
Weftminfter in 1656, impofing taxations on Scotland,
the rates laid upon the feveral counties are precifely fixed.
The fubfidy granted by the aft of convention 1667
was levied on the feveral counties, nearly in the fame
proportions that were fixed by the ufurper in 1656;
and the fums to which each county was fubjefted were
fubdivided among the individual landholders in that
county, according to the valuations already fettled, or
that fhould be fettled by the commiflioners appointed
to carry that aft into execution. The rent fixed by
Valued thefe valuations is commonly called the valued rent;
tent. according to which the land-tax, and moft of the other
public burdens, have been levied fince that time.
7. In feu-holdings, the feu-duty is retoured as the
rent, becaufe the feu-duty is prefumed to be, and truly
was at firft, the rent. The fuperior therefore of a feu-
holding gets no non-entry, before citation in the ge¬
neral declarator ; for he would have been intitled to the
yearly feu-duty, though the fee had been full, i. e.
though there had been a'vaffal infeft in the lands. The
fuperior of teinds gets the fifth part of the retoured duty
as non-entry, becaufe the law confiders teinds to be
worth a fifth part of the rent. In rights of annualrent
which are holden of the gran ter, the annualrenter be¬
comes his debtor’s vaffal ; and the annualrent contained
in the right is retoured to the blanch or other duty
contained in the right before declarator.
8. It is becaufe the retoured duty is the prefumed
rent, that the non-entry is governed by it. If there¬
fore no retour of the lands in non-entry can be pro¬
duced, nor any evidence brought of the retoured duty,
the fuperior is intitled to the real, or at lead to the
valued, rent, even before citation. In lands formerly
holden ward of the King, the heir, in place of the re¬
toured duties, is fubjefted only to the annual payment
of one per cent, of the valued rent.
9. The heir, after he is cited by the fuperior in the
aftion of general declarator, is fubjefted to the full
rents till his entry, btcaufe his negleft is lefs excufable
after citation. The decree of declarator, proceeding
on this aftion, intitles the fuperior to the poffefiion,
and gives him right to the rents downward from the
citation. As this fort of non-entry is properly penal,
our law has always reftrifted it to the retoured duties,
if the heir had a probable excufe for not entering.
In what 10. Non-entry does not obtain in burgage-holdings,
cafe? non- becaufe the incorporation of inhabitants holds the
•ntry is not whole incorporated fubjefts of the King ; and there
(tue. ^
w. Pa t in.
can be no non-entry due in lands granted to communi- W of
ties, becaufe there the vaffal never dies. This covers the sAtland..
right of particulars from non-entry : for if non-entry '““v ■
be excluded with regard to the whole, it cannot ob¬
tain with regard to any part. It is alfo excluded, as
to a third of the lands, by the terce, during the wl-
dow*s life ; and as to the whole of them, by the cour-
tefy during the life of th« hufband. But it is not ex¬
cluded by a precept of feifin granted to the heir till
feifin be taken thereupon.
11. Relief is that cafualty which intitles the fupe- Relief,
rior to an acknowledgment or confideration from the
heir for receiving him as vaffal. It is called re/ie/1,
becaufe, by the entry of the heir, his fee is relieved out
of the hands of the fuperior. It is not due in feu-hold¬
ings flowing from fubjefts, unlefs where it is expreffed
in the charter by a fpecial claufe for doubling the feu-
duty at the entry of an heir ; but, in feu-rights holden
of the crown, it is due, though there Ihould be no fuch
claufe in the charter. The fuperior can recover this
cafualty, either by a poinding of the ground, as a de~
bitum fundi, or by a perfonal aftion againtt the heir.
In blanch and feu holdings, where this cafualty is ex-
prefsly ftipulated, a year’s blanch or feu duty is due
in name of relief, befide the current year’s duty pay¬
able in name of blanch or feu farm.
12. Escheat (from efcheoir, to happen or fall) is that Efcheat,
forfeiture which falls through a perfon’s being denoun¬
ced rebel. It is either Jingle or liferent. Single ef-
cheat, though it does not accrue to the fuperior, muft
be explained in this place, becaufe of its coincidence
with liferent.
13. After a debt is conftituted, either by a formal betters o£
decree, or by regiftration of the ground of debt, which horning,
to the fpecial effeft of execution, is in law accounted a
decree ; the creditor may obtain letters of horning,
iffuing from the fignet, commanding meffengers to
charge the debtor to pay or perform his obligation,
within a day certain. Where horning proceeds on a
formal decree of the feffion, the time :.dulged by law
to the debtor is fifteen days ; if upon a decree of the
commiflion of teinds or admiral, it is ten ; and upon
the decrees of all inferior judges, fifteen days. Where
it proceeds on a regiftered obligation, which fpecifies
the number of days, that number muft be the rule ; and,
if no precife number be mentioned, the charge muft be
given in fifteen days, which is the term of law, unlefs
where fpecial ftatute interpofes ; as in bills, upon which
the debtor may be charged on fix days.
14. The meffenger muft execute thefe letters (and
indeed all fummonfes) againft the debtor, either per-
fonally or at his dwelling-houfe ; and, if he get not
accefs to the houfe, he muft ftrike fix knocks at the
gate, and thereafter affix to it a copy of his execution.
If payment be not made within the days mentioned in
the horning, the meffenger, after proclaiming three
oyeffes at the market-crofs of the head borough of
the debtor’s domicile, and reading the letters there,
blows three blafts with a horn, by which the debtor is
underftood to be proclaimed rebel to the king for con¬
tempt of his authority; after which, he muft affix a
copy of the execution to the market-crofs: This is
called the publication of the dihgence, or a denunciation Denunci*.
at the horn '. Where the debtor is not in Scotland, he tion.
muft be charged on fixty days, and denounced at the
market-
.’art III. L
L Law of narket-cntfs of Edinburgh, and pier and ihore of
mm Scotland, jeith.
' 15. Demmciation, if regiftercd within 15 days, ei-
thereof*t^er *n t^ie ^her'ff’s books, or in the general regifter,
drew after it the rebel’s Angle efcheat, i. e. the for¬
feiture of his moveables to the crown. Perfons de¬
nounced rebels have not a perform Jlaxidi in judicio ;
they can neither fue nor defend in any aftion. But this
incapacity being unfavourable, is perfonal to the rebel,
and cannot be pleaded againft his affignee.
  16. Perfons cited to the court of jufticiary may be
4ion in cri- aHb denounced rebels, either for appearing there with
■auinal cafes, too great a number of attendants: or, if they fail to
w.
669
Law of
• ffOenm
it. Though neither the fuperror nor his donatory
can enter into poffeffion in confequence of this cafualty, Scotland.
till decree of declarator; yet that decree, being truly 11
declaratory, has a retrefpeft, and does not fo properly
confer a new right, as declare the right formerly con-
ftituted to the fuperior, by the civil death of his valfal.
Hence, all charters or heritable bonds, though granted
prior to the rebellion, and all adjudications, though led
upon debts contrafted before that period, are ineffec¬
tual againft the liferent efcheat, unlefs feifin be taken
thereon within year and day after the granter’s rebel¬
lion.
22. Here, as in Angle efcheat, no debt contrafted
appear, they are declared fugitives from the law. Single after rebellion can hurt the donatory, nor any volun-
efeheat falls, without denunciation, upon fentence of tary right granted after that period, though in fecurity
death pronounced in any criminal trial; and, by fpecial or fatisfa&ion of prior debts.
ftatute, upon one’s being convifted of certain crimes, 23. Disclamation is that cafualty whereby a vaf-Difclama=:
though not capital; as perjury, bigamy, deforcement, fal forfeits his whole feu to his fuperior, if he difownstioQ-
breach of arreftment, and ufury. By the late aft abo- or difclaims him, without ground, as to any part of it.
lifhing ward holdings, the cafualties both of Angle and Purpresture draws likewife a forfeiture of the whole Purpref.
liferent efcheat are difeharged, when proceeding upon feu after it; and is incurred by the vaffaPs encroaching ture.
upon any part of his fuperior’s property, or attempting
by building, inclofing, or otherwife, to make it his
own. In both thefe feudal delinquencies, the leaft cp-
lour of excufe faves the vaffal.
, 24- All grants from the crown, whether charters, signature*
gifts of cafualties, or others, proceed on Agnatures
which pafs the Agnet. When the king refided in Scot¬
land, all fignatures were fuperferibed by him; but, oa
the acceffion of James VI. to the crown of England*
a cachet or feal was made, having the king’s name en¬
graved on it, in purfuance of an aft of the privy-coun¬
cil, April 4. 1603. with which all Agnatures were to
be afterwards fealed, that the lords of exchequer were
impowered to pafs; and thefe powers are transferred
denunciation for civil debts ; but they ftill continue,
when they arife from criminal caufes. All moveables
belonging to the rebel at the time of his rebellion,
(whether proceeding upon denunciation, or fentence in
a criminal trjal), and all that (hall be afterwards acqui¬
red by him until relaxation, fall under Angle efcheat.
Bonds bearing intereft, becaufe they continue heritable
guondffeum, fall not under it, nor fuch fruits of heri¬
table fubjefts as became due after the term next enfu-
ing the rebellion, thefe being referved for the liferent
efcheat.
17. The king never retains the right of efcheat to
himfelf, but makes it over to a donatory, whofe gift is
not perfefted, till, upon an aftion of general declara¬
tor, it be declared that the rebel’s efcheat has fallen to to the court of exchequer, which was eftablifhed in
the crown by his denunciation, and that the right of it
is now tranferred to the purfuer by the gift in his fa¬
vour. Every creditor therefore of the rebel, whofe debt
was contrafted before rebellion, and who has ufed dili¬
gence before declarator, is preferable tq the donatory.
But the efcheat cannot be affefted by any debt con¬
trafted, nor by any voluntary deed of the rebel after
rebellion.
18. The rebel, if he either pays the debt charged
Dr, or fufpends the diligence, may procure letters of
relaxation from the horn, which, if publifhed in the
fame place, and regiftered ij days thereafter in the
fame regifter with the denunciation, have the effeft to
Scotland after the union of the two kingdoms in 1707.
Grants of higher confequence, as remilfions of crimes,
gifts proceeding upon, forfeiture, and charters of novo-
damus, mull have the king’s Agn manual for their war¬
rant.
25. If lands holding of the crown were to be con- Seals,
veyed, the charter pafted, before the union of the
kingdoms in 1707, by the great feal of Scotland; and
now by a feal fubftitute in place thereof. Grants of
relaxation, for, or fufpends the diligence, may procure letters of church-dignities, during epifcopacy, puffed alfo by the
relaxation from the horn, whieh. if miKUlhe/t 1., great feal; and the commifiions to all the principal of-
Acers of the crown, as Juftice-Clerk, King’s Advocate,
Solicitor, &c. do fo at this day. All rights which fub-
reftore him to his former ftate ; but they have no re- jefts may tranfmitby Ample afAgnation, the king tranf-
trofpeft as to the moveables alfeady fallen under ef- mits by the privy-feal: as gifts of moveables, or of
cheat, without a fpecial claufe for that purpofe. cafualties that require no feifm. The quarter feal, o-
Liferent l9* The rebel, if he continues unrelaxed for year therwife called the tejlimonial of the great feal, is ap-
efeheat. and day after rebellion, is conftrued to be civilly dead : pended to gifts of tutory, commiffions of brieves iffuing
and therefore, where he holds any feudal right, bis fu- from the chaticeiy, and letters of prefentation to lands
periors, as being without a vaffal, are intitled, each of holding of a fubjeft, proceeding upon forfeiture, ba-
them, to the rents of Inch of the lands belonging to Hardy, or ultimas hares.
  1 u r-ir  11 .1.. 0 r., - - •
the rebel as hold of himfelf, during all the days of the
rebel’s natural life, by the cafualty of liferent
26. Seals are to royal grants what fubfeription isTh • -
to rights derived from fubjefts, and give them autho- e,r U
Cheat ; except where the denunciation proceeds upon rity; they ferve alfo as a check to gifts procured (fab-
treafon or proper rebellion, in which cafe the liferent reptione vel obreptione) by concealing the truth, or ex¬
falls to the king. preffing a falfehood ; for, where this appears, the gift
20. It is that eftate only, to which the rebel has a may be flopped before pafiingthe feals, though the ftg-
preper right of liferent in his own perfon, th«* fall^un- nature fhould have been Agned by the king. All rights
dej his hffrent efcheat, palHng under the great or privy feal muft be regiftered
(Syo k A
Law of ;n the regiftcrs of tlie great Or privy feal nfpediv'k, be-
. Scotland, ^ £orc appending the feal.
ckvii. Sect. VI. Of the right which the vajfal acquires
by getting the feu-
Dominium Under the dominium utile which the vaffal acquires
I’tiii. by the feudal right, is comprehended the property of
whatever is confidered as part of the lands, whether of
houfes, woods, inclofures, See. above ground; or of
coal, limeftone, minerals, See. under ground. Mills
have, by the generality of our lawyers, been deemed
a feparate tenement, and fo not carried by a charter
or difpofition, without either a fpecial claufe convey-
ing mills, or the ereftion of the lands into a barony.
Yet it is certain, that, if a proprietor builds a mill on
his own lands, it will be carried by his entail, or by a
retour, without mentioning it, although the lands are
not erefted into a barony. If the lands difponed be
attri&ed, or thirled to ‘another mill, the purchafer is
not allowed to build a new corn-mill on his property,
even though he flrould offer fecurity that it (hall not
hurt the thirle ; which is introduced for preventing
daily temptations to fraud.
2. Proprietors are prohibited to hold dove-cotes,
unlefs their yearly rent, lying within two miles there¬
of, extend to ten chalders of viftual. A purchafer of
lands, with a dove-cote,' is not obliged to pull it down,
though he (hould not be qualified to build one; but, if
it becomes ruinous, he cannot rebuild it. The right
of brewing, though not expreffed in the grant, is im¬
plied in the nature of property ; as are alfo the rights
of fi(hing, fowling, and hunting, in fo far as they are
not reftrained by ftatute.
Regalia. 3. There are certain rights naturally confequent on
property, which are deemed to be preferved by the
crown as regalia; unlefs they be fpecially conveyed.
Gold and filver mines are of this fort; the firft univer-
fally ; and the other, where three half-pennies of filver
can be extra&ed from the pound of lead, by aft 1424,
(three half-pennies at that time was equal to about
two (hillings five pennies of our prefent Scots money).
Thefe were by our ancient law annexed to the crown ;
but they are now difiblved from itj and every proprie¬
tor is intitled to a grant of the mines within his own
lands, with the burden of delivering to the crown a
tenth of what (hall be brought up.
4. Salmon-fiftiing is likewife a right underfiood to be
referved by the crown, if it be not exprefsly granted :
but 40 years pofiefiion thereof, where the lands are ei¬
ther created into a barony, er granted with the general
claufe of fifilings, efiablifires the full right of the fal-
jnon fifiiing in the vaffal. A charter of lands, within
which any of the kingV forefts lie, does not carry the
property of fuch foreft to the vaffal.
Res public*. 5’ AD the fubje&s which were by the Roman law
'accounted ra^aMV<a?, as rivers, highways, ports, &c.
are, fince the introduftion of feus, held to be inter re¬
galia, or in patrimonio principis ; and hence encroach¬
ment upon a highway is faid to infer purprefture. No
pet fon has the right of a free port without a fpecial
grant, which implies a power in the grantee to kvy
anchorage and fhore dues, and an obligation upon him
to uphold the port in good condition. In this clafs of
things, cur forefathers reckoned fortalices, or (mall
w.
Part 13
places of ftrength, originally built for the defence ,f Law 1
the country, either againft foreign invafions or ciq Scotlai
commotions 5 but thefe now pafs with the lands i\L~^'r"
every charter.
6. The vaffal acquires right by his grant, not only iertineni
to the lands fpecially contained in the charter, but to
thofe that have been poffeffed 40 years as pertinent
thereof. But, 1. If the lands in the grant are marked
out by fpecial limits, the vaffal is circumfcribed by the
tenor of his own right, which excludes every fubjeft
without thefe limits from being pertinent of the lands.
2. A right poffeffed under an exprefs infeftment is pre¬
ferable, cateris paribus, to one poffeffed only as perti¬
nent. 3. Where neither party is with per exprejfum, the
mutual promifeuous poffeffion by both, of a fubjett as
pertinent, refolves into a commonly of the fubjedl pof¬
feffed : but if one of the parties has exercifed all the
afts of property of which the fubjeft was capable, while
the poffeflion of the other was confined to pafturage
only, or to calling feai and divot, the firft is to be
deemed foie proprietor, and the other to have merely
a right of fervitude.
7. As barony is a nomen univerjitatis, and unites Privilege
the feveral parts contained in it into one individual of barony
•right, the general conveyance of a barony carries with
it all the different tenements of which it confifts, tho*
they (hould not be fpecially enumerated (and this
holds, even without ere&ion into a barony, in lands
that have been united under a fpecial name). Hence,
likewife, the poffeffion by the vaffal of the fmalleftpart
of the barony-lands preferves to him the right of the
whole.
8. The vaffal is intitled, in confequence of his pro¬
perty, to levy the rents of his own lands, and to reco¬
ver them from his tenants by an a&ion for rent before
bis own court; and from all other poffeffors and intro-
mitters, by an aftion of mails and duties before the
fheriff. He cah alfo remove from his lands, tenants
who have no leafes ; and he can grant tacks or leafesTack
-to others. A tack is a contra£1 of location, wherebyleafe.
the ufe of land, or any other immoveable fubjeA, is fet
to the leffee or tackfman for a certain yearly rent, ei¬
ther in money, the fruits of the ground, or fervices.
It ought to be reduced into writing, as it is a right
concerning lands: tacks, therefore, that are given ver¬
bally, to endure for a term of years, are good againft
neither party for more than one year. An obligation
to grant a tack is as effe&ual againft the granter as a
formal tack. A liferenter, having a temporary pro¬
perty in the fruits, may grant tacks to endure for the
term of his own liferent.
9. The tackfman’s right is limited to the fruits
which fpring up annually from the fubjedt fet, ei¬
ther naturally, or by his own induftry; he is not
therefore intitled to any of the growing timber a-
bove ground, and far lefs to the minerals, coal, clay.
See. under ground, the ufe of which confumes the fub-
ftance. Tacks are, like other contra&s, perfonal rights
in their own nature; and confequently ineffectual againft
fmgular fucceffors in the lands; but, for the encou¬
ragement of agriculture, they were, by aft 1449, de¬
clared effeftuai to the tackfman for the full time of
their endurance, into whafe bands foever the lands
might oome.
to. To give a written tack the benefit of this ftatute,
re III. t
of it muft mention the fpecial taclc-duty payable to the
•otland. pr0pjietor, which though fmall, if it be not elufory, fe-
cures the tackfman; and it muft be followed by pof-
ftffion, which fupplies the want of a feifin. If a tack
does not exprefs the term of entry, the entry will com¬
mence at the next term after its date, agreeable to the
rule, Quod pure debetur, prafenti die debetur. If it does
not mention the ffh, i. e. the term at which it is to
determine, it is good for one year only; but, if the
intention of parties to continue it for more than one
year, ftiould appear from any claufe in the tack (e. g.
if the tackfman (hould be bound to certain annual pref-
tations), it is futtained for two years as the minimum.
Tacks granted to perpetuity, or with an indefinite
ifh, have not the benefit of the ftatute. Tacks of houfes
within borough do not fall within this a£t, it being
cuftomary to let thefe from year to year.
II Tacks neceffarily imply a delectusperfont, a choice
•Si juris, by the fetter of a proper perfon for his tenant. Hence
the conveyance of a tack which is not granted to af-
lignees, is ineffe&ual without the landlord’s confent.
A right of tack, though it be heritable, falls under
the jus mariti, becaufe it cannot be feparated from the
labouring cattle and implements of tillage, which are
moveable fubjefts. A tack, therefore, granted to a
fingle woman, without the liberty of afligning, falls by
her marriage ; becaufe the marriage, which is a legal
conveyance thereof to the hufband, cannot be annulled.
This implied exclufion of affignees is, however, limi¬
ted to voluntary, and does not extend to neceffary, af-
iignments ; as an adjudication of a tack by the tackf-
man’s creditor: but a tack, exprefsly excluding affig¬
nees, cannot be carried even by adjudication. It was
not a fixed point for a long time, whether a tenant
could fubfet without confent of the landlord ; but the
court of feffion, in a cafe which occurred a few years
ago, denied the power of fubfetting in the tenant.
Liferent tacks, becaufe they import .a higher degree of
right in the tackfman than tacks for a definite term,
may be affigned, unlefs affignees be fpecially excluded,
kltrelo- 12. If neither the fetter nor tackfman fhall properly
difeover their intention to have the tack diffolved at the
term fixed for its expiration, they are underftood, or
prefumed, to have entered into a new tack upon the
fame terms with the former, which is called tacit reloca¬
tion ; and continues till the landlord warns the tenant
to remove, or the tenant renounces his tack to the
landlord : this obtains alfo in the cafe of moveable te¬
nants, who poifefs from year to year without written
tacks. In judicial tacks, however, by the court of
feffion, tacit relocation neither does nor can take place;,
for cautioners being interpofed to thefe, they are loofed
at the end of the tack : and therefore, where judicial
tackfmen poffefs after expiry of their right, they are
accountable as fa&ors.
13. In tacks of land, the fetter is commonly bound
to put all the houfes and office-houfes, necefl'ary for tire
farm, in'good condition at the tenant’s entry; and the
tenant muft keep them and leave them fo at his remo¬
val. But, in tacks of houfes, the fetter muft not only
deliver to the tenant the fubjeft fet, in tenantable repair
at his entry, but uphold it in that repair during the
whole years of the tack, unlefs it is otherwife cove¬
nanted betwixt the parties.
A W. 671
14. If the inclemency of the weather, inundation, I-aw of
or calamity of war, ffiould have brought upon the crop S(:otlan(1^
an extraordinary damage fplus quam tolerabile), the ' v
landlord had, by the Roman law, no claim for any part
of the tack-duty : if the damage was more moderate,
he might exaft the full rent. It is nowhere defined,
what degree of fterility ordevaftation makes a \oisplus
quam tolerabile ; but the general rule of the Roman law
feems to be made ours. Tenants are not obliged to
pay any public burdens to which they are not exprefsly
bound by their tack, except mill-fervices.
15. Tacks may be evacuated during their currency, DeHkution
(1.) In the fame manner as feu-rights, by the tackf-of tacks*
man’s running in arrear of his tack-duty for two years
together. This irritancy may be prevented by the te¬
nant’s making payment at the bar before fentence.
(2.) Where the tenant either runs in arrear of one
year’s rent, or leaves his farm uncultivated at the ufual
feafon ; in which cafe he may, by aft of federunt 1 756,
be ordained to give fecurity for the arrears, and for the
rent of the five following crops, if the tack fiiall fubfift
fo long ; otherwife, to remove, as if the tack were at
an end. (3.) Tacks may be evacuated at any time by
the mutual confent of parties.
16. The landlord, when he intends to remove a te¬
nant whofe tack is expiring, or who pofleffes without
a tack, muft, upon a precept figned by himfelf, warn
the tenant forty days preceding the term of Whitfun-
day, at or immediately preceding the iftr, perfonally, Warning,,
or at his dwelling-houfe, to remove at that term, with
his family, and effefts. This precept muft be alfo exe¬
cuted on the ground of the lands, and thereafter read
in the pariffi-church where the lands lie, after the morn¬
ing fervice, and affixed to the moft patent door thereof.
Whitfunday, though it be a moveable feaft, is, in que-
ftions of removing, fixed to the 13th of May. In
warnings from tenements within borough, it is fufficient
that the tenant be warned forty days before the ifh of
the tack, whether it be Whitfunday or Martinmas; and
in thefe the ceremony of chalking the door is fuftained
as warning, when proceeding upon a verbal order from
the proprietor.
17. This procefs of warning was precifely neceffaty
for founding an adtion of removing againft tenants, tiil
the aft of federunt 1756, which leaves it in the option
of the proprietor, either to ufe the former method, or
to bring his aftion of removing before the judge-ordi¬
nary; which, if it be called 4&days before the faid term
of Whitfunday, fhall be held as equal to a warning.
Where the tenant is bound, by an exprefs claufe of hia
tack, to remove at the ifh without warning, fuch ob¬
ligation is, by the faid aft, declared to be a fuffieient
warrant for letters of horning, upon which, if the
landlord charge his tenant forty days before the faid
Whitfunday, the judge is authoiifed to ejeft him.
within fix days after the term of removing expreffed in
the tack.
18. Aftions of removing might, even before this aft
of federunt, have been purfued without any previous
warning (1.) Againft vicious pofTeffors, 1. e. perfons A<5Uons o£
who had feized the poffeflion by force, or who, without removing,
any legal title, had intruded into it, after the laft pof*
fefibr had given it up. (2.) Againft poffefTors who had
a naked tolerance. (3.) Againft tenants who had run,
in
L A
in arrear of rent, during the currency of their tacks.
(4.) Againft fuch as had fold their lands, and yet con-
tinned to pofiefs after the term of the purchafer’s entry.
Upon the fame ground, warning was not required, in
removings againft pofTeflbrs of liferented lands, after
the death of the liferenter who died in the natural pof-
W, Part IF
23. The whole cattle on the ground, confidered as a Law cj
quantity, are hypothecated for a year’s rent, one after Scotlaa
another fucceflively. The landlord may apply this hy- ^
pothec for payment of the paft year’s rent, at any time
within three months from the laft conventional term of
payment, after which it ceafes for that year. As the
feflion : but if he poffeffed by tenants, thefe tenants tenant may increafe the fubjeft of this hypothec, by
Violent
profits.
could not be difturbed in their polftflions till the next
Whitfunday, that they might have time to look out for
other farms ; but they might be compelled to remove
at that term, by an aftion of removing, without warn-
ing.
19. A landlord’s title in a removing, let it be ever
fo lame, cannot be brought under queftion by a tenant
whofe tack flows immediately from him ; but, if he is
to infill againft tenants not his oWn, his right mull be
perfected by infeftment, unlefs it be fuch as requires no
infeftment; as terce, &c.
20. The defender, in a removing, mull (by aft 155?),
before offering any defence which is not inftantly veri¬
fied, give fecurity to pay to the fetter the violent profits,
if they fhould be awarded againft him. Thefe are fo
called, becaufe the law confiders the tenant’s poffeflion
after the warning as violent. They are ellimated, in
tenements within borough, to double the rent; and
in lands, to the higheft profits the purfuer could have
made of them, by polfeffing them either by a tenant
or by himfelf.
1. If the aftion of removing fhall be pafled.from.
purchafing oxen, (heep. See. fo he can impair it, by
felling part of his dock ; but if the landlord fufpefts
the tenant’s management, he may, by feq^eftration or
poinding, make his right, which was before general
upon the whole ftock, fpecial upon every individual.
A fuperior has alfo a hypothec for his feu-duty, of the
fame kind with that juft explained.
24. In tacks of houfes, breweries, fhops, and other
tenements, which have no natural fruits, the furniture
and other goods brought into the fubjeft fet are hypo¬
thecated to the landlord for one year’s rent. But the
tenant may by fale impair this hypothec, as he might
that of cattle in rural tenements ; and indeed, in the
particular cafe of a (hop, the tenant rents it for no
other purpofc than as a place of fale.
Sect. VII. Of the tranfmijfion of rights, by con- clxvinin
frmation and refignation.
A vassal may tranfmit his feu either to univerfalTranfmilii
fucceflbrs, as heirs; or to Angular fucceflbrs, i. e. thofefion .>f f|l
who acquire by gift, purchafe, or other Angular title.dal f'ghwg
or if the landlord (hall, after ufing warning, accept of This laft fort of tranfmiffion is either voluntary, by
1 rent from the tenant, for any term fubfequent to that
of the removal, he is prefumed to have changed his
difpofition ; or neceffary, by adjudication.
2. By the firft feudal rules, no fuperior could be
mind, and tacit relocation takes place. All aftions of compelled to receive any vaffal in the lands, other than
Hypothec.
removing againft the principal or original tackfman,
and decrees thereupon, if the order be ufed, which is
fet forth fipra (17.), are, by the aft of federunt 1756,
declared to be effeftual againft the afligneesto the tack
or fubtenants.
22. The landlord has, in fecurity of his tack-duty,
over and above the tenant’s perfonal obligation, a tacit
pledge or hypothec, not- only on the fruits, but on the
cattle pafturing on the ground. The corn, and other
fruits, are hypothecated for the rent of that year where¬
of they are the crop ; for which they remain affefted,
though the landlord fhould not ufe his right for years
together. In virtue of this hypothec, the landlord is
intitled to a preference over any creditor, though he
has aftually ufed a poinding ; except in the fpecial
cafe, that the poinding is executed after the term of
payment, when the landlord can appropriate the crop
for his payment, the poinder in fuch cafe being obliged
to leave as much on the ground as to fatisfy the land¬
lord’s hypothec: and it has been lately found, that
this right of the landlord is preferable even to a debt
due to the crown, for which a writ of extent had
been iffued : but the cafe here alluded to is prefently
under appeal.
N° 177.
the heir expreffed in the inveftiture ; for the fuperior
alone had the power of afeertaining to what order of
heirs the fee granted by himfelf was to defeend. But
this right of refufal in the fuperior did not take place,
(1.) In the cafe of creditors apprifers or adjudgers,
whom fuperiors were obliged to receive upon payment
of a year’s rent (1469, c. 37. 1672, c. 19.) : (2.) In
the cafe of purchafers of bankrupt eftates, who were
put on the fame footing with adjudgers by 1690,
c. 20. The crown refufes no voluntary difponee, on
his paying a compofition to the exchequer of a fixth
part of the valued rent. Now, by 20 Geo. II. fu¬
periors are direfted to enter all Angular fucceflbrs
(except incorporations) who fhall have got from the
vaffal a difpofition, containing procuratory of refig¬
nation ; they always receiving the fees or cafualties
that law intitles them to on a vaffal’s entry, t. a
year’s rent (a).
3. Bafe rights, i. e. difpofitions to be holden of theBafe
difponer, are tranfmiffions only of the property, the
fuperiority remaining as formerly. As this kind of
right might, before eftablifhing the regifters, have been
kept quite concealed from all but the granter and re¬
ceiver, a public right was preferable to it, unlefs
cloathed
*
(a) It was long matter of doubt how this compofition due to the fuperior upon the entry of Angular fuq-
ceffors fhould be regulated. The matter at laft received a folemn decifion ; finding, That the fuperior is in-
titled, for the entry of Angular fucceffors, in all cafes where fuch entries are not taxed, to a year’s rent
of the fubjeft, whether lands or houfes, as the fame are fet, or may be fet at the time ; dedufting the feu-
duty and all public burdens, and likewife all annual burdens impofed on the lands by confent of the fupe¬
rior, with all reafoaable annual repairs to houfes and other perilhable fubjefts.
1 Parc III.
W.
673
Public
rights, i
-l' Law of cloathed with pofleffion : but as this diftin&ion was tion is preferable to the laft feifin upon the firfl refig- Law of
i Scotland. nQ longer neceffary after the eftablifhment of the re- nation; but the fuperior, accepting a fecond refigna- Scut}an^j
cords, all infeftments are declared preferable, accord- tion, whereupon a prior feifin may be taken in preju- ,
ing to the dates of their feveral regiftrations; without dice of the firit refignatory, is liable in damages,
refpedt to the former diftinftion of bafe and public, or 9. By our former decifions, one who was veiled with
of being cloathed and not cloathed with polfellion. a perfonal right of lands, i. e. a right not completed
4. Public rights, i. e. difpofitions to be holden of the by feifin, effedlually divetled himfelf by difponing it to
granter’s fuperior, maybe perfefted either by confir- another; after which no right remained in the difpo-
mation or refignation ; and therefore they generally T'pr "’*'''4' k* kx. o a:c—n.:—
contain both precept of feifin and procuratory of refig¬
nation. When the receiver is to complete his right in
the firfi way, he takes feifin upon the precept: but
fuch feifin is ineffectual without the fuperior’s confir¬
mation; for the difponee cannot be deemed a vaffal till
the fuperior receive him as fuch, or confirm the hold¬
ing. By the ufual ftyle in the tranfmiffion of lands,
ner, which could be carried by a fecond difpofition,
becaufe a perfonal right is no more than a jus olligalio*
nis, which may be transferred by any deed fufficiently
expreffing the will of the granter. But this dodirine,
at the fame time that it rendered the fecurity of the re¬
cords extremely uncertain, was not truly applicable to
fuch rights as required feifin to complete them ; and
therefore it now obtains, that the granter even of a per-
the difpofition contains an obligation and precept of fonal right of lands is not fo divefted by conveying the
   * j j. .1 -• c right to one perfon, but that he may effectually make
it over afterwards to another; and the preference be¬
tween the two does not depend on the dates of the dif¬
pofitions, but on the priority of the feifins following
upon them.
infeftment, both a me and de me, in the option of the
difponee ; upon which, if feifin is taken indefinitely, it
is conftrued in favour of the difponee to be a bafe in¬
feftment, becaufe a public right is null without confir¬
mation : but if the receiver (hall afterwards obtain
the fuperior’s confirmation, it is confidered as if it had
been from the beginning a public right.
Preference 5- Where two feveral public rights of the fame fub-
in confir- jeft are confirmed by the fuperior, their preference is
Sect. VIII. Of Redeemable Rights.
An heritable right is faid to be redeemable, when
governed by the dates of the confirmations, not of the it contains a right of reverfion, or return, in favour of
Effedl of
confirma¬
tion.
infeftments confirmed; becaufe it is the confirmation
which completes a public right.
6. Though a public right becomes, by the fupe¬
rior’s confirmation, valid from its date ; yet if any mid
impediment intervene betwixt that period and the
confirmation, to hinder the two from being conjoined,
e. g. if the granter of a public right Ihould afterwards
grant a bafe right to another, upon which feifin is ta¬
ken before the fuperior’s confirmation of the firft, the
confirmation will have effeft only from its own date ;
and confequently the bafe right firft completed will
carry the property of the lands preferable to the public
one.
7. Refignation is that form of law, by which a vaf¬
fal furrenders his feu to his fuperior; and it is either
ad perpetuam remanentiam, or in favorem. In refig na¬
tions ad remanentiam, where the feu is refigned, ta the
effeft that it may remain with the fuperior, the fupe¬
rior, who before had the fuperiority, acquires, by the
refignation, the property alfo of the lands refigned:
and as his infeftment in the lands ftill fubfifted, not-
withftanding the right by which he had given his vaf¬
fal the property; therefore, upon the vaffal’s refigna¬
tion, the fuperior’s right of property revives, and is
confolidated with the fuperiority, without the neceffi-
ty of a new infeftment; but the inftrument of refigna¬
tion muft be recorded.
8. Refignations in favorem are made, not with an
intention that the property refigned ihould remain with
the fupeiior, but that it ihould be again given by him,
in favour either of the refigner himfelf, or of a third
party; confequently the fee remains in the refigner,
till the perfon in whofe favour refignation is made gets
his right from the fuperior perfected by feifin. And
becaufe refignations in favorem are but incomplete per-
the. perfon from whom the right flows. Reverfions
are either legal, which arife from the law itfelf, as in
adjudications, which law declares to be redeemable
within a certain term after their date ; or convention¬
al, which are conftituted by the agreement of parties,
as in wadfets, rights of annualrent, and rights in fe¬
curity. A wadfet (from wad or pledge) is a right, by Wadfet.
which lands, or other heritable fubjedts, are impigno-
rated by the proprietor to his creditor in fecurity of
his debt; and, like other heritable rights, is perfefted
by feifin. The debtor, who grants the wadfet, and
has the right of reverfion, is called \.b.e reverfer; and
the creditor, receiver of the wadfet, is called the wad-
fetter.
2. Wadfets, by the prefent praftice, are commonly
made out in the form of mutual contrafts, in which
one party fells the land, and the other grants the right
of reverfion. When the right of reverfion is thus in¬
corporated in the body of the wadfet, it is effe&ual
without regiftration ; becaufe the lingular fucceffor in
the wadfet is, in that cafe, fufficiently certified of the
reverfion, though it be not regiftered, by looking into
his own right, which bears it in gremio. But where
the right of reverfion is granted in a feparate writing,
it is ineffeftual againft the Angular fucceffor of the
wadfetter, unlefs it be regiftered in the regifter of fei¬
fins within 60 days after the date of the feifin upon
the wadfet.
3. Rights of reverfion are generally efteemed/n^ig^,.^
juris; yet they go to heirs, though heirs fhould not kfriaijv-
be mentioned, unlefs there be fome claufe in the right,*™.
diTcovering the intention of parties, that the reverlion
fhould be perfonal to the reverfer himfelf. In like
manner, though the right fhould not ex-prefs a power
to redeem from the wadfetter’s heir, as well as from
fonal deeds, our law has made no provifion for record- himfelf, redemption will be competent againft the heir,
ing them. Hence, the firft feifin on a fecond refigna- All our lawyers have affirmed, that reverfions cannot
Vol. IX. Part II. 4 be
674 ^ A
Law of be aflignec!, unlefs they are taken to afiignees; but
Scotland.^ fr0in the favour of legal diligence, they may be ad-
y j udged.
Redemp- Rcverfions commonly leave the reverfer at liberty
'lon* to redeem the lands quandocunque, without rellriction
in point of time ; but a claufe is adjedted to feme re-
verfions, that if the debt be not paid againft a deter¬
minate day, the right of reverfion fhall be irritated,
and the lands (hall become the irredeemable property
of the wadfetter. Neverthelefs, the irritancy being
penal, as in wadfets, where the fum lent falls always
fliort of the value of the lands, the right of redemp¬
tion is by indulgence continued to the reverfer, even
after the term has expired, while the irritancy is not
declared But the reverfer, if he does not take the
benefit of this indulgence within 40 years after the
lapfe of the term, is cut out of it by prefeription.
5. If the reverfer would redeem his lands, he mull
ufe an order of redemption againft the wadfetter: the
firft ftep of which is premonition (or notice given un¬
der form of inftrument) to the wadfetter, to appear at
the time and place appointed by the reverfion, then
and there to receive payment of his debt, and there¬
upon to renounce his right of wadfet. In the volun
tary redemption of a right of wadfet holden bafe. a
renunciation duly regiftered re-eftablifties the reverfer
in the full right of the lands. Where the wadfet was
granted to be holden of the granter’s fuperior, the fu
• perior muft receive the reverfer, on payment of a year’s
rent, if he produce a difpofition from the wadfetter,
containing procuratory of refignation. If, at execu¬
ting the v.adfet, the fuperior has granted letters of
Letters of regrefs, i. e. an obligation again to enter the reverfer
jegrefs. upon redemption of the lands, he will be obliged to
receive him, without payment of the year’s rent. But
letters of regrefs will not have this effe6t againft An¬
gular fucceffors in the fupeviority, if they are not re¬
giftered in the regifter of reverfions. All wadfets that
temain perfonal rights, are extinguiftied by Ample dif-
charges, though they ftiould not be recorded.
6. If the wadfetter either does not appear at the
tion money t'me an<^ P^ace appointed, or refufes the redemption-
money, the reverfer muft confign it under form of in¬
ftrument, in the hands of the perfon appointed in the
right of reverfion ; or, if no perfon be named, in
the hands of the clerk to the bills, a clerk of feffion,
or any refponfal perfon. An inftrument of configna-
tion, with the confignatory’s receipt of the money con-
figned, completes the order of redemption, flops the
farther currency of intereft again!! the reverfer, and
founds him in an a&ion for declaring the order to be
formal, and the lands to be redeemed in confequence
of it.
7. After decree of declarator is obtained, by which
the lands are declared to return to the debtor, the
configned money, which comes in place of the lands,
becomes the wadfetter’s, who therefore can charge the
confignatory upon letters of horning to deliver it up
to him ; but, becaufe the reverfer may, at any time
before decree, pafs from his order, as one may do from
any other ftep of diligence, the configned fums con¬
tinue to belong to the reverfer, and the wadfetter’s
intereft in the wadfet continues heritable till that pe¬
riod.
If the wadfetter chocfes to have his money ra-
W. Part HI,
ther than the lands, he muft require from the rererfer, Law of
under form of inftrument, the fums due by the wad- Scotlan<j«
fet, in terms of the right. The wadfet-fums continue ' Y
heritable, notwithftanding requifition, which may be
paffed from by the wadfetter even after the reverfer
has configned the redemption-money in confequence
thereof.
9. Wadfets are either proper or improper. A pro-Wadfets
per wadfet is that whereby it is agreed, that the ufe proper and!
of the land fhall go for the ufe of the money } fo that
the w'adfetter takes his hazard of the rents, and enjoys
them without accounting, in fatisfa&ion, or in folutum
of his intereft.
iovIn an improper wadfet, the reverfer, if the rent
fhould fall fhort of the intereft, is taken bound to
make up the deficiency ; if it amounts to more, the
wadfetter is obliged to impute the excrefcence to¬
wards extinftion of the capital: And, as foon as the
whole fums, principal and intereft, are extinguifhed
by the wadfettet’s pofieffion, he may be compelled to
renounce, or diveft himfelf in favour of the reverfer.
11. If the wadfetter be intitled by his right to en¬
joy the rents without accounting, and if at the fame
time the reverter be fubje&ed to the hazard of their
deficiency, fuch contract is juftly declared ufurious :
and alfo in all proper wadfets wherein any unreafonable
advantage has been taken of the debtor, the wadfetter
muft (by aft 1661), during the not requifition of the
fum lent, either quit his poffeffion to the debtor, upon
his giving ftcurity to pay the intereft, or fubjeft him¬
felf to account for the futplus-rents, as in improper
wadfets.
12. Infeftments of annualrent, the nature of which Right
has been explained, are alfo redeemable rights, ^•‘uuua en|
right of annualrent does not carry the property of the
lands; but it creates a real nexus or burden upon the
property, for payment of the intereft or annualrent
contained in the right; and confequently the bygone
interefts due upon it are debka fundi. The annualren-
ter may therefore either infift in a real aft ion for ob¬
taining letters of poinding the ground, or fue the te¬
nant in a perfonal aftion towards the payment of his
paft intereft : and in a competition for thofe rents, the
annualrenter’s preference will not depend on his having
ufed a poinding of the ground, for his right was com¬
pleted by the feifin; the power of poinding the ground,
arifing from that antecedent right, is' mera facultatis,
and need not be exercifed, if payment can be otherwife
got. As it is only the intereft of the fum lent u'hich
is a burden upon the lands, the annualrenter, if he
wants his principal fum, cannot recover it either by .
poinding or by a perfonal aftion againft the debtor’s
tenants; but muft demand it from the debtor himfelf,
on his perfonal obligation in the bond, either by requi¬
fition, or by a charge of letters of horning, according
as the right is drawn.
I3- Rights of annualrent, being fervitudes upon the
property, and confequently confident with the right of
property in the debtor, may be extinguilhed without
refignation.
14. Infeftments in fecuiity are another kind of re- R. , ts(J
deemable rights (now frequently ufed in place of rights feCurity.
of annualrent), by which the receivers are infeft in the
lands themfelves, and not limply in an annualrent forth
of them, for fecurity of the principal fums, intereft,
and
Part III. I A
Law of and penalty, contained in the rights. If an infeftment
, Scotland.' ;n fecurjty j^e granted to a creditor, he may thereupon
v enter into the immediate poffeffion of the lands or an-
nualrent for his payment. They are extinguilhed as
rights of annualrent.
15. All rights of annualrent, rights in fecurity, and
generally whatever conftitutes a real burden on the
fee, may be the ground of an adjudication, which is
preferable to all adjudications, or other diligences,
intervening between the date of the right and of the
adjudication deduced on it; not only for the princi¬
pal fum contained in the right, but alfo for the whole
pall intereft contained in the adjudication. This pre¬
ference arifes from the nature of real debts, or debi-
ta fundi: but in order to obtain it for the intereft of
the intereft accumulated in the adjudication, fuch ad¬
judication mull proceed on a procefs of poinding the
ground.
clxx. Sect. IX. Of Servitudes.
Different Servitude is a burden affefting lands, or other he-
f'"vitude r'ta^^e fubjetls, whereby the proprietor is either re-
Vl ’ drained from the full ufe of what is his own, or is obli¬
ged to fuffer another to do fomething upon it. Servi¬
tudes are either natural, legal, or conventional. Na¬
ture itfelf may be faid to conftitute a fervitude upon
inferior tenements, whereby they mull receive the wa¬
ter that falls from thofe that ftand on higher ground.
Legal fervitudes are eftablifhed by ftatute or cuftom,
from confiderations of public policy ; among which
may be numbered the reftraints laid upon the pro¬
prietors of tenements within the city of Edinburgh.
There is as great a variety of conventional fervitudes,
as there are ways by which the exercife of property
may be reftrained by paftion in favour of another.
2. Conwn/iww/ fervitudes are conftituted, either by
grant, where the will of the party burdened is exprelfed
in writing : or by prefcription, where hisconfent is pre¬
fumed from his acquiefcence in the burden for 40 years.
A fervitude conftituted by writing, or grant, is not
effe&ual againft the granter’s Angular fucceffors, unlefs
the grantee has been in the ufe or exercife of his right:
but they are valid againft the granter and his heirs,
even without ufe. In fervitudes that may be acquired
by prefcription, 40 years exercife of the right is fuf-
ficient, without any title in writing, other than a char¬
ter and feifin of the lands to which the fervitude is
claimed to be due.
3. Servitudes conftituted by grant are not effe&ual,
in a queftion with the fuperior of the tenement bur¬
dened w'ith the fervitude, unlefs his confent be adhi¬
bited ; for a fuperior cannot be hurt by his vaffal’s
deed : but where the fervitude is acquired by prefcrip¬
tion, the confent of the fuperior, whofe right afforded
him a good title to interrupt, is implied. A fervitude
by grant, though followed only by a partial poffellion,
mull be governed, as to its extent, by the tenor of the
grant; but a fervitude by prefcription is limited by the
meafure or degree of the ufe had by him who prefcribes:
agreeably to the maxim, Tantum prafcriptwn, quantum
pojfejjum.
Predial fer- 4- Servitudes are predial or perfmal. Predial
tuudes. fervitudes are burdens impofed upon one tenement, in
favour of another tenement. That to which the fervi-
W. 675
tude is due is called the dominant, and that which owes Law of
it is called the fervient tenement. No perfon can have Scotland.^
right to a predial fervitude, if he is not proprietor of
fome dominant tenement that may have benefit by It;
for that right is annexed to a tenement, and fo cannot
pafs from one perfon to another, unlefs fome tenement
goes along with it.
5. Predial fervitudes are divided into ranz/fervitudes,
or of lands ; and urban fervitudes, or of houfes. The Rural fern*'
rural fervitudes of the Romans were iter, aflus, via, tudes.
aqutzduclus, aquahaujlus, and jus pafcendi pecoris. Si¬
milar fervitudes may be conftituted with us, of a foot-
road, horfe-road, cart-road, dams, and aquedu&s, wa¬
tering of cattle, and pafturage. The right of a high¬
way is not a fervitude conftituted in favour of a parti¬
cular tenement, but is a right common to all travellers.
The care of highrways, bridges, and ferries, is com¬
mitted to the iheriffs, juftices of peace, and commiffion-
ers of fupply in each (hire.
6. Common pafturage, or the right of feeding one's
cattle upon the property of another, is fometimescon-
fticuted by a general claufe of pafturage in a charter or
difpolition, without mentioning the "lands burdened ;
in which cafe, the right comprehends whatever had
been formerly appropriated to the lands difponed out
of the grantee's own property, and likewife all paftu¬
rage due to them out of other lands. When a right of
pafturage is given to feveral neighbouring proprietors,
on a moor or common belonging to the granter, in¬
definite as to the number of cattle to be pallured, the
extent of their feveral rights is to be proportioned ac¬
cording to the number that each of them can fodder in
winter upon his own dominant tenement.
7. The chief fervitudes of houfes among the Ro- Urban far<
mans were thofe of fupport, viz. tigni immittendi, and Vitude8,
oneris ferendi. The firlt was the right of fixing in our
neighbours wall a joift or beam from our houfe : the
fecond was that of refting the weight of one’s houfe
upon his neighbour’s wall.
8. 'With us, where different floors or ftories of the
fame houfe belong to different perfons, as is frequent
in the city of Edinburgh, the property of the houfe
cannot be faid to be entirely divided ; the roof remains
a common roof to the whole, and the area on which
the houfe flands fupports the whole ; fo that there is a
communication of property, in confequence of which
the proprietor of the ground-floor mull, without the
conftitution of any fervitude, uphold it for the fupport
of the upper, and the owner of the higheft ftory muft
uphold that as a cover to the lower. When the
higheft floor is divided into garrets among the feveral
proprietors, each proprietor is obliged, according to
this rule, to uphold that part of the roof which covers
his own garret.
9. No proprietor can build, fo as to throw the rain¬
water failing from his own houfe, immediately upon
his neighbour’s ground, without a fpecial fervitude,
which is called of ftillicide ; but, if it falls within his
own property, though at the fmalleft diftance from the
march, the owner of the inferior tenement muft re¬
ceive it.
10. The fervitudes altius non tollendi, et non qfficien-
di luminibus velprofpeaui, reftrain proprietors from rai¬
ling their houfes beyond a certain height, or from ma¬
king any building whatfoever that may hurt the light
4 or
Law of or profpeA of th« dominant tenement. Thefe fervi-
_ Scotland. tU(ies cannot be conftituted by prefcription alone : for,
, though a proprietor fhould have his houfe ever fo low,
or {honld not have built at all upon his grounds for 40
years together, he is prefumed to have done fo for his
own conveniency or profit ; and therefore cannot be
barred from afterwards building a houfe on his proper¬
ty, or raifing it to what height he pieafes, unlefs he be
tied down by his own confent.
Servitudeof 11. We have two predial fervitudes to which the
feal and di- Romans were ftrangers, viz- that of fuel or feal and
Vot’ divot, and of thirlage. The firft is a right, by which
the owner of the dominant tenement may turn up peats,
turfs, feals, or divots, from the ground of the fervient,
and carry them off either for fuel, or thatch, or the
other ufes of his own tenement.
^hirlage. 12- TuiRLAGf is that fervitude, by which lands are
aftridted, or thirled, to a particular mill ; and the pof-
feffors bound to grind their grain there, for payment
of certain multures and fequels as the agreed price of
grinding. In this fervitude, the mill is the dominant
tenement, and the lands aftri&ed (which are called a’-
fo the thirl or fucken) the fervient. Multure is the
quantity of grain or meal payable to the proprietor of
♦he mill, or to the multerer his tackfman. The fe¬
quels are the fmall quantities given to the fervants, un¬
der the name of knavejhip, bannock, and lock or goivpen.
The quantities paid to the mill by the lands not a-
ftri&ed, are generally proportioned to the value of the
labour, and are called out-toivn or out fucken multures ;
but thofe paid by the thirl ate ordinarily higher, and
are called in town or in fucken multures.
13. Thirlage maybe conflituted by a land-holder,
when, in the difpofition of certain lands, he aftri&s
them to his own mill; or when, in the difpofition of a
mill, he aftri&s his own lands to the mill difponed ; or
when, in letting his lands, he makes it a condition in
the tacks. The grant of a mill with the general claufe
©f multures, without fpecifying the lands aitrifted,
conveys the thirlage of all the lands formerly aftri&ed
to that mill, whether they were the property of the
granter, or of a third party.
14. A lefs formal conflitution ferves to aftrift ba¬
rony-lands to the mill of the barony, than is neceffary
in any other thirlage; which perhaps proceeds from
the effe&s of the union betwixt the two. Hence, if a
baron makes over the mill of a barony, cum multuris,
or cum ajlriais multuris, it infers an aftri&ion of the
barony lands to the mill conveyed, although they had not
formerly been aftri&ed. But if, prior to the baron’s
conveyance of his mill cum multuris, he had fold any
part of the barony-lands to another cum multuris, the
firll purchafer’s lands are not aftri&ed by the poiterior
grant ; for a right of lands with the multures, implies
a freedom of thefe lands from thirlage.
15. Thirlage is either, 1. Of grindatle corns ; or,
2. Of all growing corns ; or, 3. Of the inveSa et il-
lata, i. e. of all the grain brought within the thirl,
though of another growth. Where the thirlage is of
grindable grain, it is in pra&ice rellri&ed to the corns
which the tenants have occafion to grind, either for the
fupport of their families, or for other ufes; the furplua
may be carried out of the thirl unmanufactured, with¬
out being liable in multure. Where it is of the grana
crefcentia, the whole grain growing upon the thirl is.
aftri&ed, with the exceptions, 1. Of feed and horfe- Law of
corn, which are deflined to ufes inconfiftent with grind- Sc°dand..J
ing; and, 2. Of the farm duties due to the landlord, ' ”V*W.
if they are delivered in grain not grinded. But, if the
rent be payable in meal, flour, or malt, the grain of
which thefe are made mu!t be manufafltuied in the do¬
minant mill.
16. The thirlage of inveda et Ulata is feldom confti¬
tuted but againft the inhabitants of a borough or vil¬
lage, that theyfttall grind all the unmanufactured grain
they import thither at the dominant mill. Multure,
therefore, cannot be exadfed in a thirlage of inveda ..
illata, for flour or oat-meal brought into the fervient
tenement, unlefs the importer had bought it. in grain,,
and grinded it at another mill. The fame grain chat
owes multure, as granum crefcens, to the mill in whofe
thirl it grew, if it fhall be afterwards brought within a.
borough where the inveda et illata are thirled, muft pay
a fecond multure to the proprietor of that dominant
tenement; but, where the right of thefe two thirlages
is in the fame proprietor, he cannot exait both. Where
lands are thirled in general terms, without exprefling
the particular nature of the fervitude, the lighteft thir¬
lage is prefumed, from the favour of liberty ; but ia
the aftriction of a borough or village, where there is
no growing grain which can be the fubjedl of thirlage,
the aftridrion of inveda et illata muft be neceflarily un-
derftood.
17. Thirlage, in the general cafe, cannot be efla-
blifhed by prefcription alone, for Us quce funt riieree fa-
cult at is non prafcribitur; but where One has paid lor
40 years together the heavy infucken multures, the
flighteft title in writing will fubjcdt his lands. Thir¬
lage may, contrary to the common rule, be conftituted
by prefcription alone, I. Where one pays to a mill a
certain fum, or quantity of grain yearly, in name of
multure, whether he grinds at it or not, (called dry
multure). 2. In mills of the king’s property ; which
is conftituted jure corona, without titles in writing ;
and, where he derives right from another, his titles
are more liable to be loft. This is extended in prac¬
tice to mills belonging to church-lands, where thirty
years poffeffion is deemed equivalent to a title in wri¬
ting, from a prefumption that their rights were de?
ftroyed at the reformation. Though thirlage itfelf
cannot be conftituted by mere poflefiion, the proportion
of multure payable to the dominant tenement may be
fo fixed.
id. The pofleflbrs of the lands aftridled are bound
to uphold the mill, repair the dam-dykes and aque¬
duct,'and bring home the millftones. Thefe fervices,
though not exprefled in the con dilution, are implied. Serv;,ud8,
19. Servitudes, being reftraints upon property, wo-Mcflrituju,
Jlridi juris: they are not therefore prefumed,, if the m.
afts upon which they are claimed can be explained con-
fitlently with freedom; and, when fervitudes are con¬
ftituted, they ought to be ufed in the way leaft bur-
denfome to the fervient tenement. Hence, one who
has a fervitude of peats upon his neighbour’s mofs, is
not at liberty to extend it for the ufe of any manufac¬
ture which may require an extraordinary expence of
fuel; but muft confine it to the natural ufes of the do¬
minant tenement.
20. Servitudes are extinguifhed, (1.) Confujione,
when the perfon comes to be proprietor of the domi¬
nant
ijpartlll. L A
' b| Law of nant and fervient tenements; for res fua nomini fervlt,
■jjgecitiMid. an^ tjie ufe jjjg pr0p,ietor thereafter makes of the fer-
"v vient tenement is* not jure fervitutis, but is an adt of
property. (2 ) By the periihing either of the domi¬
nant or fervient tenement. ( ?.) Servitudes are loft won
v utendo, by the dominant tenement neglecting to ufe the
- ' right for 40 years; which is confidered as a derelic¬
tion of it, though he who has the fervient tenement
fh*>uld have made no interruption by doing ads con¬
trary to the fervitude.
2 1. Perfonal fervit udes are thofe by which the pro¬
perty of a fubjed is burdened, in favour, not of a te¬
nement, but of a perfon. The only perfonal fervi¬
tude known in our law, is ufufrud or liferent ; which
liferent. js a ,-jght to ufe and enjoy a thing during life, the
fubftance of it being preferved. A liferent cannot
therefore be ccnftituted upon things which perifh in the
ufe; and though it may upon fubjeds which gradual¬
ly wear out by time, as houfehold furniture, &c. yet-
with us, it is generally applied to heritable fubjeds.
He whofe property is burdened, is ufually called theyfar.
liftr-nts. 22, Liferents are divided into conventional and le¬
gal, Conventional liferents are either Jimple, or by
refervation. A fimple liferent, or by a ieparate con-
ftitution, is that which is granted by the proprietor in
favour of another : And this fort, contrary to the na¬
ture of predial fervitudes, requires feifin in order to af-
fed Angular fuccelfors ; for a liferent of lands is, in
ftrid fpeech, not a fervitude, but a right refembling
property which conftitutes the liferenter vaflal for life ;
and Angular fucceflprs have no way of difeovering a life¬
rent-right, which perhaps is not yet commenced, but
by the records; whereas, in predial fervitudes, the con-
ftant ufe of the dominant tenement makes them pub¬
lic. The proper right of liferent is intranfmiflible;
ojfibus ufufrutluarii inhseret: When the proAts of the
liferented fubjed are tranfmitted to another, the right
becomes merely perfonal: for it intitles the afiignee
to the rent, not during his own life, but his cedent’s;
and is therefore carried by Ample afiignation, without
feifin.
23. A liferent by refervation, is that which a pro¬
prietor referves to himfelf in the fame writing by which
he conveys the fee to another. It requires no feiAn ;
for the granter’s former feiAn, which virtually included
the liferent, ftill fubAfts as to the liferent which is ex-
prefsly referved. In conjund infeftments taken to huf-
band and wife, the wife’s right of conjund fee refolves,
in the general cafe, into a liferent.
Tercc. 24. Liferents, by law, are the terce and the cour-
tefy. The terce (tertia) a liferent competent by
law to widows, who have not accepted of fpecial pro-
viftons, in the third of the heritable fubjeds-in which
their hufbands died infeft; and takes place only where
W. 677
the marriage has fubftfted for year and day, or where Law of
a child has been born alive of it (a). Scotland.
25. The terce is not limited to lands, but extends
to teinds, and to fervitudes and other burdens affeding
lands; thus, the widow is intitled, in the right of her
terce, to a liferent of the third of the fums fecured, ei¬
ther by rights of annualrent, or by rights in fecurity.
In improper wadfets, the terce is a third of the fum
lent: In thofe that are proper, it is a third of the wad*
fet lands; or, in cafe of redemption, a third of the re¬
demption money. Neither rights of reverAon, fupe-
riority, nor patronage, fall under the terce; for none of
thefe have Axed proftts, and fo are not proper fubjeds
for the widow’s fubAftence; nor tacks, becaufe they are
not feudal rights. Burgage-tenements are alfo exclu¬
ded from it, the reafon of which is not fo obvious.
Since the hufband’s feifin is both the meafureand fecu¬
rity of the terce, fuch debts or diligences alone, as ex¬
clude the hulband’s feiAn, can prevail over it.
26. Where a terce is due out of lands burdened with
a prior terce ftill fubftfting, the fecond tercer has only
right to a third of the two thirds that remain unaffeded
by the ftrft terce. But upon the death of the ftrft wi¬
dow, whereby the lands are difburdened of her terce,
the lefler terce becomes enlarged, as if the ftrft had
never exifted. A widow, who has accepted of a fpe¬
cial proviAon from her hufband, is thereby excluded
from the terce, unlefs fuch proviAon (hall contain a
claufe that Are (hall have right to both.
27. The widow has no title of pofteffion, and fo can¬
not receive the rents in virtue of her terce, till fhe be
ferved to it; and in order to this, (he muft obtain a
brief out of the chancery, direded to the ftieriff, who
calls an inqueft, to take proof that {he was wife to the
deceafed, and that her hufband died infeft in the fub¬
jeds contained in the brief. The fervice or fentence
of the jury, ftnding thefe points proved, does, without
the neceflky of a retour to the chancery, intitle the
wife to enter into the poffcfAon ; but flie can only pof-
fefs with the heir pro iudivifo, and fo cannot remove
tenants till the fheriffkens her to her terce, or divides
the lands between her and the heir. In this divifton,
after determining by lot or kavil, whether to begin by
the fun or the {hade, i. e. by the eaft or the weft, the
ftieriff fets oft the two ftrft acres for the heir, and the
third for the widow. Sometimes the diviAon is execu¬
ted, by giving one entire farm to the widow, and two
of equal value to the heir. The widow’s right is not
properly conftituted by this fervice ; it was conftituted
before by the hufband’s feiAn, and Axed by his death ;
the fervice only declares it, and fo intitles her to the
third part of the rents retro to her hufoand’s death,
preferable to any rights that may have affedted the
lands in the intermediate period between that and her
own
(a) In the cafe referred to, when treating of the effc&s of the diffolution of marriage within the year with¬
out a living child, and where no fpecial proviftons had been granted to, or accepted by, the widow ; {he did
not demand her legal proviftons of terce or jus reliSa, but merely infifted, that as widow {he was intitled to be-
alimented out of the heritable eftate of which her hulband died pofleffed : So that the decifton in that cafe can¬
not fo properly be faid to be an alteration in the law, as an equitable interpofnion of the court of feffion, in
their capacity as a court of equity, in order to grant a fubfiftence to the widow of a man whofe eftate was
fully fufheien;, and who, it could not reafonably be prefumed, would have inclined that his widow fhould be
left deftitute, when his etlate wait perhaps to a ftiftaut feries of heirs.
678 L
Law of own fervlce. The rellft, if (he was reputed to be law-
.Scotland. £uj wjfe to deceafed, muft be ferved, notwithftand-
^ ing any objeftions by the heir againft the marriage,
which may be afterwards tried by the commiflary.
&mrtefy. 28. Courtefy is a liferent given by law, to the fur-
viving hufband, of all his wife’s heritage in which (he
died infeft, if there was a child of the marriage born
alive. A marriage, though of the longeft continuance)
A W. Part nr
of that year’s rent, becaufe it was due the term before Law of
his death; and if he furvives the term of Martinmas, Scotland.
they have right to the whole. If the liferenter, being
in the natural poffeflion, and having firft fowed the
ground, (houlddie,even before Whitfunday,hisexecutors
are intitled to the whole crop, in refpeft that both feed
and induftry were his. In a liferent of money confti-
tuted by a moveable bond, the executors have a right
gives no right to the courtefy, if there was no iflue of to the intereft, down to the very day of the liferenter’
The child born of the marriage muft be the mo¬
ther’s heir: If fhe had a child of the former marriage.
death, where no terms are mentioned for the payment
thereof; but in the cafe of an heritable bond, or of a
who is to fucceed to her eftate, the hulband has no money liferent fecured on land, the interefts of life-
right to the courtefy while fuch child is alive ; fo that
the courtefy is due to the hulband, rather as father to
an heir, than as huihand to an heirefs. Heritage is
here oppofed to conqueft ; and fo is to be underftood
only of the heritable rights to which the wife fucceed-
«d as heir to her anceftors, excluding what (he herfelf
had acquired by Angular titles.
29. Becaufe the hulband enjoys the liferent of his
wife’s whole heritage, on a lucrative title, he is con-
fidered as her temporary reprefentative ; and fo is liable
in payment of all the yearly burdens chargeable on the
fubjeft, and of the current intereft of all her debts,
real and perfonal, to the value of the yearly rent he
enjoys by the courtefy. The courtefy needs no foletn-
nity to its conftitution : That right which the hufband
renter and fiar (or of heir and executor, for the fame
rules ferve to fix the interefts of both) are both go¬
verned by the legal terms of land-rent, without regard
to the conventional.
Sect. X. Of Teinds. chru
Teinds, or tithes, are that liquid proportion ofTeindsi
our rents or goods, which is due to churchmen, for
performing divine fervice, or exercifing the other fpiri-
tual funftions proper to their feveral offices. Mod of
the canonifts affirm, that the precife proportion of a
tenth, not only of the fruits of the ground, but of what
is acquired by perfonal induftry, is due to theChriftian
clergy, of divine right, which they therefore call the
had to the rents of his wife’s eftate during the mar- proper patrimony of the church ; though it is certain
that tithes, in their infancy, were given, not to the
clergy alone, but to lay-monks who were called pau-
the terce, the hulhand’s feifin is the peres, and to other indigent perfons. Charles the Great
was the firft fecular prince who acknowledged this
riage, jure mariti, is continued with him after her
death, under the name of courtefy, by an aft of the
law itfelf. As in the terce, the hulband’s feifin is the
ground and meafure of the wife’s right; fo in the cour¬
tefy, the wife’s feifin is the foundation of the hufband’s;
and the two rights are, in all other refpefts, of the
fame nature ; if it is not that the courtefy extends to
burgage holdings, and to fuperiorities.
30. All liferenters muft ufe their right fafoa relful-
Jlantia: whatever therefore is part of the fee itfelf,
cannot be incroached on by the liferenter, e.g. woods
or growing timber, even for the neceffary ufes of the
liferented tenement. But, where a coppice or fifaa
cadua has been divided into hags, one of which was in
■ufe to be cut annually by the proprietor, the liferenter
may continue the former yearly cuttings; becaufe thefe
are confidered as the annual fruits the fubjeft was in¬
tended to yield, and fo the proper fubjeft of a liferent.
3 i. Liferenters are bound to keep the fubjeft life-
rented in proper repair. They are alfo burdened with
the alimony of the heir, where he has not enough for
maintaining himfelf. The bnre right of apparency
founds the aftion againft the liferenter. It is a burden
perfonal to the liferenter himfelf, and cannot be thrown
upon his adjudging creditors as coming in his place
by their diligences. Liferenters are alfo fubjefted to
the payment of the yearly ceffes,. (Upends, &c. falling
due during their right, and to all other burdens that
attend the fubjeft liferented.
32. Liferent is extinguiftied by the liferenter’s death.
That part of the rents which the liferenter had a pro¬
per right to, before his death, falls to his executors ;
the reft, as never having been in bonis of the deceafed,
goes to the fiar. Martinmas and Whitfunday are, by
our cuftom, the legal terms of the payment of rent :
confequently, if a liferenter of lands furvives the term
of Whitfunday, his executors are intitled to the half
right in the church. It - appears to have been recei¬
ved with us, as far back as David I.
2. The perfon employed by a cathedral church or
monaftery to ferve the cure in any church annexed
was called a vicar, becaufe he held the church, not in
his own right, but in the right or vice of his employ¬
ers ; and fo was removeable at pleafure, and had no
(hare of the benefice, other than what they thought fit
to allow him : but, in the courfe of time, the appella¬
tion of vicar was limited to thofe who were made per¬
petual, and who got a Hated (hare of the benefice for
their incumbency ; from whence arofe the diftinftion
of beneficys into parfonages and vicarages.
3. Parfonage teinds are the teinds of corn ; and they
are fo called becaufe they are due to the parfon or o-
ther titular of the benefice. Vicarage teinds are the
fmall teinds of calves, lint, hemp, eggs, &c. which
were commonly given by the titular to the vicar who
ferved the cure in his place. The firft fort was univer-
fally due, unlefs in the cafe of their infeudation to laics,
or of a pontifical exemption ; but, by the cuftoms of
altnoft all Chriftendom, the Idler teinds were not de¬
manded where they had not been in ufe to be paid.
By the praftice of Scotland, the teinds of animals, or
of things produced from animals, as lambs, wool, calves,
are due though not accuftomed to be paid ; but roots,
herbs, &c. are not tithable, unlefs ufe of payment be
proved : neither are perfonal teinds (/. e. the tenth of
what one acquires by his own induftry) acknowledged
by our law: yet they have been found due, when fup-
ported by 40 years poffeffion.
4. The parfon who was intitled to the teind of corns,
made his right effeftuq), either by accepting of a cer-
5 tain
Part III. L
Law of tain number of teind-bolls yearly from the proprietor
Scotland- jn fatisfadion of it; or, more frequently, by drawing
y~’”" or feparating upon the field his own tenth part of the
corns, after they were reaped, from the Hock or the
remaining nine-tenths of the crop, and carrying it off
to his own granaries ; which is called drawn teind.
Annexation 5. After the reformation, James VI. confidered him-
of church- felf ag proprietor of all the church-lands ; partly be¬
lauds to the caufe the purpofes for which they had been granted
were declared fuperftitious ; and partly, in confequence
of the refignations which he, and queen Mary his mo¬
ther, had procured from the beneficiaries : and even as
to the teinds, though our reformed clergy alfo claimed
them as the patrimony of the church, our fovereign
did not fubmit to that do&rine farther than extended
to a competent provifion for minifters. He therefore
erefited or fecularifed feveral abbacies and priories into
temporal lordfhips; the grantees of which were called
fometimes lords of ereSion, and fometimes titulars, as
having by their grants the fame title to the eredted
benefices that the monafteries had formerly.
6. As the crown’s revenue fuffered greatly by thefe
ere&ions, the temporality of all church benelices (i.e.
church lands) was, by 1587. c. 29. annexed to the
crown. That ftatute excepts from the annexation fuch
benefices as were eftabliflied before the reformation in
laymen, whofe rights the legiflature had no intention
to weaken. Notwithftanding this ftatute, his majefty
continued to make farther ere&ions, which were de¬
clared null by 1592, c. 119. with an exception of fuch
as had been made in favour of lords of parliament
fince the general aft of annexation in 1587.
7. King Charles I. foon after his fucceflion, raifed a
reduftion of all thefe ereftions, whether granted before
or after the aft of annexation, upon the grounds men¬
tioned at length by Mr Forbes in his treatife of tithes,
p. 259. At laft the whole matter was referred to the
king himfelf by four feveral fubmiffioris or compro-
mifes ; in which the parties on one fide were the titu¬
lars and their tackfmen, the bifhops with the inferior
clergy, and the royal boroughs, for the intereft they
had in the teinds that were gifted for the provifion of
minifters, fcheols, or hofpitals within their boroughs ;
and, on the other part, the proprietors who wanted to
have the leading of their own teinds. The fubmiffion
by the titulars contained a furrender into his majefty’s
hands of the fuperiorities of their feveral ereftions.
Valuation Upon each of thefe fubmiffions his majefty pro¬
of tcurds, nounced feparate decrees arbitral, dated Sept. 2. 1629,
which are fubjoined to the afts of parliament of his reign.
He made it lawful to proprietors to fue the titulars for
a valuation, and if they thought fit for a fale alfo, of
their teinds, before the commiffioners named or to be
named for that purpofe. The rate of teind, when it was
poffdfed by the proprietor jointly with the flock, for
payment of a certain duty to the titular, and fodid not
admit a feparate valuation, was fixed at a fifth part of
the conftant yearly rent, which was accounted a rea-
fonable furrogatum, in place of a tenth of the increafe.
Where it was drawn by the titular, and confequently
might be valued feparately from the flock, it was to
be valued as its. extent fhould be afeertained upon a
proof before the commifiioners; but in this laft valua¬
tion, the king direfted the fifth part to be dedufted
from the proved teind,. in favour of the proprietor,
A W. 679
which was therefore called the king's safe. The propri- Law
etor filing for a valuation gets the leading of his own cot an ’f
teinds as foon as his fuit commences, providing he does
not allow pioteftation to be extrafted againft him for
not infifting.
9. Where the proprietor infifted alfo for a fale of his
teinds, the titular was obliged to fell them at nine years
purchafe of the valued teind-duty. If the purfutr had
a tack of his own teinds, not yet expired ; or if the
defender was only tackfman of the teinds, and fo could
not give the purfuer an heritable right ; an abatement
of the price was to be granted accordingly by the com¬
miffioners.
10. There is no provifion in the decrees-arbitral, for
felling the teinds granted for the fuftentation of mini¬
fters, univerfities, fchools, or hofpitals ; becaufe thefe
were to continue, as a perpetual fund, for the mainte- *
nance of the perfons or focieties to whom they were
appropriated ; and they are exprefsly declared not fub-
jeft to fale, by 1690, c. 30.—1693, c. 23. By the lalt
of thefe afts, it is alfo provided, that the teinds be¬
longing to bifhops, which had then fallen to the crown
upon the aboliftiing of epifcopacy, fhould not be fub-
jedl to fale as long as they remained with the crown
not difpofed of; nor thofe which the proprietor, who
had right both to flock and teind, referved to himfelf
in a fale or feu of the lands. But, though none of thefc
teinds can be fold, they may be valued. , . .
xx. The king, by the decrees arbitral, declared histoI”j’es£‘|e_
own right to the fuperiorities of ereftion which had r^rjnes of
been refigned to him by the fubmiffion, referving toeredhon.
the titulars the feu-duties thereof, until payment by
himfelf to them of 1000 met ks Scots for every chal-
der of feu-viftual, and for each too merks of feu du¬
ty ; which right of redeeming the feu-duties was af¬
terwards renounced by the crown. If the church-
vaffal fhould confent to hold his lands of the titular,
he cannot thereafter recur to the crown as his imme¬
diate fuperior-
12. In explaining what the conftant rent is by^ulesf°r
which the teind muft be valued, the following rules t^e
are obferved. The rent drawn by the proprietor vaiuationof
from the fale of fubjefts, that are more properly parts teinds.
of the land than of the ftuita, e. g. quarries, minerals,
moffes, &c. is to be dedufted from tne rental of the
lands; and alfo the rent of fupernumerary houfes,
over and above what is neceffary for agriculture ; and
the additional rent that may be paid by the tenant,
in confideration of the proprietor’s undertaking any
burden that law impofes on the tenant, e. g. uphokB
ing the tenant’s houfes, becaufe none of thefe ar¬
ticles are paid properly on account of the fruits. Or¬
chards muft alfo be dedufted, and mill rent, becaufe
the profits of a mill arife from induflry ; and the
corns manufaftured there fuffer a valuation as rent
payable by the tenant, and therefore ought not to be
valued a fecond time againft the titular as mill-rent.
The yearly expence of culture ought not to be de¬
dufted ; for no rent can be produced without it: but,
if an improvement of rent is made at an uncommon
expence, e. g. by draining a lake, the proprietor is
allowed a reafonable abatement on that account.
13. Notwithiianding-the feveral ways of niifapply-Telnds re*
ing parochial teinds in the times of Popery, fome fewdeemablty
benefices remained entire in the hands of the parfons.
The
Law of
Scotland.
Minifter*
■glebes, &c.
exempted
from teinds.
Inhibition
of teinds.
The minifters planted in thefe, after the reformation,
continued to'have the full right to them, as proper be¬
neficiaries: but a power was afterwards granted to the
patron, to redeem the whole teind from fuch benefici¬
aries, upon their getting a competent ftipend modi¬
fied to them ; which teind fo redeemed, the patron is
obliged to fell to the proprietor, at fix years pur-
chafe.
14. Some teinds are more dire&ly fubjeft to an al¬
location for the minifter’s ftipend than others. The
teinds in the hands of the lay titular fall fit ft to be
allocated, who, fince he is not capable to ferve the
cure in his own perfon, ought to provide one who
can ; and if the titular, in place of drawing the teind,
has fet it in tack, the tack-duty is allocated : this fort
is called free temd. Where the tack-duty, which is
the titular’s intereft in the teinds, falls ftiort, the tack
itfelf is burdened, or, in other words, the furplus
teind over and above the tack-duty : but, in this cafe,
the commiffioners are empowered to recompenfe the
tackfman, by prorogating his tack for fuch a number
of years as they {hall judge equitable. Where this
likewife proves deficient, the allocation falls on the
teinds heritably conveyed by the titular, unlefs he
has warranted his grant againft future augmentations ;
in which cafe, the teinds of the lands belonging in
property to the titular himfelf muft be allocated in
the firft place.
15. Where there is fufficiency of free teinds in a
parifli, the titular may allocate any of them he fhall
think fit for the minifter’s ftipend, fince they are all
his own ; unlefs there has been a previous decree of lo¬
cality : and this holds, though the ftipend ftiould have
been paid immemorially out of the teinds of certain
particular lands. This right was frequently abufed by
titulars, who, as foon as a proprietor had brought an
adlion of fale of his teinds, allocated the purfuer’s
full teind for the ftipend, whereby fuch a&ion became
ineffeftual: it was therefore provided, that after cita¬
tion in a fale of teinds, it {hall not be in the titular’s
power to allocate the purfuer’s teinds folely, but only
in proportion with the other teinds in the parifti.
16. Minifters glebes are declared free from the pay¬
ment of teirid. Lands cum decimis inclujis are alfo ex¬
empted from tcind. But in order to exempt lands
from payment of teind, it is neceffary that the pro¬
prietor prove his right thereto, cum decimis inclujis, as
far back as the above a& of annexation 1587.
17. Teinds are debita fruSuum, not fundi. The ac¬
tion therefore for bygone teinds is only perfonal, a-
gainft thofe who have intermeddled, unlefs where the
titular is infeft in the lands, in fecurity of the valued
teind duty. Where a tenant is, by his tack, bound
io pay a joint duty to the landlord for ftock and teind,
without diftinguilhing the rent of each, his defence of
a bona fide payment of the whole to the landlord has
been fuftained in a fuit at the inftance of a laic titular,
but repelled where a churchman was purfuer. In both
cafes the proprietor who receives fuch rent is liable as
intermeddler.
18. In tacks of teinds, as of lands, there is place
for tacit relocation : to ftop the effe& of which, the
titular muft obtain and execute an inhibition of teinds
againft the tackfman ; which differs much from inhibi¬
tion of lands (explained under the next ft&ion), and
NJ 177.
is intended merely to interpel or inhibit the tackfman
from farther intermeddling. This diligence of inhibi¬
tion may alfo be ufed at the fait of the titular, againft
any other poffeffor of the teinds ; and if the tackfman
or poffeffor {hall intermeddle after the inhibition is ex¬
ecuted, he is liable in a fpuilzie.
[9. Lands and teinds pafs by different titles: a dif-
pofuion of lands, therefore, though granted by one
who has alfo right to the teind, will not carry the
teind, unlefs it {hall appear from fpecial circumitences
that a fale of both was defigned by the parties. In
lands cum decimis inclufis, where the teinds are confoli-
dated with the ftock, the right of both muft neceffa-
rily go together in all cafes.
Sect. XI. Of inhibitions-
The conftitution and tranfmiffion of feudal rights,
and the burdens with which they are chargeable, being
now explained, it remains to be confidered how thc<“
rights may be affe&ed at the fuit of creditors by le
diligence. Diligences are certain forms of law, wher
by a creditor endeavours to make good his payment,
either by affefting the perfon of his debtor, or by fe-
curing the fubjedts belonging to him from alienation,
or by carrying the property of thefe fubje&s to him¬
felf. They are either real or perfonal. Real diligence
is that which is proper to heritable or real rights;
perfonal, is that by which the perfon of the debtor
may be fecured, or his perfonal eftate affefted. Of
the firft fort we have two, ‘tri*. inhibition and adjudica¬
tion.
2. Inhibition is a perfonal prohibition, which paffes Inhibition,
by letters under the fignet, prohibiting the party inhi¬
bited to contraA any debt, or do any deed, by which
any part of his lands may be aliened or carried off in
prejudice of the creditor inhibiting. It muft be exe¬
cuted againft the debtor, perfonally, or at his dwell-
ing-houfe, as fummonfes, and thereafter publifhed and
regiftered in the fame manner with interdiftions, (fee
N° clxxxiii. 21.)
3. Inhibition may proceed, either upon a liquid
obligation, or even on an adlion commenced by a cre¬
ditor for making good a claim not yet fuftained by
the judge ; which laft is called inhibition upon a depend¬
ing aEtion. The fummons, which conftitutes the de¬
pendence, muft be executed againft the debtor before
the letters of inhibition pafs the fignet; for no fuit
can be faid to depend againft one till he be cited in
it as a defender : but the effedl of fuch inhibition is
fufpended till decree be obtained in the adlion againft
the debtor; and in the fame manner, inhibitions on
conditional debts have no effedt till the condition be
purified. Inhibitions are not granted, without a trial
of the caufe, when they proceed on conditional debts.
And though, in other cafes, inhibitions now pafs of
courfe, the lords are in ufe to ftay, or recal them, ei-'
ther on the debtor’s {bowing caufe why the diligence
Ihould not proceed, or even ex officio where the ground
of the diligence is doubtful.
4. Though inhibitions, by their uniform ftyle, dif- L;m;tecj w
able the debtor from felling his moveable as well asjierit3_Ci ‘
his heritable eftate, their effedl has been long limited *
to heritage, from the interruption that fuch an em¬
bargo upon moveables muft have given to commerce {
fo
^ Taft III.
Law of fo tliat debts contrafted after inhibition may be the
^Scotland.^ foundation of diligence againft the debtor’s perfon and
Us fimply
moveable eftate. An inhibition fecures the inhibitor
againft the alienation, not only of lands that belonged
to his debtor when he was inhibited, but of thofe that
he fhall afterwards acquire; but no inhibition can ex¬
tend to fuch after-purchafes as lie in a jurifdiftion where
the inhibition was not regiftered $ for it could not have
extended to thefe though they had been made prior
to the inhibition.
5. This diligence only ftrikes againft the voluntary
debts or deeds of the inhibited perfon : it xloes not re-
ftrain him from granting neceffary deeds, i. e. fuch as
he was obliged to grant anterior to the inhibition,
fince he might Irave been compelled to grant thefe be¬
fore the inhibitor had acquired any right by his dili¬
gence. By this rule, a wadfetter or annualrenter
might, after being inhibited, have effe&ually renoun¬
ced his right to the reverfer on payment, becaufe law
jcould have compelled him to it; but to fecure inhibi¬
tors againft the effedt of fuch alienations, it is declared
by act of federunt of the court of feffion, Feb. 19.
li58o, that, after intimation of the inhibition to the
reverfer, no renunciation or grant of redemption (hall
be fuftained, except upon declarator of redemption
brought by him, to which the inhibitor muft be made
a party.
u    r., 6. An* inhibition is a diligence fimply prohibitory,
1 prohibitory fa that the debt, on which it proceeds, continues per-
fonal after the diligence ; and confcquently, the inhi¬
bitor, in a queftion with anterior creditors whofe debts
are not fttuck at by the inhibition, is only preferable
from the period at which his debt is made real by ad¬
judication : and where debts are contracted on heri¬
table fecurity, though pofterior to the inhibition, the
inhibitor’s debt, being perfonal, cannot be ranked with
them ; he only draws back from thg creditors ranked
the fums contained in his diligence. The heir of the
perfon inhibited is not reftrained from alienation by
the diligence ufed againft his anceftor ; for the prohi
bition is perfonal, affe&ing only the debtor againft
whom the diligence is ufed.
7. Inhibitions do not, of themfelves, make void the
pofterior debts or deeds of the perfon inhibited ; they
only afford a title to the ufer of the diligence to fet
them afide, if he finds them hurtful to him : and even
where a debt is actually reduced ex capite inhibitionis,
fuch redu&ion, being founded folely in the inhibitor’s
intereft, is profitable to him alone, and cannot alter the
natural preference of the other creditors.
Purging of 8. Inhibitions may be reduced upon legal nullities,
inhibitions, arifing either from the ground of debt or the form of
diligence. When payment is made by the debtor to
the inhibitor, the inhibition is faid to be purged. Any
creditor, whofe debt is ftruck 'at by the inhibition,
may, upon making payment to the inhibitor, compel
him to affign the debt and diligence in his favour, that
he may make good his payment the more effedually
againft the common debtor.
Sect. XII. Of comprijings, adjudications, and ju¬
dicial Jahs.
Heritable rights may be carried from the debtor
to the creditor, either by the diligence of apprifirig
(now adjudication), or by a judicial fale carried on be-
Apprifing. fore the court of feffion. A pprifing, 01 com puling,
V01..IX. Part.II. * 1 h'
Clxxii.
AW. 6
was the fentence of a (heriff, or of a mefletiger who was baw
fpecially conftitutefflheriff for that purpofe, by which Scotla'
the heritable rights belonging to the debtor were fold 'm^r'
for payment of the debt due to the apprifer ; fo that
apprifings were, by their original conftitution, proper
fales of the debtor’s lands to any purchafer who of¬
fered. If no purchafer could be found, the Iheriff was
to apprife or tax the value of the lands by an inqueft
(whence came the name of apprifing), and to make
over to the creditor lands to the value of the debt. A
full hiftory of apprifings will be found in the begin¬
ning of Mr Erlkine’s large Injlilute under this title; it
being confidered as unneceffary to enter into a deduc¬
tion now no longer neceffary, as by the adh 1672 ad¬
judications were fubftituted in their place.
2. That creditors may have accefs to affect the eftate
of their deceafed debtor, though the heir Ihould Hand
off from entering, it is made lawful (by 1540, c. 106.)
for any creditor to charge the heir of his debtor to en¬
ter to his anceftor (year and day being paft after the
anceftor’s death), within 4c days after the charge; and
if the heir fails, the creditor may proceed to apprife
his debtor’s lands, as if the heir had been entered. Cu-
ftom has fo explained this ftatute, that the creditor
may charge the heir, immediately after the death of
his anceftor, provided that the fummons which is to be
founded on the charge be not raifed till after the ex¬
piry both of the year and of the 40 days next enfuing
the year, within which the heir is charged to enter.
But this ftatute relates only to fuch charges on which
apprifing is to be led againft the anceftor’s lands; for,
in thofe which are to be barely the foundation of a
common fummons or procefs againft the heir, aftion
will be fuftained if the year be elapfed from the
anceftor’s death before the execution of the fummons,
though the 40 days ftiould not be alfo expired. Though
the ftatute authorifes fuch charges againft majors only,
pra&ice has alfo extended it againft minors, and the
rule is extended to the cafe where the heir is the
debtor. One muft, in this matter, diftinguifti between
a general and a fpecial charge. A general charge
ferves only to fix the reprefentation of the heir who is'
charged, fo as to make the debt his which was for¬
merly his anceftor’s: but a fpecial charge makes up
for the want of a fervice (N°dxxx. 25.) ; and ftates
the heir, ficlione juris, in the right of the fubje&s to which
he is charged to enter. Where, therefore, the heir is
the debtor, a general charge for fixing the reprefenta¬
tion againft him is unneceffary, fince the only concern
of the creditor is, that his debtor make up titles to
the anceftor’s eftate, which is done by a fpecial charge;
but where the deceafed was the debtor, the creditor
muft fir ft charge his heir to enter in general, that it
may be known whether he is to reprefent the debtor :
if he does not enter within forty days, the debt may
be fixed againft him by a decree of conftitution ; after
which, the heritable rights belonging to the anceftor
will fall to be attached; in doing which, the diligence
to be ufed is different, according to the ftate of the
titles in the anceftor’s perfon: for if xhe anceftor ftood
veiled by infeftment, the heir muft be charged to en¬
ter heir in fpecial; but if the anceftor had but a per¬
fonal right to the fubje&s (i. e. not perfected by fea-
fin), which would have been carried to the heir by a
general fervice, then what is called a general fpecial
charge muft be given to the heir. Thefe charges, ei-
4 & ther
682 L A
Law of tlier fpecial or general fpecial, as the circumftances of
Scotland. t[le cai'e ^ay require, are by the ftatute 1540 made
’ equivalent to the heir’s aftual entry; and there¬
fore an adjudication jled after the inducia of the charges
are elapfed, effe&ually carries to the creditor the fub-
je&s to which the heir was charged to enter.
Adjudica- 3. Apprifings in courfe of time underwent many
tioRf- changes in their form and effeft, till at length, by a£t
1672, c. 19. adjudications were fubftituted in their
place, and are carried on by way of a&ion before the
court of feffion. By that ftatute, fuch part of the
debtor’s lauds is to be adjudged as is equivalent to the
principal fum and intereft of the debt, with the com*
pofition due to the fuperior and expences of infeftment,
and a fifth part more in refpeft the creditor is obliged
to take land for his money. The debtor muft deliver
to the creditor a valid right of the lands to be ad¬
judged, or tranfumpts thereof, renounce the poffeffion
in his favour, and ratify the decree of adjudication :
and law confiders the rent of the lands as precifely
commenfurated to the intereft of the debt; fo that
$he adjudger lies under no obligation to account for
the furplus rents. In this, which is called a fpecial ad¬
judication, the legal, or time within which the debtor
may redeem, is declared to be five years; and the cre¬
ditor attaining pofleflion upon it can ufe no farther ex¬
ecution againft the debtor, unlefs the lands be evifted
from him.
4. Where the debtor does not produce a fufficient
right to the lands, or is not willing to renounce the
poffeffion, and ratify the decree (which is the cafe
that has moft frequently happened), the ftatute makes
it. lawful for the creditor to adjudge all right belong¬
ing to the debtor in the fame manner, and under the
fame reverfion of ten years, as he could, by the former
laws, have apprifed it. In this laft kind, which is
called a general adjudication, the creditor muft limit his
claim to the principal fum, intereft, and penalty, with¬
out demanding a fifth part more. But no general ad¬
judication can be infifted on, without libelling in the
fummons the other alternative of a fpecial adjudica¬
tion ; for fpecial adjudications are introduced by the
flatute in the place of apprifings; and it is only where
the debtor refufes to comply with the terms thereof,
that the creditor can lead a general adjudication.
5. Abbreviates are ordained to be made of all ad¬
judications, which muft be recorded within 60 days
after the date of the decree. In every other refpedt,
general adjudications have the fame tffe&s that appri-
fings had : adjudgers in poffeffion are accountable for
the furplus rents ; a-citation in adjudications renders
the fubjedh litigious; fuperiors are obliged to enter ad¬
judgers; the legal of adjudications does-not expire du
ring the debtor’s minority, &c. Only it may be ob-
ferved, that though apprifings could not proceed before
the term of payment, yet where the debtor is vergens
ad inopiam, the court ex nobili officio admit adjudication
for the debt before it be payable. But this fort being
found.-d folely in equity, fubfifts-merely as a fecurity,
and cannot carry the property to the creditor by the
lapfe of any length of time.
6. There are two kinds of adjudication, which took
place at the fame time with apprifings, and. ftill ob-
Two kinds tain 5 via;, adjudications on a decree cognitionis caufa,
of adjudica-otherwne called contra hereditatem jacentem ; and adju-
tions. dicationsjn implement. Where the debtor’s apparent
W. Part III.
heir, who is charged to enter, formally renounces the Law of
fucceffion, the creditor may obtain a decree cognitionis Scotland. :
caufa ; in which, though the heir renouncing is cited ——V*""*
for the fake of form, no fentence condemnatory can
be pronounced againft him, in refpedt of his renuncia¬
tion ; the only effeft of it is to fubject the herediias jet-
cent to the creditor’s diligence.
7. Adjudications contra hereditatem jacentem, carry
not only the lands themfelves that belonged to the de-
ceafed, but the rents thereof fallen due fince his death;
for thele, as an acceffory to the eftate belonging to the
deceafed, would have defeended to the heir if he had
entered, which rule is applied to all adjudications led
on a fpecial charge. This.fort of adjudication is de¬
clared redeemable within feven years, by any co-ad-
judging creditor, either of the deceafed debtor or of
the heir renouncing. The heir himfelf, who renounces,
cannot be reftored againft his renunciation, nor confe-
quently redeem, if he be not a minon But even a
major may redeem indireftly, by granting a finaulate
bond to a confident perfon; the adjudication upon
which, when conveyed to himfelf, is a good title to
redeem all other adjudications againft the lands belong- 1
ing to his anceftor.
8. Adjudications in implement are deduced againft
thofe who have granted deeds without procuratory of
refignation or precept of feilin, and refufe to diveft
themfelves ; to the end that the fubjedl conveyed may
be effectually veiled in the grantee. Thefe adjudications
may be alfo directed againft the heir of the granter,
upon a charge to enter. Here there is no place for
a legal reverfion ; for, as the adjudication is led for
completing the right of a fpecial fubjedt, it muft carry
that fubjedt as irredeemably as if the right had been
voluntarily completed.
9. All adjudications led within year and day of that
one which has been made firft effedtual by feifin (where
feifin is neceffary), or exact diligence for obtaining fei¬
fin, are preferable pari paffu. The year and day runs
from the date of the adjudication, and not of the fei¬
fin or diligence, for obtaining it. After the days of
that period, they are preferable according to their
dates. All the co-adjudgers within the year are pre¬
ferable paripaffu, as if one adjudication had been led
f6r all their debts. This makes the feifin or diligence
on the firft adjudication a common right to the reft,
who muft therefore refund to the owner of that dili¬
gence his whole expence laid out in carrying on and
completing it. And though that firft adjudication
fhould be redeemed, the diligence upon it ttill fubfifts*
as to the reft. This pari paffu preference, however,
does not deftroy the legal pieference of adjudications
led on debitafundi (fee N°clxix. 15.) ; nor does it take
place in adjudications in implement.
A new fort of adjudication has been lately introdu-.
ced into the law of Scotland by the aCl of the 23d
Geo. III. for rendering the payment of the creditors
of infolvent debtors more equal and expeditious. A-
mong the many other provifos in that ftatute for ex¬
pediting the payment of creditors, and leffening the
expence of diligence agamlt the debtor’s eftate, it is
enacted, That upon an order from the court of feffion *
or lord ordinary, the bankrupt ffiall be bound to exe¬
cute a difpofition or difpofitions, making over to the.
truftee or truftees chofen by the creditors the whole
eft«e real and perfonal, wherever fituated; and in cafe
c£
Part IH. L 1
Law of of the bankrupt’s re Fafal, or of the order not being
Scotland. ^ compl{ed with from any other reafon, the court or the
„ ordinary {hall, upon the application of the truftee,
iffue an aft or decree, adjudging the property of the
whole fequeftrated eftate to be in the truftee for behoof
of the creditors ; which (hall have the fame effeft as if
the bankrupt had executed the conveyance : and by
a fubfequent ciaufe in the ftatute, it is enafted, that
this difpofttion of the heritable eftate, together with
the order of the court or lord ordinary on which it
proceeds, or, failing thereof, the decree ofadjudication
of the court or the lord ordinary, (hall within 60 days
of the date thereof be regiftered in the regifter of ab¬
breviates of adj udications ; and {hall have the effeft to
intitle the truffee for behoof of the whole creditors to
rank in the fame manner upon the heritable eftate as
if it had .been a proper decree of adjudication, obtain¬
ed at the date of the interlocutor awarding the fequef-
tration ; accumulating the whole debts, principal and
intereft, as at that period, and adjudging for fecurity
or payment thoreof, fo as to rank pari pajfu with any
prior effeftual adjudication, and within year and day
«f the fame. By this aft alfo, in order to leffen the
number of adjudications, and confequently the expence
upon a iiankrupt eftate, it is declared, that intimation
fhall be made of the ftrft adjudication which is called,
fo as all creditors who are in readinefs may, within
fuch a reafonable time as may be allowed, not exceed¬
ing twenty federunt days, produce their grounds of
debt,, and be conjoined in the decree to follow on faid
fir ft adjudication At the fame time it may be proper
to mention, tlsat this aft is only temporary ; and after
eight years experience, will probably fuffer very confi-
derable alterations, when it ihall become neceffary to
digeft another bankrupt law for Scotland.
^equeftru- IO. Before treating of judicial fales of bankrupts e-
*ion. ftates, the nature of fequejlr&tion may be fhortly ex¬
plained, which is a diligence that generally u'hers in
aftions of fale. Sequeftration of lands is a judicial aft
of the court of fefiion, whereby the management of an
eftate is put into the hands of a faftor or Reward named
by the court, who gives fecurity, and is to be account¬
able for the rents to all having intereft. This diligence
is competent, either where the right of the lands is
■doubtful, if it be applied for before either of the com¬
petitors has attained poffeffion, or where the eftate is
heavily charged with debts: but, as it is an unfa¬
vourable diligence, it is not admitted, unlefs that mea-
fure {hall appear neceffary for the fecurity of creditors.
Subjefts not brought before the court by the diligence
of creditors, cannot faff under fequeftration ; for it is
the competition of creditor's which alone founds the ju-
rifdiftion of the court to take the difputed fubjeft into
their poffeffion.
11. The court of feffion who decrees the fequeftra¬
tion has the nomination of the faftor, in which they
are direfted by the recommendation of the creditors.
A faftor appointed by the feffion, though the proprie-
tor had not been infeft in the lands, has a power to re¬
move tenants. Judicial faftors muft, within fix months
after extrafting their faftory, make up a rental of the
eftate, and a lift of the arrears due by tenants, to be
put into the hands of the clerk of the procefs, as a
charge againft themfelves, and a note of fuch altera¬
tions in the rectal as may afterwards happen; and muft
^ W. 683
alfo deliver to the clerk annually a fcheme of tlieir ac- Law of
counts, charge add difeharge, under heavy penalties. Scotiand-.
They are, by the nature of their office, bound to the ~" ■
fame degree of diligence that a prudent man adhibits
in his own affairs; they are accountable for the inte¬
reft of the rents, which they either have, or by dili¬
gence might have recovered, from a year after their
falling due. As it is much in the power of thofe fac¬
tors to take advantage of the neceffuies of creditors, by
purchafing their debts at an undervalue, all fuch pur-
chafes made either by the faftor himfelf, or to his be-
lioof, are declared equivalent to an acquittance or ex-
tinftion off the debt. No faftor can warrantably pay
to any creditor, without an order of the court of fef¬
fion ; for he is, by the tenor of his commiffi.m, di¬
refted to pay the rents to thofe who {hall be found to
have the beft right to them. Judicial faftors are in-
titled to a falary, which is generally Rated at five per
cent, of their intromiffions: but it is ieldom afeertained
till their office expires, or till their accounting ; that
the court may modify a greater or ftnaller (alary, or
none, in proportion to the faftor’s integrity and dili¬
gence. Many cafes occur, where the court of feffion,
without fequeftration, name a faftor to preferve the
rents from perilhing ; e. g. where an heir' is delibera¬
ting whether to enter, where a minor is without tu¬
tors, where a fucceffion opens to a perfon redding a-
broad ; in all which cafes the faftor is fubjefted to the
rules laid down in aft of federunt, ’Feb. 13. 1730.
As to fequeftrations under the bankrupt aft before
recited, the reader muft neceffarily be referred to the
aft itfelf; for being only temporary, as before men¬
tioned, it feems quite inconiiftent with the plan of this
work to enter into a minute Retail of the different re¬
gulations thereby laid down in cafes of fequeftration
under it.
12. The word bankrupt is fometimes applied to per- Saje 0f
fons whofe funds are not fufficient for their debts; and bankrupt
fometimes, not to the debtor, but to his eftate. The eftates.
court of feffion are empowered, at the fuit of any real
creditor, to try the value of a bankrupt’s eftate, and
fell it for the payment of his debts.
13. No procefs of fale, at the fuit of a creditor, can
proceed without a proof of the debtor’s bankruptcy, or
at leaft that his lands are fo charged with debts that
no prudent; perfons will buy from him ; apd therefore
the fummons of fale muft comprehend the debtor’s
whole eftate. The debtor, or his apparent heir, and
all the real creditors in poffeffion, muft be made par¬
ties to the fuit; but it is fufiicient if the other credi¬
tors be tailed by an ediftal citation. The fummons of
fale contains a conclufron of ranking or preference of
the bankrupt’s creditors. In this ranking, firft and fe-Rankingof
cond terms are affigned to the whole creditors for exhi- creditors,
biting in court (or producing) their rights and dili¬
gences ; and the decree of certification proceeding
thereupon, againft the writings not produced, has the
fame effeft in favour of the creditors who have produ¬
ced their rights, as if that decree had proceeded upon
an action of reduftion improbation. See N0clxxxiii. 3.
By the late bankrupt aft, the fale may precede the
ranking of the creditors, unlefs the court, upon applica¬
tion of the creditors, or any of them, fhall find fufficient
caufe to delay the fale. The irredeemable property of
the lands is adjudged by the court to the higheft of-
4 R 2 feret
"
684 L A W. Part ia'.
Law of ferer at the fale. The creditors receiving payment
cot an mu^ grant to purchafer abfolute warrandice, to the
extent of the fum received by them ; and the lands
purchafed a^e declared difburdened of all debts or deeds
of the bankrupt, or his anceftors, either on payment of
the price by the purchafer to the creditors according to
their preference, or on conlignation of it. By the aft
1695, purchafers were bound to-confign the price in
the hands of the magilirates of Edinburgh ; but by
5. of the above aft, they may conlign it in the royal
bank or bank of Scotland. The only remedy pro¬
vided to fuch creditors as judge themfelves hurt by the
fale or divifion of the price, even though they ihould
be minors, is an aftion for recovering their fhare of the
price againft the creditors who have received it.
14. The expence of thefe procefles is deburfed by
the faftor out of the rents in his hands; by which the
whole burden of fuch expence falls upon the pofterior
creditors.
15. Apparent heirs are intitled to bring aftions of
fale of the efiates belonging to their anceftors, whe¬
ther bankrupt or not ; the expence of which ought to
fall upon the purfuer, if there is any excrefcence of the
price, after payment of the creditors; but if there be
no excrefcence, the creditors, who alone are gainers by
the fale, ought to bear the charge of it.
16. As procefles of ranking and fale are defigned
for the common intereft of all the creditors, no dili¬
gence carried on or completed during their pendency
ought to give any preference in the competition; pen¬
dente life, nihil innovandum.
17. It is a rule in all real diligences, that where a
creditor is preferable on feveral different fubjefts, he
cannot ufe his preference arbitrarily, by favouring one
creditor more than another ; but muft allocate his uni-
verfal or catholic debt proportionally againft all the
fubjefts or parties whom it affefts. If it is material to
fuch creditor to draw his whole payment out of any
one fund, he may apply his debt fo as may beft fecure
himfelf: but that inequality will be reftified as to the
pofterior creditors, who had likewife, by their rights
and diligences, affefted the fubjefts out of which he
drew his payment, by obliging him to aflign in their
favour his right upon the feparate fubjefts which he
did not ufe in the ranking; by which they may recur
againft thefe feparate fubjefts for the (harps which the
debt preferred might have drawn out of them. As the
obligation to afiign is founded merely in equity, the
catholic creditor cannot be compelled to it, ff his af-
figning (hall weaken the preference of any feparate debt
vefted in himfelf, affefting the fpecial fubjeft fought to
be afligned. But if a creditor upon a fpecial fubjeft
fhall acquire from another a catholic right, or a catho¬
lic creditor (hall purchafe a debt affefting a fpecial fub¬
jeft, with a view of creating to the fpecial debt a high¬
er degree of preference than was naturally due to it,
by an arbitrary application of the catholic debt, equity
cannot proteft him from afligning in favour of the cre¬
ditor excluded by fuch application, efpecially if, prior
to the purchafe, the fubjeft has become litigious by
the procefs of ranking.
II. MOVEABLE RIGHTS.
The law of heritable rights being explained, Move'
alls Rights fall next to be confidered ; the doftrine of l aw ot
which depends chiefly on the nature of Obligations. Scotland.^
Sect. XIII. Of obligations and contracts in ge- 'hxiii.
nerai.
An obligation is a legal tie, by which one is bound Obligatijms
to pay or perform fomething to another. Eveiy obli¬
gation on the perfon obliged implies an oppofite right
in the creditor, fo that what is a burden in regard'to
the one is right with refpeft to the other; and all rights
founded on obligation are called perfonal. There is
this effential difference between a real and a perfonal
right, that a jus in re, whether of property, or of an
inferior kind, as fervitude, intitles the perfon vefted
with it to poffefs the fubjeft: as'ftis own; or if he is not
in poffefiion, to demand it from the poffeffors: where¬
as the creditor in a perfonal right has only jus ad rem,
or a right to compel the debtor to fulfil his obligation;
without any right in the fubjeft itfelf, which the debt¬
or is bound to transfer to him. One cannot oblige
himfelf, but by a prefent aft of the will.. A bare relo-
lution, therefore, or purpofe, to be obliged, is alterable
at pleafure.
2. Obligations are either, (1,) Merely natural, where Divifion
one perfon is bound to another by the law of nature, ohligatipffffl.
but cannot be compelled by any civil aftion to the per¬
formance. Thus, though deeds granted by a minor
having curators, without their confent, are null, yet the
minor is naturally obliged to perform fuch deeds; and
parents are naturally obliged to provide their children
in reafonable patrimonies. Natural obligations intitle
the creditor to retain what he has got in virtue thereof,
without being fubjefted to reftore it. (2.) Obligations
are merely civil, which may be fued upon by an aftion,
but are elided by an exception in equity ; this is the
cafe of obligations granted through force or fear, &c..
(3.) Proper or full obligations, are thofe which are
fupported both by equity and the civil fanftion.
3. Obligations may be alfo divided into, (1.) Pure,,
to which neither day nor condition is adjefted. Thefe
maybeexafted immediately. (2.) Obligations fe*
which have a day adjefted to their performance. In
theie, dies fatim cedit, fed non vend; a proper debt a-
rifes from the date of the obligation, becaufe it is cer¬
tain that the day will exift ; but the execution is fuf-
pended till the lapfe of that day. (3.) Conditional
obligations-; in which there is no proper debt (dies non
cedit) till the condition be purified, becaufe it is pof-
fible the condition may never exift ; and which there¬
fore are faid to create only the hope of a debt; but the
granter, even of thefe, has no right to refile. An obli¬
gation, to which a day is adjefted that poflibly may
never exift, implies a condition; dies incertus pro con¬
ditio ne habetur. Thus, in the cafe of a provilion to a
child, payable when he attains to the age of fourteen,
if the child dies before that age, the provifion falls.
4. Obligations, when confidered with regard to their
caufe, were divided by the Romans, into thofe arifing
from contraft, quaff contraft, delift, and quaff delift.:
but there are certain obligations, even full and proper
ones, w'hich cannot be derived from any of thefe fources,
and to which Lord Stair gives the name of obediential.
Such as the obligation on parents to aliment or main¬
tain their children which arifes iingly from the rel»-
.
Fart lit L
.1 Law of tion of parent and child, and may be enforced by the
.Scotia!ld’ civil magillrate. Under parents are comprehended, the
*| * mother, grandfather, and grandmother, in their proper
order. This obligation on parents extends to the pro¬
viding of their ifiue in all the neceffaries of life, and
giving them fuitable education. It ceafes, when^the
children can earn a livelihood by their own induftry;
but the obligation on parents to maintain their indi¬
gent children, and reciprocally on children to maintain
their indigent parents, is perpetual. This obligation
is, on the father’s death, transferred to the eldeft fon,
the heir of the family ; who, as reprefenting the father,
muft aliment his younger brothers and filters : the bro¬
thers are only intitled to alimony, till their age of twen¬
ty oie, after which they are prefumed able to do for
themfelves; but the obligation to maintain the lifters
continues tiil their marriage. In perfons ■ of lower
rank, the obligation to aliment the lifters ceafes after
they are capable of fublifting by any fervice or employ¬
ment.
5. All obligations, arifing from the natural duty of
reftitution, fall under this clafs; thus, things given up¬
on the view of a certain event, mutt, be reftored, if that
event does not afterwards exit! r thus alfo, things given
tb turpem caufam, where the turpitude is in the recei¬
ver and not in the giver, mull be reftored. And on
the fame principle, one upon whofe ground a houfe is
built or repaired by another, is obliged, without any
covenant, to reftore the expence laid out upon it, in fo
far as it has been profitable to him.
Gontra&s. A cdntraft is the voluntary agreement of two or
more perfons, whereby fomething is to be given or per¬
formed upon one part, for a valuable confideration,
either prefent or future, on the other part. Confent,
which is implied in agreement, is excluded, (1.) By
error in the dfentials of the contradl; for, in fuch cafe,
the party does not properly contradl, but errs or is de¬
ceived ; and this may be alfo applied to contrails
which take their rife from fraud or impofition. (2.)
Confent is excluded by fuch a degree of reftraint upon
any of the contradling parties, as extorts the agree-
^nent ; for where violence or threatening are ufed
again 11 a perfon, his will has really no part in the con-
trad.
L*an. 7. Loan, or mutuum, is that contrail which obliges
a perfon, who has borrowed any fungible fubjedt from
another, to reftore to him as much of the fame kind,
and of equal goodnefa. Whatever receives its eftinaa-
tion in number, weight, or meafure, is a fungible ; as
corn, wine, current coin, &c. The only proper fub-
jedls of this contradl are things which cannot be ufed
without either their extindlion or alienation : hence
the property of the thing lent is neceffarily transferred
by delivery to the borrower, who confequently muft
run all the hazards either of its deterioration or its
perilhing, according to the rule, res petit fuo domino.
Where the borrower. negledls to reftore at the time
and place agreed on, the eftimation of tjje thing lent
muft be made according to its price at that time and in
that place; becaufe it would have been worth fo much
to the lender, if the obligation had been duly perform¬
ed. If there is no place nor time ftipulated for, the
value is to be ftated according to the price that the
commodity gave when and where it was demanded. In
the loan of money, the value put on it by public au¬
thority, and not its iatriniic worth, is to be confidered.
A W. 68$
This contradl is one of thofe called by the Romans Law of
unilateral, being obligatory only on one part; for the Scotland*
lender is fubjedled to no obligation : the only adlion ’
therefore that it produces, is pointed againfl: the bor¬
rower, that he may reftore as much in quantity and
quality as he borrowed, together with the damage the
lender may have fuffered through default of due per¬
formance.
8. Commodate is a fpecies of loan, gratuitous on the Comnv$«
part of the lender, where the thing lent may be ufed, date,
without either its perilhing or its alienation. Hence,
in this fort of ban, the property continues with the
lender: the only right the borrower acquires in the
fubjedl is its ufe, after which he muft reftore the indi¬
vidual thing that he borrowed : confequently, if the
fubjedt perilhes, it periflies to the lender, unlcfs it ha#
penlhed by the borrower’s fault. What degree of fault
or negligence makes either of the contradling parties
liable to the other in damages, is comprehended under
the following rules. Where the contradl gives a mu¬
tual benefit to both parties, each contradlor is bound-
to adhibit a middle fort of diligence, fuch as a man of
ordinary prudence ufes in his affairs. Where only one
of the parties has benefit by the contradl, that party
• muft ufe exadl diligence ; and the other who has no
advantage by it, is accountable only for dole, or for
grofs omiffions, which the law conllrues to be dole..
Where one employs lefs care on the fubjedl of any con¬
tradl which implies an exuberant trull, than he is known
to employ in his own affairs, it is confidered as dole.
9. Hence it will appear that this is a bilateral con¬
tradl ; the borrower muft be exadlly careful of the
thing lent, and reftore it at the time fixed by the con¬
tradl, or after that ufe is made of it for which it was
lent: if he puts it to any other ufe, or negledls to re¬
ftore it at the time covenanted, and if the thing pe-
rilhes thereafter, even by mere accident, he is bound
to pay the value. On the other part, the lender is
qbliged to reftore to the borrower fuch of the expenees
deburfed by him on that fubjedl as arofe from any un¬
common accident, but not 'thofe that naturally attend
the ufe of it. Where a thing is lent gratuitoufly, t >
without fpecifying any time of redelivery, it conftitutes
the contradl of precarium, which is revocable at the
lender’s pleafure, and, being entered into from a per-
fonal regard to the borrower, ceafes by his death.
10. Depofitation is alfo a bilateral contradl, by which D
one who has the cufto'dy of a th'ing committed to him uon. •
(the depplitary) is obliged to reftore it to the depoli-
tor. If a reward is bargained for by the depofitary
for his care, it refolves into the conti-adl of location.
As this contradl is gratuitous, the depofitary is only
anfwerable for the confequences of grofs negledl; but
after the depofit is redemanded, he is accountable even
for cafual misfortunes. He is intitled to a full indem¬
nification for the Ioffes he has fuftained by the contradl,
and to the recovery of all fums expended by him on the
fubjedl.
11. An obligation arifes without formal padlion, ^
barely by a traveller’s entering into an inn, fliip, or^fV™'_
ft able, and there depofiting his goods, or putting up Ur it.' °
his horfes ; whereby the innkeeper, fhipraalter, or fta-
bler, is accountable, not only for his-own fa&s and thofe
of his fervants (which is an obligation implied in the
very exercife of thefe employments), but of the other
gueils or paffengers; and, indeed, in every cafe, unlefs
where-
686
L A
Law of where the goods have been loft iJamno fat alt, or carried
^.Scotland. pi.rate8 or honfe-breakers. Not- only the mafters
■ v of ftiips, but their employers, are liable each of them
for the lhare that he has in the fhip $ but by the pre¬
fect cuftom of trading nations, the goods brought into
a fhip muft have been delivered to the matter or mate,
or entered into the (hip-books. Carriers fall within
the intendment of this law; and praftice has extended
ft to vintners within borough. The extent of the da¬
mage futtained by the party may be proved by his own
oath in litem.
Sequeftra- li' Sequeftration, whether voluntarily confented to
cion. by the parties, or authorised by the judge, is a kind of
depofit; but as the office of fequettree, to whofe care
the fubjedt in difpute is committed, is not confidered
as gratuitous, he cannot throw it up at pleafure, as a
common depofitary may do} and he is liable in the
Configna- middle degree of diligence. Confignation of money is
tion. aif0 a depoiit. It may be made, either where the debt
is called in qucftion by the debtor, as in fufpenfions ;
or where the creditor refufes to receive his money, as
in wadfets. See. The rifle of the configned money lies
on the configner, where he ought to have made pay¬
ment, and not confignation ; or has configned only a
part ; or has chofen for confignatory, a perfon neither
named by the parties nor of good credit. The charger,
or other creditor, runs the rifle, if he has charged for
fums not due, or has without good reafon refufed pay¬
ment, by which refufal the confignation became necef-
fary. It is the office of a confignatory, to keep the
money in fafe cuftody till it be called for: if therefore
he puts it out at interett, he mutt run the hazard of the
debtor’s infolvency; but, for the fame reafon, though
he fhould draw intereft for it, he is liable in none to the
contigner.
Pledge. 13. Pledge, when oppofed to wadfet, is a contraft,
by which a debtor puts into the hands of his creditor a
fpecial moveable fubjeft in feeurity of the debt, to be
redelivered on payment. Where a fecurity is eftablifh-
ed by law to the creditor, upon a fnbjeft which con¬
tinues in the debtor’s pofiVffion, it has the fpectal name
Hypothec, of an hypothec. Tradefmen and fhip-carpenters have
an hypothec on the houfe or fhip repaired, for the
materials and other charges of reparation ; but not for
the expence of building a new ttiip. This, however,
muft not now be underftood to apply ■univerfally ; for
the court of feffion, in different cafes which lately oc¬
curred before them, and founding upon the law and
practice of England in fimilar cafes, have found, that
no hypothec exitts for the expence of repairs done in
a home port. Owners of (hips have an hypothec on
the cargo for the freight; heritors on the fruits of the
■ground ; and landlords on the ittveBa et Mata, for their
rents. Writers alfo, and agents, have a right of hy¬
pothec, or more properly of retention, in their con-
ilituent’s writings, for their claim of pains and deburfe-
ments. A creditor cannot, for his own payment, fell
the fubjeCt impignorated, without applying to the
judge-ordinary for a warrant to put it up to public
fale or roup ; and to this application the debtor ought
to be made a party.
clxxir.
Verbal
agreement.
Sect. XIV. Of Obligations by •word or -writ.
The appellation of verbal may be applied to all
W. Tart III'
obligations to the conftitutkm of which writing is not Law of 1
effential, which includes both real and confenfual con- Scotland.j
trails ; but as thefe are explained under feparate titles, ''“ v "
obligations by word, in the fenfe of this rubric, muft be
reftriited, either to promifes, or to fuch verbal agree¬
ments as have no fpecial name to diftinguifti them.
Agreement implies, the intervention of two different
parties, who come under mutual obligations to one
another. Where nothing is to be given or performed
but on one part, it is properly called z promife; wind),
as it is gratuitous, does not require the acceptance of
him to whom the promile is made. An offer, which
muft be diftingnilhed from a promife, implies fomething
to be done by the other party ; and confequently is
not binding on the offerer, till it be accepted, with
its limitations or conditions, by him to whom the
offer is made ; after which, it becomes a proper agree¬
ment.
2. Writing mutt neceffarily intervene in all obliga- Writing*, '
tions and bargains concerning heritable fubje&s, tho’
they ffiould be only temporary ; as tacks, which, when
they are verbal, laft but for one year. In thefe, no
verbal agreement is binding, though it (hould be refer¬
red to the oath of the party ; for, till writing is adhi¬
bited, law gives both parties a right to refile, as from
an unfiniflied bargain ; which is called locus panitentia.
If, upon a verbal bargain of lands, part of the price
{hail be paid by him who was to purchafe, the inter-
ventus rei, the adlual payment of money, creates a va¬
lid obligation, and gives a beginning to the contract
of fale : and, in general, where-ever matters are no
longer entire, the right to refile feems to be excluded.
An agreement, whereby a real right is paffed from, or
reltridted, QzWz& paSum liberatorium, may be perfeCted
verbally ; for freedom is favourable, and the purpofe of
fuch agreement is rather to diffolve than to create an
obligation. Writing is alfo eflential to bargains made
under condition that they (hall be reduced into writing ;
for In fuch cafes, it is pars contractus, that, till writing
be adhibited, both parties {hall have liberty to with¬
draw. In the fame manner, verbal or nuncupative
teftaments are rejected by our law ; but verbal legacies
are fuftained, where they do not exceed L. too Scots.
3. Anciently, when writing was little ufed, deeds Sojemn;t;(;j
were.jexecuted by the party, appending his feal to them of written '
in prefence of witneffes. For preventing frauds that obligationst
might happen by appending feals to falfe deeds, the
fubfeription alfo of the granter was afterwards required,
and, if he could not write, that of a notary. As it
might be of dangerous confequences to give full force
to the fubfeription of the parties by initials, which is
more eafily counterfeited ; our praftice, in order to fuf-
tain luch fubfeription, feems to require a proof, not
only that the granter ufed to fubferibe in that way,
but that defaBo he had fubferibed the deed in queftion ;
at leaft, fuch pi oof is required, if the inftrumentary
-witneffes be ftill alive.
4. As a further check, it was afterwards provided,
that all writings carrying any heritable, right, and o-
■t her deeds of importance, be fubferibed by the principal
parties, if they can fubferrbe ; otherwife, by two nota¬
ries, before four witneffes fpecially defigned. The fub-
fequent pra&ice extended this requifite of the defigrra*
■tion of the witneffes to the cafe where the parties th#m-
felves fublcribed. Cuilom has conftrued obligations for
3 fun's
68/
Part nr. L A W.
:;! 1 .aw of Aims exceeding L. roo Scots, to be obligations of im- change (fee next parag.), can be proved by the granter’s l>aw<»f
f, Scotla»^- portance. In a divifible obligation, ex.gr. for a fum own atfertion, in prejudice either of his heir or his Scot^an<J^
of money, though exceeding L. 100, the fubfcription creditors, but.'mult be fupported by other adminicles.“
of one notary is fufficient, if the creditor reftri&s his< 2- Tdtaments, if executed where men of Hull and bufi-
claim to L roo : But in an obligation indivihble, e.g. uefa cannot be had, are valid though they fhould not
for the performance of a fa£t, if it be not fubferibed
in terms of the ftatute, it is void. When notaries thus
atteft a deed, the atteftation-or doeq'uet mutt fpeeially
exprefs that the granter gave them a mandate to-fign ;•
nor is it fufficient that this be mentioned in the body
of the writing.
5. In every deed, the name of him who writes it,
with his dwelling place, or other mark of diitin&ion,
muft be inferted. The witnefles muft. both fubleribe
as witneffes, and their names and defignations be
be quite formal: and let the fubjedt: of a teftament be
ever lb valuable, one notary ligaing for the tettator,
before two witneffes, is in practice fnfficient. Clergy¬
men were frequently notaries bciore the reformation ;
and, though they were afterwards prohibited m ad as
notaries, tiie cale of tellaments is excepted ; fir that
tdiefe are iuppoued by the attelkation of one minifter,
with two witneffes. 3. Dilcharges to tenants are fuf-
tained without witndlea, from, their prelumed ruiticity,
or ignorance in buhnels. 4. Miihve letters in re mer-
ferted in the body of the deed : And all fublcribing cutona, commillions, and fitted accounts in the courfe
kc.
witneffes muft know the grairter, and either fee Him
fubferibe, or hear him acknowledge his fubfeription ;
other wife they are declared puniftrable as acctffary to
forgery. Deeds, decrees, and other fecurities, con-
fiftmg of more than one fheet, may be written by way
of book, in place, of the former cuftom of pafting to¬
ol trade, and tails of exchange, though they are not
holograph, are, from the favour of commerce, fuftamed
without the ordinary folemnities.
J Q. A bill of exchange is an obligation in the form <®*"
of a mandate, whereby the drawer or mandant (kfues-chan2e’
him to whour it is oircCted, to pay a certain fum, at
gether the feveral (beets, and figning the joinings on- the day and place theiciu mentioned,, to a tmrdyrarty,
* t~ '■ u ' r... .i 1. -> Bills of exchajuge are orawat by a ptrlbn in one country
bo his correlpondent in another;. and they have that
name, bceauit it is the exchange, or the value of money
in one place compared »un us value in another, that
generally determines the precife extent of the fum con¬
tained in the draught. The creditor in the bill is-
to me times called the poffeffor, or porteur. As parties to
bills are of different countries,quettions concerning them-
the margin ; provided each page be figned by the
granter, and marked by its number, and the tefting
claufe exprefs the number of pages.
Solemnities 6. Inftruments of feifnr .are valid, if fubferibed by
►f notorial one notary, before a reafonable number of witnefi'es ;
nftrumects which is extended by praftice to inffruments of refig-
c nation. Two witneffes are deemed a reafonable num¬
ber to every deed that can be executed by one notary.
It is not neceffary that the witneffes to a notorial in- ought to be determined by the received cuftom of tra-
ffrunrent o* execution fee the notary or meffenger fign ; ding nations, unlefs where fpecial Itatute inierpofes.
for they are called as witneffes to the tranfaftion which For this realon, bills of exchange, though their form,
is attefted, and not to the fubfeription of the perfon admits not of witnelies, yet prove their own dates, in-
attefting. queluons either with the heir or creditors of the
7. A new requifite has been added to certain deeds debtor ; but tins doctrine is not extended to inland bills
fince the union, for the benefit of the revenue : They payable to the drawer himfelf.
muft be executed on ftamped paper, or parchment, pay¬
ing a certain duty to the crown. Thefe duties muft
all be paid before wrote upon, under a penalty; but
they are fo numerous and complex, that it would be
tedious, even if it fell under our plan, to enter in¬
to an enumeration of them. They will be found
1. A. buiis valid, without the delignation either Their fu-
of the drawer or of the perfon to whom it is made lenmities
payable : It is enough, tiiat the drawer’s lublcription ar‘d. obli'
appears to be truly Ins; and one’s being poffelfor of aKations‘
bill marks him out to be the creditor, ir he bears the
name given in the bill to the creditor: Nay, though
at length in Sw inton’s Abridgement, voce Stamps, to the perion drawn on Ihould not be deligned, hisaccep-
which the reader is referred. Certain judicial deeds, tance p re fumes that ic was he whom the drawer had in
fuch as bail-bonds, bonds of cautionry, in fufpenfions, his eje. Bills drawn blank, in the creditor’s name
&c. are excepted, and do not require ftamps, as will tail under the llatutory nullity } for though indorlationa
be feen from the feveral afts referred to by the com- . of bills are excepted from it, bills themlelves are not.
piler of the above abridgement of the ftatutes.
8. The grantee’s name and defignation are effential,
not properly as folemuities, but btcaufe no writing can
have effeeff without them Bonds were, by our,an
cient pradtice, frequently executed without filling up
the creditor’s name; and they paffed from hand to hand,
like notes payable t o the bearer : But as there was no
method for the cieditor of a perfon poffefltd of thefe to
fecure them for his payment, all writings taken blank
in the creditor’s name are declared null, as covers to
fraud ; with the exception of indorfations of bills of.
exchange,
Not only the perfon drawn upon mult lign his accep¬
tance, Out tire drawer mult fign his Graught, before’
any obligation can be furmed aganilt the acccpier : Yet.
it is fijiiicicnt 111 practice, tnai the drawer ligns before
tne bill be produced in judgment; though itjhould be.
after the Geath both of tne creditor and accepter. A
creditor in a bill may tranlinit it to another by indor-
fauon, though tbe bill Ihouid not bear to hts order ; by
the tame- nhc that other rights are tranfmuiibic by af-
liguation, tlrough they do not bear to ajflgn-.es.
11. The drawer, by hgmng his draught, becomes.
liable tor the value to the creditor in the bill, in caie ObIl8atI0fw'
y. Certain privileged writings do not require the the perion diawn upon either does not accept, or after
ordinary folemnities. i. Holograph deeds (written by acceptance does not pay ; for he is prclumed to have re-
the grantei himfelf) are effectual without wirneffes. eeiVud v«iue from the creditor at giving mm the draught.
The date* of no holograph writing, except a bill of ex- though it fhould not bear for value received; But, if
tbs
m
:Negocia-
Gioiu
-ID&ys of
;£«ce'
1
the drawer was debtor to the creditor in the bill before
the draught, the bill is prefumed to be given towards
payment of the debt, unlefs it exprefsly bears for value.
The perfon drawn upon, if he refufe to accept, while
he has the drawer’s money in his hands, is liable to him
in damages. As a bill prefumes value from the credi¬
tor, indorfation prefumes value from the indorfee ; who
therefore, if he cannot obtain payment from the ac¬
cepter, has recourfe againft the indorfer, unlefs the bill
be indorfed in thefe words, without recourfe.
13. Payment of a bill, by the accepter, acquits both
the drawer and him at the hands of the creditor : but
it intitles the accepter, if he was not the drawer’s
debtor, to an aftion of recourfe againft. him; and, if
he was, to a ground of compenfation. Where the bill
does not bear value in the hands of the perfon drawn
upon, it is prefumed that he is not the drawer’s debtor,
and confequently he has recourfe againft the drawer,
.^cx mandato.
14.. Bills, when indorfed, are eonfidered as fo many
bags of money delivered to the onerous indorfee; which
therefore carry right to the contents, free of all burdens
-that do not appear on the bills themfelves. Hence, a
receipt or difcharge, by the original creditor, if grant¬
ed on a feparate paper, does not exempt the accepter
from fecond payment to the indorfee; hence, alfo, no
ground of compenfation competent to the accepter a-
gainft the original creditor can.be pleaded againft the
indorfee : but, if the debtor fliall prove, by the oath
of the indorfee, either that the bill is indorfed to him
for the indorfer’s own behoof, or that he paid not the
full value for the indorfation, the indorfee is juftly con-
fidered as but a name ; and therefore all exceptions,
receivable againft the original creditor, will be fuftain-
ed againft him. A profefted bill, after regiftration,
cannot, be. tranfmitted by indorfation, but by affigna-
tion.
jty. Bills muft be negociated by the poffefTor, againft
the perfon drawn upon, within a precife time, in order
to preferve recourfe againft the drawer. In bills pay¬
able fo many days after fight, the creditor has a dif-
cretionary power of fixing the payment fomewhat
fooner or later, as his occafions fhall require. Bills
payable on a day certain, need not be prefented for ac-
ceptance till the day of payment, becaufe that day can
peither be prolonged nor fhortened by the time of ac¬
ceptance. For thefame reafon, the acceptance of bills,
payable on a precife day, need not be dated : but, where
a bill is drawn payable fo many days after fight, it
muft ; becaufe there the term of payment depends on
the date of acceptance.
16. Though bibs are, in ftri&law, due the very day
on which they are made payable* and may therefore be
protefted on the day thereafter ; yet there are three
days immediately following the day of payment, called
days of grace, within any of which the creditor may
proteft the bill: but if he-delay protefting till the day
after the laft day of grace, he lofes his recourfe. Where
a bill is protefted, either for not acceptance or not
payment, the diihonour muft be notified to the drawer
or indorfer, within three polls at fartheft. This ftridf-
nefs of negociation is confined to fuch bills as may be
protefted by the poffeflbr upon the third day of grace :
where* therefore, bills are indorfed after the days of
N° 178. 2
w.
Part nr
grace are expired, the indoffee is left ftiore at liberty, Law of |
and does not lofe his recourfe, tho’ he fhould not take Sv.°tlan<1«j
a formal proteft for not payment, if, within a reafonable *
time, he lhall give the indorfer notice of the accepter’s
refilling to pay. Not only does the polTefibr, who ne-
glefts ftriift negociation, lofe his recourfe againft the
drawer, where the perfon drawn upon becomes after¬
wards bankrupt; but tho’ he Ihould continue folvent:
for he may in that cafe recover payment from the
debtor, -and fo is not to be indulged in an unneceflary
procefs againft the drawer, which he has tacitly re¬
nounced by his negligence. Recourfe is preferved a-
gainft the drawer, though the bill fhould not be duly
negociated, if t{re perfon drawn upon was not his debt¬
or ; for there the drawer can qualify no prejudice by
the negletft of diligence, and he ought not to have
drawn on one who owed him nothing.
17. The privileges fuperadded to bills by ftatute are, Privile^erifl
that though, by their form, they can have no claufe of bills by*
regiftration, yet, if duly protefted, they are regiftrable ftatute-
within fix months after their date in cafe of not accep¬
tance, or in fix months after the term of payment in
the cafe of not payment ; which regiftration is made
the foundation of fummary diligence* either againft the
drawer or indorfer in the cafe of not acceptance, or a-
gainft the accepter in the cafe of not payment. This is
extended to .inland bills, i. e. bills both drawn and Inland billl I
made payable in Scotland. After acceptance, fum¬
mary diligence lies againft no other than the accepter ;
the drawer and indorfer muft be purfned by an ordi- ;| I
nary a&ion. It is only the principal fum in the bill,
and intereft, that can be charged for fummarily : the
exchange, when it is not included in the draught, the
re-exchange incurred by fuffering the bill to be pro-
tefted and returned, and the expence of diligence, muft
all be recovered by an ordinary a&ion; becaufe thefe are
not liquid debts, and fo muft be previoufly conftituted.
18. Bills, when drawn payable at any confiderable Qertaj
diftance of time after date, are denied the privileges of hills
bills ; for bills are intended for currency, and not to privileged
lie as a fecurity in the creditor’s hands. Bills are not
valid which appear ex facie to be donations. No ex-
trinfic ftipulation ought to be contained in a bill which
deviates from the proper nature of bills : hence, a bill
to which a penalty is adjefted, or with a claufe of in¬
tereft from the date, is null. Inland precepts drawn,
not for money the medium of trade, but for fungibles,
are null, as wanting writer’s name and witntfles. It is
not an agreed point whether promiffory notes, without
writer and wittuffes, unlefs holograph, are probative.
19. So ftood the law of Scotland, in regard to billsand Late alterJ I
promiffory notes, previous to the ftatute 1 2 Geo. III. ation# astd *
By that ftatute, however, the law of Scotland hasbilIs ^ “
undergone very material alterations. They are de- Pr°mi orJ
dared to have the fame privileges, and to prefcribe in
fix years after the term of payment. Bank notes and
poft-bills are excepted from this prefcription : nor does
it run during the years of the creditor’s minority. In¬
land bills and promiflbry notes muft be protefted with¬
in the days of grace, to fecure recourfe ; and th£ dilho-
nour notified within 14 days after the proteft. Sum¬
mary diligence may pafs not only againft the acceptor,
but likewife againit the drawer, and all the indorfees
jointly ai}d feveraily; and at the inftance of any in¬
dorfee*
-
Part III. L A
Law of dorfee, though the bill was not protefted in his name,
, Scotland. Upon h;s producing a receipt or letter from the pro-
' v""' tefting indorfee. This a6t was in force only for feven
years after 15th May 1772, and to the end of the then
next fcffion of parliament. But as it was found by
experience, that if had been of great advantage to Scot¬
land, it was made perpetual by the late aft 23 Geo.
II [. fo that it has now become a~permanent part of the
law of Scotland.
2©. As for the folemnities effential to deeds figned
in a foreign country, when they come to receive exe¬
cution in Scotland, it is a general rule, that no laws
can be of authority beyond the dominions of the law-
Solemmties giver. Hence, in ftriftnefs, no deed, though perfefted
of deeds according to the law of the ^>lace where it is figned,
forefn*n & can ^ave e^e<^ m another country where different fo-
country. lemnities are required to a deed of that fort. But this
rigour is fo foftened ex comitate, by the common con-
fent qf nations, that all perfonal obligations granted
according to the law of that country where they are
figned, are effeftual every where ; which obtains in
obligations to convey heritage. Conveyances them-
felves, however, of heritable fubjefts, muft be perfec¬
ted according to the law of the country where the heri¬
tage lies, and from which it cannot be removed.
Delivery 21. A writing, while the granter keeps it under his
and depofi - own power of his doer’s, has no force ; it becomes ob-
rieed” h'gatory, only after it is delivered to the grantee him-
felf, or found in the hands of a third perfon. As to
which laft, the following rules are obferved. A deed
found in the hands of one who is doer both for the
granter and grantee, is prefumed to have been put in
his hands as doer for the grantee. The prefumption
is alfo for delivery, if the deed appears in the hands of
one who is a ftranger to both. Where a deed is depo-
fited in the hands of a third perfon, the terms of de-
pofitation may be proved by the oath of the depofi-
tary, unlefs where they are reduced into writing. A
deed appearing in the cuftody of the grantee himfelf,
is confidered as his abfolute right; in fo much that the
granter is not allowed to prove that is was granted in
truft, otherwife than by a written declaration figned by
the truftee, or by his oath.
What deeds 22, The following deeds are effeftual without deli-
•effedhial very. (1.) Writings containing a claufe difpenfing
without de-w;th the delivery 5 thefe are of the nature of revocable
livery. deeds, where the death of the granter is equivalent to
delivery, becaufe after death there can be no revocation.
(2.) Deeds in favour of children, even natural ones;
for parents are the proper cuftodiars or keepers of
their childrens writings. From a fimilar reafon, poft-
nuptial fettlements by the huiband to the wife need no
delivery. ( 3.) Rights which are not to take effeft till
the gfanter’s death, or even where he referves an inte-
reft to himfelf dtiring his life ; for it is prefumed be
bolds the cuftody of thefe, merely to fecure to himfelf
fuch referved intereft. (4.) Deeds which the granter lay
under an antecedent natural obligation to execute, e. g.
rights granted to a cautioner for his relief. (5.) Mu¬
tual obligations, e. g. contrafts ; for every fuch deed,
the moment it is executed, is a common evident to all
the parties contraftors. Laftly, the publication of a
writing by regiftration, is equivalent to delivery.
w. 6%
Sect. XV. Of obligations and contracts ari/ing Law of
from confent, and of accejfory obligations. Scotland^
Contracts confenfual, (r. e. which might, by theCo^pe*p^
Roman law, be perfefted by foie confent, without thecontrads.
intervention either of things or of writing,) are fcde,
permutation, location, fociety, and mandate. Where the
fubjeft of any of thefe contrafts is heritable, writing
is neceflary.
2. Sale is a contraft, by which one becomes obliged Sale~
to give fomething to another, in confideration of a cer¬
tain price in current money to be paid for it. Things
confiding merely in hope, may be the fubjeft of this
contraft, as the draught of a net. Commodities, where
their importation or ufe is abfolutely prohibited, can¬
not be the fubjeft of fale ; and even in run goods, no
aftion lies again!! the vender for not delivery, if the
buyer knew the goods were run. So far indeed has
this principle been carried, and fo anxious have our
judges been to put a ftop to the praftice of fmuggling,
that in different cafes which have occurred of aftion
being brought at the inftance of a' foreign merchant
againft perfons refident in Scotland for payment of
goods which had been fmuggled, a diftinftion has been
made betwixt the cafe of the foreign merchant being
or not being a native of Scotland. Where the foreign
merchant was a native of Scotland, it has been prefu¬
med that he was acquainted with the revenue law of
the country, and that he was in a manner verfans
in re illicita; and therefore aftion has been denied
for recovery of the price of fuch goods: but where,
on the other hand, the foreign merchant was not a na¬
tive of Scotland, no ways amenable to, and even prefu¬
med ignorant of, its laws, he has with juftice been al¬
lowed aftion for the price of fuch goods, unlefs it were
ftrown that he had in faft been particeps criminis, by
aiding the fmuggle. The fame principle has regulated
the decifions in the courts of England in cafes of a fi¬
milar nature, which have within thefe few years come
before them.
3. Though this contraft may be perfefted before
delivery of the fubjeft, the property remains till then
with the vender: (See N° clxii. 9.). Yet till delivery,
the hazard 6f its deterioration falls on the purchafer,
becaufe he has ail the profits arifing from it after the
fale. On the other hand, the fubjeft itfelf perifties to
the vender ; (1.) If it Ihould perifti through his fault,
or after his undue delay to deliver it. (2.) If a fub¬
jeft is fold as a fungible, and not as an individual, or
corpus, e. g. a quantity of farm-wheat, fold without
diftinguilhing the parcel to be delivered from the reft
of the farm. (3.) The periculum lies on the vender
till delivery, if he be obliged by a fpecial article in the
contraft to deliver the fubjeft at a certain place.
4. Location is that contraft where an hire is ftipu- Locatjonr
lated for the ufe of things, or for the fervice of perfons.
He who lets his work or the ufe of his property to
hire, is the locator or leffor; and the other, the con-
duftor or leffee. In the location of things, the leffor
is obliged to deliver the fubjeft, fitted to the ufe it was
let for ; and the leffee muft preferve it carefully, put it
to no other ufe, and, after that is over, reftore it.
Where a workman or artificer lets his labour, and if
the work is either not performed according to contraft,
4 S or
'Vol. IX. Part II,
$go L
Law of or if it be infuffic?ient, eYen from mere unfkilfulnefs, he
^Scotland. to his employer in damages; for he ought not,
^ * as an artificer, to have undertaken a work to which he
was not equal. A fervant hired for a certain term, is
intitled to his full wages, though from ficknefs or other
accident he fhouki be difabjed for a part of his time;
but if he die before the term, his wages are only due
for the time he a6lual!y ferved. If a mailer dies, or
without good reafon turns off, before the term, a fer¬
vant who eats in his houfe, the fervant is intitled to his
full wages, and to his maintenance till that term : and,
on the other part, a fervant who without ground de~
ferts his fervice, forfeits his wages and maintenance,
and is liable to his mafter in damages.
Society, 5. Society or copartnerjlcip is a contract, whereby
the feveral partners agree concerning the communica¬
tion of lofs and gain arifing from the fubjeft of the con-
lra6t. It is formed by the reciprocal choice which the
partners make one of another ; and fo is not conflicu?
ted in the cafe of co-heirs, or of feveral legatees in the
fame fubjeil. A copartnerlhip may be fo conftituted,
that one of the partners fhall, either from his foie right
of property in the fubje£t, or from his fuperior fkill,
be intitled to a certain lhare of the profits, without be¬
ing fubjefled to any part of the lofs; but a fociety,
where one partner is to bear a certain proportion of
lofs, without being intitled to any lhare of the profits,
called by the Romans focietas leonina, is jullly repro¬
bated. All the partners are intitled to {hares of profit
and lofs proportioned to their feveral Hocks, where it
is not otherwife covenanted.
6. As partners are united, from a dekSus perfomt,
in a kind of brothyhood, no partner cair, without a
fpehial power contained in the contradl, transfer any
part of bis lharc to another. All the partners are bound
in folidum by the obligation of any one of them, if he
fubferibe by the jinn or focial name of the company ;
unlefs it be a deed that falls not under the common
eourfe of adminiftration. The company tffe&s are the
common property of the fociety fubjefted to its debts;
fo that no partner can claim a divilion thereof, even
after the fociety is dilfolved, till thefe are paid : and,
confequently, no creditor of a partner can, by diligence,
carry, to himfelf the property of any part rtf the com¬
mon Hock, in prejudice of a company creditor : but he
may, by arreftment, fecure his debtor’s lhare in the
company’s hands, to be made forthcoming to him at
the clofe of the copartnerlhip, in fo far as it is not ex-
haufted by the company debts.
7. Society being founded in the mutual confidence
among the focii, is difiblved, not only by the renuncia¬
tion, but by the death of any one of them, if it be not
otherwife fpecially covenanted. A partner who re¬
nounces upon unfair view's, or at a critical time, when
his withdrawing may be fatal to the feciety, loofes his
partners from all their engagements to him, while he
is bound to them for all the profits he lhall make by
his withdrawing, and for the lofs arifing thereby to
the company. Not only natural, but civil death, e. g.
arifing from a fentence inflicting capital punilhment,
makes one incapable to perform the duties of a part¬
ner, and confeqnently dilfolves the fociety. In both
cafes, of death and renunciation, the remaining part¬
ners, may continue the copartnerlhip, either exprefsly,
by entering into a new contradt; or tacitly, by carry-
A W. Part III
ing on their trade as formerly. Public trading com- Law of
panics are now every day conilituted, with rules very Scotland,
different from thofe which either obtained in the Ro-
•man law-, or at this day obtain iq private fdcieties. The
proprietors or partners in thefe, though they-may tranf-
fer their lhares, cannot renounce ; nor does their death
diffolve the company, but the flrare of the dteeafed de-
feends to his reprefentau’ve.
8. A. joint trade n not a copartnerlhip, but a mo- a joint
mentary contract, where two or more perfons agree *otrade.,
contribute fum, to be employed in a particular courfe
of trade, the produce whereof is to he divided among
the adventurers, according to their feveral lhares, after
the voyage is finilhed. If, in a joint trade, that part¬
ner who is intrutled with the money for purchaliug the
goods, Ihould, in place of paying them in calh, buy
them upon credit, the furnilheV who followed his faith
alone in the fale, has no recourle againlt the other ad¬
venturers; he can only recover from them what of the
buyer’s lhare is yet in their hands. Where any one of
the adventurers in a joint trade becomes bankrupt,
the others are preferable to his creditors, upon the
common Hock, as long as it continues undivided, for
their relief of all the engagements entered into by them
on account of the adventure.
9. Mandate is a corjtradl, by which one employs a-
nothcr to manage any bufintfs for him ; and by the Man,;l3tc^
Roman law, it mull have been gratuitous. It may be
conilituted tacitly, by one’s fuffering another to adl'
in a certain branch of his affairs, for a tradl of time
together, without challenge. The mandatory is at li-
berty not to accept of the mandate; and, as his powders
are folely founded in the mandant’s commiffion, he
mull, if he undertakes it, llriaiy adhere to the direc¬
tions given him : Nor is it a good defence, that the
method he followed-was more rational; for in that his
employer was the proper judge. Where no fpecial
rules are preferibed, the mandatory, if he adls prudently,
is fecure, whatever the fuccefs may be ; and- he can
fue for the recovery of all the expences reafonably de-
burfed by him in the execution of his office.
10. Mandates may be general, containing a power
of adminillering the mandant’s whole, affairs t but no,
mandate implies a power of difpofing gratuitoufly of
the conilituent’s propeny, nor even of felling his he¬
ritage for an adequate price : but a general mandatory
may fell fuch of the moveables as mult otherwife perilh.
No mandatory can, without fpecial powers, tranfadh
doubtful claims belonging to his conllituent, or refer
them to arbiters.
xi. Mandates expire, (1.) By the revocation of the
employer, though only tacit, as if he flxould name a-
nother mandatory for the fame bufinefs. (2.) By the
renunciation of the mandatory ; even after he has exe¬
cuted part of his commiffion, if his office be gratuitous,
(3.) By the death, either of the mandant or mandatory :
But if matters are not entire, the mandate continues
in force, notwithftanding fuch revocation, renunciation,,
or death, Procuratories of refignation, and precepts
of feifin, are made out in the form of mandates ; but,
becaufe the y are granted for the foie benefit of the man¬
datory, all of them, excepting precepts of dare conjlaty
are declared (byadl 1693) t0 continue after the death
either of the granter or grantee. Deerfs which con¬
tain a claufe or mandate for regillration, are for the
fame
Partin.. L ^
taw of fame reafon tr,a3e regiftrable after the death of either
^ Scotl niJ.' £by.a<3. 1595 and 1696.)
■1.1. “-v— v. j 2_ The favour of comrtierCe has introduced a tacit
mandate, by which mailers of fhips are impowered
to contradi in name of their exercitors or employers,
for repairs, ihip^proviiions, and whatever elfe may be
neceffary for the ihip or crew; fo as to oblige not them-
fclves only, but their employers. Whoever has the ac¬
tual charge of the ihip is deemed the mafter, though
he ihould nave no commiffion from the exercitors, or
fhould be fubftituted by the mailer in the direction of
the fhip without their knowledge. Exercitors are
liable, whether the mafter has paid his own money to
a merchant for neceflaries, or has borrowed money to
purchafe them. The furniiher or lender muft prove
that the fnip needed repairs, provifions, &c. to fuch an
extent; but he is under no neceffity to prove the appli¬
cation of the money or materials to the ihip’s ufe. If
there are feveral exercitors, they are Wahlzjinguli in fo-
lidum. In the fame manner the undertaker of any
branch of trade, manufa&ure, or other land negocia-
tion, is bound by the contrails of the inftitots whom
he fets over, it, in fo far as relates to the fubjeft of the
prapofitura.
Homologa- 13. Contrails and obligations, in themfelves imper-
|‘vd. fe(c^ receive ftrength by the contra&or or his heirs do¬
ing any ail thereafter which imports an approbation of
them, and confequently fupplies the want of an origi¬
nal legal confent. This is called homologation; and it
takes place even in deeds intrinfically null, whether
the nullity arifes from the want of ftatutory folemnities,
or from the incapacity of the granter. It cannot be
inferred, (1.) By the ail of a perfoft who was not in the
knowledge of the original deed ; for one cannot ap¬
prove what he is ignorant of. (2,) Homologation has
no place where the ail or deed, which is pleaded
as fuch, can be* afcribtd to any other eaufe; for
.an intention to come under an obligation is not pre¬
fumed.
Quafi-con- Quafi-contrans are formed without explicit con-
s* fent, by one of the parties doing fomething which by its
nature either obliges him to the other patty, or the
other party to him. Under this clafs may be reckoned
tutory, &c. the entry of an heir, negotiorum gejlio, in-
debiti folutio, communion of goods between two or more
common proprietors, and mcrcium jaBus levanda navis
caufa. Negoiiorum gejlio forms thofe obligations which
arife from the management of a perfon’s affairs, in his
abftnce, by another, without a mandate. As fuch
manager ails without authority from the proprietor,
he ought to be liable in exadl diligence, unlefs he has
from fiiendftnp interpofed in affairs which admitted no
delay ; and he is accountable for his intromifiions with
- intereft. On the other part, he is intitled to the re¬
covery of his neceffary deburfements on the fubjecl,
and to he relieved of the obligations in which he may
have bound himfdf in cor.fequence of the management.
15. Indchili foluilo, or the payment to one of what
is not due to him, if made through any miftake, either
of fad, or even of law, founds him who made the
payment in an aftion agairift the receiver for repay¬
ment (cohdiBio indebiti.) This adlion does not lie,
(I.) If the fum paid was due ex aquitate, or by a natu¬
ral obligation : for the obligation to'reftore is founded
folely in tquifys (2.) If he who made the payment
w. 69.
krtew that nothing was due ; for qui confulh dat quid Law of
non dehebat, prafumitur donare. Scotland.
16. Where two or more pCrfoUs become common 7~'/ ^
proprietors of the fame fubjedt, either by legacy, gift, °f d,~
or purchafe, without the view of copartnerftiip, an oh- mon'pro?1'
ligation is thereby created among the proprietors toicity,
communicate the profit and lofs arifingfrom the fubjedl,
while it remains common: And the fubjecl may be
divided at the fuit of any having intereft. This divi-
fion, where the quefticn is among the common proprie'
tors, is according to the valuation of their refpcBive pro¬
perties : - But where the queftion is between the pro¬
prietors and thofe having fervitudes upon the property,
the fuperfice is only divided, without prejudice to the ‘
property. Commontiea belonging to the king, or to
royal boroughs, are not divifibie. Lands lying runrig,
and belonging to different proprietors, may be divided,
with the exception of borough and incorporated acres;
the execution of which is committed to the judge-or¬
dinary, or juftices of the peace.
17. The throwing of goods overboard, for lighten- Lex
ing a ftiip in a ftorm, creates an obligation, whereby
the owners of the fiiip and goods faved are obliged to
contribute for the relief of thofe whofe goods were
thrown overboard, that fo all may bear a proportional
lofs of the goods ejected for the common fafety. In
this contribution, the fliip’s provifions fuffer no efti-
mation. A mafter who has cut his mail, or parted
with his anchor, to fave the fhip, is intitled to this re¬
lief ; but if he has loft them by the ftorm, the 1-afs falls
only on the fhip and freight. If the ejeftion does not
fave the fhip, the goods preferved from fhipwrcck are
not liable in contribution. Ejection may be lawfully
made, if the mafttr and a third part of the mariners
judge that meafure neceffary, though the owner of
the goods fhould oppofe it: and the goods tjt&cd
are to be valued at the price that the goods of the
fame fort which are faved fhall be afterwards fold for.
18. There are certain obligations which cannot
fubiz 11 by themfelves, but are acccfions to, or make , a obligations,
part of, other obligations. Of this fort are
and the obligation to pay interejl. Cautionry, or fide-
jufioit, is that obligation by which one becomes en¬
gaged as fecurity for another, that he fhall either pay
a fum, or perform a deed.
. 19. A cautioner for a fum of money may be bound, c .
either Amply as cautioner for the principal debtor, or 3U
conju idly and feverally for and with the principal
debtor. The firlt has, by our cuftoms, the benejieimti
ordinis, or of difenffion ; by which the creditor is ob¬
liged to difeufs the proper debtor, before he can in-
fitl for payment againll the cautioner. Where one is
bound as full debtor with and for the principal, or Con-
jundlly and feverally with him, the two obligants are
bound equally in the fame obligation, each infoiidum;
and conkquently, the cautioner,- though he is but an
acctffory, may be fued for the whole, without cither
difeufiing or even citing the principal debtor. Cak-
■ tioners for performance of fadlsLy another, or for the
faithful difeharge of an office (r. g. for fadtors, tutors,
&c.), cannot by the nature of their engagement be
bound conjundlly and feverally with the principal obli-
gar.t, becaufe theffadlto which the principal is bound
cannot pofiibiy be performed by afiy other. In fuch
engagements, therefore, the failure muft be previoufly
4 S £ con-
692 L ^
Law of conflituted againfl; the proper debtor, before a£lion can
, Scotland. ^ brought againft the cautioner for making up the
" lofs of the party fuffering.
20. The cautioner, who binds himfelf at the defire
of the principal debtor, has an aBlo mandati or of
relief againll hijn, for recovering the principal and in-
tereft paid by himfelf to the creditor, and for neceflary
damages ; which a&ion lies de jure, though the credi¬
tor fiiould not affign to him on payment. As relief a-
gainft the debtor is implied in fidejuffory obligations,
the cautioner, where fuch relief is cut off, is no longer
bound : hence, the defence of prefcription frees the cau¬
tioner, as well as the principal debtor.
21. But, (i.) Where the cautionry is interpofed to
an obligation merely natural, the relief is reltriftcd
to the fums that have really turned to the debtor’s
profit. (2.) A cautioner who pays without citing
the debtor, lofes his relief, in fo far as the debtor had
a relevant defence againft the debt, in whole or in
part. Relief is not competent to the cautioner, till
he either pays the debt, or is diftreffed for it; except,
t ft. Where the debtor is exprefsly bound to deliver to
the cautioner his obligation cancelled, againft a day
certain, and has failed ; or, 2dly, Where the debtor
is vergens ad inopiam ; in which cafe the cautioner
may, by proper diligence, fecure the debtor’s funds
for his own relief, even before payment or diftrefs.
22. A right of relief is competent de jure to the
cautioner who pays, againft his co-cautioners, unlefs
where the cautioner appears to have renounced it. In
confcquence of this implied relief, a creditor, if he
fhall grant a difcharge to any one of the cautioners,
muft, in demanding the debt from the others, deduft
that part as to which he has cut off their relief by
that difcharge. Where the principal debtor, in a
bond in which a cautioner is bound, grants bond of
corroboration with a new cautioner, both cautioners,
as they intervene for the fame debt, and at the defire
of the fame debtor, have a mutual relief againft each
other ; but where the cautioner in the firft bond figns
as a principal obligant in the corroboration, the cau¬
tioner in the new bond, it would feem, would be in-
titled to a total relief againft the firft cautioner. At
fame time, the decifions of the , court of feffion are
not perfectly at one upon this branch of the doctrine
of cautionry.
Judicial 23. Cautionry is alfo judicial, as in a fufpenfion.
cautionry. Jt js fufficient to loofe the cautioner, that when he
became bound, the fufpender had good reafon to fuf-
pend, e- g. if the charger had at that period no title,
or had not then performed his part, though thefe
grounds of fufpenfion ftiould be afterwards taken off.
In all maritime caufes, where the parties are frequent¬
ly foreigners, the defender muft give caution judicio
JiJli et judicatum folvi: fuch cautioner gets free by the
death of the defender before fentence ; but he conti¬
nues bound, though the caufe Ihould be carried from
the admiral to the court of feffion. This fort of cau¬
tion is only to be exafted in caufes ftriftly maritime.
24. It happens frequently, that a creditor takes
two or more obligants bound to him, all as principal
debtors, without fidejuffion. Where they are fo
bound, for the performance of fafts that are in them-
felves indivifible, they are liable each for the whole,
/inguli in folidum- But, if the obligation be for a
! W. Partlll.
fum of money, they are only liable pro rata ; unlefs, Law of
(1.) Where they are in exprefs ’ ords bound conjundl- Scot^an^. i
ly and feverally ; or, (2.) In the cafe of bills or pro-
miffory notes. One of feveral obligants of this fort,
who pays the whole debt, or fulfils the obligation, is
intitled to a proportional relief againft the reft; in
fuch manner, that the lofs muft, in every cafe, fall
equally upon all the folvent obligants.
25. Obligations for fums of money are frequently,ntere^
accompanied with an obligation for the annualrent ormoae^'
intereft thereof. Interejl (ufurce) is the profit due by
the debtor, of a fum of money to the creditor for the
ufe of it. The canon law confidered the taking of
intereft as unlawful: the law of Mofes allowed it to
be exacted from ftrangers: and all the reformed na¬
tions of Europe have found it neceffary, after the ex¬
ample of the Romans, to authorife it at certain rates
fixed by ftatute. Soon after the reformation, our le¬
gal intereft was fixed at the rate of 10 per cent, per
annum; from which time it has been gradually redu¬
ced, fill at laft, by 12 Ann. Jlat. 2. c. 16. it was
brought to five per cent, and has continued at that rate
ever lincc.
26. Intereft is due, either by la<w or ly paction.
It is due by law, either from the force of Jlalute, un¬
der which may be included acis of federunt, or from
the nature of the tranfattion Bills of exchange, and
inland bills, though they fhould not be protefted, car- .
ry intereft from their date in cafe of not acceptance ;
or from the day of their falling due, in cafe of ac¬
ceptance and not payment. Where a bill is accept¬
ed, which bears no term of payment, or which is pay¬
able on demand, no intereft is due till demand be
made of the fum, the legal voucher of which is a no¬
torial proteft. Intereft is due by a debtor after de¬
nunciation, for all the fums contained in the diligence,
even for that part which is made up of intereft. Sums
paid by cautioners on diftrefs carry intereft, not only
as to the principal fum in the obligation, but as to
the intereft paid by the cautioner. Fattors named by
the court of feffion are liable for intereft, by a fpecial
adt of federunt; fee N° clxxii. 11.
27. It arifes ex lege, or from the nature of the
trania&ion, that a purchafer in a fale is liable in inte¬
reft for the price of the lands bought from the term
of his entry, though the price fhould be arrefted in
his hands, or though the feller fhould not be able to
deliver to him a fufficient progtefs or title to the
lands; for no purchafer can in equity enjoy the fruits
of the lands, while at the fame time he retains the in¬
tereft of the price : but lawful confignation of the
price made by a purchafer, upon the refufal of the
perfon’s having right to receive it, flops the currency
of intereft. Where one intermeddles with money be¬
longing to another which carries intereft, he ought to
reilore it cum omni obventione et caufa ; and is therefore
liable in the intereft of it, as being truly an acceffory
of the iubjedt itfelf. It is alfo from the nature of the
tranfadlion, that intereft is in certain cafes allowed to.
merchants or others in name ofdamages.
28. Intereft is due by exprefs pattion, where there
is a claufe in a bond or obligation, by which money
is made to carry intereft. An obligation is not law¬
ful, where it is agreed on, that the yearly intereft of
the fum lent, if it fhould not be paid punctually as it
falls-
Partin. . L. . A
Law of falls due, flialUbe accumulated into a principal fum
i Scotland. bcaring intereft ; but an obligation may be lawfully
granted, not only for the fum truly lent, lAit for the
intereft to the day at which the obligation is made
payable, whereby the intermediate intereft is accumu¬
lated into a principal fum from the term of payment.
Intereft may be alfo due by implied petition : Thus,
where intereft upon a debt is by a letter promifed for
time paft, fuch promife implies a paftion for intereft
as long as the debt remains unpaid; thus alfo, the
ufe of payment .of intereft prefumes a padtion, and
when intereft is expreffed for one term, it is prefumed
I to be bargained for till payment.
I ^mies 29' fubjedf-matter of all obligations confifts ei-
i ufobliga ther of things, or of facts. Things exempted from
I tion. commerce cannot be the fubje<ft of obligation. (See
N° clxii. 2.) One cannot be obliged to the perform¬
ance of a ft<ft naturally impoffible ; nor of a fa<ft in
itfelf immoral, for that is alfo in the judgment of law
impoffible. Since impoffible obligations are null, no
penalty or damage can be incurred for non perform¬
ance : but it is otherwife, if the fadt be in itfelf pof-
fible, though not in the debtor’s power; in which
Icafe the rule obtains, locum fa Hi impraflabilis fulit dam¬
num et interffe.
30. An obligation, to which a condition is adjerft-
ed, either naturally or morally impoffible, is in the
general cafe null; for the parties are prefumed not to
have been ferious. But fuch obligation is valid, and
the condition thereof held pro nonferipta, (1.) In tef-
taments; (2.) In obligations, to the performance of
which the granter lies under a natural tie, as in bonds
of provifion to a child. Where an obligation is
granted under a condition, lawful but unfavourable,
e. g. that the creditor (hall not marry without the
confent of certain friends, no more weight is given
to the condition than the judge thinks reafonable.
A condition, which is in fome degree in the power
of the creditor himfelf, is held as fulfilled, if he has
done all he could to fulfil it. Implement or perform¬
ance cannot be demanded in a mutual contraft, by
that party who himfelf declines or cannot fulfil the
Counterpart.
Donation. 3 x. Donation, fo long as the fubjeft is not deliver¬
ed to the donee, may be juftly ranked among obliga¬
tions ; and it is that obligation which arifes from the
mere good will and liberality of the granter. Dona¬
tions imply no warrandice, but from the future fails
of the donor. They are hardly revocable by our law
for ingratitude, though it fhould be of the groffeft
kind : thofe betwixt man and wife are revocable by
the donor, even after the death of the donee ; but re-
muneratory grants, not being truly donations, cannot
be fo revoked. That fpecial fort of donation, which
is conftituted verbally, is called a promife. The Ro¬
man law intitled all donors to the benejicium competen-
tia. in virtue of which they might retain fuch part of
the donation as was neceffary for their own fubfift-
ence. Our law allows this benefit to fathers, with.
refpe£t to the provifions granted to their children;
and to grandfathers, which is a natural confequence
of childrens obligation to aliment their indigent pa¬
rents ; but to no collateral relation, not even to bro¬
thers.
32. Donations made in contemplation of death, or
L W. 69J
mortis caufa, are of the nature of legacies, and like Law of ’
them revocable : confequently, not being effe&ual in Scotland. ^
the granter’s life, they cannot compete with any of
his creditors ; not even with thofe whofe debts were
contracted after the donation. They are underftood
to be given from a perfonal regard to the donee, and
therefore fall by his predeceafe. No deed, after de¬
livery, is to be prefumed a donatio mortis caufa / for
revocation is excluded by delivery.
33. Deeds are not prefumed, in dublo, to be dona¬
tions. Hence, a deed by a debtor to his creditor, if
donation be not exprefled, is prefumed to be granted
in fecurity or fatisfadtion of the debt ; but bonds of
provilion to children are, from the prefumption of pa¬
ternal affeftion, conftrued to be intended as an addi¬
tional patrimony: yet a tocher, given to a daughter
in her marriage-contraCt, is prefumed to be in fatis-
faCtion of all former bonds and debts ; becaufe mar¬
riage con traifts ufually contain the whole provifions in
favour of the bride. One who aliments a perfon that
is come of age, without an exprefs paCtion for board,
is prefumed to have entertained him as a friend, un-
lefs in the cafe of thofe who qarn their living by the
entertainment or board of ftrangers. But aiimony gi¬
ven to minors, who cannot bargain for themfelves, is
not accounted a donation; except either where it is
prefumed, from the near relation of the perfon ali¬
menting, that it was given ex pietate; or where the
minor had a father or curators, with whom a bargain
might have been made.
Sect. XVI. Of the diffJution or extinction of ob- clxxvi,
ligations.
Obligations maybe diffolved by performance or Extinftion
implement, confent, compenfation, novation, and confufton. °/ °bliga-
(t.) By fpecifcal performance: thus, an obliga- aS:i,
tion for a lam of money is extinguiftied by pay- j^-e.
merit. The creditor is not obliged to accept of pay¬
ment by parts, uniefs where the fum is payable by
different divifions. If a debtor in two or more fepa-
rate bonds to the fame creditor, made an indefinite
payment, without aferibing it at the time to any one
of the obligations' the payment is applied, ill, To
intereft, or to fums not bearing intereft. 2dly,- To
the fums that are leaft fecured, if the debtor thereby
ir|curs no rigorous penalty. But, 3dly, If this appli¬
cation be penal on the debtor, e. g. by fuffering the
legal of an adjudication to expire, the payment will
be applied fo as to fave the debtor from that forfei¬
ture. Where one of the debts is fecured by a cau¬
tioner, the other not, the application is to be fo
made, cateris paribus, that both creditor and cautioner
may have equal juftice done to them.
2. Payment made by the debtor upon a miftake
in faCt, to one whom he believed, upon probable
grounds, to have the right of receiving payment, ex-
tinguifties the obligation. But payment made to one,
to whom the law denies the power of receiving it,
has not this effeCt; as if a debtor, fuzed by letters
of caption, Ihould make payment to the meffenger
for ignorantia juris neminem excufat. In all debts, tne
debtor, if he be not interpelled, may fafely pay be¬
fore the term, except in tack-duties or feu-dutics;.
the payment whereof, before the teims at which they
arc.
g94 LAW. Part lit,
L.uw of are rnade payable, is conftrued to be collufive, in a penfation. Where a debt for fungibles 18 afcertained of |
‘Scotland, qlieft;on w;th a creditor of the landlord or fuperior. in money by the fentence of a judge, the compenfa-. Scot|anil-f
v ,1: ' Payment is fn dubio prefumed, by the voucher of the tion can have no effe& farther back than the' hquida- '
debt being in the hands of the debtor ; chircgra/hum, tion ; becaufe, before fentenc^, the debts ware in-
apud debUorem repertum> prafumitur folutum. commenfurable : but, where a debt for a fum of money
3yeonfent. 3, Obligations are extinguifhable by the confent of is, in the courfe of a fuit, conflituted by the oath of
the creditor, who, without full implement, or even the debtor, the compenfation, after it is admitted by
any implement, may renounce the right conftituted in
his own favour. Though a difcharge or acquittance
granted by one whom the debtor bona fide took for
the creditor, but who was not, extingilifhes the obli¬
gation, if the fatisfaftion made by the debtor was
real; yet where it is imaginary, the difcharge will
not fcreen him from paying to the true creditor the
debt for which he had made no prior fatisfaftion. In
the judge, operates rrfro, in fo far as concerns the
currency of intereff, to the time when, by the parties
acknowledgment, the debt became due: for, in this
cafe, the debtor’s oath is not what creates the debt,
or makes it liquid,; it only declares that fuch a liquid
Xum was truly due before. Compenfation cannot be
offered after decree, either by way of fufpenfion or
reduction ; unlefs it has been formerly pleaded, and
all debts which are conftituted by writing, the extinc- unjuftly repelled. Decrees in abfence are excepted.
a ’ T*. V.,. V, o rirfht rtf’ fripnhnn. w Vn r ft Kpara a npar 1
tion, whether it be by fpecifical performance or bare
confcnt, muft be proved, either by the oath of the
creditor, or by a difcharge in writing; and the fame
folemnities which law requires in the obligation, are
necelfary in the difcharge: but, where payment is
made, not by the debtor himftlf, but by the credi¬
tor’s intromiflion with the rents of the debtor’s eftate,
or by delivery to him of goods in name of the debt¬
or, fuch delivery or intromiflion, htmgfafii, maybe
proved by witnefles, though the debt fhotild have
been not only conftituted by writing, but made real
on the debtor’s lands by adjudication.
. 6. The right of retention, which bears a near re-By retest
femblance to compenfation, is chiefly competent, where bon.
the mutual debts, not being liquid, cannot be the
ground of compenfation; and it is fometimes admitted
ex aquitate, \n liquid debts, where compenfation is ex¬
cluded by ftatute : thus, though compenfation cannot
be pleaded after decree, either againft a creditor or his
aflignee ; yet, if the original creditor fhould become
bankrupt, the debtor, even after decree, may retain
againft the aflignee, till he gives fecurity for fatisfying
the debtor’s claim againft the cedent. This right is
frequently founded in the expence deburfed or work
4. A difcharge, though it fhould be general, of all employed on the fubjedt retained, and fo arifes from
that the granter can demand, extends not to debts of
an uncommon kind, which are not prefumed to have
been under the granter’s e*e. This dodrine applies
the mutual obligations incumbent on the parties. It
has never been difputed that retention of goods
was competent, until payment or fatisfa&ion of
alfo to general aflignations. In annual payments, as the debt incurred in relation to thefe goods; but
of rents, feu-duties, intereft, &c. three confecutive
difeharges by the creditor, of the yearly or termly
duties, prefume the payment of all precedings. Two
difeharges by the anceftor, and the "third by the heir,
do not infer this prefumption, if the heir was igno¬
rant of the anceftor’s difeharges. And difch vges by
i adminiftrator, as a fadlor, tutor, &c. prefume
it was found by the court of fefiion, in a cafe
which was very lately before them, that goods could
not be retained by a manufadurer until payment of
a prior debt; the debt incurred upon the goods in
his hand being offered ; and although the debtor had
become bankrupt, and the manufacturer muft other-
wife rank as a common creditor for his prior debt.
By com-
fenfaiion.
ly the payment of all preceding duties incurred during But retention may be ffuftained, though the debt
his adminiftration. This prefumption arifes from re- due to him who claims it does not arife from, the na¬
peating the difeharges thrice fucceflively; and fo does ture of the obligation by which he is debtor: thus,
not hold in the cafe of two difeharges, though they a fador on a land-eftate may retain the Aims levied by
fhould include the duties of three or more terms. him in confequence of his fadory, not only till he be
5. Where the fame perfon is both creditor and paid of the difburfements made on occafion of fuch
debtor to another, the mutual obligations, if they are eftate, but alfo till he be difeharged from the feparate
for equal Aims, are extinguilhed by compeiifation; if engagements he may have entered intoon his contti-
for unequal, ftill the leffer obligation is extinguifh-
ed, and the greater dimimfhed, as far as the con-
eourfe of debit and credit goes. To found compenfa¬
tion, (1.) Each of the parties muft be debtor and
creditor at the fame time. (2.) Each of them muft
be debtor and creditor in his own right. (3.) The
mutual debts muft be of the fame quality: hence.
tuent’s account.
7. Obligations are diffolved by novation, whereby By n
one obligation is changed into another, without chan-ben.
ging either the debtor or creditor. The firlt obliga¬
tion being thereby excinguifhed, the cautioners in it are
loofed, and all its confequences difclurged; fo that the^
debtor remains bound only by the lait." As the creditor
fum of money cannot be compenfated with a quantity to whom a right is once conllituted, ought not to lofe
it by implication, novation is not eaffly piefuined, and
the new obligation: is conftrued to be merely corrobora¬
tive of the old; but, where the fecond obligation ex-By delega*
prefsiy bears to be in fat isfaction of tlie firft, thefe words1*011,
muft ireceflarily be explained into novation. Where-
the creditor accepts of a new debtor, in place of the
Where this- requires but a fh.irt difeuffion, fentence former who is difeharged,-this method of extinciion is ,
for the purfuer is delayed for fome time, ex aquitate, called delegation. _ " .
thn the df fender may make good his ground of com- 8. Obligations are cxtinguiftied confufwne, where the By confu-
/ - debitfion*
of corns; becaufe, till the prices are fixed, at which
the corns are to be converted into money, the two
debts are incornmenfurab’e. Laftly, ccmpenfation
cannot be admitted, where the mutual debts are not
clearly afcertained, either by a written obligation,
the fenterree of a judge, or the oath of the party
' Part III. L A W.
and credit meetjn the fame perf m, a’ther by fuc Intimation : nererthelefs, as there
6w
s nothing in thefe Lw of
^ I ,         x > iin.uiiaj.iuu . ucvcrifi
ceffion or fmgular title, e g. when the debtor fucceeds conveyances which can of themfelves put the debtor Scotl3^
to the creditor, or the creditor to the debtor, or a ftran- in malajide, fie is therefore in Mo to pay to t he wife ^
ger to both; for one cannot be debtor to lumfelf. If or to the original creditor in the debt adjudged, till
the luccellion, from which the confujio arifes, happens the marriage or adjudication be notified to him Af-
afterwards to be divided, fo as the debtor and creditor fignments of moveable fubjeas, though they be inti
come again to be different perfons; the confufto does maced, if they are made retentapoMione, (the cedent
not produce an extmaion, but only a temporary fuf- retaining the poffefiionh cannot hurt the cedent’s ere-
penfion, of the debt. ditors ; for fuch rigl,ts are prefumed, in all oueftiom,
1 clxxvii.
fl Afligna
Sect. XVII. ■ Of Ajfignations-
Heritable rights, when they are cloathed with tn-
. feftment, are tranfmitted by difpofition, which is a
ghts are prefumed, in all qneftions
ith creditors, to be collufive, and granted in trail
for the cedent himfelf.
5. An affignation carries jto the affignee the whole E{rt<ft8 of
right of the fubjedt conveyed, as it was in the cedent; ^nat^
ting containing procuratory of refignation and precept anL* confequently, he may ufe diligence, either in his
of feifin ; but thofe which either require no feifin, or cedent’s name while he is alive, or in his own.
on which feifin has not adlually followed, are tranf- ^ After an afiignation is intimated, the debtor can-
mi ffible by fimple qjjignption. He who grants the n°t prove a payment, or compeufation, by the oath of
affignation is called the cedent; and he who receives it, tbe cedent, who has no longer any intereft in the debt 5
the affignee or ceffionary : if the affignee conveys his un'e^ fhc matter has been made litigious by an adliou
right to a third perfon, the deed of conveyance is commenced prior to the intimation : but the debtor
called a trjinfation ; and if he afligns it back to the ce¬
dent, a rstrocejfion. Certain rights are, from the ufes
to which they are deftined, incapable of tranfmiffion,
as alimentary rights : others cannot be afEgned by the  ...
perfon inverted in them, without fpecial powers given lfie affignation be in part onerous, and in part gratai-
may refer to the oath of the affignee, who is in the
right of the debt, that the affignment was gratuitous,
or in truft for the cedent : either of which being pro¬
ved, the oath of the cedent will affed the affignee. If
to him; as tacks, reverfions : the tranfmiffion of a tpus,Ahe cedent’s oath is good againrt the affignee,
third fort, is not prefumed to be intended, without °ply iir fo far-as his right is gratuitous. All defences
' ““  —1 ~" J competent againft the original creditor in a moveable
debt, which can be proved otherwife than by his oath,
continue relevant againft even an onerous affignee;
whofe right can be no better than that of his author,
and muft therefore remain aftecled with all the burdens
which attended it in the author’s perfon.
an - exprefs conveyance ; as of paraphernal goods,
-which are fo proper to the wife, that a general affig¬
nation, by her to her hulband, of all that did or fhould
belong to her at her deceafe, does not comprehend
them. A liferent-right is, by its nature, incapable
of a proper tranfmiffion; but its profits may ba affigned,
while it fubfitts.
■Intimation 2. Affignations mull not only be delivered to the
of aiiigna- aflignee, but intimated by him to the debtor. Inti-
mations are confidered as fo neceffary fpr completing
the conveyance, that in a competition between two af¬
fignations, the laft, if firrt intimated, is preferred.
Sect. XVIII. Of ar reft merits and poindings-. chxvJhV
Tme diligences, whereby a creditor may affeft his Arreftment
debtor’s moveable fubjedls, are arrejlment and poind-
tng- By arrejlment is fometirnes meant the fccuring
to what
cafes not
ueceffary.
3. Though, regularly, intimation to the debtor is of a criminal’s perfon till trial; but as it is tinderrtood
made by an inftrument, taken in the hands of a notary, 'n rubric of this title, it is the order of a judge, by
1 by the affignee or his procurator ; yet the law admits which he who is debtor in a moveable obligation to the
equipollencies, where the notice of the affignment given arrefter’s debtor, is prohibited to make payment or de-
to the debtor is equally ftrong. Thus, a charge upon livery till the debt due to the arrerter be, paid or fecn-
letters of horning at the affignee’s inftance, or a fuit Vhe arrelter’s debtor is ufually called the com-
fcrought by him againlt the debtor, fupplies the want mon debtor; becaufe, where there are two or more
of intimation ; thefe being judicial afts, which expofe competing creditors, he is debtor to all of them. The
the conveyance to the eyes both of the judge and of perfon in whole hands the diligence is ufed is rtykd
the debtor ; cr the debtor’^ promife of payment by arrertee.
writing to the affignee, becaufe that is in effedt a cor¬
roborating of the original debt. The affignee’s pof-
feffion of the right, by entering into payment of the
rents or intereft, is alfo equal to an intimation ; for
it imports, not only notice to the debtor, but his
aftual compliance: but the debtor’s private knowledge
of the affignment is not fuftained as intimation.
4. Certain conveyances need no intimation. -(1.) In- Per to the court. Where the debtor to the common
dorfations of bills of exchange ; for thefe are not to be debtor is a pupil, amftment is properly ufed in the
2. Arrertment may be laid on by the authority either
of the fupreme court, or of an inferior judge. In the
fir ft cafe, it proceeds either upon fpecud letters of an-
reftment, or on a warrant contained in letters of hom¬
ing ; and it muft be executed by a meffenger. The
warrants granted by inferior judges are called precepts
of arrdlment, and they are executed by the officer pro-
fettered with forms, introduced by the laws of parti¬
cular ftates. (2.) Bank-notes are fully conveyed by
the bare delivery of them ; for as they are payable to
the bearer, their property muft pafs with their poffef-
fion. (3.) Adjudication, which is a judicial convey¬
ance, and marriage, which is a legal one, carry the
hands of the tutor, as the pupil’s adminirtrator: this
do&rine may perhaps extend to other general admini-
ftrators, as commiffioner, &c. But arreftment, ufed in
the hands of a fa&or or fteward, cannot found an action
of forthcoming without calling the conftituent. Where
the debtor to the common debtor is a corporation, ar-
..r.j •  , r .1 .
lull right of the fubjedls thereby conveyed, without reftment muft be ufed in the hands of the diredtorsme
4 Wea»
<5g« L
l™o[a treafurer, who reprefent the whole body. Arreftment,
^ Scut ail . wjjen it is ufed in the hands of the debtor himfelf, is
inept; for that diligence is intended only as a rellraint
upon third parties.
3. All debts, in which one is perfonally bound, tho*
they ihould be heritably fecured, are grounds upon
which the creditor may arreft the moveable eftate be¬
longing to his debtor. Arreflment may proceed on
a debt, the term of payment whereof is not yet come,
in cafe the debtor be vergens ad inopiam. If a debt be
not yet conftitufed by decree or regiftration, the cre¬
ditor may raife and execute a fummons agaijnft his
debtor for payment, on which pending aftion arreft¬
ment may be ufed, in the fame manner as inhibition,
which is called arrejlment upon a dependence. If one’s
ground of credit be for the performance of a fa£t, or
if his depending procefs be merely declaratory, with¬
out a conclufion of payment or delivery, fuch claims
are not admitted to be fufficient grounds for arreft¬
ment.
bf,tS ^ovea^e debts are the proper fubjeft of arreft-
am a e. ment. Qn(jer which are comprehended conditional debts,
and even depending claims. For leffening the expence
of diligence to creditors, all bonds which have not been
made properly heritable by feifin are declared arreftable:
but this does not extend to adjudications, wadfets, or
other perfonal rights of lands, which are not properly
debts. Certain moveable debts are not arreftable. (1.)
Debts due by bill, which pafs from hand to hand as
bags of money. (2.) Future debts ; for though inhi¬
bition extends to adquirenda as well as adquifita, yet ar-
xeftment is limited, by its warrant, to the debt due at
the time of ferving it againft the arreftee. Hence, an
arreftment of rents or intereft carries only thofe that
have already either fallen due or at leaft become current.
Claims, depending on the iflue of a fuit, are not coh-
fidered as future debts; for the fentence, when pronoun¬
ced, has a retrofpect to the period at which the claim
was firft founded. The like do&rine holds in condi¬
tional debts. (3.) Alimentary debts are not arreft¬
able ; for thefe are granted on perfonal confiderations,
and fo-are not communicable to creditors: but the paft
intereft due upon fuch debt may be arrefted by the per-
fon who has furniihed the alimony. One cannot fecure
his own effedts to himfelf for his maintenance, fo as
they (hall not be affedtable by his creditors. Salaries
annexed to offices granted by the king, and particu¬
larly thofe granted to the judges of the Seffion, and
the fees of fervants, are conlidered as alimentary funds ;
but the furplus fee, over and above what is necefiary
for the fervant’s perfonal ufes, may be-arrefted. It has
alfo been found, that a wadfet fum configned after an
order of redemption ufed, but before decreet of decla¬
rator, is not arreftable.
EiFe&of 5. If, in contempt of the arreftment, the arreftee
breach of {hall make payment of the fum, or deliver the goods
surcflnient to the common debtor, he is not only liable
criminally for breach of arreftment, but he muft pay
the debt again to the arrefter. As the law formerly
Hood, an arreftment ufed at the market crofs of Edin¬
burgh, pier and fhore of Leith, againft a perfon furth
of the kingdom, was good ; fo that if the arreftee made
payment to his creditor after the date of the arreft-
tnent, he was found liable in fecond payment to the ar-
rcfter, becaufe he had done all in his power to notify
Igg.
A XV. Pare III.
his diligence. This, however, is very properly altered Law of
by § 3. of the a£t of the 23d Geo. III. which declares, Scotland.^
that an arreftment ufed at the market crofs of Edin- \r—
burgh, pier and Ihore of Leith, in the hands of any
perfon out of the kingdom, without other fufficient no¬
tification, {hall not interpel the arreftee from paying
bona fide to the original creditor. Arreftment is not 1
merely prohibitory, as inhibitions are ; but is a ftep of
diligence which founds the ufer in a fubfequent a&ion,
whereby the property of the fubjeft arrefted may be
adjudged to him. It therefore does not, by our latter
practice, fall by the death of the arreftee; but continues
to fubfift, as a foundation for an aftion of forthcoming
agatnft his heir, while the fubjeft arrefted remains in
medio. Far lefs is arreftment loft, either by the death
of the arrefter, or of the common debtor.
6. Where arreftment proceeds on a depending ac- Loofing of"
tion, it may be loofed by the common debtor’s giving arreftmeaS.jj
fecurity to the arrefter for his debt in the event it {hall
be found due. Arreftment founded on decrees, or on
regiftered obligations, which, in the judgment of law
are decrees, cannot be loofed but upon payment or con-
fignation ; except, (1.) Where the term of payment
of the debt is not yet come, or the condition has not
yet exifted. (2.) Where the arreftment has proceed¬
ed on a regiftered contraft, in which the debts or mu¬
tual obligations are not liquid. (3.) Where the de¬
cree is fufpended, or turned into a libel; for, till the
fufpenfion be difcufled, or the pending aftion conclu¬
ded, it cannot be known whether any debt be truly
due. A loofing takes off the nexus which had been
laid on the fubjeft arrefted ; fo that the arreftee may
thereafter pay fafely to his creditor, and the cautioner
is fubftituted in place of the arreftment, for the arreft-
er’s fecurity : yet the arrefter may, while the fubjeft
continues with the arreftee, purfue him in a forthco¬
ming, notwithftanding the loofing.
7. Arreftment is only an inchoated or begun dili-Forthcomi4
gence ; to perfeft it, there muft be an aftion brought*1^ on at‘'
by the arrefter againft the arreftee, to make the debtreftment*
or fubjed. arrefted forthcoming. In this a&ion, the 4
common debtor muft be called for his intereft, that he
may have an opportunity of excepting to the lawful- £■ ]
nefs or extent of the debt on which the diligence pro¬
ceeded. Before a forthcoming can be purfued, the
debt due by the common debtor to the arrefter muft be
liquidated ; for the arrefter can be no further intitled
to the fubjed arrefted than to the extent of the debt
due to him by the common debtqr. Where the fub-
jed arrefted is a fum of money, it is, by the decree of
forthcoming, direded to be paid to the purfuer towards
fatisfying his debt; where goods are arrefted, the judge
ordains them to be expofed to fale, and the price to be
delivered to the purfuer. So that, in either cafe, de¬
crees of forthcoming arejudicial affignations to the ar¬
refter of the fubjed arrefted.
8. In all competitions, regard is had to the dates, preferenc4
not of the grounds of debt, but of the diligences pro- in aaeft-
ceeding upon them. In the competition of arreftments, meats,
the preference is governed by their dates, according to
the priority even of hours, where it appears with any
certainty which is the firft. But, as arreftment is but
a begun diligence, therefore if a prior arrefter {hall ne-
gled to infift in an adion of forthcoming for fuch a
time as may be rcafonably couftrued into a defertion of
; Part III. L A W. 697
I Law of his begun diligence, lie lofes his preference. But, as
it Scotland, derelidion of diligence is not eafily prefumed, the di-
ftance of above two years, between the firft arreftment
and the decree of forthcoming, was found not to make
fuch a mora as to intitle the pofterior arrelter to a pre-
Sference. This rule of preference, according to the
dates of the feveral arreftments, holds, by our prefent
pra&ice, whether they have proceeded on a decree or
on a dependence; on debts not yet payable, or on
debts already payable ; provided the pendency lhall
have been clofed, or the debt have become payable, be¬
fore the iflue of the competition.
By a& 23d Geo. III. $ 2. it is enafted, that when
. a debtor is made bankrupt, in terms of the aft 1696,
as thereby extended (clxxxiii. 13.), all arreftments
which ftiall have been ufed for attaching any perfonal
effefts of fuch bankrupt within thirty days prior to the
bankruptcy, or within four kalendar months immedi¬
ately fublequent, fhall be pari pajfu preferable : and in
order to fave as far as poffible the expence of a multi¬
plicity of arreftments, it is declared, that where the ef¬
fefts of a debtor are arrefted by any creditor within
thirty days before the bankruptcy, or within four
months after it, and a procefs of forthcoming or mul¬
tiplepoinding is brought in which fuch arreftment is
founded on, it fhall be competent for any other credi¬
tor producing his intereft, and making his claim in the
faid procefs, at any time before the expiration of the
faid four months, to be ranked in the fame manner as
if he had ufed the form of arreftment; the expence of
raifing the procefs, and of the diligence at the inftance
of the creditor who raifes it, being always paid out of
the common fund. We here again repeat, that the
enaftments of this flatute are only temporary, and not
yet a permanent part of the law of Scotland, whatever
they may become when the fubjeft is refumed by the
legiflature upon the expiry of the aft.
9. In the competition of arreftments with afligna-
tions, an affignation by the common debtor, intimated
before arreftment, is preferable to the arreftment. If
the affignation is granted before arreftment, but not
intimated till after it, the arrefter is preferred.
I Poinding. 10. Poinding is that diligence affefting moveable
fubjefts, by which their property is carried direftly to
the creditor. No poinding can proceed, till a charge
be given to the debtor to pay or perform, and the days
thereof be expired, except poindings againft vaflals for
] their feu-duties, and poindings againft tenants for rent,
proceeding upon the landlord’s own decree ; in which
the ancient cuftom of poinding without a previous
charge continues. A debtor’s goods may be poinded
by one creditor, though they have been arrefted before
| by another ; for arreftment being but an imperfeft di¬
ligence, leaves the right of the fubjeft ftill in the debt¬
or, and fo cannot hinder any creditor from ufing a
more perfeft diligence, which has the effeft of carrying
the property direftly to himfelf.
11. No cattle pertaining to the plough, nor inftru-
ments of tillage, can be poinded in the time of labour¬
ing or tilling the ground, unlefs where the debtor has
no other goods- By labouring-time is underftood, that
time, in which that tenant, whofe goods are to be
poinded, is ploughing, though he ftiould have been
earlier or later than his neighbours ; but fummer fal¬
lowing does not fall under this rule.
Vot. IX. Part II.
12. In the execution of poinding, the debtor’s goods I*aw of
muft be appraifed, firft, on the ground of the lands, Scotlarui-.
where they are laid hold on, and a fecond time at the v
market-crofs of the jurifdiftion, by the ftated appraifers ^orn3
thereof; or, if there be none, by perfons named by thethereof*
meftenger or other officer employed in the diligence.
Next, the meffenger muft, after public intimation J>y
three oyeffes, declare the value of the goods according
to the fecond appraifement, and require the debtor to
make payment of the debt, including intereft and ex-
pences. If payment ftiall be offered to the creditor, or
in his abfence to his lawful attorney ; or if, in cafe of
refufal by them, confignation of the debt (hall be made
in the hands of the judge-ordinary or his clerk, the
goods muft be left with the debtor; if not, the mef-
fenger ought to adjudge and deliver them over, at the
appraifed value, to the ufer of the diligence towards his
payment: and the debtor is intitled to a copy of the
warrant and executions, as a voucher that the debt is
difeharged in whole or in part by the goods poinded.
13. Minifters may poind for their ftipends, upon one
appraifement on the ground of the lands, and landlords
were always in ufe to poind fo, for their rents. Ap¬
praifement of the goods at the market-crofs of the next
royal borough, or even of the next head-borough of
ftewartry or regality, though thefe jurifdiftions be a-
bolilhed, is declared as fufficient as if they were car¬
ried to the head-borough of the fhire. Poinding, whe¬
ther it be confidered as a fentence, or as the execution
of a fentence, muft be proceeded in between fun-rifing
and ftln-fetting ; or at leaft it muft be finilhed before
the going off of day-light.—The powers of the officer Powers of
employed in the execution of poindings, are not clear-?ieffe.ngers
ly defined by cuftom, in the cafe of a third party lnpomd‘
claiming the property of the goods to be poinded.m8*
This is certain, that he may take the oath of the clai¬
mant, upon the verity of his claim; and if from thence
it ftiall appear that the claimant’s title is collufive, he
ought to proceed in the diligence ; but if there re¬
mains the leaft doubt, his fafeft courfe is to deliver the
goods to the claimant, and to exprefs in his execution
the reafons why poinding did not proceed.
14. Any perfon who flops a poinding via faai, on
groundlefs pretences, is liable, both criminally, in the
pains of deforcement (fee N° clxxxvi. 15.), and civilly,
in the value of the goods which might have been poind¬
ed by the creditor.
By the forefaid ftatute 23d Geo. III. § 4. it is de¬
clared, that after a perfon is rendered bankrupt, as
thereby direfted, no poinding of the moveables be¬
longing to fuch bankrupt, within 30 days before his
bankruptcy, or within four ka'.ender months thereafter,
fhall give a preference to fuch poinder over the other
lawful creditors of the bankrupt; but the goods fo
poinded fhall be confidered as in medio, and the perfon
receiving the price of them fhall be liable to make the
fame furthcoming, fo as that all the other creditors
of the bankrupt who are poffeffed of liquidate grounds
of debt or decrees for payment, fhall be intitled to their
proportion of the fame; provided they make their
claim by fummoning the poinder at any time before
the expiration of the faid four months, dedufting al¬
ways the expence of fuch poinding from the firft end
of the price of fuch goods, together with 20 per cent.
on the appraifed value, which the poinder fhali retain
4 T to
698 L A W. Partlll.
Law of to account of his debt in preference to the other cre-
. ScotIand‘ t ditors; referving liberty to him to rank on the re-
’ maining fum for the full amount of the debt contained
in his diligence. And it is by the faid a& further de¬
clared, that where any perfon concerned in trade be.
manufactures is bankrupt, as before mentioned, it may¬
be lawful for any creditor, to the amount of L. 100,
or any two creditors to the amount of L. 150, or any
three or more creditors to the amount of L.200 or up¬
wards, to apply for fequeftration of the dlate real and
perfonal belonging to the debtor: after awarding
which, an interim faftor, and then a truftee, fhall be
chofen by the creditors, who is to conduft the bufinefs
of the fequeilration, according to the various rules fixed
and laid down by the rtatute. The aft, however, ex-
prefsly excludes all others, except thofe concerned in
trade or manufaftures, from the benefit of the fequef¬
tration ; but it is probable, when it comes to be re¬
newed or digefted in another form, this part of it will
fulfer an alteration.
clxxix. Sect. XIX. Of Prefcription.
Pretcrip Prescription, which is a method, both of efta'
tion* blifhing and of extinguiihing property, is either poji-
tive or negative. Pojitive prefcription is generally de¬
fined, as the Roman ufucapio, The acquifition of pro¬
perty (it (hould rather be, when applied to our law,
the fecuring it againft all further challenge) by the pof-
feffor’s continuing his pofleffion for the time which law
has declared fufficient for that purpofe : negative, is the
lofs or amiffion of a right, by neglefting to follow it
forth, or ufe it, during the whole time limited bylaw.
The doftrine of prefcription, which is, by fame wri¬
ters, condemned as contrary to jullice, has been in¬
troduced, that the claims of negligent creditors might
not fubfitl for ever, that property might be at laft
fixed, and forgeries difeouraged, which the difficulty
of detefting muft have made exceeding frequent, if
no length of time had limited the legal effeft of wri¬
tings.
Pefitive. 2> Pofitive prefcription was firft introduced into our
law by 1617, c. 12. which enafts, that whoever fhall
have poffeffed his lands, annualrents, or other heri¬
tages, peaceably, in virtue of infeftments, for 40 years
continually after their dates, fhall not thereafter be dif-
quieted in his right by any perfon pretending a better
title Under heritages are comprehended every right
that wfundo annepuim, and capable of continual pofief-
fion. Continued poffeffion, if proved as far back as the
memory of man, prefumes pofleffion upwards to the
date of the infeftment. The whole courfe of poffeffion
muft by the aft be founded on feifins ; and confequent-
ly no part thereof on the bare right of apparency : but
40 years poffeffion, without feifm, is fufficient in the
prefeription of fuch heritable rights as do not require
feifin The poffeffion muft alfo be without any lawful
interruption, ». e. it muft neither be interrupted via
faBi, nor via juris. The prefcription of fubjefts not
exprtffedin the infeftment as part and pertinent of an¬
other fubjeft fpecially expreffed, has been explained,
N° clxvii. 6.
3. The aft requires, that the poffeflbr produce, as
his title of prefcription, a charter of the lands pre¬
ceding the 40 years poffeffion, with the feifm follow¬
ing on it: and where there is no charter extant, fei¬
fins, one or more, (landing together for 40 years, and
proceeding either on retours or precepts of dare con- ScotlantH
flat. This has given rife to a reafonable diftinftion ' "Y "‘■•i
obferved in praftice, between the prefcription of a An¬
gular fucceffor, and of an heir. Singular fucceffors
muft produce for their title of prefcription, not only
a feifin, but its warrant, as a charter, difpofition, &c.
either in their own perfon, or in that of their author :
but the produftion, by an heir, of fefins, one or more,
(landing together for 40 years, and proceeding on re¬
tours or precepts of dare conjlat, is fufficient. The
heir is not obliged to produce the retours or precepts
on which his feifins proceed, nor is the Angular fuccei-
for obliged to produce the ground of his charter ;
that if the title of prefer iption produced be a fair deed,
and a fufficient title of property, the poffeffor is fecure
by the aft, which admits no ground of challenge, but
falfehood. A fpecial ftatute, for eftabliffiing the po-
fitive prefcription in moveable rights, was not necef-
fary; for, fince a title in writing is not requifite for
the acquiring of thefe, the negative prefcription, by
which all right of aftion for recovering their property
is cut off, effeftually fecures the poffeffor.
4. The negative prefcription of obligations, by the Negative 1
lapfe of 40 years, was introduced into our law long Prefcr>p- \
before the pofitive, (1469, c. 29.—1474. c. yy.)00"*
This prefcription is now amplified by the forefaid aft
(1617), which has extended it to alfcaftions competent
upon heritable bonds, reverfions.and others whatfoever;
unlefs where the reverfions are either incorporated in
the body of the wadfet-right, or regiftered in the regi-
(ler of reverfions : And reverfions fo incorporated, or
regiftered, are not only exempted from the negative
prefcription, but they are an effeftual bar againft any
perfon from pleading the pofitive.
y. A (horter negative prefcription is introduced by ^ fliorts? 3
ftatute, in certain rights and debts. Aftions of fpuil-negative 1
zie, ejeftion, and others of that nature, muft be pur- preferip- |
fued within three years after the commiffion of the faft11011,
on which the aftion is founded. As in fpuilzies and
ejeftions, the purfuer was entitled, in odium of violence,
to a proof by his own oath in litem, and to the violent
profits againft the defender, the ftatute meant only to
limit thefe fpecial privileges by a three years prefcrip¬
tion, without cutting off the right of aftion, where the
claim is reftrifted to fimple reftitution. Under the ge¬
neral words, and others of that nature, are compre¬
hended all aftions where the purfuer is admitted to
prove his libel by his own oath in litem.
6. Servants fees, houfe-rents, mens ordinaries, f A Preferip- 1
money due for board), and merchants accounts, fall tion offer-1
under the triennial prefcription, (by iy79» c. 83.) vants ^ecs» |
There is alfo a general claufe fubjoined to this ftatute,&c*
of other the like debts, which includes alimentaty debts,
wages due to workmen, and accounts due to writers,
agents, or procurators- Thefe debts may, by this aft,
be proved after the three years, either by the writing
or oath of the debtor ; fo that they preferibe only as
to the mean of proof by witneffes ; but after the three
years, it behoves the creditor to refer to the debtor’s
oath, not only the conftitution, but the fubfiftence
of the debt. In the prefcription of houfe-rents, fer-
vants fees, and alimony, each term’s rent, fee, or ali¬
mony, runs a feparate courfe of prefcription ; fo that
in an aftion for thefe the claim will be reftrifted to
the arrears incurred within the three years immediately
before
'ePart TIT.
W.
699
4( Scotland.' not b.g[n till the laft article ; for a Angle article can- not exceeding L. 100 Scots, which are not attefled by Scotland.
“ ' not be called an account. Aftions of removing mud witneffes ; becaufe though thefe are in practice fu-—V,*"J
alfo be purfued within three years after the warning, ftained, yet they ought not to have the fame duration
Redu&ions of erroneous retours prefcribe, if not pur- with deeds attefted by witnefles. Though in the fliort
fued within 20 years. prefcriptions of debts,, the right of aftion is for ever
ilOf mini- 7. Minillers ftipends and multures prefcribe in five loft, if not exercifed within the time limited; yet
tiers fti- years after they are due ; and arrears of rent, five years where aftion was brought on any of thofe debts, be-
pends, &c. ,after the
enant’s removing from the lands. As the fore the prefcription was run, it fubfifted, like any
prefcription of mails and duties was introduced in fa- other right, for 40 years. As this defeated the pnr-
vour of poor tenants, that they might not luffer by pofe of the a&s eftabliftiing thefe prefcriptions, all
neglefling to preferve their difcharges, a proprietor of procefles upon warnings, fpuilzies, ejections, or ar-
lands fubjeft to aliferent, who had obtained a leafe of reftments, or for payment of the debts contained in
all the liferented lands from the liferenter, is not in- aft 1669, c. 9. are by the faid aft, joined with 1685,
titled to plead it, nor a tackfman of one’s whole ellate, c. 14. declared to prefcribe in five years, if not wa-
who had by the leafe a power of removing tenants, kened within that time ; fee N® clxxxiii. 26.
Bargains concerning moveables, or fums of money 10. Certain obligations are loft by the lapfe of lefs^fx^|. I°_11
which are proveable by witnelfes, prefcribe in five years than 40 years, without the aid of ftatute, where the tjong t,y ta-
after the bargain. Under thefe are included fales, lo- nature of the obligation, and the circumftances ofcitarnity.
cations, and all other confenfual contrafts, to the con- parties, juftify it: thus, bills which are not intended
ftitution of which writing is not necelfary. But all the for lafting fecurities, produced no aftion, where the
abovementioned debts, may, after the five years, be creditor had been long filent, unlefs the fubfiftence of
proved, either by the oath or {he writing of the debt- the debt be proved by the debtor’s oath; but the pre*
or; of which above, (par. 6.) A quinquennial pre- cife time was not fixed by praftice. But the duration
fcription is eftablifhed in arreftments, whether on de- of bills is now limited to fix years by the 12 Geo. III.;
crees or depending aftions: The firft prefcribe in five rendered perpetual by 23 Geo. III. Thus alfo, a
years after ufing ^ie arreftment, and the laft in five receipt for bills granted by a writer to his employer,
years after fentence is pronounced on the depending not infilled upon for 23 years, was found not produc-
aftion. live of an aftion. The prefcriptions of the reftitution
..imitation 8. No perfon binding for or with another, either as of minors, of the benefit of inventory, &c. are ex-
jF caution- cautioner or co principal, in a bond or contraft for a plained in their proper places.
|/* fum of money, continues bound after feven years from 11. In the pofitive prefcription, as eftablilhed by Bona fida
the date of the bond, provided he has either a claufe the aft 1617, the continued poffeftion for 40 years,Prercrip*
of relief in the bond, or a feparate bond of relief, in- proceeding upon a title of property not chargeable t‘on•
timated to the creditor, at his receiving the bond. But with falfehood, fecures the poffeffor againft all other
all diligence ufed within the feven years againft; the grounds of challenge, and fo prefumes bona fides, pra-
cautioner ftiall Hand good. As this is a public law, famptione juris et de jure. In the long negative pre¬
intended to prevent the bad confequences of ra(h en- fcription, bona jides in the debtor is not required : the
gagements, its benefit cannot, before the lapfe of the creditor’s neglefting to infill for fo long a time, is
feven years, be renounced by the cautioner. As it is conftrued as an abandoning of his debt, and fo is e-
quivalent to a difcharge. Hence, though the fubfift¬
ence of the debt fhould be referred to the debtor’s
own oath, after the 40 years, he is not liable.
12. Prefcription runs de momento in momentum : thePrefcrip-
whole time defined by law mull be completed, before tl0,n> a_
a right can be either acquired or loft by it; fo that
interruption, made on the laft day of the 40th year, run5t
irefcrip-
correftory, it is ftriftly interpreted : Thus, bonds
bearing a mutual claufe of relief pro rata, fall not un¬
der it; nor bonds of corroboration, nor obligations)
where the condition is not purified, or the term of pay¬
ment not come within the feven years; becaufe no di¬
ligence can be ufed on thefe. The ftatute excludes all
cautionries for the faithful difcharge of offices; thefe
not being obligations in a bond or contraft for fums of breaks its courfe. The pofitive prefcription runs a-
money. And praftice has denied the benefit of it to all gainft the fovereign himfelf, even as to his annexed
judicial cautioners, as cautioners in afufpenfion.—Ac- property ; but it is generally thought he cannot fuffer
tions of count and reckoning, competent either to mi- by the negative : he is fecured againft the negligence
nots againft; their tutors or curators, ox vice verfa, pre- of his officers in the management of procefles, by ex-
fcribe in ten years after the majority or death of the prefs ftatute, 1600, c. 14. The negative, as well a
minor. the pofitive prefcription, runs againft the church
9. Holograph bonds, miffive letters, and books of though churchmen have but a temporary intereft ii
on of ho- account, not attefted by witnefles, prtfcribe in 20 their benefices. But becaufe the rights of beneficia-
•graph years, unlefs the creditor (hall thereafter prove the ries to their ftipends are liable to accidents, through
ir,gs< verity of the fubfcription by the debtor’s oath. It is the frequent change of incumbents, 13 years pofief-
therefore fufficient to fave from the effeft of this pre¬
fcription, that the conftitution of the debt be proved
by the party’s oath after the 20 years ; whereas, in fti-
fion does, by a rule of the Roman chancery which we
have adopted, found a prefumptive title in the benefi¬
ciary : but this is not properly prefcription ; for if by
pends, merchants accounts, &c. not only the confti- titles recovered, perhaps out of the incumbent’s own
tution, but the fubfiftence of the debt, muft be pro- hands, it fhall appear that he has poflefled tithes or
ved by writing or the debtor’s oath, after the term other fubjefts to a greater extent than he ought, hi*
of prefcription. Some lawyers extend this prefcrip- pofieffion will be reftrifted accordingly. This right
4T a muft
700 L A W. Part Hr.
J-sw of ttmfl net fee confounded with that cftablifhed in favour
. Scotland. 0f churchmen, which is confined to church lands and
'' rents, and confticutes a proper prefcription upon a
pofftffion of 30 years.
13. The claufe in the a£t 1617, faring minors from
prefcription, is extended to the pofitive, as well as to
the negative prefcription ; but the exception of mino¬
rity is not admitted in the cafe of hofpitals for chil¬
dren, where there is a continual fucceffion of minors,
that being a cafus infolitus. Minors are exprefsly ex¬
cepted in feveral of the fhort prefcriptions, as 1579,
c. 18. 1669, c. 9.; but where law leaves them in
the common cafe, they mull be fubjeA to the common
rules.
14. Prefcription does not run contra non valer.tem
agere, againft one who is barred, by fome legal inca¬
pacity, from purfuing; for in fuch cafe, neither ne¬
gligence nor dereliction can be imputed to him. This
rule is, by a favourable interpretation, extended to
wives, who ex reverentia maritali forbear to purfue ac¬
tions competent to them againll their hulhands. On
the fame ground, prefcription runs only from the
time that the debt or right could be fued upon. Thus,
inhibition prefcribes only from the publilhing of the
deed granted to the inhibiter’s prejudice ; and in the
prefcription of removings, the years are computed on¬
ly from the term at which the defender is warned to
remove. Neither can prefcription run againft perfons
who are already in pofTcfiion, and fo can gain nothing
by a purfuit. Thus, where a perfon, who has two ad¬
judications affefting the fame lands, is in poffefiion
upon one of them, prefcription cannot run againft the
other during fuch pofTeflion.
Certain 15. Certain rights are incapable of prefcription:
’t--- (1.) Things that law has exempted from commerce,
prefcrip. (z-) Res mer/t facu^tatlsi e- g- a faculty to charge a
tion. fubjed with debts, to revoke, &c. cannot be loft by
prefcription ; for faculties may, by their nature, be
exetcifed at any lime : hence, a proprietor’s right of
ufmg any aft of property on his own grounds, cannot
be loft by the greateft length of time. (3.) Excep¬
tions competent to a perfon for eliding an aftion,
cannot prefcribe, unlefs the exception is founded on a
right produftive of an aftion, e. g. compenfation ;
fuch right mull be infilled on within the years of
prefcription. (4.) Obligations of yearly penfions or
payments, though no demand has been made on them
for 40 years, do not fuffer a total prefcription, but
Hill fublift as to the arrears fallen due within that pe¬
riod ; becaufe prefcription cannot run againft an ob¬
ligation till it be payable, and each year’s penfion or
payment is confidered as a feparate debt.
16. No right can be loft non utendo by one, unlefs
the effeft of that prefcription be to dlablilh it in ano¬
ther. Hence the rule arifes, juri fanguints nunquam
prefcrilltur. Hence alfo, a proprietor of land cannot
lofe his property by the negative prefcription, unlefs
he who objefts it can himfelf plead the pofitive. On
the fame ground, a fuperior’s right of feu duties can¬
not be loft non utendo; becaufe, being inherent in the
fuperiority, it is truly aright of lands that cannot fuf¬
fer the negative prefcription, except in favour of
one who can plead the pofitive ; which the vaffal can¬
not do, being deftitute of a title. This rule applies
alfo to parfonage tithes, which are an inherent burden
upon all lands not fpecially exempted { and from Law of
which therefore the perfon liable cannot prefcribe an Scotland,J
immunity by bare non-payment: but fuch vicarage
tithes as are only due where they are eftablifhed by u-
fage, may be loft by prefcription. In all thefe cafes,
though the radical right cannot fuffer the negative
prefcription, the bygone duties, not demanded with¬
in the 40 years, are loft to the proprietor, fuperior,
or titular.
17. Prefcription maybe interrupted by any deed f:lterruP* ■
whereby the proprietor or creditor ufes his right or1
ground of debt. In all interruptions, notice mull be criPtl0n*
given to the poffeffor of the fubjeft, or the debtor,
that the proprietor or creditor intends to fue, upon
his right- All writings whereby the debtor himfelf
acknowledges the debt, and all proceffes for payment
brought, or diligences ufed againft hjm upon his ob¬
ligation, by horning, inhibition, arreftmerit, mull
be effeftual to interrupt prefcription.
18. Interruptions, by citation upon libelled fum-
iponfes, where they are not ufed by a minor, pre¬
fcribe, if not renewed every feven years: but where
the appearance of parlies, or any judicial aft has fol¬
lowed thereupon, it is no longer a bare citation, but
an aftion which fubfifts for 40 years. It has been
found, that the fexennial prefcription of bills is not in¬
terrupted by a blank citation, as praftifed in the court
of admiralty. Citations for interrupting the prefcrip¬
tion of real rights mull be given by meffengers; and
the fummonfes, on which fuch citations proceed, mull
pafs the fignet upon the bill, and be regiilered within 60
days after the execution, in a particular regilter ap- ?
pointed for that purpofe : and where interruption of
r?al rights is made via fafti, an inftrument mull be
taken upon it, and recorded in the faid regilter; other-
wife it can have no effeft againft lingular fucceffors.
19. Interruption has the effeft to cut off the courfe
of prefcription, fo that the perfon preferibing can avail
himfelf of no part of the former time, but mull begin
a new courfe, commencing from the date of the inter¬
ruption. Minority, therefore, is no proper interrup¬
tion : for it neither breaks the courfe of prefcription,
nor is it a document or evidence taken by the minor
on his right : it is a perfonal privilege competent to
him, by which the operation of the prefcription is in¬
deed fufpended during the years of minority, which
are therefore difeounted'from it; but it continues to
run after majority, and the years before and after the
minority may be conjoined to complete it. The fame
doftrine applies to the privilege ariiing from one’s in¬
capacity to aft.
20. Diligence ufed upon a debt, againft any one of
two or more co-©bligants, preferves the debt itfelf, and
fo interrupts prefcription againft all of them; except
in the fpecial cafe of cautioners, who are not affefted
by any diligence ufed againft the principal debtor. In
the fame manner, a right of annualrent, conftituted
upon two feparate tenements, is preferved as to both
from the negative prefcription, by diligence ufed a-
gainft either of them. But whether fuch diligence has
alfo the effeft to hinder the polTeffor of the other te¬
nement by fingular titles from the benefit of the pofi¬
tive preferiptiou, may be doubted.
III.
L
£ PartlH.
W.
701
Law of
III. Of SUCCESSION.
Sect. XX. Offuccejfwn in heritable rights.
the cafe of heira-povtioners} and fuccefiion in Jirpes,
where the remoter heirg draw no more among them S(:ot a"^'
than the (hare belonging to their afcendent orJlirps, '
whom they reprefent; an example of which may be
figured in the cafe of one who leaves behind him
Singular fucceflbrs are thofe who fucceed to a daughter alive, and two grand daughters by a daughter
amTuniv r Per^on ahve, in a fpecial fubject by Angular titles; deceafed. In which cafe the two grand-daughters
fal. UntVer"but fuccefiion, in its proper fenfe, is a method of would fucceed equally to that half which would have
tranfmitting rights from the dead to the living. He- belonged to their mother had (he been alive,
ritable rights defcend by fucceflion to the heir proper- 5. I„ the fuccefiion of heirs-portioners, indivifibleSuccefliati
ly fo called; moveable rights to the executors, who rights, e. g. titles of dignity, fall to the eldetl After. of h?irs-
ave fometimes faid to be heirs in moveables. Succef- A fingle right of fupefiority goes alfo to the eldeft; Vortioners»
fion is either by fpecial dejlination, which defcends to for it hardly admits a divifion, and the condition of the
thofe named by the proprietor himfelf; or legal, vafial ought not to be made worfe by multiplying fu-
which devolves upon the pcrfons whom the law marks periors upon him. Where there are more fueh rights,
out for fuccefibrs, from a prefumption, that the pro- the eldeft may perhaps have her ele&ion of the beft ;
prietor would have named them had he made a defti- but the younger fifters are intitled to a recompence, iu
nation. The firft is in all cafes preferred to the other, fo far as the divifions are Unequal; at leaft, where the
as prefumption muft yield to truth. fuperiorities yield a conftant yearly rent. The prin-
Order of 2. In the fuccefiion of heritage, the heirs at Jaw cipal feat of the family falls to the eldeft, with the gar-
liicceflion are otherwife called heirs general, heirs whatfoever, den and orchard belonging to it, without recompence
in heritage. or heirs of line ; and they fucceed by the right of to the younger fifters ; but all other houfes are divided
blood, in the following order. Firft, defeendents ; amongft them, together with the lands on which they
among thefe, fons are preferred to daughters, and the are built, as parts and pertinents of thefe lands. A
eldeft fon to all the younger. Where there are daugh- pracipuum, however, is due only in the cafe of fuccef-
ters only, they fucceed equally, and are called heirs- fion of heirs portioners rr£ ,• and therefore there
is no place for it where the fuccefiion is taken under a
deed.
6. Thofe heritable rights, to which the deceafed did Heir of
himfelf fucceed as heir to his father or other anceftor, con<lueft»
get fometimes the name of heritage in a drift fenfe, in
portioners. Failing immediate defeendents, grand¬
children fucceed; and in default of them, great¬
grandchildren; and fo on in infinitum : preferring, as
in the former cafe, males to females, and the eldeft
male to the younger.
Collaterah. 3. Next after defeendents, collaterals fucceed; among oppofition to the feuda nova, or feus of conqueft, which
whom the brothers german of the deceafed have the firft he had acquired by Angular titles, and which defcend,
place. But as, in no cafe, the legal fuccefiion of heri- not to his heir of line, but of conqueft. This diftinc-
tage is, by the law of Scotland, divided into parts, un- tion obtains only where two or more brothers or uncles,
lefs where it defcends to females; the immediate or their iffue, are next in fucceflion; in which cafe, the
younger brother of the deceafed excludes the reft, ac- immediate younger brother, as heir of line, fucceeds to
cording to the rule, heritage defcends. Where the de- the proper heritage, becaufe that defcends ; whereas
ceafed is himfelf the youngeft, the fucceflion goes fo the conqueft afeends to the immediate elder brother,
the immediate elder brother, as being the leaft devia- It has no place in female fucceffion, w’hich the law di-
tion from this ruly. If there are no brothers german, vides equally among the heirs-portioners. Where the
the fifters german fucceed equally : then brothers con- deceafed was the younger brother, the immediate elder
fanguinean, in the fame order as brothers german j and brother is heir both of line and of conqueft. An eftate
failing them, fillers confanguinean equally. Next, the difponed by a father to his eldeft fon, is not conqueft
father fucceeds. After him, his biothers and fifters, in the fun’s perfon, but heritage; becaufe the fon would
according to the rules already explained ; then the have fucceeded to it, though there had been no difpo-
grand-father ; failing him, his brothers and fifte'rs; and fition. The heir of conqueft fucceeds to all rights af*
fo upwards, as far back as propinquity can be proved, fefting land, which require feifin to perfeft them But
^jofuccef- Though children fucceed to their mother, a mother teinds go to the heir of line ; becaufe they are merely
Con by the cannot to her child ; nor is there any fuccefiion by our a burden on the fruits, mot on the land. Tacks do not
mother. Jaw through the mother of the deceafed ; in fo much fall under conqueft, becaufe they are complete rights
that one brother uterine, i. e. by the mother only, can- without feifin ; nor perfonal bonds taken to heirs fe-
not fucceed to another, even in that eftate which flowed eluding executors.
originally from their common mother. 7. The heir of line is intirled to the fucceflion, not He‘rn,’P-
4. In heritage there is a right of reprefintation, by only of fubjefts properly heritable, but to that fort ofmoVeabIe*'
which one fucceeds, not from any title in himfelf, but moveables called heir/hip, which is the bed of certain
in the place, and as reprefenting fome of his deceafed kinds. This dodtrine has been probably introduced,
afeendents. Thus, where one leaves a younger fon, and that the heir might not have an houfe and eftate to fuc-
a grandchild by his eldeft, the grandchild, though far- ceed to? quite difmantled by the executor. In that fort
ther removed in degree from the deceafed than his which goes by pairs or dozens, the beft pair or dozen
uncle, excludes him, as coming in place of his father is the heirlhip- There is no heirftiip in fungibles, or
the eldeft fon. Hence arifes the diftin&ion between things eftimated by quantity; as grain, hay, current
fuccefiion in capita, where the divifion is made into as money, &c. To intitle an heir to this privilege, the
many equal parts as there are capita or heirs, which is deceafed muft have been either, (1.) A prelate : (2.) A
barotr,,
Succefiion
in capita
and in
Jirpe.
Sueceflion
by detona¬
tion.
L A W. Part lit.
baron, j. e, who flood infeft at his death in lands, tho’ tho’ completed by infeftment before the aft 1685, was Law of
not erefted into a barony; or even in a right of an- ineffeftual, becaufe not recorded in terms of the aft. Scotland,
nualrent: Or, (3.) A burgefs ; notan honorary one, 12. An heir of entail has full power over the en- v~’
but a trading burgefs of a royal borough, or at lead; tailed eftate, except in fo far as he is exprefsly fettered ; He;rs
one intitled to enter burgefs in the right of his ancef- and as entails are an unfavourable reftraint upon pro-enl:a;i tj,e;r
tor. Neither the heir of conqueft, nor of tailzie, has perty, and a frequent fnare to trading people, they are powers and
right to heirfhip-moveables. JlrtcliJfiml juris : fo that no prohibition or irritancies reftri&ioni
8. As to fuccefSon by deftination, no proprietor can are to be inferred by implication. By 10 George III.
fettle any heritable eftate, in the proper form of a tefta- t. 51. heirs of entail are intitled (notwithftanding any
ment; not even bonds fecluding executors, tho’ thefe reftriftions in the deed of entail) to improve their eftates
by granting leafes, building farm-houfes, draining, in-
Their re-
nuifites.
are not heritable exfua natura: But, where a tefta-
ment is in part drawn up in the flyle of a deed inter
vivos, fuch part of it may contain a fettlement of heri¬
tage, though executors fhould be named in the tefta-
mentary part. The common method of fettling the
■fucceffion of heritage is by difpolition, contraft of mar¬
riage, or Ample procuratory of refignation : and, tho’
a difpofition fettling heritage (hould have neither pre¬
cept nor procuratory, it founds an aftion againft. the
heir of line to complete his titles to the eftate ; and
thereafter diveft himfelf in favour of the difponee. The
appellation of tailzie, or entail, is chiefly ufed in the
cafe of a land eftate, which is fettled on a long feries
of heirs fubftituted one after another. The perfon
firft called in the tailzie, is the inftitute ; the reft, the
heirs of tailzie, or the fubftitutes.
9. Tailzies, when confidercd in relation to their fe-
veral degrees of force, are either, (1.) Simple defti-
nations : (2.) Tailzies with prohibitory claufes. (3.)
Tailzies with prohibitory, refolutive, and irritant clau¬
fes. That is a Ample deftination, where the perfons
called to the fucceffion are fubftituted one after ano¬
ther, without any reftraint laid on the exercife of their
property. The heirs, therefore, fucceeding to fuch
eftate, are abfqlute fiars, and confequently may alter
the deftination at pleafure.
10. In tailzies with claufes prohibitory, e. g. decla¬
ring that it (hall not be lawful to the heirs to contraft
debts or alien the lands in prejudice of the fucceffion,
none of the heirs can alien gratuitoufly. But the mem¬
bers of entail may contraft debts which will be effec¬
tual to the creditors, or may difpofe of the eftate for
onerous caufes. In both thefe forts, the maker him¬
felf may alter the tailzie ; except, (1.) Where it has
been granted for an onerous caufe, as in mutual tail¬
zies ; or (2.) Where the maker is exprefsly difabled,
as well as the inftitute or the heirs.
11. Where a tailzie is guarded with irritant and fls-
folutive claufes, the eftate entailed cannot be carried off
by the debt, or deed, of any of the heirs fucceeding
thereto, in prejudice of the fubftitutes. It was long
doubted, whether fuch tailzies ought to be effeftual,
even where the fuperior’s confent was adhibited ; be¬
caufe they funk the property of eftates, and created a
perpetuity of liferents. They were flrft explicitly au-
thorifedby 1685, c. 22. By this ftatute, the entail
muft be regiftered in a fpecial regifter eftabliftred for
that purpofe ; and the irritant and refolutive claufes
muft be inferted, not only in the procuratories, pre¬
cepts, and feiAns, by which the tailzies are Arft confti-
tuted, but in all the after conveyances thereof; other-
wife they can have no force againft Angular fucceftbrs.
cloAng, and excambing, under certain limitations, and
to claim repayment of three-fourths of the expence
from the next heir of entail.—This aft extends to all
tailzies, whether made priororpofteriortothe 1685.
13. An heir, who counterafts the direftions of the Contraven.i
tailzie, by aliening any part of the eftate, charging it1*?"’ “
with debt, &c. is faid to contravene. It is not the fcrr°™ in’
Ample contrafting of debt that infers contravention ;
the lands entailed muft be aftually adjudged upon the
debt contrafted. An heir may, where he is not ex¬
prefsly barred, fettle rational proviflons on his wife and
children, without incurring contravention. It is not
quite clear whether the heirs alfo of the contravener
would forfeit their right from the afts or deeds of their
predeceflbr where there is no exprefs claufe in the en¬
tail fettling it; and though the words of the aft 1685
(which declares, that entails executed according to the
direftions of it, fhall be effeftual not only againft the
contravener and his heirs, but againft creditors), may
feem to favour the idea that heirs alfo would forfeit,
the more favourable opinion has received the fanftion
of our fupreme court. For the greater fecurity, how¬
ever, a claufe is now ufualiy inferted in tailzies, de¬
claring, that the contravention of the heir in poffeffion
lhall not affeft his defeendents, when fuch is the in¬
tention of the granter.
14. When the heirs of the laft perfon fpecially cal- to what
led in a tailzie come to fucceed, the irritancies have no ^a<5s an
longer any perfon in favour of whom they can operate ; ma*
and confequently, the fee, which was before tailzied,
becomes Ample and unlimited in the perfon of fuch
heirs. By the late aft 20th Geo. II. for abolifhing
wardholdings, the king may purchafe lands within
Scotland, notwithftanding the itrifteft entail; and
where the lands are in the hands of minors or fatuous
perfons, his majefty may purchafe them from the cura¬
tors or guardians. And heirs of entail may fell to their
vaffals the fuperiorities belonging to the entailed eftate; - ,
but in all thefe cafes, the price is to be fettled in the
fame manner that the lands or fuperiorities fold were
fettled before the fale.
15. Rights, not only of land-eftates, but of bonds, Rights
are fometimes granted to two or more perfons in con- taken in
junft fee. Where a right is fo granted to two ftran- conjuniSt
gers, without any fpecial claufe adjefted to it, each oftee*
them has an equal intereft in the fee, and the part of
the deceafed defeends to his own heir. If the right be
taken to the two jointly, and the longejl liver and their
heirs, the feveral lhares of the conjunct AarS are affec-
table by their creditors during their lives : but, on the
death of any one of them, the furvivor has the fee of
But a tailzie, even without thefe requifltes, is effeftual the whole, in fo far as the ftiare of the predeceafed
againft the heir of the granter, or againft the inftitute
»Ilo accepts of it. It has been found, that an entail,
mains free, after payment of his debts. Where tl^e
right is taken to the two in conjunft fee, and to the
heirs
ePart HI. L
|l Law of heirs qsf one of them, he to whofe heirs the right is ta-
Scotland, ja tjie on]y gar . tjje right of the other refolves
“ ’ into a Ample liferent: yet where a father takes a right
0 ■ to himfelf and hie fon jointly, and to the ion’s heirs,
fuch right being gratuitous, is not underftood to ftrip
the father of the fee, unlefs a contrary intention fhall
plainly appear from the tenor of the right.
16. Where a right is taken to a hufband and wife,
in conjund fee and liferent, the hufband, as the perfona
dignior, is the only fiar : the wife’s right refolves into
a liferent, unlefs it be prefumable, from fpecial circum-
ftances, that the fee was intended to be in the wife.
Where a right of moveables is taken to hufband and
wife, the heirs of both fucceed equally, according to
the natural meaning of the words.
Seirs of I7' tfdrs of provifion are thofe who fucceed to any
irovifion. fubjed, in virtue of a provifion in the inveftiture, or o-
ther deed of fettlement. This appellation is given moft
commonly to heirs of a marriage. Thefe are more fa¬
vourably regarded than heirs by Ample deftination,
who have only the hope of fucceflion ; for heirs of a
marriage, becaufe their proviAons are conftituted by an
onerous contrad, cannot be difappointed of them by
any gratuitous deed of the father. Neverthelefs, as
their right is only a right of fucceffion, which is not
deAgned to reftrain the father from granting onerous
or rational deeds, he continues to have the full power of
felling the fubjed, or charging it with debts, unlefs a
proper right of credit be given to the heir by the mar¬
riage contrad. e.g. if the father fhould oblige himfelf
to infeft the heir in the lands, or make payment of the
fum provided againit a day certain, or when the child
attains a certain age, &c. ; for fuch rights, when per-
feded by infeftment, or fecured by diligence, are ef-
fedual againft all the pofterior deeds of the father,
even onerous.
j'tffedtsnf J 8. Though all proviAons to children, by a mar-
, rovifion to riage contrad conceived in the ordinary form, being
t liildren. merely rights of fucceffion, are poftponed to every one¬
rous debt of the granter, even to thofe cohtraded po¬
fterior to the proviAons ; yet where a father executes a
bond of proviAon to a child adually exifting, whether
fuch child be the heir of a marriage or not, a proper
debt is thereby created, which, though it be without
doubt gratuitous, is not only effedual againft the fa¬
ther himfelf and his heirs, but is not reducible at the
inftance even of his prior onerous creditors, if he was
folvent at the time of granting it. A father may, not-
withftauding a Arft marriage-contrad, fettle a jointure
on a fecond wife, or provide the children of a fecond
marriage j for fuch fettlements are deemed onerous ;
but where they are exorbitant, they will be reftrided
to what is rational: and in all fuch fettlements, where
the proviAons of the Arft marriage-contrad are in-
croached upon, the heirs of that marriage have recourfe
againft the father, in cafe he ffiould afterwards acquire
a feparate eftate, which may enable him to fulftl both
| j . obligations.
ti ovifion 19. In marriage contrads, the conqueft, or a certain
i iheirs. part of it, is frequently provided to the iftue; by which
is underftood whatever real addition Atall be made to
, the father’s eftate during the marriage by purchafe or
donation. Conqueft therefore mud be free, i. e. what
remains after payment of debts due by the father. As
in otter provifions, fo in conqueft; the father is ftill
A W. 703
Aar, and may therefore difpofe of it for onerous or ra- Law of
tional caufes. Where heritable rights are provided to the Scot|aild,i
heirs of a marriage, they fall to the eldeft fon, for he is v -
the heir at law in heritage. Where a fum of money is fo
provided, the word heir is applied to the fubjed of the
proviAon, and fo marks out the executor, who is the
heir in moveables. When an heritable right is pro-To bairns,
vided to the bairns (or ifl'ue) of a marriage, it is di¬
vided equally among the children, if no diviAon be
made by the father; for fuch deftination cuts off the
excluAve right of the legal heir. - No proviAon granted
to bairns, gives a fpecial right of credit to any one-
child, as long as the father lives: the right is granted
famil'm; fo that the whole muft indeed go to one or
other of them ; but the father has a power inherent in
him, to divide it among them, in fuch proportions as he
thinks heft, yet fo as none of them may be entirely
excluded, except in extraordinary cafes.
20. A claufe of return is that, by which a fum in aCIaureofii
bond or other right, is in a certain event limited torst:urn’
return to the granter himfelf, or his heirs. When a
right is granted for onerous caufes, the creditor may-
defeat the claufe of return, even gratuitoufly. But,
where the fum in the right Aows from the granter, or
where there is any other reafonable caufe for the pro¬
viAon of return in his favour, the receiver cannot difap-
point it gratuitoufly. Yet Ance he is Aar, the fum may
be either affigned by him for an onerous caufe, or af-
fefted by his creditors.
21. An heir is, in the judgment of law, eademper- Heirs*
fona cum defunBo, and fo reprefents the deceafed uni-
verially, not only in his rights, but in his debts : in the
Arft view, he is faid to be heir aBive; in the fecond,
pajfive. From this general rule are excepted, heirs fub-
ftituted in a fpecial bond, and even fubftituted in a
difpofttion omnium bonorum, to take effedt at the grant-
er’s death ; for fuch fubllitutes are conAdered as An¬
gular fucceffors, and their right as an univerfal legacy,
which does not fubjeft the legatee ultra valorem, but
heirs male or of tailzie, though their right be limited to
fpecial fubje&s, are liable, not merely to the extent of
the fubjeft entailed or provided, but in folidum ; becaufe
fuch rights are deAgned to carry an univerfal charadter,
and fo infer an univerfal reprefentation of the granter.
The heir of line is primarily liable for the debts of his
predectffor ; for he is the moft proper heir, and fo mull
be difeuffed before any other can be purfued ; next to
him the heir of conqueft, becaufe he alfo fucceeds to
the univerjitas of the whole heritable rights which his
predeceffor had acquired by Angular titles ; then, the
heir male, or of a marriage ; for their propinquity of
blood fubjedts them more diredtly than any other heir
of tailzie, who may poffibly be a itranger ; and who for
that reafon is not liable to be difeuffed, except for fuch
of the predeceffor’s debts or deeds as relate fpecially
to the lands tailzied ; as to which he is liable even be¬
fore the heir of line. Heirs portioners are liable pro
rata:{or their predeceffors debts ; but if any of them
prove infolvent, the creditor may, after difeuffing her,,
in Aft for her fhare againft the reft, who will be liable
in fo far as they are lucrata by the fucceffion. Where
an heir, liable fubftdiari, pays the predeceffors debt,
he has relief againft the heir who is more diredt-
ly liable, in refpedt of whom he is not co-heir, but
creditor.
5
izi
704
LAW.
Part nr.
LaY 2 2. Before an heir can have an a&ive title to his an-
, Scot‘and> i ceftor’s rights* he muft be entered by fervice and re-
' tour. He who is intitled to enter heir, is, before his
heir>afent a<^ua^ entry> called apparent heir. The bare right of
apparency carries certain privileges with it. An ap¬
parent heir may defend hia anceftor’s titles againft
any third party who brings them under challenge. Te¬
nants may fafely pay him their rents ; and after they
have once acknowledged him by payment, he may
compel them to continue it 5 and the rents not uplift¬
ed by the apparent heir belong to his executors, upon
his death.
Herandi*' 23. As an heir is, by his entry, fubje&ed univerfally
f ’ to his anceilor’s debts, apparent heirs have therefore a
year (annus deliberandi) allowed to them from the an-
ceftor's deceafe, to deliberate whether they will enter
or not; till the expiry of which, though they may
be charged by creditors to enter, they cannot be fued
in any procefs founded upon fuch charge. Though
declaratory a&ions, and others which contain no per-
fonal conclufion, may be purfued againft the apparent
heir, without a previous charge ; a&iou does not lie
even upon thefe, within the year, if the heir cannot
make the proper defences without incurring a paflive
title. But judicial fales, commenced againft an ancef-
tbr, may by fpecial aft of federunt be continued upon
a citation of the heir, without waiting the year of de¬
liberating. This annus deliberandi is computed, in the
cafe of a pofthumous heir, from the birth of fuch heir.
An apparent heir, who, by immixing with the eftate
of his anceftor, is as much fubjefted to his debts as if
he had entered, can have no longer a right to delibe¬
rate whether he will enter or not.
24. All fervices proceed on brieves from the chan¬
cery, which are called brieves of inquejl, and have been
long known in Scotland. The judge, to whom the
brief is directed, is required to try the matter by an in-
queft of 15 fworn men. The inqueft, if they find
the claim verified, muft declare the claimant heir to the
deceafed, by a verdift or fervice, which the judge muft
atteft, and return the brief, with the fervice proceeding
on it, to the chancery; from which an extract is ob¬
tained called the retour of the fervice.
general and 25. The fervice of heirs is either general or fpecial.
tjpecial. A general fervice veils the heir in the right of all he¬
ritable fubje&s, which either do not require feifin, or
which have not been perfcfted by feifin in the perfon of
the anceftor. A public right, therefore, according to
the feudal law, though followed by feiiin, having
no legal effects till it be confirmed by the fuperior,
muft, as a perfonal right, be carried by a general fer¬
vice. A fpecial fervice, followed by feifin, veils the
heir in the right of the fpecial fubje&s in which the
anceftor died infeft.
Entry by 26. If an heir, doubtful whether the eftate of his
Inventory. anceftor be fufficient for clearing his debts, ihall, at any
time within the annus deliberandi, exhibit upon oath a
full inventory of all his anceftor's heritable fubjedls, to
the clerk of the ftiire where the lands lie; or, if there is
no heritage requiring feifin, to the clerk of the fhire
where he died ; and if, after the fame is fubfcribed by
the fheriff or fheriff-depute, the clerk, and himfelf, and
regiftered in the fheriff’s books, the extradl thereof
{hall be regiftered within forty days after expiry of the
annus deliberandi in the general regifter appointed for
N° 173-
Service of
heirs,
that purpofe, his fubfequent entry will fubjefit him no Law of
farther than to the value of fuch inventory. If the in- Scodand-_ ;
ventory be given up and regiftered within the time ' ’"
prefcribed, the heir may ferve on it, even after the i
year.
27. Creditors are not obliged to acquiefce in the va¬
lue of the eftate given up by the heir; but, if they be
real creditors, may bring the eftate to a public fale, in
order to difcover its true value ; fince an eftate is al¬
ways worth what can be got for it. An heir by in¬
ventory, as he is in effedt a truftee for the creditors,
muft account for that value to which the eftate may
have been improved fince the death of the anceftor, and
he muft communicate to all the creditors the cafes he
has got in tranfadling with any one of them.
28. Pradtice has introduced an anomalous fort of Entry upon I
entry, without the interpofition of an inqueft, by the a precept of '
foie confent of the fuperior ; who, if he be fatisfied that cjfre cm' 1
the perfon applying to him is the next heir, grants^*
him a precept (called of clare conflal, from the firft words
of its recital), commanding his bailie to infeft him in
th^fubjedls that belonged to his anceftor. The heir, fj
by taking feifin on this precept, becomes pajfive, liable
for all the debts of his anceftor; and on the other
hand, acquires an adkive title, as to the fubjedts con¬
tained in the precept in queftions with the fuperior or
his heirs ; and they may, when followed by feifin, af¬
ford a title of prefcription : But as no perfon can be
declared an heir by private authority, they cannot bar
the true heir from entering after 2c years, as a legal
entry would have done; the true heir, in fuch cafe,
having it ftill in his power to fet afide that right, and
obtain himfeif regularly ferved at any time within the
years of prefcription. Of the fame nature is the entry Entry by l|
by hafp and ftaple, commonly ufed in burgage tene- If
ments of houfes; by wjiich the bailie, without calling * |
an inqueft, cognofces or declares a perfon heir, upon
evidence brought before himfelf; and, at the fame
time infefts him in the fubjedl, by the fymbol of the - 9
hafp and ftaple of the door. Charges given by cre¬
ditors to apparent heirs to enter, Hand in the place of
an adtual entry, fo as to fupport the creditor’s dili¬
gence (clxxii. 2.). J|j
29. A general fervice cannot include a fpecialone ; jraj
fince it has no relation to any fpecial fubjeft, and car-dudeja ge^|j
ries only that clafs of rights on which feifin has not neral one. f
proceeded ; but a fpecial fervice implies a general one
of the fame kind or chara&er, and confequently carries
even fuch rights as have not been perfeded by feifin.
Service is not required to eftablifh the heir’s right in
titles of honour, or offices of the higheft dignity ; for
thefe defcend jure fanguinis.
30. An heir, by immixing with his anceftor’s eftate Pa®ve ff
without entry, fubje&s himfelf to his debts, as if het,tles*' 3
had entered; or, in our law-phrafe, incurs a paffive
title. The only paffive title by which an apparent heir
becomes liable univerfally for all his anceftor’s debts,
gejlio pro herede, or his behaving as none but an hdr Gefh fro\ j
has right to do. Behaviour as heir is inferred from f><srede. J
the apparent heir’s intromiffion, after the death of the
anceftor, with any part of the lands or other heritable
fubjeds belonging to the deceafed, to which he him¬
felf might have completed an adive title by entry.
31. This paffive title is excluded, if the heir’s in¬
tromiffion be by order of law; or if it be founded on
Angular
Part III.
L A
1 Law of Angular titles, cmd nftt as Tielr to the deceafed, But
1 Scotland- an apparent heir’s ptirchafing any right to his ancef-
tor’s tdates otherwife than at public roup (au&ion),
or his poffrfling it in virtue of rights fettled in the per-
fon of any near relation of the anceftor, to whom he
hinifelf may fucceed as heir, otberwife than upon pur-
chafe by public fale, is deemed behaviour as heir.
32. Behaviour as heir is alfo excluded, where the in-
Itromifiion is fmall, unlefs an intention to defraud the
anceftor’s creditors be prefumable from the circum¬
stances attending it. Neither is behaviour inferred
againft the apparent heir, from the payment of his
anceftor’s debt, which is a voluntary aft, and profi-
'table to the creditors : nor by his taking out of brieves
to ferye ; for one may alter his purpofe, while it is not
completed : nor by his affuming the titles of honour
( belonging to his anceftor, or exercifing an honorary
office hereditary in the family ; for thefe are rights an¬
nexed to the blood, which may be ufed without pro¬
per reprefentation. But the exercifing an heritable of¬
fice of profit, which may pafs by voluntary conveyance,
and confequently is adjudgeable, may reafonably be
thought to infer a paffive title. Laftly, as palfive
titles have been introduced, merely for the fecurity of
1 creditors; therefore, where queftions concerning be¬
haviour arife among the different orders of heirs, they
are liable to one another no farther than in valorem of
OTj their feveral intromiffions.
|| -jPreceptio 33. Another paffive title in heritage, may be incur-
p| <S*reditatis. rea by the apparent heir’s accepting a gratuitous right
from the anceftor, to any part of the eftate to which
he himfelf might have fucceeded as heir; and it is cal¬
led pneccptio heredltatisy becaufe it is a taking of the
fucceffion by the heir before it opens to him by the
death of his anceftor. If the right be onerous, there
is no paffive title; if the confideration paid for it does
not amount to its full value, the creditors of the de-
ceafed may reduce it, in fo far as it is gratuitous, but
ftill it infers no paffive title.
34. The heir incurring this paffive title is no farther
liable, than if he had at the time of his acceptance
entered heir to the granter, and fo fubjefted himfelf
to the debts that were then changeable againft: him ;
I but with the pofteriof debts he has nothing to do, not
even with thofe contrafted between the date of the
right and the infeftment taken upon it, and he is
therefore called fuccejfor titulo lucrativo pojl contraBum
debitum.
35. Neither of thefe paffive titles takes place, unlefs
the fubjeft intermeddled with or difponed be fuch as
the intromitter or receiver would fucceed to as heir.
In this .alfo, thefe two paffive titles agree, that the in-
tromifiiou in both muft be after the death of the ance¬
ftor ; for there can be no termini habile} of a paffive
title, while the anceftor is alive. But in the following
refpeft they differ: Gejlio pro herecte, being a vicious
paffive title founded upon a quafi delift, cannot be ob-
jefted againft the delinquent’s heir, if procefs has not
been litifcontefted while the delinquent himfelf vyas
alive; whereas the fuccejfor titulo lucrativo is by the
apceptance of the difpofition underftood to have entered
into a tacit contr^ft with the granter’s creditors, by
which he underta'kes the burden of their debts; and
a!’^ actions founded on contraft are tranfmiffible againft
beirs,
, Voi. IX. Part II.
w.
35. An apparent heir, who is cited Hy the anceftor’s of
creditor in a procefs for payment, if he offers any pe- iSCTr!:t',d-1
remptory defence againft the debt, incurs a paffive other j ai-
title ; for he can have no intereft to objeft againft it, five titles,
but in the charafter of heir. In the fame manner, the
heir’s not renouncing upon a charge to enter heir, in¬
fers it : But the effeft of both thefe is limited to the
fpecial debt purfued for, or charged upon. This paf¬
five title, which is inferred from the heir’s not renoun¬
cing, has no effeft til! decree pafs againft him ; and
even a renunciation offered after decree, if the" decree
be in abfence, will Intitle the heir to a fufpenfion of
all diligence againft his perfon and eftate, competent
upon his anceftor’s debts.
37. By the principles of the feudal 'law, an heir,
when he is to complete his titles by fpecial fervice, muft
neceffarily pafs over his "immediate anceftor, e. g. his
father, if he was not infeft ; and ferve heir to that an¬
ceftor who was latt veft and feifed in the right, and in
whofe hareditos jacens the right muft remain, till a title
be connefted thereto from him. As this bore hard
upon creditors who might think themfelves fecure in
contrafting with a perfon whom they faw for fome
time in the poffeffion of an eftate, and from thence
concluded that it was legally veiled in him ; it is there¬
fore provided by aft l6y5, that every perfon, palling
over his immediate anceltor who had been three years
in poffeffion, and ferving heir to one more remote,
{hall be liable for the debts and deeds of the perfon
interjefted, to the value of the eftate to which he is
ferved. This being correftory of the feudal maxims,
has been ftriftly interpreted, fo as not to extend to
the gratuitous deeds of the perfon interjefted, nor to
the cafe where the interjefted perfon was a naked
liar, and poffeffed only civilly through the liferenter.
38. Our law, from its jealoufy of the weaknefs ofj.0*
mankind while under ficknefs, and of the importunity t^capte ^
of friends on that occafion, has declared that all deeds tettu
affefting heritage, if they be granted by a perfon on
deathbed, (i. e after contrafting that ficknefs which
ends in death), to the damage of the heir, are inef-
feftual, except where the debts of the granter have
laid him under a neceffity to alien his lands. As this ✓
law of deathbed is founded- folely in the privilege of
the heir, deathbed-deeds, when confented to by fhe
heir, are not reducible. The term properly oppofed
to deathbed is liege poujlie, by which is underltood a
ftate of health ; and it gets the name, beoaufe perfons
in health have the kgitima potejlas, or lawful power, of
difpofing of. their property at pleafure
39. The two extremes being proved, of the granter’s What cob«
ficknefs immediately before figning, and of his death ft:'utes a
following it, though at the greateft diftance of time,
did, by our former,law, found a prefumption that the
deed was granted on deathbed, which could not have
been elided but by a pofitive proof of the granter’s
convalefcence ; but now the allegation of deathbed is
alfo excluded, by his having lived 60 days after fign-
ing^the deed. The legal evidence of convalefcence is
the granter’s having been, after the date of the deed,
at kirk OR market unfupported ; for a proof of eithei*
will fecure the deed from challenge. The going to
kirk or mat kef muft be performed when the people
are met together in the church or churchyard for any
public meeting, civil or ecclefiaftical, or in the mar*
4 U ket*
Law of ket-place at the time of public market. No other
.Scotland. proof 0f convalelcence is receivable, becaufe at kirk
vand market there are always prefent unfufpefted
witnefles, which we can hardly be fure of in any other
cafe.
To what 40. The privilege of fetting afide deeds ex capite
redutSti^n i« *8 comPetent to heirs, not to heirs of line only,
*l but of conqueft, tailzie, or provifion : not only to the
competent. . , . • r * r r
immediate, but to remoter heirs, as loon as the luccet-
fion opens to them. But, where it is confented to
or ratified by the immediate heir, it is fecured againft
all challenge, even from the remoter. Yet the imme¬
diate heir cannot, by any antecedent writing, renounce
his right of redu&ion, and thereby give ftrength to
deeds that may be afterwards granted in leBo to his
hurt; for no private renunciation can authorife a per-
fon to aft contrary to a public law; and fuch renuncia¬
tion is prefumed to be extorted through the fear of
exhcredation. If the heir fhould not ufe this privilege
of rcduftion, his creditor may, by adjudication, trans¬
fer it to himfelf; or he may, without adjudication,
reduce the deed, libelling upon his intereft as credi¬
tor to the heir : But the granter’s creditors have no
rifdit to this privilege, in regard that the law of death¬
bed w as introduced, not in behalf of the granter him¬
felf, but of his heir.
What 4 1. The law of deathbed ftrikes againft difpofitiona
rights m y of every fubjcd to which the heir would have fucceed-
afidchUS ^Ct et^ or ^rom w^'c^ would have had any benefit, had
** ’ it not been fo difponed. Deathbed-deeds granted in
confequence of a full or proper obligation in liegepou-
Jlie, are not fubjeft to reduction ; but, where the an¬
tecedent obligation is merely natural, they .are reducible.
By ftronger reafon, the deceafed cannot, by a deed
merely voluntary, alter the nature of his eftate on death¬
bed to the piejudice of his heir, fo as from heritable
to make it moveable ; but if he fhould, in liegepoujlie,
exclude his apparent heir, by an irrevocable deed con¬
taining referved faculties, the heir cannot be heard to
quarrel the exercife of thefe faculties on death bed.
42. In a competition between the creditors of the
deceafed and of the heir, our law (aft 1661) has
juftly preferred the creditors of the deceafed, as every
man’s eftate ought to be liable, in the firft place, for
his own debt. But this preference is, by the ftatute,
limited to the cafe where the creditors of the decea¬
fed have ufed diligence againft their debtor’s eftate,
within three years from his death ; and therefore the
heir’s creditors may, after that period, affeft it for
their own payment. All difpofitions by an heir, of
the anceftor’s eftate, within a year after his death,
are null, in fo far as they are hurtful to the credi¬
tors of the anceftor. This takes place, though
thefe creditors ftiould have ufed no diligence, and
even where the difpofitions are granted after the year:
It is thought they are ineffectual againft: the creditors
of the deceafed who have ufed diligence within the
three years.
ekxxi. Sect. XXI. Of SucccJJion in Moveables.
Moveable In the fucceffion of moveable rights, it is an univer-
b'law0” fal ruk’ that the next in degree to the deceafed (or
* next of kin) fucceeds to the whole; and if there are
two or more equally near, all of them fueceed by equal
parts* without that prerogative, which takes place in
■ £
heritage, of the eldeft fon over the younger, or of males Law of
over females. Neither does the right of reprefenta- Scotland.^ I
tion (explained n° clxxx. 4.) obtain in the tucceffion ' 
of moveables, except in the fingle cafe of a competi¬
tion between the full blood and the half blood ; for a
niece by the full blood will be preferred before a bro¬
ther by the half blood, though ftre is by one degree
more remote from the deceafed than her uncle. Where
the eftate of a perfon deceafed confifts partly of he¬
ritage, and partly of moveables, the heir in the heri¬
tage has no lhare of the moveables, if there are others
as near in degree to the deceafed as himfelf: But where
the heir, in fuch cafe, finds it his intereft to renounce
his exclufive claim to the heritage, and betake himfelf
to his right as one of the next of kin, he may collate or
communicate the heritage with the others, who in their
turn muft collate the moveables with him ; fa that the
whole is thrown into one mafs, and divided equally
among all of them. This dofttine holds, not only in
the line of defeendants, but of collaterals ; for it was
introduced, that the heir might in no cafe be worfe
than the other next of kin. .!
2. One may fettle his moveable eftate upon whom he Succeffiori
pleafes, excluding the legal fucceffor, by a teftament;in move- [
which is a written declaration of what a perfon wills to a^'cs ty' ^
be done with his moveable eftate after his death. No ftinatl0n*
teftamentary deed is effectual till the death of the tefta-
tor; who may therefore revoke it at pleafure, or make
a new one, by which the firft lofes its force, according
to the rule, voluntas tefatoris ef ambulatoria ufque ad mor¬
tem; and hence teftaments are called lajl or latter ‘wills.
Teftaments, in their ftrift acceptation, muft contain a
nomination of executors, i. e. of perfons appointed to
adminifter the fucceffion according to the will of the
deceafed: Yet nothing hinders one from making a fettle-
ment of moveables, in favour of an univerfal legatee,
though he ftiould not have appointed executors; and
on the other part, a teftament where executors are
appointed is valid, though the perfon who is to have
the right of fuccdfion fhould not.be named. In this-
laft cafe, if the executor nominated be a ftranger, i. e.
one who has no legal intereft in the moveable eftate,
he is merely a truftee, accountable to the next of kin;
but he may retain a third of the dead’s part (explain¬
ed par. 6.) for his trouble in executing the teftament;
in payment of which, legacies, if any be left to him,
muft be imputed. The heir, if he be named execu¬
tor, has right to the third as a ftranger ; but if one
be named who has an intereft in the legal fucceflion,
he has no allowance, unlefs fuch intereft be lefs than
a third. Nuncupative or verbal teftaments are not,
by the law of Scotland, effe&ual for fupporting the
nomination of an executor, let the fubjed of the
fucceffion be ever fo fmall; But verbal legacies, not
exceeding L. 100 Scots, are fuftained : and even where
they are granted for more, they are ineffedual only
as to the excefs.
3. A legacy is a donation by the deceafed, to be Legacy* I
paid by the executor to the legatee. It may be grant¬
ed either in the teftament or in a feparate writing.
Legacies are not due till the granter’s death ; and
confequently they can tranfmit no right to the exe¬
cutors of the legatee, in the event that the granter
furvives him. A cafe occurred fome years ago, whese
a teftator left a legacy payable when the legatee arri¬
ved at 9 certain age. The ^legatee furvived the tefta-
Pan III. L A y. J6y
Law of tor, but died before the legacy was payable. It was rules of fociety, fince no legitime is truly due on a mo- Law of
* Scotland, found, chiefly upon the authority of the Roman law, ther’s death : yet it is in praftice tripartite; two thirds Scotland,
that the legacy veiled in the legatee a morte tcjlatoris, remain with the furviving father, as if one third were
and upon his deceafe was due to the legatee’s next of due to him proprio nomim, and another as adminiftra-
kin. tor of the legitime for his children ; the remaining
4. Legacies, where they are general, i. e. of a cer- third, being the wife’s fnare, goes to her children,
tain fum of money indefinitely, give the legatee no whether of that or any former marriage ; for they are
right in any one debt or fubjedl ; he can only infill in all equally her next of kin.
a perfonal adlion againll the executor, for payment out _ 7. Before a tellament can be divided, the debts ow- What debt*
of the tdlator’s effe&s. A fpecial legacy, i. e. of a ing by the deceafed are to be deducted ; for all execu- aff<A the
particular debt due to the deceafed, or of a particular try mull be free. As the hulband has the full power 0f executry.
fubjeft belonging to him, is of the nature of an affig- burdening the goods in communion, his debts affeft the
nation, by which the property of the fpecial debt or whole, and fo leffen the legitime and the lhare of the
fubjedl veils, upon the teftator’s death, in the legatee, felidl, as well as the dead’s part. His funeral charges,
who can therefore diredlly fue the debtor or poffelTor: and the mournings and alimony due to the widow, are
Yet as no legacy can be claimed till the debts are paid, confidered as his proper debts ; but the legacies, or o-
the executor mull be cited in fuch procefs, that it may ther gratuitous rights granted by him on death-bed,
be known, whether there are free effedls fufficient for affedl only the dead’s part. Bonds bearing interefl,
anfwering the legacy. Where there is not enough for due by the deceafed, cannot diminifh the relidt’s lhare,
payment of all the legacies, each of the general lega- becaufe fuch bonds, when due to the deceafed, do not
tees mud luffer a proportional abatement: But a fpe- increafe it. The funeral charges of the wife prede-
cial legatee gets his legacy entire, though there Ihould ceafing, fall wholly on her executors who have right to
be nothing over for payment of the reft} and, on her lhare. Where the deceafed leaves no family, nei-
the contrary, he has no claim, if the debt or fubjeft ther hulband, wife, nor child, the teftament fuffers no
bequeathed Ihould perilh, whatever the extent of the divifion, but all is the dead’s part,
free executry may be. 8. The whole ilfue of the hulband, not only by that
Who can S’ Minors, after puberty, can tell without their cu- marriage which was diflblved by his death, but by any
teft, and rators, wives without their hulbands, and perfons in- former marriage, has an equal intereft in the legitime ;
tinder what terdided without their interdidlors : but baftards can- otherwife the children of the firft marriage would be
reftrhftions. not tell, except in the cafes afterwards fet forth, N° cut out, as they could not claim the legitime during
clxxii. 3. As a certain lhare of the goods, falling under their father’s life. But no legitime is due, (1.) Upon
the communion that is confequent on marriage, belongs, the death of a mother. (2.) Neither is it due to grand-
upon tire hulband’s deceafe, to his widow, jure relithe, children, upon the death of a grandfather. Nor, (3.)
and a certain lhare to the children, called tke legitime, To children forisfamiliated, i. e. to fuch as, by having
portion-natural, or bairns part of gear; one who has a renounced the legitime, are no longer confidered as in
wife or children, though he be the abfolute adminiftra- familia, and fo are excluded from any farther lhare of
tor of all thefe goods during his life, and confequently the moveable eftate than they have already received.
may alien them by a deed inter vivos, in liege poujlie,
even gratuitoully, if no fraudulent intention to difap-
point the wife or children lhall appear, yet cannot im-
9. As the right of legitime is llrongly founded in Renan da-
nature, the renunciation of it is not to be inferred by ticn of th#
1rnplication. Renunciation by a child of his claim of^S^1116*
pair their lhares gratuitoully on death-bed ; nor can legitime has the fame elfeft as his death, in favour of
he difpofe of his moveables to their prejudice by tefta- the other children intitled thereto ; and confequently
ment, though it Ihould be made in liege poujlie; fince the lhare of the renouncer divides among the reft; but
teftaments do uot operate till the death of the teftator, he does not thereby lofe his right to the dead’s part, if
at which period the divifion of the goods in communion he does not alfo renounce his lhare in the father’s exe-
have their full effes& in favour of the widow and chil- entry. Nay, his renunciation of the legitime, where
he is the only younger child, has the effedt to convert
the whole fubjeft thereof into dead’s part, which will
therefore fall to the renouncer himfelf as next of kin,
if the heir be not willing to collate the heritage with
the other is the dead’s part, i. e. the abfolute property him. Yet it has been found that the renunciation of
of the deceafed, on which he can teft, and which falls the only younger child made the whole legitime accrue
to his next of kin, if he dies inteftate. Where he leaves to the heir without collation.
children, one or more, but no widow, the children get 10. For preferving an equality among all the chil-
one half as their legitime : the other half is the dead’s dren who continue intitled to the legitime, we have a-
part; which falls alfo to the children, if the father has dopted the Roman doftrine of collatio bonorum ; where- younger
not tefted upon it. If he leaves both widow and chil- by the child, who has got a provifion from his father, children,
dren, the divifion is tripartite : the wife takes one third is obliged to collate it with the others, and impute it
- uj— towards his own (hare of the legitime ; but if from the
deed of provifion, the father ihall appear to have in-
toivifion of 6. If a perfon deceafed leaves a widow, but no child,
a tefta- his teftament, or, in other words, the goods in com-
Bient. munion, divide in two : one half goes to the widow
by herfelf; another falls, as legitime, to the children
equally among them, or even to an only child, though he
fhould fucceed to the heritage ; the remaining third is tended it as a pracipuum to the child, collation is ex-
the dead’s part. Where the wife prtdeceafes without eluded. A child is not bound to collate an heritable
children, one half is retained by the hufband, the o- fubjedl provided to him, becaufe the legitime is not im-
ther falls to her next of kin : Where ftie leaves children, paired by fuch provifion. As this collation takes place
the divifion ought alfo to be bipartite, by the common only in queftions among children who are intitled to
4 U 2 the
708 L A
Law of tFie legitime, the reliA is not bound to collate donations
Scotland. gjv£n her by her hufband, in order to increafe the legi-
V v ' time ; and on the other part, the children are not obli¬
ged to collate their provifions, in order to increafe her
lhare.
Confirma- 11. As an heir in heritage muft complete his titles
tion, by entry, fo an executor is not veiled in the right of the
moveable eftate of the deceafed without confirmation.
Confirmation is a fentence of the cotnmiffary or bithop’s
court, impowering an executor, one or more, upon ma¬
king inventory of the moveables pertaining to the de¬
ceafed, to recover, pofiefs, and adminifter them, either
in behalf of themfelves, or of others interefted therein.
Teftaments muft be confirmed in the commiflariot
where the deceafed had his principal dwelling houfe at
his death. If he had no fixed refidence, or died in a
foreign country, the confirmation muft be at Edinburgh)
as the commune forym ; but if he went abroad with an
intention to return, the commilfariot within which he
refided, before he left Scotland, is the only proper
court.
12. Confirmation proceeds upon an edidV, which Is
affixed on the door of the parilh-church where the de¬
ceafed dwelt, and ferves to intimate to all concerned
the day of confirmation, which muft be nine days at
leaft after publilhing the ediift. In a competition for
the office of executor, the commiflary prefers, primo
/oro, the perfon named to it by the deceafyd himfelf,
whofe nomination he ratifies or confirms, without any
previous decerniture : this is called the confirmation of
a teftament-teftamentary. In default of an executor
named by the deceafed, univerfal difponees are by the
prefent practice preferred; after them, the next of kin;
then the reliA; then creditprs ; and, laftly, fpecial le¬
gatees. All thefe muft be decerned executors, by a
fentence called a decree-dative; and if afteiVards they
incline to confirm, the commiflary authorifes them to
adminifter, upon their making inventory, and giving
fecurity to make the fubjeft thereof forthcoming to all
having intereft ; which is called the confirmation of a
teftament dative.
Confirtna- I3- creditor, whofe debtor’s teftament is already
tion qua ex- confirmed, may fue the executor, who holds the office
ecutor.cre for all concerned, to make payment of his debt. Wher^
ditor. there is no confirmation, he himfelf may apply for the
office, and confirm as executor-creditor; which intitles
him to fue for and receive the fubjedt confirmed, for
his own payment: and where one applies for a confir¬
mation as executor-creditor, every co-creditor may ap¬
ply to be conjoined with him in the office. As this
kind of confirmation is limply a form of diligence, cre¬
ditors are exempted from the neceffity of confirming
more than the amount of their debts.
14. A creditor, whofe debt has not been conftituted
or his claim not doled by decree, during the life of his
debtor, has no title to demand direftly the office of
executor qua creditor: but he may charge the next of
kin. who Hands off, to confirm, who muft either re¬
nounce within twenty days after the charge, or be liable
for the debt; and if the next of kin renounces, the pur-
fuer may conftitute his debt, and obtain a decree cog-
nitionis caufa. againft the hareditas jacetis of the move¬
ables', upon which fie may confirm as executor-creditor
to the deceafed. Where one is creditor, not to the
deceafed, but to his next of kin who Hands off from
W. Part IU
confirming, he may affeft the moveables of the de- Law of *
ceafed, by obtaining himfelf decerned executor-dative Scotland.
to the deceafed, as if he were creditor to him, and not
to his next of kin.
15. Where an executor has either omitted to give upConfirma-
any of the effe&s belongiag to the deceafed in inven-tion
tory, or has eftimated them below their juft value, there^’ &c'
is place for a new confirmation, ad omijfa, vel male ap-
pretifta, at the fuit of any having iatereft; and if it
appears that he has not omitted or undervalued any
fubject dolofS, the commiffary will ordain the i'ubjedts .
omitted, or the difference between the eftimations in
the principal teftament and the true values, to be added
thereto ; but if dole Thall be prefumed, the whole fub-
je£l of the teftament ad orriijfa vel maltr appretiata, will
be carried to him who confirms it, to the exclufion of
the executor in the principal teftament.
16. The legitime and reli&’s lhare, becaufe they are Legitime,
rights arifing ex lege, operate ipfo jure, upon the father’s LsV. tranf-
death, in favour of thg relict and children; and confe-mit Wlt*?'
quently pafs from them,'though they fhould die before r'
confirmation, to their next ofkin : whereas the dead’s
part, which falls to the children or other next ofkin in
the way of fucceffion, remains, if they fliould die before
confirming, in bonis of the firft deceafed ; and fo does
notdefeend to their next of kin, hut may be confirmed,
by the perfon who, at the time of confirmation, is the
next of kin to the firft deceafed. ' Special affignations,
though neither intimated nor made public during the
life of the granter, carry to the affignee the full right
of the fubjedis affigned, without confirmation. Special
legacies are really affignations, and fo fall under this
rule. The next of kin, by the bare poffeffion.of the
ipfa corpora of moveables, acquires the property there¬
of without confirmation, and tranfmits it to his execu¬
tors.
17. The confirmation of any one fubjedl by the next part;ai coa*
ofkin, as it proves his right of blood, has been ad-firmation.
judged to carry the whole executry out of the tefta¬
ment of the deceafed, even what was omitted, and to
tranfmit all to his own executors. The confirmation
of a ftranger, who is executor nominated, as it is
merely a truft for the next of kin, has the effedt to
eftablifh the right of the next of kin to the fubjedis
confirmed, in the fame manner as if himfelf had con¬
firmed them.
18. Executry, though it carries a certain degree of Executors,
reprefentation of the deceafed, is properly an office: how far
executors therefore are not fubjedled to the debts due liable-
by the deceafed, beyond the value of the inventory;
but, at the fame time, they are liable in diligence for
making the inventory effedtual to all having intereft.
An executor-creditor who confirms more than his debt
amounts to, is liable in diligence-for what he confirms. .
Executors are not liable in intereft, even upon fuch
bonds recovered by them as carried intereft to the de¬
ceafed, becaufe their office obliges them to retain the
fums they have made effedlual, in order to a diftribu-
tion thereof among all having intereft. This holds
though they ffiould again lend out the money upon in¬
tereft, as they do it at their own rifk.
19. There are certain debts of the deceafed calledIn
privileged debts, which were always preferable to every cafes thcT
other. Under that name are comprehended, medicines
furniffied to the deceased on deathbed, phyficians feesfentencs.
during
3art IIF. Tj A W.
Law of during that period, funeral charges, and the rent of his are liable, not pro rata of their feveral intromilfions,
Scotland, houfe, arid his fervants wages for the year or term cur- but pro virili.
rent at his death. Thefe the executors are in fafety 28. The whole of a debtor’s e(late is fubjedted to the ^
to pay on demand. All the other creditors, who ei- payment of his debts; and therefore, both his heirs and
ther obtain themfelves contirmed, or who cite the exe- executors are liable for them, in a queftion with credi- theheirand
cutor already confirmed, within fix months after their tors: but as fucceffion is by law divided into the he- executor,
debtor’s death, are preferred,with thofe who ritableand the moveable eftate, each of thefe ought, in
have done more timely diligence; and therefore no exe- a queftion between the feveral fuccefiors, to bear the
cutor can either retain for his own debt, or pay a telta- burdens which naturally affedt it. Adfion of relief is
mentary debt, fa as to exclude any creditor, who {hall accordingly competent to the heir who has paid a move-
ufe diligence within the fix months, from the benefit able debt, againft the executor; an'l vice verfa. This
of the pari pajju preference 5 neither can a decree for relief is not cut off by the deceafed’s having difponed
payment of debt be obtained, in that period, againit an either his land-etlate or his moveables, with the bur-
executor, becaufe, till that term be elapfed, it cannot den of his wWe debts; for fuch burden is not to be
be known how many creditors may be intitled to the conftrued as an alteration of the legal fuccefilon, but
fund in his hands. If no diligence be ufed within the merely as a farther fecurity to creditors, unlefs the con¬
fix months, the executor may retain for his own debt, trary {hall be prefumed from the fpecial ftyle of the
and pay the refidue pritno venienti. Such creditors of difpofition.
the deceafed as have ufed diligence within a year
after their debtors death, are preferable on the fub- IV. Of LAST HEIRS and BASTARDS. elxxxi’L
je£t of his teftament to the creditors of his next of
kin.
frtious 5n- 20. The only paffive title in moveables is vitious in-
By our ancient pra&ice, feudal grants taken to the Where
vaffal, and to a fpecial order of heirs, without fettlinethere isu®1
.i, „ a   : :    r • » ./• , 0 heir, the
omiflion, tromiffion ; which may be defined, an unwarrantable the laft termination upon heirs wkatfoevsr, returned to ^r’
intermeddling with the moveable eftate of a perfon the fuperior, upon failure of the fpecial heirs therein ceefs*
decealed, without the order of law. This is not con- contained: but now that feus are become patrimonial
fined, as the paffive titles in heritage are, to the perfons rights, the fuperior is, by the general opinion, held to
interefted in the fucceffion, but ftrikes again‘1 all intro- be fully diverted by fuch grant, and the right defeends
mitters whatever. Where an executor confirmed in- to the vaffai’s heirs at law. And even -where a vaffaT
tromits with more than he has confirmed, he incurs a dies without leaving any heir who can prove the re-
pa ffive title ; fraud being in the common cafe prefumed moteft propinquity to him, it is not the fuperior, as the
from his not giving up in inventory the full fubjedt in- old law ftood, but the king, who fucceeds as lall heir,
termeddled with. Vitious intromiffion .is alfo prefu- both in the heritable and moveable eftate of the de¬
nied, where the repofitories of a dying perfon are not ceafed, in conlequence of the rule, £>uod nullius ejl, cc-
fealed up, as foon as he becomes incapable of fenfe, dit domino Regi.
by his neareft relations; or, if lie dies in a houfe not 2- If the lands, to which the king fucceeds, be
his own, they muft be fealed by the mafter of fuch holden immediately of himfelf, the property is confo-
houfe, and the keys delivered to the judge-ordinary, hdated with the fuperiority, as if refignation had been
to be kept by him, for the benefit of all having in- made in the fovereiga’s hands. If they
tereft.
2i. The paffive title of vitious intromiffion does not
take place where there is any probable title or circum-
, holden of
a fubjedt, the king, who cannot be vaffal to his own
fubjedt, names a donatory; who, to complete his title,
mult obtain a decree of declarator; and thereafter he
fequence of this rule, neceffary intromiffion, or cujiodia
caufa, by the wife or children, who only continue the
poffelfion of the deceafed, in order to preferve his goods
for the benefit of all concerned, infers no paffive title.
And, upon the fame principle, an intromitter, by con¬
firming himfelf executor, and thereby fubjedting him-
ftance that takes off the prefumption of fraud. In con- is prefented to the fuperior, by letters of prefentatiora -
f"——--r .r.:„  .'m—  n.jt. from the king under the quarter-feal, in which the fu¬
perior is charged to enter the donatory. The whole
eftate of the deceafed is, in this cafe, fubjedled to his
debts, and ta the widow’s legal provifions. Neither
the king nor his donatory is liable beyond the value of
the fijcceffion. A perfon who has no heir to fucceed •
felf to account, before adtion be brought againft him to him, cannot alien his heritage in ktdo, to the preju-
on the paffive titles, purges the vjtiofity of his prior dice of the king, who is intitled to fet afide fuch deed,
intromiffion : and where the intromitter is one who is in the charadVer of ultimas heres.
intcrefted in the fucceffion, e, g. next of kin, his con- 3- A baftard can have no legal heirs, except thofe ofK;n ^
firmation, at any time within a year from the death of his own body; fince there is no fucceffion but hy ceeds al-
the deceafed, will exclude the paffive title, notwith- the father, and a baftard has no certain father. Idh&timus hares
Handing a prior citation. As this paffive title was in- king therefore fucceeds to him, failing his lawful iffue,to the
tended only for the fecurity of creditors, it cannot be as la ft heir. Though the baftard, as abfclute proprie-*lard*
fued upon by legatees’; and fince it arifes ex deliSo, it tor of his own eftate, can difpofe of his heritage in
cannot be pleaded againft the heir of the intromitter. Hege poujlie, and of his moveables by any deed inter vi-
As in delidts, any one of many delinquents maybe vos; yet he is difabled, ex defeclu nataliam, from be-
fubjedled to the whole puniffiment, fo any one of many queathing by teftament, without letters of legitimation
introinitters may be fued in folidum for the purfuer’s from the fovereign. If the baftard has lawful chil-
debt, without calling the reft; but the intromitter who dren, he may teft without fuch letters, and name tu-
pays, has an a&ion of relief againft the others for their tors and curators to his iffue. Letters of legitimation,
fhare of it. If the iutromitters are fued jointly, they let their claufes be ever fo ftrong, cannot enable the r
2 baftard -
yio
W.
Law of baftard to facceed to his natural father, to the exclu-
Scotland. flon of lawful heJrg>
Part III!
Adions of redudion Improhatlon. (3.) Adlons of Law of |
fimple redu£tion. Proper improbations, which are ScotlandJp
Baftards 4- The legal rights of fucceffion, being founded in brought for declaring writings falfe or forged, are no- "~V"'T
incapable marriage, can be claimed only by thofe who are born in ticed below, N0 clxxxvi. 32. Redudion-improbation
of legal, but lawful marriage; the ifiue therefore of an unlawful is an adion, whereby a perfon who may be hurt or af-tion, !'
ftined ^fuc marr‘aSe are incapable of fucceffion. A ballard is ex- feded by a writing, infills for producing or exhibiting
«effion. "eluded, (1.) From his father’s fucceffion ; becaufe law it in court, in order to have it fet afide, or its effed
knows no father who is not marked out by marriage, afeertained, under the certification that the writing,
(2.) From all heritable fucceffion, whether by the fa- if not produced, fhall be declared falfe and forged,
ther or mother; becaufe he cannot be pronounced law- This certification is a fidion of law* introduced that
ful heir by the inqueft, in terms of the brief. And, the produdion of writings may be the more effedually
(3.) From the moveable fucceffion of his mother; for forced, and therefore it operates only in favour of the
though the mother be known, the baftard is not her purfuer. Becaufe the fummons in this adion proceeds
lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all fucceffion on alleged grounds of fallhood, his majefty’s advocate,
conferred by law. A baftard, though he cannot fuc- who is the public profecutor of crimes, mull concur
ceed jure fanguinis, may fucceed by deftination, where in it.
he is fpecially called to the fucceffion by an entail or 4. As the certification in this procefs draws after it
teftament. fo heavy confequences, two terms are affigned to the
Aliens can- 5, Certain.perfons, though born in lawful marriage, defenders for produdion. After the fecond term is
are incapable of fucceffion. Aliens are, from their al- elapfed, intimation muft be made judicially to the de-
rights; legiance to a foreign prince, incapable of fucceeding in fender, to fatisfy the produdion within ten days;
’ feudal rights, without naturalization. Children born and till thefe are expired, no certification can be pro¬
in a foreign ftate, whofe fathers were natural born fub* nounced. Certification cannot pafs againft deeds re-
Bor Papifts.jeds, and not attainted, are held to be natural born corded in the books of feffion, if the defender fhall,
fubjeds. Perfons educated in, or profeffing, thePopifh before the fecond term, offer a condefcendence of the
religion, if they fhall negled, upon their attaining the dates of their regiftration, unlefs falfehood be objed-
age of 15, to renounce its dodrines by a figned decla- ed: in which cafe, the original muft be brought from
ration, cannot fucceed in heritage ; but muft give place the record to the court. But an extrad from the in¬
to the next Proteftant heir, who will hold the eftate ferior court is no bar to certification; the principal
irredeemably, if the Popifh heir does not, within ten writing muft be laid before the court of feffion on a
years after incurring the irritancy, fign the formula pre-
feribed by the flatute 1700, c. 3.
CHAP.
Of Actions.
HItherto of Perfons and Rights, the two firft ob-
jeds of law : Attions are its third objed, where¬
by perfons make their rights effedual.
dxxxiii. Sect. I. Nature, divifion, &c. of aftions.
proper warrant.
5. In an adion of fimple redudion the certification Simple J i
is only temporary, declaring the writings called for
null, until they be produced; fo that they recover '* 1
their full force after produdion, even againft the pur¬
fuer himfelf; for which reafon, that procefs is now
feldom ufed. Becaufe its certification is not fo fevere
as in redudion improbation, there is but one term
affigned to the defender for producing the deeds called
for.
6. The moft ufual grounds of redudion of wri-Grounds
tings are, the want of the requifite folemnities; that
the granter was minor, or interdided, or inhibited;
or that he figned the deed on death-bed, or was com¬
pelled or frightened into it, or was circumvented ; or 2]
Anaftion, An adion maybe defined, A demand regularly
What. made and infilled in, before the judge competent, for that he granted it in prejudice of his lawful creditors.
the attaining or recovering of a right; and it fuffers 7. In redudions on the head of force, or fear, or
feveral divifions, according to the different natures of fraud and circumvention, the purfuer muft libel the
the rights purfued upon. particular circumftances from which his allegation is
Bivlfionof 2. Adions are either real or perfonal. A real to be proved. Reduttion is not competent upon eve-
aOtions. a&icm is that which arifes from a right in the.thing ry degree of force or fear; it muft be fuch as would
itfelf, and which therefore may be direded againft all ffiake a man of conftancy and refolution. Neither is
poffeffors of that thing: thus, an adion for the reco- it competent, on that fear which arifes from the juft
very, even of a moveable fubjed, when founded on a authority of hulbands or parents ovt'r their wives or
jus in re, is in the proper acceptation real p but real children, nor upon the fear arifing from the regular
adions are, in vulgar fpeech, confined to fuch as are execution of lawful diligence by caption, provided the
direded againft heritable fubjeds. A perfonal adion deeds granted under that tear relate to the ground of
is founded only on an obligation undertaken for the debt contained in the diligence ; but if they have no
performance of feme fad, or the delivery of fome fob- relation to that debt, they are reducible ex metu.
jed; and therefore can be carried on againft no other 8. Alienations granted by debtors after contrad-
than the perfon obliged, or his heirs. ing of lawful debts, in favour of conjund or confi-
3. Adions, again, are either ordinary or refeiffory. dent perfons, without juft and neceffary caufes, and
All adions are, in the fenfe of this divifion, ordinary, without a juft price really paid, are, by the ad 1621,
which are not refeiffory. Refeiffory adions are di- declared to be null. One is deemed a prior creditor,
vided, (l.) Into adions of proper improbation. (2.) whofe ground of debt exifted before the right granted
by
,aw of by the debtor; though the written voucher of the
otland | debt fhould bear a date pofterior to it. Perfons are
accounted conjunft, whole relation to the granter is
fo near, as to bar them from judging in his caufe.
Confident perfons are thofe who appear to be in the
granter’s confidence, by being employed in his affairs,
or about his perfon j as a doer, fteward, or domeftic
fervant.
9. Rights, though gratuitous, are not reducible,
if the granter had, at the date thereof, a fufficient
fund for the payment of his creditors. Provifions to
children are, in the judgment of law, gratuitous; fo
that their effe£t, in a queftion with creditors, depends
on the folvency of the granter : but fettlements to
wives, either in marriage-contradls, or even after mar¬
riage, are onerous, in fo far as they are rational; and
confequently are not reducible, even though the grant¬
er was infolvent. This rule holds alfo in rational to¬
chers contracted to hufbands: But it muft, in all
cafes, be qualified with this limitation, if the infolvency
ef the granter was not publicly known; for if it was,
fraud is prefumed in the receiver of the right, by
contracting with the bankrupt.
10. The receiver of the deed, if he be a conjunCt
or confident perfon, muft inftruCt or fupport the one¬
rous caufe of his right, not merely by his own oath,
but by fome circumftances or adminicles. But where
a right is granted to a Stranger, the narrative of it ex-
preffing an onerous caufe, is fufficient per fe to fecure
it againft reduction.
11. All voluntary payments or rights made by a
bankrupt to one creditor, to difappoint the more
timeous diligence of another, are reducible at the ih-
flance of that creditor who has ufed the prior dili¬
gence. A creditor, though his diligence be but be¬
gun by citation, may infill in a reduction of all pofte-
rior voluntary rights granted to his prejudice; but the
creditor who negleCts to complete his begun diligence
within a reafonuble time, is not intitled to reduce any
right granted by the debtor, after the time that the
diligence is confidered as abandoned.
12. A prohibited alienation, when conveyed by the
receiver to another who is not privy to the fraud, fub-
fifts in the perfon of the bona jide purchafer. In the
cafe of moveable rights, this nullity is receivable by
exception; but it muft be declared by reduftion,
where the right is heritable.
13. By aft (696, c. 5. all alienations by a bank¬
rupt, within 60 days before his bankruptcy, to one
creditor in preference to another, are reducible, at
the inftance even of fuch co creditors as had not ufed
the lead fttp of diligence, A bankrupt is there de-
feribed by the following charafters; diligence ufed
againft him bj horning and caption ; and infolvency,
joined either with impiifoument, n tiring to the fanc-
tuary, abteonding, or forcibly defending himfelf from
diligence. It is fufficient that a caption is raifed a-
gainft the debtor, though it be not executed, provi¬
ded he has retired to (him it. And by the late bank¬
rupt ftatute 23d Geo. III. it is declared, that in all
aftions and queftions arifing upon the conftruftion
and effeft of the aft 1696; when a debtor is out of
Scotland, or not liable to be imprifoned by reafon of
privihge or perfonal proteftion, a charge of horning
executed againft him, together with either an. arreft-
ment of any of his perfonal effefts not loofed or dif- Law of
charged within fifteen days, or a poinding executed Scotland.^
of any of his moveables, or a decree of adjudication ' I
of any part of his heritable eftate, or fequeftration by
the aft of a proper court, of all or any part of hia
eftate or effefts, heritable or moveable, for payment
of debt, (hall, when joined with infolvency, be held
as fufficient proof of notour bankruptcy.; and from
and after the laft ftep of fuch diligence, the faid debt¬
or, if infolvent, fhall be held bankrupt. It is provi¬
ded (by faid aft i69'5), that all heritable bonds or
rights on which feilin may follow, ffiall be reckoned,
in a queftion with the granter’s other creditors upon
this aft, to be of the date of the feifin following
thereon. But this aft was found to relate only to fe-
curities for former debts, and not to nova debita.
14. Adtions are divided into rei perfecutor'ue, and Aftions ei-
panales. By the firft, the purfuer infills barely to re- ther reiser*
cover the fubjeft that is his, or the debt due to him ‘Jecutar‘*i
and this includes the damage fuftained ; for one is aspcna*
truly a fufferer in his patrimonial interefl by that da¬
mage, as by the lofs of the fubjeft itfelf. In penal
aftions, which always arife ex delicto-, fomething is alfo
demanded by way of penalty.
15. Aftions of fpuilzie, ejeftion, and intrufion, are gpUii2£-4,
penal. An aftion of fpuilzie is competent to one dif-
poffeffed of a moveable fubjeft violently, or without
order of law, againft the'perfon difpoffcffing: not only
for being reftored to the poffeffion of the fubjeft, if
extant, or for the value, if it be deftroyed, but tilfo for
the violent profits, in cafe the action be brought with¬
in three years from the fpoliation. Ejeftion and intru¬
fion are, in heritable fubjefts, what fpuilzie is in move¬
ables. The difference between the two firft is, that in;
ejeftion, violence is ufed ; whereas the intruder enters
into the void poffeffion, without either a title from the
proprietor, or the warrant of a judge. The aftions
arifing from all the three are of the fame general na¬
ture.
16. The aftion of contravention of lavv-borrows isContraven-
alfo penal. It proceeds on letters of law-borrows,!i,,n oflaw;
(from borgh, a cautioner), which contain a warrant tobon:oWii’'
charge the party complained upon, that he may give
fecurity not to hurt the complainer in his perfon, fa¬
mily, or eftate. Thefe letters do not require the pre¬
vious citation of the party complained upon, becaufe
the caution which the law requires is only for doing
what is every man’s duty ; but, before the letters arc
executed againft him, the complainer muft make oath
that he dreads bodily harm from him. The penalty
of contravention is afeertained to a fpecial fum, ac¬
cording to the offender’s quality; the half to be ap¬
plied ro' the tilk, and the half to the complainer.
Contravention is not incurred by the uttering of re¬
proachful words, where they are not accompanied,
either with afts of violence, or at leaft a real injury ;
and as the aftion is penal, it is elided by any probable
ground of excufe.
17. Penalties are the confequenees of delift, orpenai2c
tranfgreffion ; and as no heir ought to be accountable tions, wha,
for the delift of his anceftor, farther than the injured lher‘ranf.
perfon has really fuffered by it, penal aftions die with a*
the delinquent, and are not tranfmiffible agaihft heirs. ga)rfl the ,
Yet the aftion, if it has been commenced and litif. ' ^
contffted in the delinquent’s lifetime, may be conti-
nuedf
71'4
X
'\V,
Part hi]
Law of nnecl again ft the heir, though the delinquent fhonld expiry of the legal reveffion, See, Under this clafs Law of |
dip during the dependence. Some a£tf;>ns are m/w- maybe alfo comprehended refeifiory adfions, which, Scotland,®
fecutoria on the part of the purfuer, when he infills for without any perfonal conclufion againft the defender, —*“v'—,l
fimple reftitution ; which yet may be penal in refpef); tend limply to fet afide the rights or writings libelled,
of the defender: e^g. the- aftion on the paffive title in confequence of which a contrary right or immunity
of vitious infromiflion, by which the purfuer frequent- -arifes to the purfuer. Decrees upon aftions that are
ly recovers the debt due to him by the deceafed, tho* properly declaratory confer no new right; they only
it fhould exceed the value of the goods intermeddled declare what was the purfuer’s right before, and fo
with by the defenders.
.AAlong pe. 18. The mott celebrated divilion of aflions in c
titory, law is into petitory, fojfeffery, and declaratory. Petitory
aftionsrare thofe, where fomethin ■ is demanded from
the defender, in corifequence of a right of property,
or of credit in the purfuer : Thus, aftions for rdHtu-
tion of moveables, aftions of poinding, of forthcoming,
have a retrofpeft to the period at which that right fir It , '9
commenced. Declarators, becaufe they have no per«
fonal conclufion ag.ainft the defender, may be puriued
againft an apparent heir without a previous charge gi-
.ven him to enter to his anceftor ; unlefs where fpecial
•circumftances require a charge.
<22. An atlion for proving the tenor, whereby a wri- AAianforl
and indeed all perfonal a<£lions upon contrads or quail- ting, which is deftroyed or amiffing, is endeavoured tqPr0T'ngth^
rpo'neflbry. contrads, are petitory. PoJJeJfory adions are thofe be revived, is in effed.declaratory. In obligations that teuor‘ r;||
which are founded, either upon poffeflion alone, as are extinguifhable barely by the debtor’s retiring or
fpuilzies ; or upon pofleffion joined with another tide, cancellini, them, the purfuer, before a proof of the te¬
as removings ; and they are competent cither for get- nor is admitted, muft condefcend on fuch a cafus amif~
ting into pofl’sfilon, for holding it, or for recovering fianis, or accident by which the writing was dc lroytd,
-it ; analogous to the inteidids of the Roman law, as {hows it was loft when in the creditor’s pofTeflion ;
quorum loticrum, utipojjidetis. and unde vi. otherwife bonds that have been cancelled by the debtor
<©f molcfta- r6. An adion of moleftation is a pofleffory adion, on payment, might be reared up as ftill fubfifting a-
****<» competent to the proprietor of a land-eftate, againft gainlt him : But in writings which require contrary
thofe who difturb his poflefiion. It is chiefly ufed in tkeds to extingulih their effed, as affignations, difpo-
.queftions of commonty, or of controverted marches, fitions, charters, Sec. it is fufficient to libel that they ;
Where a declarator of property is conjoined with a - were loft, even cafufortuito.
procefs of moleftation, the feffion alone is competent 23. Regularly, no deed can be revived by this adion, Adminiclef
to the adion. Adions on brieves of perambulation, without fome adminicle in writing, referring to that
have the fame tendency with moleftations, viz. the fet- which is libelled ; for no written obligation ought to
tling of marches between conterminous lands. be raifed up barely on the teftimony of witnefles. If
mails 20. The adions of mails and duties is fometimes thefe adminicles afford fufficient convidion that the
acd duties, petitory, and fometimes poffeffory. In either cafe, it deed libelled did once exift, the tenor is admitted to
is direded againft the tenants and natural poffeffors of be proved by witneffes, who muft depofe, either that
land-eftates, for payment to the purfuer of the rents they were prefent at figning the deed, or that they
remaining due by them for paft crops, and of the full afterwards faw it duly fubferibed. Where the rela-
rent for the future. It is competent, not only to a tive writings contain all the fubftantial claufes of that
proprietor whofe right is perfeded by feifin, but to a which is loft, the tenor is fometimes fuftained with-
llmple difponee, for a difpofition of lands includes a out witneffes. In a writing which is libelled to have
right to the mails and duties j and confequently to an contained uncommon claufes, all thefe muft appear by
adjudger, for an adjudication is a judicial difpofition. the adminicles. Adions of proving the tenor are, on
^Petitory. In the petitory adion, the purfuer, fince he founds account of their importance, appropriated to the court
upon right, not poffeffion, muft make the proprietor, of feffion ; and, by the old form, the teftimony of the
from whom the tenants derive their right, party to the
fuit; and he rauft fupport his claim by titles of pro¬
perty or diligences, preferable to thofe in the perfon
^ofleffory. of his competitor. In the poffeffory, the purfuer who
libels that he, his anceftors, or authors, have been feven
years in poffeffion, and’ that therefore he has the bene- by two or more perfons claiming right to the debt,
fit of a poffeffory judgment, need produce no other and who therefore brings the feveral claimants into the
title than a feifin, which is a title fufficient to make field, in order to debate and fettle their feveral prefe-
the poffeffion of heritage lawful; and it is enough, if rences, that fo he may pay fecurely to him whofe right
he calls the natural poffeffors, though he ffiould ne- ffiall be found preferable. This adion is daily pur-
_ gie& the proprietor. A poffeffory judgment founded fued by an arreftee, in the cafe of feveral arreftmenta
Udgment. on feven years poffeffion, in confequence either of a ufed in his hands for the fame debt 5 or by tenants in
feifin or a tack, has this effed, that though one ffiould
claim under a title preferable to that of the pofftffor,
he cannot compete with him in the poffeffion, till in a
formal procefs of redudion he fhall obtain the poffef-
for’s .tide declared void.
„ 1 21. ^.'declaratory adion is that, in which fome right
*ory aAiun. >3 craved to be declared in favour of the purfuer, but
1 ’nothing fought to be paid or performed by the defen-
witneffes could not be received but in prefence of ail
the judges.
24. The adion of double or multiple poinding ™ayMujt;
be alfo reckoned declaratory. It is competent to a poinding# i
debtor, who is diftreffed, or threatened with diftrefs.
the cafe of feveral adjudgers, all of whom claim right
to the fame rents. In thefe competitions, any of the
competitors may bring an adion of multiple poinding
in name of the tenants, or other debtors, without their
confent, or even though they ihould difeiaim the pro¬
cefs ; fince the law has introduced it as the proper re¬
medy for getting fuch competitions determined ; And
while the fubjed in controverfy continues in medio, any
der.Huch as declarators of marriage, of irritancy, of third perfon who conceives he has a right to it, may,
N° 178.
I ~
Part III. L A
Law of though he ftiould not be cited as a defender, produce
* Scotland- his titles, as if he were an original party to the fuit,
and will be admitted for his intereft in the competition.
By the forefaid bankrupt ftatute, however, it is compe-
tent, in the cafe of a forthcoming or multiple-poinding
raifed on an arreftment ufed within thirty days prior,
or four kalendar months fubfequent to a bankruptcy,
for any other creditor producing his intereft, and
making his claim, in the procefs at any time before the
expiration of the four months, to be ranked in the fame
manner as if he had ufed the form of arreftment.
Aceeffbry 25. Certain aftions may be called acceffbry, becaufe
^dUons. they are merely preparatory or fubfervient to other ac¬
tions. Thus, exhibitions ad deliberandum, at the in-
fiance of an heir againft the creditors or cuftodiers of
his anceftor’s writings, are intended only to pave the
Trantfe- Way for future procefles. An aflion of transference is
mice. ajf0 0£ t^j3 whereby an aftion, during the pen¬
dency of which the defender happens to die, is craved
to be transferred againft his reprefentative, in the fame
condition in which it flood formerly. Upon the pur-
fuer’s death his heir may infill in the caufe againft t,he
defender, upon producing either a retour or a con¬
firmed teftament, according as the fubjeft is heritable
or moveable. Transferences being but incidental to
other actions, can be pronounced by that inferior judge
alone before whom the principal caufe depended; but
where the reprefentativcs of the deceafed live in another
territory, it is the fupreme court mufl transfer. Obli¬
gations may now be regiftered fummariiy after the cre¬
ditor’s death ; which before was^ not admitted, with¬
out a feparate proeefs of regiftratipn, to which the
granter was neceflarily to be made a party.
Wakening. 26. A procefs of <wakening is likewife accefibry.
An adion is faid to deep, when it lies over not infill¬
ed in for a year, in which cafe its effeil is fufpended:
but even then it may, at any time within the years of
prefcription, be revived or wakened by a fumrcons, in
which the purfuer recites the laft ftep of the procefs,
and concludes that it may be again carried 00 as. if it
had not been difcontinued. An atlion that Hands upon
any of the inner-houfe rolls cannot deep; nor an action
in which decree is pronounced, becaufe it has got its
full completion ! Confequently the decree may be ex-
trafted after the year, without the neceffity of a wa¬
kening.
Tran- 27‘ '^ri a&'on tranfumpt falls under the fame
luropt. clafs. It is competent to thofe who have a partial
intereft in writings that are not in their own cuftod.y,
againft the poffefibrs thereof, for exhibiting them,
that they may be tranfumed for their behoof, Tho’
the orciqgry title in this procefs be an obligation by
the defender to grant tranfumpts to the purfuer, it is
fufikient if the purfucr can (how that he has an in-
tereft in the writings s but in this cafe, he mull tran-
fiimc them on his own charges. Adlions of tranfumpt
may be puvfucd before any judge-ordinary. After the
writings to be tranfumed are exhibited, full duplicates
are made out, collated, and figned, by one of the
rfkrks of court, which are called tranfumpts, and are
as effeftual as an extract from the regifter.
2^. Adtions proceeded anciently upon brieves iffu-
Erievea. from the chancery, direfted to the jufticiary or
judge-ordinary, who tried the matter by a jury, upon
whofe verdift judgment was pronounced { And to this
You. IX. Part II.
W. 713
day we retain certain brieves, as of tnquejl, terce, of
idiotry, tutory, perambulation, and perhaps two or three Scotland; ^
others: But fummonfes were, immediately upon thesumajonfei,
inftitution of the college of juftice, introduced in the
place of brieves. A fummons, when applied to aclions
purfued before the feffion, is a writ in the king’s name,
ifiuing from his fignet upon the purfuer’s complaint,
authorifing meflengers to cite the defender to appear
before the court and make his defences ; with certifi-
cation, if he fail to appear, that decree will be pronoun¬
ced againft him in terms of the certification of the fum¬
mons.
29. The days indulged by law to a defender, be¬
tween his citation and appearance, to prepare for his
defence, are called induc'uc legales. If he is within the ^
kingdom, zi and 6 days, for the firft and fecond^
diets of appearance, muft be allowed him for that pur-
pofe; apd if out of it, 60 and 15. Defenders refiding
in Orkney or Zetland muft be cited on 40 days. In
certain fummonfes which are privileged, the inducie
are fhortened : Spuilzies and ejections proceed on 15
days; wakenings and transferences, being but inci¬
dental, on fix ; (fee the lift of privileged fummonfes, in
a<ft of fedetunt June zpth 1672.) A fummons muft be
executed, i. e. ferved againft the defender, fo as the
laft diet of appearance may be within a year after the
date of the fummons ; and it muft be called within a
year after that diet, otherwife it falls for ever. Of¬
fence againft the authority of the court, afls of mal-
verfation in office by any member of the college of ju¬
ftice, and afts of violence and oppreffion committed
during the dependence of a fuit by any of the parties,
may be tried without a fummons, by a fummary com¬
plaint.
30. Though the Romans acknowledged a concourfe Cancrturfe
of a&ions in their proceedings, it is not known in the °f anions,
law of Scotland. Therefore, where an aiftion is in part
penal, e. g. a removing, fpuilzie, &c. a purfuer who
relit i£ts his demand to, and obtains a decree merely
for, rellitution, cannot thereafter bring a new procefs
for the violent profits. Yet the fame fail may be the
foundation both of a criminal and civil acti®n, becaufe
thefe two are intended for different purpofes; the one
for fatisfying the public juftice, the other for indem¬
nifying the private party : And though the defender
firould be abfolved in the criminal trial, for want of
evidence, the party injured may bring an aflion add-
vikm eft Sam, in which he is intitled to refer the libel
to the defender’s oath,
31. One libel or fummons may contain different con- .
clufions on the fame ground of right, refeiffory, de-rionofacT
claratory, petitory, &c. if they be not repugnant to tions.
each other : Nay, though different firms be due to one,
upon diftin£t grounds cf debt, or even by different
debtors, the creditor may infill againft them all in the
fame fummons,
32. Defences are pleas offered by a defender for Offences,
eliding an. aftion. They are either dilatory, which do
not enter into the caufe itfelf, and fo can only procure
an abfolvitor from the Us pendens: Or peremptoryt
which entirely cut off the purfuer’s right of adtion. The
firft, becaufe they relate 10 the forms of proceeding,
muft be offered in limine judicii, and all of them at
once. But peremptory defences may be proponed at
any time before fentence. By a late aft of federunt,
4 X how«
7H
L'tifcontef-
tation.
clxxxiv.
Probation,
by fingle
cpmbat;
by writing.
Probation
oatbof par-
however (1787), all defences, both dilatory and pe*
remptory, fo far as they are known, muft be proponed
at returning the fumjnons, under a penalty j and the
fame enaftment extends to the cafes of fufpenfions and
advocations. The writings to be founded upon by the
parties alfo muft be produced ; the intention of the
court, in framing the aft of federur.t, being to acce¬
lerate as much as poflible the decifion of caufes.
33. A caufe, after the parties had litigated it before
the judge, was faid by the Romans to be litifcontefted.
By litifeonteftation a judicial contraft is undtrftood to
be entered into by the litigants, iby which the aftion
is perpetuated againft heirs, even when it arifes ex de~
liEto. By our law, litifconteftation is not formed till
an aft is extrafted, admitting the libel or defences to
proof.
Sect. II. Of Probation.
All allegations by parties to a fuit, muft be fup-
ported by proper proof. Probation is either by wri¬
ting, by the party’s own oath, or by witneffes. In the
cafe of allegations, which may be proved by either of
the three ways, a proof is faid to be admitted prout de
jure; becaufe, in fuch cafe, all the legal methods of
probation are competent to the party ; if the proof he
brings by writing be lame, he may have recourfe either
to witneffes or to his adverfary’soath; but, if he (hould
firft take himfelf to the proof by oath, he cannot there¬
after ufe any other probation (for the reafon affigned
par. 3.); and, on-the contrary, a purfuer who has brought
a proof by witneffes, on an extrafted aft, is not allowed
to recur to the oath of the defender. Single combat,
as a fort of appeal to Providence,' was, by our ancient
law, admitted as evidence, in matters both civil and
criminal. It was afterwards reftrifted to the cafe of
fuch capital crimes where no- other proof could be had;
fome traces of this blind method of trial remained even
in the reign of James VI. who, by 1600, c. 12. might
authorife duels on weighty occafions.
2. As obligations or deeds figned by the party him¬
felf, or his anceftors or authors, muft be, of all evidence,
the lead liable to exception; therefore every debt or
allegation may be proved by proper evidence in writing.
The folemnities effential to probative deeds have been
already explained', (n°clxxiv. 2,. etfeq ) Books of ac¬
count kept by merchants, tradefmen, and other dealers
in bufinefs, though not fubferibed, are probative againft
him who keeps them 5 and, in cafe of furnifhings by a
fhop keeper, fuch books, if they are regularly kept by
him, fupported by the teftimony of a Angle witnefs,
afford a femplena probatio in his favour, which becomes
full evidence by his own oath in fupplement. Notorial
jnftruments and executions by meffengers bear full evi¬
dence, that the folemnities therein fet forth were ufed,
not to be invalidated otherwife than by a proof of falfe-
hood ; but they do not prove any other extrinfic fafts
therein averred, againft third parties.
3. Regularly, no perfon’s right can be proved by
his own oath, nor taken away by that of his adverfary;
becaufe thefe are the bare averments of parties in their
own favour. But, where the matter in iffue is referred
by one of the parties to the oath of the other, fuch
oath, though made in favour of the deponent himfelf,
is decifive of the point; becaufe the reference is a vir-
A \V. Part Jir.
tual contraft between the litigants, by which they are Law o£
underftood to put the iffue of the catife upon what fhall Stotiand. ’•
be depofed : and this contraft is fo ftriftly regarded, ’—v—
that the party who refers to the oath of the other can¬
not afterwards, in a civil aftion, plead upon any deed
againft the party depofing, inconfiftent with his oath- ^
To obviate the fnares that may be laid for perjury, he,
to whofe oath of verity a point is referred, may icfufe
to depofe, till his adverfary fwear that he can bring no
other evidence in proof of his allegation.
4. A defender, though he cannot be compelled to
fwear to fafts in a libel properly criminal; yet rnay, in
trefpaffes, where the cpnclufion is limited to a tine, or
to damages. In general, an oath of party cannot ei¬
ther hurt or benefit third parties ; being, as to them,
res inter alios add.
5. An path upon reference is fometimes qualified by q al'fiei,
•fpecial limitations reftnfting it. The qualities which oaThs.
are admitted by the judge as part of the oath, are cal¬
led intrinfic ; thofe which the judge rejefts or feparates
from the oath, extrinjjc. Where the quality makes a
part of the allegation which is revelantly referred to
oath, it is intrinfic. Thus, becaufe a merchant, fuing
for furnifhings after the three years, muft, in order to
make a relevancy, offer to prove by the defender’s oath,
not only the delivery of the goods, but that the price
is {fill due; therefore, though the defender ffiould ac¬
knowledge upon oath his having received the goodij, «,
yet, if he adds, that he paid the price, this laft part-
being a denial that the debt fubfifts, is intrinfic, fince
it is truly the point referred to oath. Where the qua¬
lity does not import an extinftion of the debt, but
barely a counter-claim, or mutua petitio, again)! the’
purfuer, it is held as extrinfic, and. muft be proved ali¬
unde. Neither can a defender who in his oath admits
the conftitution of a debt, get off by adjefting the
quality of payment, where the payment ought by its
nature to be vouched by written evidence.
6. Oaths of verity are fometimes referred by the ^
judge to either party, ex officio ; which, becaufe they fupplement
are not founded on any implied coutraft between the
litigants, are not finally decifive, but may be traverfed
on proper"evidence afterwards gfoduced. Thefe oaths
are commonly put by the judge for fupplying a lame
or imperfeft proof, and are therefore called oaths in
fupplement. (See par. 2 ) _ ■
7. To prevent groundlefs allegations, oaths of ca- Qath of
lumny have been introduced, by which either party may calumny-
demand his aiverfary’s oath, that he believes the faft
contained in his libel or defences to be juft and true.
As this is an oath, not of verity, but only of opinion,
the party who puts it to his adverfary does not re¬
nounce other probation; and therefore no party is
bound to give an oath of calumny, on recent fafts of
his own, for fuch oath is really an oatlLof verity. Thefe
oaths have not been fo frequent fince the aft of fede-
runt, Feb. 1. 1715, whereby any party, againft whom
a faft fhall be alleged, is obliged, without making oath,
to confefs or deny it; and, in cafe of calumnious denial,
is fubjefted to the expence that the other party has
thereby incurred.
8. In all oaths, whether of verity or calumny, the ci ¬
tation carries, or at leaft implies, a certification, that
if the party does not appear at the day affigned for de¬
pofing, he fhall be held pro confefb.; from a prefump-
tioa
(I Oath in li~
« Um.
| Probat:or
■ rcjeiflc t,
|part in. L
f Law of tton of bis confctotjfnefs, that the faft upon which he
|;^ Scotland. jecljnes t0 f,vear makes againft him; but no party can
1 ’ be held pro confejb, if he be in the kingdom, without a
previous perfonal citation ufed againft him. 1’hough
A non me- nn oat^ which refoives into a non memini, cannot be
mini oath, faid to prove any point; yet where one fo depofes up¬
on a recent fatt, to which he himfelf was privy, his
oath is confidered as a diflembling of the truth, and he
is held pro confejfo, as if he had refufed to fwear.
9. An oath in litem, is that which the judge refers
to a purfuer, for afeertaiuing either the'quantity or the
value of goods which have been taken from him by the
defender without order of law, or the extent of his da¬
mages. An oath in litem, as it is the affirmation of a
party in his own behalf, is only allowed where there is
proof that the other party has been engaged in fome
illegal aft, or where the public policy'has made it ne-
ceffary, (fee n° clxxiii. 11.) This oath, as to the quan¬
tities, is not admitted, where there is a concurring te-
ftimony of witneffes brought in proof of it. When it
it put as to the value of goods, it is only an oath of
credulity ; and therefore it has always been fubjtft to
the modification-of the court.
10. The law of Scotland rejefts the teftimony of
by wit. ef- witnefles, (1.) In payment of any fum above L- 100
■whaTcafc- Scots, all which mutt be proved either feripto veljura-
- " ment0, (2.) In all gratuitous promifes, though for
the fmallett trifle. (3.) In all contrafts, where writing
is either effential to their conftitution, (fee n° clxx:v.
2.) or where it is ufually adhibited, as in the borrow¬
ing of money. And it is a general rule, fubjeft to the
reftriftions mentioned in the next par. that no debt or
right, .once couftituted by writing, can be taken away
by witnefles.
in what ad 1 T‘ ^11 t^ie ot^er Part’ Probation by witneffis is ad¬
mitted. mitted to the extent of L. 100 Scots, in payments,
nuncupative legacies, and verbal agreements which con¬
tain mutual obligations. And it is received to the
higheft extent, (1.) In all bargains which have known
engagements naturally arHing from them, concerning
moveable goods. (2.) In Lifts performed in fatjsfafticn,
even of a written obligation, where fuch obligation
binds the party precifely to the performance of them.
(3.) In fafts which with difficulty admit of a proof by-
writing, even though the effeft of fuch proof fnouldbe
the extinftion of a written obligation, efpecially if the
fafts import fraud or violence ; thus, a bond is redu¬
cible ex dolo, on a proof by wiuielTts. Laftly, all in-
tromiffion by a creditor with the rents of his debtor’s
efiate payable in grain, may be proved by witneffes;
and even intromiffion with the filver-rent, where the
creditor has entered into the total poffeffion of the
debtor’s lands.
irikyhat per. I2- Perf°n* whofe near relation to another bars
sfjrors rtjec- him from being a judge in his caufe, can be admitted
-d as wn- as a witnefs for him ; but he may againft him, except
'<r"" a wile or child, who cannot be compelled to give tefti¬
mony againft the hufband or parent, ob revenntiam
perfona, et metum perjur'd. Though the-witnefs, whofe
propinquity to one of the parties is objtfted to, be as
nearly related to the other, the objeftion (lands good.
j 3. The teftimony of infamous perfons is rejected,
h.r. perfons who have been guilty of crimes that law
declares to infer infamy, op who have been declared in¬
famous by the fentence of a judge; but infamia faHi
A W. 715
does not difquaiify a witnefs. Pupils are inhabile wit- Law of
ntffes ; being, in the judgment of law, incapable of the Sr' t^anc'-,
impreffions of an oath. And in general witneffes o- » ^
therwife exceptionable may, wherelhere is a penury of
witneffes arihng from the nature or circumftancts of
the faft, be received cum nota; that is, their tefttmo-
ny, though not quite free from fufpicion, is to be
conjoined with the other evidence, and to have fuch
weight given it as the judge fhall think it deferves.
14. All witneffes, before they are examined in the Purgation
caufe, are purged of partial counfel; that is, they muft of witnef-
declare, that they have no intereft in the fuit, nor havefef
given advice how toconduftit; that they have gob
neither bribe norpromife, not have been in ft meted how
to depofe; and that they bear no enmity to either of
the parties. Thefe, becaufe they are the points put to
a wunefs before his making oath, are called initialia.
tejlimonii. Where a party can bring prefent proof of
a witnefs’s partial counfel, in any of the. above particu¬
lars, he ought to offer it before the w-itnefs be fworn ;
but, becaufe fuch objeftion, if it cannot be inftantly
verified, will be no bar to the examination, law allows
the party in that cafe to proteft for reprobator, before
the witnefs is examined ; e. that he may be after¬
wards allowed to bring evidence of his enmity, or other
inability. Reprobator is competent even after fen¬
tence, where proteftation is duly entered; but in that
cafe, the party inlifting muft confign L.. 100 Scots,
which he forfeits if he fuccumb. This action mud
have the concurrence of the king’s advocate, becaufe
the conclufion of it imports perjury ; and for this rea-
fon, the witnefs mutt be made a party to it.
15. The interlocutory fentence or warrant, by which Diligence 1
parties are authorited to bring their proof, is either by againft wit-
way of aft, or of incident diligence. In an aft, the neffes-
lord ordinary who pronounces it is no longer judge
in the procefs; but in an incident diligence, which is
commonly granted upon fpecial points, that do not
exbautt the caufe, the lord ordinary continues judge.
If a witnefs does not appear at the day fixed by the
warrant of citation, a fecond warrant is granted of the
nature of a caption, containing a command to meffen-
gers to apprehend and bring him before the court.
Where the party to whom a proof is granted, brings
none within the term allowed by the warrant, an inter¬
locutor is pronounced, circumducing the term, and pf - Circum-
cluding him from bringing evidence thereafter. Where (iu&ion-
evidence is brought, if it be upon an aft, the lord or¬
dinary on the afts, after the term for proving is clap-
fed, declares the proof concluded ; and thereupon a ftate
of the cafe is prepared by the ordinary on concluded
caufes, which muft be judged by the whole lords;
but if the proof be taken upon an incident diligence,
the import of it may be determined by the lord or¬
dinary in the caufe.
16 Where icafts do not admit a direft proof, pre-Prefump-
fumptions are received as evidence which in many cafes, tioas.
make as convincing a proof as the direft. Prefumptions
are confequences deduced front fafts. known or proved,
which infer the certainty, or at lealt a ftrong probabi¬
lity, of another faft.to he' proved. This kind.of pro¬
bation is thertfore called artificial, becaufe it requires
a reafoning to infer the truth of the point in quetlibn,
from the fafts that already appear in proof. Prefump¬
tions are either, 1. juris et dejure ; 2. juris ; -or, 3./60-
4X3 minis
Law of mints or judicis. The fir ft fort obtains, where (latute
. Seotland» or cuftom eftablifhes the truth of any point upon a pre-
' , . fumptjon . an(j j8 f0 ftrongj that it rejefts all proof
that may be brought to elide it in fpecial cafes. Thus,
the tellimony of a witnefs, who forwardly offers him*
felf without being cited, is, from a prefumption of his
partiality, rejedted, let his charadter be ever fo fair ;
and thus alfo, a minor, becaufe he is by law prefumed
incapable of conducing his own affairs, is upon that
prefumption difabled from adting without the confent
of his curators, though he fhould be known to behave
with the greateft prudence. Many fuch prefumptions
are fixed by ftatute.
17. Prxfumpttones juris are thofe which our law¬
books or decifions have eftablifhed, without founding
any particular confequence upon them, or ftatuting
fuper prafumpto. Mod of this kind are not proper pre-
fumptions inferred from pofuive fadts, but are founded
merely on the want of a contrary proof; thus, the legal
prefumptions for freedom, for life, for innocence, &c.
are in efftdl fo many negative propofitions, that fervi-
tude, death, and guilt, are not to be prefumed, with¬
out evidence brought by him who makes the allegation.
All of them, whether they be of this fort, or proper
prefumptions, as they are only conjedtures formed from
what commonly happens, may be elided, not only by
diredt evidence, but by other conjedtures, affording a
ftronger degree of probability to the contrary. Pra-
fumptiones hominis or judicis, are thofe which arife daily
from the circumftances of particular cafes; the flrength
of which is to be weighed by the judge.
juris. 18. A fi£lw juris differs from a prefumption. Things
are prefumed, which are likely to be true ; but a fic¬
tion of law affumes for truth what is either certainly
falfe, or at lead is as probably falfe as true. Thus an
heir is feigned or confidered in law as the fame perfon
with his anceftor. Fidtions of law muff, in their effedts,
be always limited to the fpecial purpofes of equity for
which they were introduced ; fee an example,
N° clxxxiii. 3.
clxxxv. Sect. III. Of Sentences and their Executions.
Property would be moll uncertain, if debateable
points might, after receiving a definitive judgement, be
brought again in queflion, at the pleafure of either of
the parties: every ftate has therefore fixed the charac¬
ter of final to certain fentences or decrees, which in
Pes judi- the Roman law are called res judicata, and which ex-
cat<t’ elude all review or rehearing.
Decrees in 2. Decrees of the court of feffion, are either in foro
fort- eontradiclorio, where both parties have litigated the
caufe, or in abfence of the defender. Decrees of the
fefiion in foro cannot, in the general cafe, be again
brought under the review of the court, either on points
which the parties nogledted to plead before fentence
(which we call competent and omitted), or upon points
pleaded and found infufficient (proponed and repelled.)
But decrees, though in foro, are reverfible by the
court, where either they labour under effential nulli¬
ties ; e. g. where they are ultra petita, or not con¬
formable to their grounds and warrants, or founded
on an error in calcul, fife.; or where the party againll
whom the decree is obtained has thereafter recovered
evidence fufficient to overturn it, of which he knew Law of
not before. Scotland.
3. As parties might formerly reclaim againft the ' ^
fentences of the feflion, at any time before extrading c?nfe"
the decree, no judgment was final till extrad ; but ^'wutori
now, a fentence of the inner-houfe, either not re* are final,
claimed againft within fix federunt days after its date,
or adhered to upon a reclaiming bill, though it cannot
receive execution till extrad, makes the judgment fi¬
nal as to the court of feffion. And, by an order of
the houfe of lords, March 24. 1725, no appeal is to
be received by them from fentences of the feffion, after Time limi-
five years from extrading the fentence ; unlefsthe per-tcd fQr aP*
fon xntitled to fuch appeal be minor, clothed with apeal6’
hufband, non compos mentis, imprifoned, or out of the
kingdom. Sentences pronounced by the lord ordi¬
nary have the fame effed, if not reclaimed againft, as
if they were pronounced in prefence ; and all petitions
againft the interlocutor of an ordinary mult be pre¬
ferred within.eight federunt days after figning fuch in¬
terlocutor.
4. Decrees, in abfence of the defender, have not Decree?
the force of res judicata as to him; for where the de- abfence. I
fender does not appear, he cannot be faid to have fub-
jeded himfelf by the judicial contrad which is implied
in litifeonteftation ; a party therefore may be reltored
againft thefe, upon paying to the other his colls in re¬
covering them. The fentences of inferior courts may
be reviewed by the court of feffion,—before decree, by
advocation,—and after decree, by fufpenfion or reduc¬
tion ; which two laft are alfo the methods of calling in
queftion fuch decrees of the feffion itfelf, as can again
be brought under the review of the court.
5. Redudion is the proper remedy, either where Decrees td
the decree has already received full execution by pay-viewed ei-
ment, or where it decrees nothing to be paid or per- ther by re¬
formed, but limply declares a right in favour of thec,a<aion or
purfuer. Sufpenfion is that form of law by which the fufl’culion*1
effed of a fentence condemnatory, that has not yet re¬
ceived execution, is ftayed or poltponed till the caufe
be again confidered. The firft ftep towards fufpenfioa
is a bill preferred to the lord ordinary on the bills.
This bill, when the defire of it is granted, is a war¬
rant for iffuing letters of fufpenfion which pafs the fig-
net ; but if the prefenter of the bill lhall not, within
14 days after palling it, expedite the letters, execu¬
tion may by ad of federunt 1677 proceed on the fen¬
tence. In pradice, however, it is ufual for the char¬
ger to put up a proteftation in the minute book for;
produdion of the fufpenfion, which may be expedited
at any time before this is done ; and if the fufpender
lhall allow the proteftation to be extraded, the fill falls.
Sufpenfions of decrees in foro cannot pafs, but by the
whole lords in time of feffion, and by three in vacation
time ; but other decrees may be fufpended by any one
of tire judges. By the late ad of federunt (1787), in
order to remedy the abufe of prefenting a multiplicity
of bills of fufpenfion of the decrees of inferior judges
in fmall caufes which have paffed in abfence, it is de¬
clared, that all bills of fufpenfion of decreets by infe¬
rior judges in abfence of the defenders in caufes under
12 1. Sterling value, lhall be refufed and remitted to
the inferior judge if competent; the fuTpender, how¬
ever, before being heard in the inferior court, reimbur-
jjpart HI. L i
w|« Law of fing the charger of the expencea incurred by him pre-
lScotIal‘d,i vioua to the remit.
iufpenders fufpenfion has the effeftof flaying the execu*
j flnuft give t'00 lhe creditor’s legal diligence, it cannot, in the
ojJaution. general cafe, pafs without caution given by the fufpen-
der to pay the debt, in the event it {hall be found due.
Where the fufpender cannot, from his low or fufpec-
ted circumftances, procure unqueftionable fecurity, the
lords admit juratory caution, i. e. fuch as the fufpen¬
der fweafs is the bell he can offer ; but the reafons of
fufpenflon are, in that cafe, to be confldered with par¬
ticular accuracy at paffing the bill. Decrees in favour
of the clergy, of univerfities, hofpitals, or parifh-
fchoolmaflers, for their ftipends, rents, or falaries,
cannot be fufpended, but upon produftion of dif-
charges, or on confignation of the fums charged for.
A charger, who thinks himfelf fecure without a cau¬
tioner, and wants difpatch, may, where a fijfpenfion
of his diligence is fought, apply to the court to get
the reafons of fufpenfion fummarily difcuffed on the
bill.
fJ - - - n 7. Though he, in whofe favour the decree fufpend-
ilf when com-e(f *s pronounced, be always called the charger, yet a
'4 j-etent. decree may be fufpended before a charge be given on
it. Nay, fufpenfion is competent even where there is
no decree, for putting a flop to any illegal adt whatfo-
ever : thus, a building, or the exercife of a power
which one affumes unwarrantably, is a proper fubjedl
of fufpenfion. Letters of fufpenfion are confidered
merely as a prohibitory diligence ; fo that the fufpen¬
der, if he would turn provoker, muft: bring an adlion
of redu&ion. If, upon difcufiing the letters of fufpen¬
fion, the reafons fhall be fuftained, a decree is pro-
I nounced, fufpending the letters of diligence on which
the charge was given Jimpliciter ; which is called a de¬
cree of fufpenfion, and takes off the effedl of the decree
fufpended. If the reafons of fufpenfion be repelled,
the court find the letters of diligence orderly proceed¬
ed, i. e. regularly carried on ; and they ordain them
to be put to farther execution.
Extraaion 8. Decrees are carried into execution, by diligence,
of decrees, either againfl the perfon or againft the etlate of the
debtor. The firtt flep of perfonal execution is by let-
' ters of horning, which pafs by warrant of the court
of feffion, on the decrees of magidrates of boroughs,
fhetiffs, admirals, and commiffaries. If the debtor
does not obey the will of the letters of horning within
the days of the charge, the charger, after denouncing
him rebel, and regiftering the horning, may apply for
letters of caption, which contain a command, not only
to meffengers, but to magiftrates, to apprehend and
' imprifon the debtor. All meflengers and magillrates,
whorefufe their affilt&nce in executing the caption, are
liable fubfdiarie for the debt; and fuch fubfidiary ac¬
tion is fupported by the execution of the meffenger
employed by the creditor, expreffing that they were
charged to concur, and would not. Letters of caption
contain an exprefs warrant to the meffenger, in cafe he
cannot get accefs, to break open all doors and other
lock-fall places.
What per- 9- Law fecures peers, married women, and pupils,
fons fecu- againft perfonal execution by caption upon civil debts,
red againft Such commoners alfo as are eletted to ferve in parlia-
' ^ caPtloa- nient, are fecured againft perfonal execution by the
privilege of parliament. No caption can be executed
V W. 717
againfl a debtor within the precin&s of the king’s pa- Law of
lace of Holyroodhoufe : .but this privilege of fan&uary Scflt!an(\
afforded no fecurity to criminals, as that did which was, 'r r
by the canon law, conferred on churches and religious
houfes. Whera the perfonal prefence of a debtor, un¬
der caption, is neceffary in any of our fupreme courts,
the judges are empowered to grant him a protection,
for fuch time as may be fufiicient for his coming and
going, not exceeding a month. Prote&ion from dili¬
gence is alfo granted by the court of feffion under the
late bankrupt ftatute, where it is applied for, with con¬
currence of the trullee, or a certain number of the cre¬
ditors as the cafe may require.
10. After a debtor is imprifoned, he ought not to Prlforiers
be indulged the benefit of the air, not even under a
guard ; for creditors have an intereft, that their debtors gne(i.
be kept under clofe confinement, that, by the fqualor
carceris, they may be brought to pay their debt: and
any magiftrate or jailor, who ftiall fuffer the prifoner
to go abroad, without a proper atteftation, upon oath,
of the dangerous ftate of his health, is liable fulfidlarie
for the debt. Magiftrates are in like manner liable, if
they ftiall fuffer a prifoner to efcape through the in-
fufficiency of their prifon : but, if he (hall efcape un¬
der night, by the ufe of inftruments, or by open force,
or by any other accident which cannot be imputed to
the magiftrates or jailor, they are not chargeable with
the debt; provided they ftiall have, immediately after
his efcape, made all poffible fearch for him. A cafe
lately occurred where a meffenger having apprehended
a perfon for a debt, upon letters of caption, delivered-
him over to the pro volt of the burgh, and took a re¬
ceipt for him. The provoft allowed him to remain at
the inn all night, and afterwards allowed him what is
called open gaol, by which he had accefs to the court-
houfe, under the fame roof with the prifon, where he
tranfafted bufinefs. As the perfon at whole inftance
he was apprehended upon the caption, confidered that
the magiftrates had not kept the debtor in prifon as
commanded by the letters, brought an adtion againft;
them for the debt, although the debtor had not fo
much as attempted to make his efoape. It was con¬
tended by the magiftrates, that they were not liable,
having only followed the ufual pra&ice of the burgh :
but the court of feffion, confidering the magiftrates as
principal keepers of the prifon, and as fuch having no
diferetionary power, were of opinion, that the debtor
had never been imprifoned in the eye of law, and there¬
fore found the magiftrates liable; and their judgment
was affirmed upon appeal. Regularly, no prifoner for Forrn.of IL
debt upon letters of caption, though he ffiould have prifoaer^
made payment, could be releafed without letters of fuf-F
penfion, containing a charge to the jailor to fet him
at liberty ; becaufe the creditors difeharge could not
take off the penalty incurred by the debtor for con¬
tempt of the king’s authority : but to fave unneceffary
expence to debtors in fmall debts, jailors are empowered
to let go prifoners where the debt does not exceed zco
merks Scots, upon produ&ion of a difeharge, in which
the creditor confents to his rekafe.
11. Our law, from a confideration of compaffion, Liberation
allows infolvent debtors to apply for a releafe from pri- upon a
fon upon a cejfio bonorum, i. e. upon their making over/= l/omrum;.
to the creditors all their eftate real and pefional. This
muft be infilled for by way of a&ion, to which all the
creditor?,
7i§
W.
deliii-
A61 of
.grace.
Execution
agaiiift the
ftate.
creditors of the prifoner ought to be made parties.
' The prifoner muft, in this action, which is cognifable
only by the Court of feffion, exhibit a particular inven¬
tory of his eftate, and make oath that he has no other
cilate than is therein contained, and that he has made
no conveyance of any part of it, fince his imprifonment,
to the hurt of his creditors. He muft alfo make oath,
whether'he has granted any difpofition of his effefts
before his imprifonment, and condefcend on the per-
fons to whom, and on the caufe of granting it; that
the court may judge, whether, by any collufive pra&ice,
he has forfeited his claim to liberty.
12. A fraudulent bankrupt is not allowed this pri¬
vilege ; nor a criminal who is liable in any affythment
or indemnification,to the party injured or his executors,
though the crime itielf (hbuld be extinguifticd by a
pardon. A difpofition granted on a cejjia lonorum is
merely in farther fecurity to the creditors, not in fatis-
faftion or in folutum of the debts. If, therefore, the
debtor fhall acquire any eftate after his releafe, fuch
eftate may be attached by his creditors, as if there had
been no except in fo far as is neceflary for his
fubfiftence. Debtors, who are fet free on a cejjio bono-
rum, are obliged to wear a habit proper to dyvours or
bankrupts. I'he lords are prohibited to difpenfe with
this mark of ignominy, unlefs, in the fummons and
pro&efs of cefjio, it be Jibelled, fuftained, and proved,
t hat the bankruptcy proceeds from misfortune. And
bankrupts are condemned to fubmit to the habit, even
where no fufpicion of fraud lies again ft them, if they
have been dealers hr an illicit trade.
13. Where a prifoner for debt declares upon oath,
before the magiilrate of the jurifdidtion, that he has
not wherewith to maintain himfelf, the magiftrate may
fet him at .liberty, if the creditor, in confequence of
whofe diligence he was imprifoned, does not aliment
him within ten days after intimation made for that pur-
pofe. But the magiftrate may, in fuch cafe, detain him
in prifon, if the creditor chufes to bear the burden of
the aliment rather than releafe him. The ftatute au-
thorifing this releafe, which is ufually called the act of
grace, is limited to the cafe of prifouers for civil debts.
14. Decrees are executed againft the moveable eftate
of the debtor by arreftment or poinding ; and againft
his heritable eftate, by inhibition, or adjudication. If
one be condemned, in a removing or other procefs, to
quit the poffefiion of lands, and refufes; potwithftand*
ing a charge, letters of ejehfion are granted of courfe,
ordaining the (heriff to ejefl him, and to enter the ob-
tainer of the decree into poffeffion. Where one oppofes
by violence the execution of a decree, or of any lawful
diligence, which the civil magiftfate is not able by him-
felt and hi - officers to make good, -the execution is en¬
forced manu militarj.
i 5. A decree arbitral, which is a fentence proceed¬
ing bn a fubmiffion to arbiters, has fome affinity with
ajudici.'1 lenteace, though in moft rdpe&s the two dif¬
fer, A ,fubm;ffion is a contract entered into by-two
or more panics who have difputable rights Or claims,
where by they refer their differences to the final deter-
minauon of an at biter or arbiters, and oblige them-
felves to acquiefte in what (ball be decided. Where the
day within which the arbiters are to decide, is left
blank m die fubmiifiou, practice has limited the arbi¬
ters power of deciding to a y ear. As this has proceed-
PartllL
ed from the ordinary words of ftyle, empowering the
arbiters to determine betwixt and the day of
next to come ; therefore, where a fubmiffion
is indefinite, without fpecifying any time, like all other
contracts or obligations, it fiibfills for 40 years. Sub-
miffions, like mandates, expire by the death of any of
the parties-fubmitters before fentence. As.arbiters are
not veiled with jurifdidtion, they cannot compel wit-
neffes to make oath before them, or.havers of writings
to exhibit them ; but this defeat is fupplied by the
Court of feffion, who, at the fuit of the arbiters, or of
either of the parties, will grant warrant for citing wit-
neffes, or for the exhibition of writings. For the fame
reafon, the power of arbiters is barely to decide ; tlie
execution of the decree belongs to the judge. Where
the fubmitters confent to the regiftration of the de¬
cree-arbitral, performance may be enforced by fum-
mary diligence.
16. The power of arbiters is wholly derived from Power* oj
the confent of parties. Hence where their powers are arbiters,
limited to a certain day, they cannot pronounce fen¬
tence after that day. Nor can they fubjedt pardes to a
penalty higher than that which thejyhave agreed to ia
the fubmiffion. And where a fubmiffion is limited to
fpecial claims, fentence pronounced on fubjetrts not fpe-
cified in the fubinifiion is null, .as being ultra vires com*
promijji.
1 7. But, on the other hand, as fubmlffions are de- Decrees ar-.
figned for a moft favourable purpo£e,.the amicable com- bitral, hov*y
poling of differences, the powers thereby conferred on
arbiters receive an ample interpretation. Decrees-ar-
bitral are not reducible upon any ground, except cor¬
ruption, bribery, or falfehoqd.
Sect. IV. Of Crimes. cIsjcsvL
The word crime, in its moft general fenfe, includes Crimes,
every breach either of the law of God or of our coun¬
try ; in a more reftridted meaning, it fignifies fuch
tranfgreffions of law as are punilhabie by courts of ju-
ftice. Crimes were, by the Roman law, divided into
public and private. Public crimes were thole that were
exprefsly declared luch by fome law or conliitution, public, sni
and which, on account of their more atrocious nature
and hurtful confequences, might be prolecuted by any
member of the community. Private crimes could be privates
purlued only by the party injured, and were generally
punilhed by a pecuniary fine to be applied to his ufe.
By the Law of ideotland, no private party, except the
perfon injured, or his next a xin, can accufe crimi¬
nally : but the king’s advocate, who in this queftion
reprefents the community, has a right to profecute all
crimes in vindictam publicum, though the party injured
ihould refute to concur. Smaller offences, as petty
riots, injuries, &c, which do not demand the public
vengeance, pafs generally by the appellation of delicts,
and are punilhed either by fine or imprifonment.
2. The effence of a crime is, that there be an inten* WIiat e(._
tion in the actor to commit ; for an adtion in which fential t#
the w’ili of the agent has no part, is not a proper ob- crimes.^
jedt eicher of rewards or punilhments; "hence arifes the
rule crimen dolo contrahitur. Simple negligence does
not therefore conititute a proper crime. Yet where it
is extremely grofs, it may be punilhed arbitrarily. Far
lefs can we reckon in the number of crimes, thofe com¬
mitted
ad pare.
(fart III. I.
Law of mitted by an idiot or furious perfon: but lefler degrees
d Scotland. 0f fatuity, which only darken reafon, will not afford a
'total defence, though they may fave from the pcena or-
dinaria. Adtions committed in drunkennefs are not to
be confidered as involuntary, feeing the drunkennefs
itfelf, which was the firit caufe of the action, is both
voluntary and criminal.
3. On the fame principle, fuch as are in a ftate of
infancy, or in the confines of it, are incapable of a cri¬
minal adtion, dole not being incident to that age : but
the precife age-at which a perfon becomes capable of
dole, being fixed neither by nature nor by flatute, is
by our practice to be gathered by the judge, as he heft
canx, from the underitanding and manners of the per¬
fon accufed. Where the guilt of a crime arifes chiefly
from ftatute, the actor, if he is under puberty, can
hardly be found guilty ; but, where nature itfelf points
out its deformity, he may, if he is proximuspulerBlti,
be more eafily prefumed capable of committing it: yet,
even in that cafe, he will not be punifliedpcena ordina-
ria. *
fcceffo- 4. One may be guilty of a crime, not only by per¬
petrating it himfelf, but being acceffory to a crime
committed by another; which laft is by civilians ftyled
ope et conjilio, and, in our law-phrafe, art and part. A
perfon may be guilty, art and part, either by giving
advice or counfel to commit the crime ; or, 2. By gi¬
ving warrant or mandate to commit if ; or, 3. By ac¬
tually affifting the criminal in the execution. It is ge¬
nerally agreed by dodtors, that, in the more atrocious
crimes, the advifer is equally punifhable with the cri¬
minal ; and that, in the flighter, the circumflances ari-
fing from the advifer’s leffer age, the jocular or carelefs
manner of giving advice, &c. may be received as pleas
for foftening the punifhment. One who gives mandate
to commit a crime, as he is the firit fpring of adtion,
feems more guilty than the perfon employed as the in-
firument in executing it; yet the actor cannot excufe
himfelf under the pretence of orders which he ought
not to have obeyed.
5. Afilftance may be jpvcn to the committer of a
crime, not only in the adtual execution, but previous
to it, by furhilhing him, intentionally, with poifon,
arms, or the other means of perpetrating it. That fort
of affiftance which is not given till after the criminal
adl, and which is commonly called abetting, though it be
of itfelf criminal, does not infer art and part of the
principal crime ; as if one fhculd favour the efcape of
a criminal knowing him u'^e fuch, or conceal him
from juft ice.
6. Thofe crimes that are in their coniequences moft
hurtful to fociety, are punifhed capitally, or by death;
others efcape with a leffer punifhment^fometimes fixed
by ftatute, and fometimes arbitrary, t. e. left to the
diferetion of the judge, who may exercife his jurifdic-
tion, either by fine, imprifonment, or a corporal pu-
nifhment. Where the punifhment is left, by law, to the
diferetion of the judge, he can in no cafe extend it to
death. The Angle eicheat of the crimin iVls on con-
vidtion, in all capital trials, though the > . :ur ce fhoald
not exprefs it,
ffphemy. 7. Certain crimes are committed more immediately
againft God himielf; others ut the date; and a
third kind, agaioft particular p.r.- us .- chief ernne
in the fiift clafs, cognifable by temporal courts, is blaf-
4
A W. 7,9
phmy, under which may be included athtifm. This Law of
crime confifts in the denying or vilifying the Deity, by Scotl»™h
fpeech or writing. All w ho curfe God or any of the v '
perfons of the blefled Trinity, are to fuffer death, even
for a Angle adl; and thofe who deny him, if they per-
fift in their denial. The denial of a Providence, or of
the authority of the holy Scriptures, is punifhable ca¬
pitally for the third offence.
8. No profecution can now be carried on for witch¬
craft or conjuration. But all who undertake, from
their /kill in any occult fcience, to tell fortunes, or dif.
coverJlolen goods, are to fuffer imprifonment for a year.
Hand in the pillory four times in that year, and find
furety for their future good behaviour.
9. borne crimes againft the ftate are levelled diredlly Treafolt*
againft the fupreme power, and ftrike at the conftitu-
tiun itfelf : others difeover fuch a contempt of law, as
tends to baffle authority, or ft icken the reins of go¬
vernment. Treafon, crimen majejiatis, is that crime
which is aimed againft the majefty of the ffate ; and
can be committed only by thofe who are fubjea* of
that ftate either by birth or refidence. Soon after the
urnon of the two kingdoms in 1707, the laws of trea¬
fon, then in force in Kngland, were made outs by
7 4nn. C..21. both with regard to the fads conftitu-
ting that crime, to the forms of trial, the corruption of
blood, and all the penalties and forfeitures confequent
on it.
10. It is high treafon, by the law of England, to
imagine the death of the King, Queen-confort, or of
the heir apparent of the crown ; to levy war againft
the King, or adhere to his enemies; to counterfeit the
king’s coin, or his greafor privy feal ; to kill the chan-
ctllor, treafurer, or any of the 12 judges of England,
while they are doing their offices: which laft article is
by the forenamed a& 7 applied to Scotland, in
the cafe of flaying any judge of tke feffion or of jufti-
ciary fitting in judgment. Thofe who waffl, clip, or
lighten, the proper money of the realm ; who advifed-
ly affirm by writing or printing, that the Pretender
has any right to the crown, that the kmg and parlia¬
ment cannot limit the fucceffion to it, or who hold cor-
refpondence with the Pretender,, or any perfon employ¬
ed by him, are alfo guilty of treafon..
11. The forms of proceeding in the trial of treafon, Pa ns of
whether againft peers or commoners, are fet forth in a treafon.
fmall treatife, puhliffied by order of the houfe of lords
in 1709, fubjoined to a collection of ftatutes concern¬
ing treafon.- By the conviction upon this trial, the
whole eftate of the traitor forfeits to the crown. His
blood is alfo corrupted, fo that, on the death .of an an-
ceftor, he cannot inherit; and the eftate which he
cannot take, tails to the immediate fuperior as efeheat,
oh dejeSum heredis, wAbout diftinguiftiing whether the
lands hold of the crown, or of a fubject. No attain¬
der for treafon ftiall, after the death of the Pretender
and all his ions, hurt the right of any perfon, other
than (hat of the offender, during his natural life; the
rights of creditors and other third parties, in the cafe of
forfeiture on treafon,. muff be determined by the law of
E.igland.
1 2. Mifprifion of treafon, from meprendre, is the o- M.Tpnfion
verio.ff mg or c meed mg of treafon. It is inferred by of treafon.
one’s bare kv" ledge of the crime, and not difeover-
ing it to a magiftrate or other perfon infitled by his
office
72« ^ A
Law of office to take examinations; though he (hould not in
Scotland. tjie ]ea^ aflent to it. The forefaid aft 7 /Inn.
makes the Englilh law of mifprifion ours. Its punifli-
ment is, by the law of England, perpetual imprifonment,
together with the forfeiture of the offender's moveables,
and of the profits of his heritable eftate, during his
life ; that is, in the ftyle of our law, his Angle and life-
\ rent efcheat.
Sedition, 13. The crime of /edition confifts in the raifing com¬
motions pivdifturbanoes in the ftate. It is either verbal
or real. Verbal fed it ion, or leafing making, is infer¬
red from the uttering of words tending to create dif-
cord between the king and his people. It is punifhed
either by imprifonment, fine, or banifhment, at the dif-
cretion of the judge. Real fedition is generally com¬
mitted by convocating together any confiderable num¬
ber of people, without lawful authority, under the pre¬
tence of redrefiing fome publitr grievance, to the dt-
flurbing of the public peace. Thofe who are convifted
of this crime are punifhed by the confifcation of their
goods 5 and their lives are at the king's will. If any
perfons, to the number of 12, (hall affemble, and being
tequired by a magrllrate or conftable to difperfe, (hall
neveithelefs continue together for an hour after fuch'
command, the perfons difobeying fhall fuffer death and
confifcation of moveables.
f„°3r H-j-dg es, who, wilfblly or through corruption,
111JU **es' ufe their authority as a cover to injuflice or oppreffion,
are punifhed with the lofs of honour, fame, and dig¬
nity. Under this head may be ciaffed theftbote (from
lote, “ compenfation”), which is the taking a conli-
deration in money or goods from a thief to exempt
him from punifhment, or connive at his efcape from
juftice. A fheriff or other judge, guilty of this crime,
forfeits his life and goods. And even a private perfon,
who takes theftbote, fuffers as the principal thief.
The buying of difputed claims, concerning which
there is a pending procefs, by any judge or member
either of the fefiion or of an inferior court, is punifhed
by the lofs of the delinquent’s office, and all the pri¬
vileges thereto belonging.
Deforce- 15- Deforcement is the oppofition given, or refift:-
aient. ance made, to mtfiengers or other officers, while they
are employed in executing the law’. The court of
feffion is competent to this crime. It is punifhable
with the confifcation of moveables, the one half to the
king, and the other to the creditor at whofe fuit tl^e
diligence was ufed. Armed perfons, to the number of
three or more, aflifiing in the illegal running, landing,
or exporting of prohibited or uncuflomed goods, or
any who fhall refill, wound, or maim any officer of the
revenue, in the execution of his office, are punifhable
with death and the confifcation of moveables.
Breschof 16. Enoch of arrefmsnt _ (fee N° Ixxviii. 5 ). is a
wrrefhnent. crime of the fame nature with deforcement, as it im¬
ports a contempt of the law and of our judges. It fub-
jefts to an arbitrary corporal punifhment, and the ef¬
cheat of moveables; with a preference to the creditor
for his debt, and for fuch farther fum as fhall be mo¬
dified to him by the judge. Under this head of crimes
againfl good government and police, may be reckon-
Forefhl- t5ie foreJa^'wS °f rnarhts ; that is, the buying of
feng, &c. goods intended for a public market, before they are
carried there; which for the third criminal aft infers
the efcheat of moveables ; as '«lfo flaying falmon in
N0 11%.
w.
forbidden time, deftroying plough graith in time of Law of
tillage, flaying or houghing horfes or cows in time of SeocUnk
harveft, and deftroying or fpoiling growing timber ;
as to the punifhment of which, fee ffatutes 1503, c. 72.
—1587, c. 8a. and 1689, c. 16.—1 Geo. I. St. 2.
c. 48.
17. Crimea againft particular perfons may be di-Murder.]
refted either againft life, limb, liberty, chaflity, goods,
or reputation. Murder is the wilful taking away of a
perfon’s life, without a neceflary caufe. Our law
makes no diftinftion betwixt premeditated and fudden
homicide : both are punifhed capitally. Cafual homi¬
cide, where the aftor is in fome degree blameable; and ' |
homicide in felf-defence, where the juft bounds of de¬
fence have been exceeded ; are punifhed arbitrarily :
but the (laughter of night thieves, houfe-breakers, af-
fiftants in mafterfill depredations, or rebels denounced
for capital crimes, may be committed with impunity.
The crime of demembration, or the cutting off of a
member, is joined with that of murder; but in prac¬
tice, its punifhment has been reftrifted to the efcheat
of moveables, and an aflythment or indemnification to
the party. Mutilation, or the difabling of a member,
is punifhed at the diferetion of the judge.
18. Self-murder is as highly criminal as the killingSt.]f_murjti
our neighbour 5 and for this reafon, our law has, con- der,
trary to the rule, crim'ma morte extingumtur, allowed a
proof of the crime, after the offender’s death, that his
Angle efcheat might fall to the king or his donatory.
To this end, an adtion muft be brought, not before
the jufticiary, but the fefiion, becaufe it is only intend¬
ed ad civilem ejjeclmi, for proving and declaring the
felf-murder; and the next of kin to the deceafed muft
be made a party to it.
19. The punilhment of parricide, or of the murderParr‘cU®J
of a parent, is not confined, by our law, t<J the crimi¬
nal himftlf. AH his poft^rity in the rig'ht line are de¬
clared incapable of inheriting ; and the fucceffion de¬
volves on the next collateral heir. Even the curfing
or beating of a parent infers death, if the perfon guilty
be above 16 years; and an arbitrary punrfhment, if
he be under it. A prefumptlve or ftatutory murder
is conftituted by 1690, c. 21. by which any woman
who (hall conceal her pregnancy, during its whole
courfe, and fhall not call for, or make ufe of, help in
the birth, is to be reputed the murderer, if the child ||
be dead, or amifling. This aft was intended to dif-
courage the unnatural praftice of women making away
with their children begotten in fornication, to avoid
church-cenfures. •
20. Duelling, is the crime of fighting in Angle com- Dudkng.j|
bat, on previous challenges given and received. Fight¬
ing in a duel, without licence from the king, is punifh¬
able by death; and whatever perfon, principal or fe-
coad, fhall give a challenge to fight a duel, or (hall ac¬
cept a challenge, or otherwife engage therein, is pu¬
nifhed by banifhment and efcheat of moveables, though
no aftual fighting fhould enfue.
21. Hahnfucken (from bairn “ home,” and foe ben “ to Haimfin*
feck or purfue”) is the affaulting or beating of a per-ken. ]
fon in his own houfe. The puniftrment of this crime is
nowhere defined, except in the books of the Majefty,
which make it the fame as that of a rape ; and it is,
like rape, capital by our praftice. The aflault muft
be made in the proper houfe of the perfon aiTaulted,
where
Part III..
Part III. LA
iJ Law of where he lies and rifea daily and nightly ; fo that nei-
]’-'K ^Scotland. tjjer a pUblic houfe, nor even a private, where one i a
, onjy tranfiently, falls within the law.
B Battery. 22. Any party to a law-fuit, who ftiall Hay, wound,
or otherwife invade his ad verfary, at any period of time
between executing the fumtnons and the complete exe¬
cution of the decree, or {hall be acceffory to fuch inva-
fion, (hall lofe his caufe. The fentence pronounced on
this trial, againft him who has committed the battery,
is not fubjed to reduction, either on the head of mi¬
nority, or on any other ground whatever: and if the
perfon profecuted for this crime (hall be denounced for
not appearing, his liferent, as well as Angle efcheat,
falls upon the denunciation.
'l WroӣOU8 23. The crime of wrongous imprifonment is inferred,
9 £Pfn- by granting warrants of commitment in order to trial,
I ' proceeding on informations not fubfcribed, or without
expreffing the caufe of commitment ; by receiving or
detaining prifoners on fuch warrants ; by refufing to a
prifoner a copy of the warrant of commitment; by de¬
taining him in clofe confinement, above eight days af¬
ter his commitment; by not releafing him on bail,
where the crime is bailable ; and by tranfporting per-
fons out of the kingdom, without either their own con-
fent, or a lawful fentence. The perfons guilty of a
wrongous imprifonment are punifhed by a pecuniary
muldt, from L. 6000 down to L. 400 Scots, accord¬
ing to the rank of the perfon detained; and the judge,
or other perfon guilty, is over and above fubjefted to
pay to the perfon detained a certain fum per diem, pro¬
portioned to his rank, and is declared incapable of pu¬
blic truft. All thefe penalties may be iafifted for by a
fummary a&ion before the feffion, and are fubjeft to
no modification.
1v] Adultery. 24. Adultery, is the crime by which the marriage-
bed is polluted. This crime could neither by the Ro¬
man nor Jewifir law be committed, but where the
guilty woman was the wife of another: by ours, it is
adultery, if either the man or woman be married. We
diftinguiftr between fimple adultery, and that which is
notorious or manifeft. Open and manifeft adulterers,
who continue incorrigible, notwithftanding the cen-
fures of the church, are puniftied capitally. This
crime is diftinguiflred by one or other of the following
chara&ers : where there is iflue procreated between
the adulterers; or where they keep bed and company
together notorioufly; or where they give fcandal to
the church, and are, upon their obftinate refufing to
liilen to its admonitions, excommunicated. The pu-
niftiment of fimple adultery, not being defined by fta-
tute, is left to the diferetion of the judge ; but cuftom
has made the falling of the Angle efcheat one of its pe¬
nalties.
: Bigamy. 2y. Bigamy, is a perfon’s entering into the engage,
ments of a fecojid marriage, in violation of a former
marriage-vow ftill fubfifting. Bigamy, on the part
of the ofan, has been tolerated in many ftates, before
the eftablilhment of Chriftianity, even by the Jews
themfelves; but it is prohibited by the precepts of the
gofpel, and it is punilhed by our law, whether on the
part of the man or of the woman, with the pains of
perjury.
Inceft. 2 6- Ince/l is committed by perfons who {land with¬
in the degrees of kindred forbidden in Lev. xviii. and
is puniftied capitally. The fame degrees are prohi-
Vol. IX. Part II.
W. 721
bited in affinity, as in confanguinity, -Lev. xviii. 13. Law of
etfeq. As this crime is repugnant to nature, all chil-, Scotland-f
dren, whether lawful or natural, ftand on an equal *
footing: civilis ratio civilia jura corrumpere potejl, non
vero naturalia. It is difficult indeed to bring a legal
proof of a relation merely natural, on the fide of the
father; but the mother may be certainly known with¬
out marriage.
ay.iThere is no explicit ftatute making rape, or the Rape*
raviftiingof women, capital;,but it is plainly fuppofed
in aft 1612. e. 4. by which the raviftier is exempted
from the pains of death, only in the cafe of the wo¬
man’s fubfequent confent, or her declaration that file
went off with him of her own free-will; and even then,
he is to fuffer an arbitrary puniftiment, either by im¬
prifonment, confifcation of goods, or a pecuniary fine.
28. is defined, A fraudulent intermeddling with Theft,
the property of another, with a view of making gain.
Our ancient law proportioned the puniftiment of the
theft to the value ot the goods ftolen ; heightening it
gradually, from a flight corporal punifliment to a ca- *
pital, if the value amounted to thirty-two pennies Scots,
which in the reign of David I. was the price of two
ftieep. In feveral latter afts, it is taken for granted,
that this crime is capital. But where the thing ftolen
is of fmall value, we confider it not as theft but as pic¬
kery, which is puniftied either corporally or by banifli-
ment. The breaking of orchards, and the ftealing of
green wood, is puniftied by a fine, which rifes as the
crime is repeated.
29. Theft may be aggravated into a capital crime,
though the value of the thing ftolen be trifling; as
theft twice repeated, or committed in the night, or by
landed men ; or of things fet apart for facred ufes.
The receivers and concealers of ftolen goods, knowing Refet
them to be fuch, fuffer as thieves. Thofe who barely tlle^t*
harbour the perfon of the criminal within 48 hours ei¬
ther before or after committing the crime, are puniftied
as partakers of the theft. Such as fell goods belong¬
ing to thieves or lawlefs perfons who dare not them¬
felves come to market, are puniflied with banilhment
and the efcheat of moveables.
30. Theft attended with violence is called robbery ; Robbery^
and in our old ftatutes, rief or Jlouthrief; under which &c.
clafs may be included forning, or the taking of meat and
drink by force, without paying for it. Stouthrief came
at laft to be committed fo audacioufty, by bands of men
affociated together, that it was thought neceflary to veil
all our freeholders with a power of holding courts up¬
on forners and rievers, and condemning them to death.
Nay, all were capitally puniftied, who, to fecure their
lands from depredation, payed to the rievers a yearly
contribution, which got the name of black-mail. An
aft alfo paffed, commanding to baniftiment a band of
forners, who were originally from Egypt, called gypjies,
and adjudging to death all that ftiould be reputed Egyp¬
tians, if found thereafter within the kingdom. Rob¬
bery committed on the feas is called piracy, and is
puniftied capitally by the high admiral. Several of the
fafts which conftitute this crime are fet forth in a Bri-
tifti ftatute, 8 Geo. I. c. 24.
31. Falfehood, in a large fenfe, is the fraudulent imi- Falfthosi.
tation or luppreffion of truth, to the damage of another.
The lives and goods of perfons convifted of ufing falfe
weights or meafures were, by our old law, in the king’s
4 Y mercy;
7*2
L A ’ W.
Part II!
Law erf mercy: and their heirs could not inherit but upon a
.Scotland.^ remjfljon> -pbe lateft ftatute againih this crime, pu-
~v ' nifties it by confifcation of moveables. That particular
fpecies of falfehood, which eonfifts in the falfifying of
forgery, writings, paffes by the name of forgery. Our practice
has now of a long time, agreeably to the Roman law,
made this crime capital; unlefs the forgery be of exe¬
cutions, or other writings of fmaller moment; in which
cafe, it is puniftied arbitrarily.
32. The writing muft not only be fabricated, but
put to ufe or founded on, in order to infer this crime.
And though it be ftriuftiy criminal, yet the trial of it
is proper to the court of feflion ; but where improba.
tion is moved againll a deed by way of exception, the
inferior judge, before whom the aftion lies, is competent
to it ad civilem effectual. When it is pleaded as an ex¬
ception,, our pra&ice, to difeourage affefted delays,
obliges the defender, who moves it, to confign L. 40
Scots; which he forfeits, if his plea {hall appear ca¬
lumnious.
33 Where a perfon, found guilty of forgery by the
Court of fellion, is by them remitted to the judiciary,
an indictment is there exhibited againft him, and a
jury fworfi, before whom the decree of feflion is produ¬
ced, in place of all other evidence of the crime, in re-
fpe£t of which the jury find the pannel guilty; fo that
that decree being pronounced by a competent court, is
held as full proof, or, in the ftyle of the bar, as probatio
probata.
Terjury. 34. Perjury, which is the judicial affirmation of a
falfehood on oath, really conftitutes the crimen falji;
for he who is guilty of it does, in the moft folemn
manner, fubflitute falfehood in the place of truth. To
conftitute this crime, the violation of truth muft be
deliberately intended by the fwearer; and therefore
reafonable allowances ought to be given to forgetful-
nefs or mifapprehenfion, according to his age, health,
and other circumftances. The breach of a promiflbry
oath, does not infer this crime; for he who promifes on
oath, may fincerely intend performance when he fwears,
and fo cannot be faid to call on God to atteft a falfe¬
hood. Though an oath, however falfe, if made upon
reference in a civil queftion, concludes the caufe, the
perfon perjured is liable to a criminal trial; for the ef-
fe£f of the reference can go no further than the private
right of the parties.
35. Notwithftanding the mifehievous confequences
of perjury to fociety, it is not puniftied capitally, but
by confifcation of moveables, imprifonment lor a year,
and infamy. The court of feffion is competent to per¬
jury incidenter, when, in any examination upon oath,
taken in a caufe depending before them, a perfon ap¬
pears to have fworn falfely ; but in the common cafe,
that trial is proper to the jufticiary. Subornation of
perjury confifts in tampering with perfons who are to
fwear in judgment, by dire&ing them how they are
to depofe; and it is puniftied with the pains of per-
jury.
Stellionate. 36. The crime of fellionate, from flelTto, includes
every fraud which is not diftinguiftied by a fpecial
name; but is chiefly applied to conveyances of the
fame numerical right, granted by the proprietor to
different difponees. Thw* puniflunent of ftellionate .mult
neceflarily be arbitrary, to adapt it to the various na¬
tures and different aggravations of the fraudulent ads.
The perfons guilty of that kind of it, which confiftg in Law of
granting double conveyances, are by our law declared Scoti»u<l.
infamous, and their lives and goods at the king’s mer-
cy. The cognifance of fraudulent bankruptcy is appro¬
priated to the court of feffion, who may in ft id any pu-
nifhment on the offender that appears proportioned to
his guilt, death excepted.
37. The crime of ufury, before the reformationr, Ufury,
confided in the taking of any intereft for the ufe of
money ; and now in taking an higher rate of intereft
than is authorifed by law. It is divided into ufura
manifejla, or dired ; and velata, or covered. One may
be guilty of the firft kind, either where he covenants
with the debtor for more than the lawful intereft on
the loan-money; or where one receives the intereft
of a fum before it is due, fince thereby he takes a can-
fideration for the ufe of money before the debtor has
really got the ufe of it. Where a debt is dogged
with an uncertain condition, by which the creditor runs
the hazard of lofing his fum, he may covenant for an
higher intereft than the legal, without the crime of u-
fury ; for there, the intereft is not given merely in conr-
fideration of the ufe of the money, but of the danger
undertaken by the creditor.
38. Covered ufury, is that which is committed un¬
der the mafk not of a loan but of fome other contrad ;
<r. g. a fale or an imp<oper wadfet. And in general,
all obligations entered into with an intention of getting
more than the legal intereft for the ufe of money,
however they may be difguifed, are nfurious. As a
farther guard againft this crime, the taking more than '
the legal intereft for the forbearance of payment of
money, merchandife, or other commodities, by way of
loan, exchange, or other contrivance whatever, or the
taking a bribe for the loan of money, or for delaying
its payment when lent, is declared ufury. Where ufury
is proved, the ufurious obligation is not only declared
void, but the creditor, if he has received any unlawful
profits, forfeits the treble value of the fums or goods
lent. Ufury, when it is to be purfued criminally, muft
be tried by the jufticiary ; but where the libel con¬
cludes only for voiding the debt, or reftitution, the fef¬
fion is the proper court.
39. Injury, in its proper acceptation, is the re- injury. \
proaching or affronting our neighbour. Injuries are 1
either verbal or real. A verbal injury, when direded
againft a private perfon, confifts in the uttering contu¬
melious words, which tend to expofe our neighbour’s
charader by making him little or ridiculous. It does
not feem that the twitting one with natural defeds,.
without any farcaftical refledions, though it be inhu¬
man, falls under this defeription, as thefe imply no real
reproach in the juft opinion of mankind. Where the
injurious expreffions have a tendency to blacken one’s
moral charader, or fix fome particular guilt upon him,
and are deliberately repeated in different companies, or
handed about in whifpers to confidents, it then grows
up to the crime of flander: and where a petfon’s mo¬
ral charader is thus attacked, the animus injuriandi is
commonly inferred from the injurious words themfelves,.
unlefs fpecial circumftances be offered to take off the-
prefumption, ex, gr. that the words were uttered in
judgment in one’s own defence, or by way of informa¬
tion to a magiftrate, and had fome foundation in fad.
Though the cognizance of flander is proper to the com-
miffaries,
Pmlir. LAW. 723
Law u[ miflaries, who, as the judicts Chrjfliamtatls, are the
Scotland. onjy judges of fcandal} yet, for fome time paft, bare
v ** verbal injuries have been tried by other criminal judges,
and even by the fefiion. It is punifhed either by a
tine, proportioned to the condition of tft petfons inju¬
ring and injured, and the circumftances of time and
place ; or if the injury import fcandal, by publicly ac¬
knowledging the offence ; and frequently the two are
conjoined. The calling one a bankrupt is not, in ftn'A
fpeech, a verbal injury, as it does not affeft the perfon’s
moral chara&er :yet, as it may hurt his credit in the
way of bufinefs, it founds him in an aftion of damage#,
which muft be brought before the judge-ordinary.
A real injury is infiifted by any faft by which a per¬
fon’s honour or dignity is affe&ed; as flriking one
with a cane, or even aiming a blow without flriking ;
fpitting in one’s face; affuming a coat of arms, or
any other mark of diftin&ion proper to another, &c.
The compofing and publifhing defamatory libels may
be reckoned of this kind. Real injuries are tried by
the judge-ordinary, and punifhed either by fine or
impnfonment, according to the demerit of the of¬
fenders.
40. After having fhortly explained the feveral
crimes punifhable by our law, this treatife may be
concluded with a few obfervations on criminal jurif-
ditlion, the forms of trial, and the methods by which
crimes may be extinguifhed. Criminal jurifdi£tion is
Criminal f°unhed, I • Ratione domicilii^ if the defender dwells
jurifdi&iou within the territory of the judge. Vagabonds, who
have no certain domicile, may be tried wherever they
are apprehended. 2. Ratione delifli, if the crime
was committed within the territory. Treafon is tri¬
able, by the Englifh law, in any county that the
king fhould appoint 5 and, by a temporary aft now
expired, treafon committed in certain Scots counties,
was made triable by the court of jufticiary, wherever
it fhould fit.
What per- 41. No criminal trial can proceed, unlefs the perfon
fons are not accufed is capable of making his defence. Abfents
triable. therefore cannot be tried ; nor fatuous nor furious
perfons, durante furore, even for crimes committted
while they were in their fenfes. For a like reafon,
minors who had no curators, could not, by the Roman
law, be tried criminally ; but our praftice confiders
-every perfon who is capable of dole, to be alfo fuffi-
ciently qualified for making his defence in a criminal
trial.
Commit- 42. No perfon can be imprifoned in order to ftand
Bienc. trial for any crime, without a warrant in writing ex-
prefilng the caufe, and proceeding upon a fubfcribed
information, unlefs in the cafe of indignities done to
judges, riots, and the other offences fpecially mentioned
in 1701. c. 6. Every prifoner committed in order to
trial, if the crime of which he is accufed be not capi¬
tal, is entitled to be releafed upon bail, the extent of
which is to be modified by the judge, not exceeding
12,000 merks Scots for a nobleman, 6000 for a landed
gentleman, 2000 for every other gentleman or burgefs,
and 600 for any other inferior perfon. That perfons
who, either from the nature of the crime with which
they are charged, or from their low circumftances,
cannot procure bail, may not lie for ever in prifon un¬
tried, it is lawful for every fuch prifoner to apply to
the criminal judge, that his trial may be brought on.
The judge muft, within 24 hours after fuch applies- Law of
tion, ilfue letters direfted to meflengers, for intimating Scotland,
to th^ profecutor to fix a diet for the prifone^’s trial, '—v
within 60 days after the intimation, under the pain of
wrongous imprifonment: And if the profecutor does
not infill within that time, or if the trial is not finilhed
in forty days more when carried on before the Juftici¬
ary, or in thirty when before any other judge; the
prifoner is, upon a fecond application, fetting forth
that the legal time is elapfed, entitled to his freedom,
under the fame penalty.
43. Upon one’s committing any of the groffer Precogai*
crimes, it is ufual for a juftice of the peace, Iheriff, or tion.
ocher judge, to take a precognition of the fafts, i. e.
to examine thofe who were prefent at the criminal aft,
upon the fpecial circumftances attending it, in order
to know whether there is ground for a trial, and to
ferve as a direftion to the profecutor, how to fet forth
the fafts in the libel; but the perfons examined may
infill to have their declarations cancelled before they
give teftimony at the trial. Juftices of the peace,
iheriffs, and magiftrates of boroughs, are alfo autho-
rifed to receive informations, concerning crimes to be
tried in the circuit-conrts ; which, informations are to
be tranfmitted to the juftice-clerk 40 days before the
fitting of the refpeftive courts. To difeourage
groundlefs criminal trials, all profecutors, where the
defender was abfolved, were condemned by ftatute, in
cofts, as they Ihould be modified by the judge, and
befides were fubjefted to a fmall fine, to be divided
between the fife and the defender: And where the
king’s advocate was the only purfuer, his informer
was made liable. This fufficiently warrants the pre¬
fent praftice of condemning vexatious profecutors in
a pecuniary mulft, though far exceeding the ftatutory-
fum.
44. The forms of trial upon criminal accufations, Form of
differ much from thofe obferved in civil aftions, if wetr*ak
except the cafe of fuch crimes as the court of feffion is
competent to, and of lefler ofl’ences tried before infe¬
rior courts. The trial of crimes proceeds either upon
indiftment, which is fometimes ufed when the perfon
to be tried is in prifon ; or by criminal letters iffuing
from the fignet of the jufticiary. In either cafe, the
defender muft be ferved with a full copy of the indift¬
ment or letters, and with a lift of the witnefles to be
brought againft him, and of the perfons who are to
pafs on the inqueft, and 15 free days muft intervene
between his being fo ferved and the day of appearance.
When the trial proceeds upon criminal letters, the pri¬
vate profecutor muft give fecurity, at railing the let¬
ters, that he will report them duly executed to the
jufticiary, in terms of 1535, c, 35.; and the defender,
if he be not already in prifon, is, by the letters, re¬
quired to give caution, within a certain number of
days after his citation, for his appearance upon the
day fixed for his trial: And if he gives none within
the days of the charge, he may be denounced rebel,
which infers the forfeiture of his moveables.
45. That part of the indiftment, or of the criminal
letters, which contains the ground of the charge a-
gainft the defender, and the nature or degree of the
punilbment he ought to fuffer, is called the libel. All
libels muft be fpecial, fetting forth the particular fafts
inferring the guilt, and the particular place where
4Y 2 thefc
LAW. Part HI.
thefe fa£ts were done. The time of committing the is the only profecutor, if from the nature of the crime, Law of
crime may be libelled in more general terms, with an there mull needs be a penury of witneffes, as in rape, Sc"Lland‘.
alternative as to the month, or day of the month : robbery, &c. v ' 1
but as it is not practicable, in mod cafes, to libel upon 51. After all the witneffes have been examined in
the precife circUtnftances of acceflion that may appear court, the jury are (hut up in a room by themfelves,a 1 ^ !
in proof, libels againft acceffories are fufficient, if they where they muft continue, excluded from all correfpon-
mention, in general, that the perfons profecuted are denCe, till their verdidt or judgment be fubfcribed by
guilty art and part. the foreman (or chancellor) and clerk ; and according
46. The defender in a criminal trial may raife to this verdiCt the court pronounces fentence, either
letters of exculpation, for citing witneffes in proof of abfolving or condemning. It is not neceffary, by the
his defences againft the libel, or of his objections a- law of Scotland, that a jury fhould be unanimous in
gainft any of the jury or witneffes ; which muft be ex* finding a perfon guilty ; the narroweft majority is as
ecuted to the fame day of appearance with that of the fufficient againft the pannel, as for him. Juries can-
indiCbnent or criminal letters. not be punifhcd on acconnt of an erroneous verdiCt,
Diets of The diets of appearance, in the court of jufti- either for or againft the pannel.
appearance.cjary.^ are peremptory : the criminal letters muft be 52. Though the proper bufinefs of a jury be to in* Powers cf
called on the very day to which the defender is cited ; quire into the truth of the faCts found relevant by theaiury' Y
and hence, if no accufer appears, their effeCt is loft, court, for which reafon they are fometimes called the
ivjhmtia perit, and new letters muft be raifed. If the tnquejl; yet, in many cafes, they judge alfo in mat-
libel, or any of the executions, fhall to the profecutor ters of law or relevancy. Thus, though an-objection
appear informal, or if he be diffident of the proof, againft a witnefs fliould be repelled by the court, the
from the abfconding of a neceffary witnefs, the court jury are under no neceffity to give more credit to his
will, upon a motion made by him, defert the diet pro teftimony than they think juft : And in all trials of
loco et tempore; after which new letters become alfo ne- art and part, where fpeeial faCts are not libelled, the
ceffary. A defender, who does not appear on the jury, if they return a general verdict, are indeed
very day to which he is cited, is declared fugitive ; in judges not only of the truth, but of the relevancy of
confequence of which, his fingle efcheat falls. The the fads that are fworn to by the witneffes. A ge-
defender, after his appearance in court, is called the neral verdiCt, is that which finds in general terms, that
pannel. the pannel is guilty or not guilty, or that the libel or
48. The two things to be chiefly regarded in a cri- defences are proved or not proved. In a fpecial ver-
minal libel, are, i.The relevancy of the fads, i. e. their did, the jury finds certain fads proved, the import of
fufficiency to infer the conchifion ; 2. Their truth, which is to be afterwards confidered by the court.
The confideration of the firft belongs to the judge of 53. Criminal judges muft now fufpend for fome Sentences
the court; that of the other, to the jury or affize. If time the execution of fuch fentences as affed life or
the fads libelled be found .irrelevant, the pannel is limb, that fo condemned criminals, whofe cafes deferve
difmiffed from the bar; if relevant, the court remits favour, may have accefs to apply to the king for mercy,
the proof therepf to be determined by the jury ; which No fentence of any court of judicature, ibuth of the
muft confift of 15 men picked out by the court from a river Forth, importing either death or demembiation,
greater number not exceedingly, who have been all can be executed in lefs than 30 days; and, if north
fummoned, and given in lift to the defender at ferving of it, in ,lefs than 40 days, after the date of the fen* '
him with a copy of the libel. tence. But corporal punifhments, lefs than death or
Probation 49. Crimes cannot, like debts, be referred to the difmembering, e. g. whipping, pillory; £sV. may be in-
•f crime?, defender’s oath ; for no perfon is compellable to fwear Aided eight days after fentence on this fide Forth,
againft himfelf, where his life, limb, liberty, or ellate and twelve days after fentence beyond it.
is concerned, nor even in crimes which infer infamy; 54. Crimes are extinguifhed, 1. By the death of
becaufe one’s good name is, in right eftimation, as the criminal: both becaufe a dead perfon can makeofcrime*,
valuable as his life. There is one exception however to no defence, fo that his trial is truly a judging upon the
this rule in trying the crime of ufury, which may be hearing of one fide ; and becaufe, though his guilt
proved by the ufurer’s own oath, notwithftanding the fhould be ever fo notorious, he is after death carried
rule, Nemo tenetur jnrare in fuam turpitudinem. Crimes beyond the reach of human penalties : Such trials
therefore are in the general cafe proveable only by the therefore can have no effed, but to punifh the inno-
defender’s free confeffion, or by writing, or by wit- cent heir, contrary to that moft equitable rule, Culpa
neffe.s. No extrajudicial confeffion, unlefs it is ad- tenet fuos auHores. 2. Crimes may be extinguifhed by
hered to by the pannel in judgement, can be admitted a remiffion from the fovereign. But a remiffion, tho’
as evidence. it fecures the delinquent from the public refentment,
Pocii crimi- ^0. AH objedions relevant againft a witnefs in civil the exercife of which belongs to the crown, cannot
*"• cafes are alfo relevant in criminal. No witnefs is ad- cut off the party injured from his claim of damages,
milted, who may gain or lofe by the evea^ of the over which the crown has no prerogative. Whoever
trial. Socii crirninis, or affodates in the fame crime, therefore foundsion a remiffion, is liable in damages,
arc not admitted againft one another, except either in to the private profecutor, in the fame manner as if he
crimes againft the ftate, as treafon ; in occult crimes, had been tried and found guilty. Even general ads
where other witneffes cannot be had, as forgery ; or of indemnity paffed in parliament, though they fecure
in thefts or depiedations committed in the Highlands, againft fuch penalties as law inflids upon the criminal
The teftimony of the private party injured may be merely per modum pcente, yet do not againft the pay-
received againii the papnel, where the king’s advocate ment of any pecuniary fine that is given by ftatute *'"
(apart III. L
*| L»w of to the party injured, nor againfi: the demand of any
Iift Seorhiid. ciajm cornpetent to him in name of damages.
55. Leffer injuries, which cannot be properly faid
to affeft the public peace, may be extinguiihed, either
by the private party’s exprefsly forgiving him, or by
his being reconciled to the offender, after receiving
the injury. Hence arifes the rule, DiJJimulatione tollilur
injuria. But where the offence is of a higher nature,
the party injured, though he may pafs from the pro-
fecution, in fo far as his private intereft is concerned,
cannot preclude the king’s advocate, or procurator-
fifcal, from infilling ad •vindiclam publicam.
r'P‘ 56. Crimes are alfo extinguifhed by prefcription,
which operates by the mere lapfe of time, without
any a£t either of the fovereign or of the private fufferer.
Crimes prefcribe in 20 years 5 but in particular crimes,
the prefcription is limited by ftatute to a fhorter time.
No perfon can be profecuted upon the a£t againfi
wrongous imprifonment, after three years. High trea-
fop, committed within his majefty’s dominions, fuffers
likewife a triennial prefcription, if indidlment be not
found againfl the traitor within that time. All actions
a w. 725
brought npon any penal ftatute made or to be made, Law of
where the penalty is appropriated to the crown, expire Scotland. *
in two years after committing the offence; and where ‘,"_vITI“,v
the penalty goes to the crown or other profecutor, the
profecutor muft fue within one year, and the crown
within two years after the year ended. Certain crimes
are, without the aid of any ftatute, extinguifhed by a
fhorier prefcription than twenty years. By our old
law, in the cafes of rape, robbery, and hamefucken,
the party injured was not heard after a filence of
twenty-four hours; from a prefumption, that perfons
could not be fo grofsly injured, without immediately
complaining : And it is probable, that a profecution
for thefe crimes, if delayed for any coniiderable time,
would be call even at this day, or at lead the punifh-
ment reftri&ed. Leffer injuries fuffer alfo a fliort pre¬
fcription ; law prefuming forgivenefs, from the nature
of the offence, and the filence of the party. The par¬
ticular fpace of time fufficient to eftablifh this pre¬
fumption muft be determined by the judge, according
to circumftances.
LAW
Law-Language. In England all law-proceedings
were formerly written, as indeed all public proceedings
were, in Norman or law French, and even the argu¬
ments of the counfel and decifions of the court were in
the fame barbarous dialeft. An evident and fhameful
badge, it muft be owned, of tyranny and foreign fer-
vitude ; being introduced under the aufpices of Wil¬
liam the Norman, and his fons : whereby the obferva-
tion of the Roman fatyrift. was once more verified,
that Gallia cauftdicoi docuit facunda Britannos. This
continued till the reigu of Edward III.; who, having
employed his arms fuccefsfuily in fubduing the crown
of France, thought it unbefeeming the dignity of the
vigors to ufe any longer the language of a vanquifhed
country. By a ftatute, therefore, paffed in the 36th
year of his reign, it was enadled, that for the future
all pleas fttould be pleaded, ftrown, defended, anfwered,
debated, and judged, in the Englifti tongue ; but be
entered and inrolled in Latin : In like manner as Don
Alonfo X. king of Caltile (the great-grandfather of
our Edward III.) obliged his fubjedls to ufe the Ca-
ftilian tongue in all legal proceedings ; and as, in 1286,
the German language was eftabliihed in the courts of
the empire. And perhaps, if our legifltture had then
directed that the writs themfelves, which are mandates
from the king to his fubjedls to perform certain ads
or to appear at certain places, fhould have been framed
in the Englilh language, according to the rule of our
ancient law, it had not been very improper. But the
record or enrolment of thofe writs and the proceed¬
ings thereon, which was calculated for the benefit of
pofterity, was more ferviceable (becaufe more durable)
in a dead and immutable language than in any flux or
living one. The pradifers, however, being ufed to the
Norman language, and therefore imagining they could
exprefs their thoughts more aptly and more concifely
in that than in any other, ftill continued to take their
notes in law French ; and of courfe, when thofe notes
came to be publilhed, under the denomination of re-
LAW
ports, they were printed in thatbarbarousdialed; which, Law-
joined to the additional terrors of a Gothic black let-Lan2ua8ei
ter, has occafioned many a ftudent to throw away his
Plowden and Littleton, without venturing to attack a
page of them. And yet in reality, upon a nearer ac¬
quaintance, they would have found nothing very for¬
midable in the language ; which differs in its gram¬
mar and orthography as much from the modern French,
as the didion of Chaucer and Gower does from that of
Addifon and Pope. Befides, as the Englifii and Nor¬
man languages were concurrently ufed by our anceft-
ers-for feveral centuries together, the two idioms have
naturally affimilated, and mutually borrowed from each
other : for which reafon the grammatical conftrudion
of each is fo very much the fame, that 1 apprehend an
Englifhman (with a week’s preparation) would under-
ftand the laws of Normandy, colleded in their grand
coufumier, as well, if not better, than a Frenchman bred
within the wails of Paris.
The Latin, which fucceeded the French for the en¬
try and enrolment of pleas, and which continued in
ufe for four centuries, anfwers fo nearly to the Engliftv
(oftentimes word for word) that it is not at all furpri-
ling it ftiould generally be imagined to be totally fa¬
bricated at home, with little more art or trouble than
by adding Roman terminations to Englifh words.
Whereas in reality it is a very univerfal dialed, fpread
throughout all Europe at the irruption of the northern
nations; and particularly accommodated and moulded
to anfwer all the purpofes of the lawyers with' a pecu¬
liar exa&nefs and precifion. This is principally owing
to the firriplicity, or (if the reader pleafes) the poverty
and baldnefs of its texture, calculated to exprefs the
ideas of mankind juft as they arife in the human mind*
without any rhetorical flourilhes, or perplexed orna¬
ments of ftyle : for it may be obferved, that thofe laws
and ordinances, of public as well as private communi¬
ties, are generally the moft eafily underftood, where
ftrength and peripicuity, not harmony or elegance of
L ’ es-
LAW [ 726 ] LAW
Caw- exprefilon, have been principally confulted in compi-
I^tnguage,^ jjng Thefe northera nations, or rather their le-
'' giflators, though they refolved to make ufe of the Latin
tongue in promulging their laws, as being more du¬
rable and more generally known to their conquered
fubje&s than their own Teutonic diale&s, yet (either
through choice or neceffity) have frequently intermixed
therein fome words of a Gothic original; which is,
more or lefs, the cafe in every country of Europe, and
therefore not to be imputed as any peculiar blemilh in
our Englilh legal latinity. The truth is, what is ge¬
nerally denominated law-Latin is in reality a mere
technical language, calculated for eternal duration, and
eafy to be apprehended both in prefent and future times;
and on thofe accounts beft fuited to preferve thofe me¬
morials which are intended for perpetual rules of ac¬
tion. The rude pyramids of Egypt have endured from
the earlieft ages, while the more modern and more ele-
gant^ftruftures of Attica, Rome, and Palmyra, have
funk beneath the ftroke of time.
As to the obje&ion of locking up the law in a ftrange
and unknown tongue, this is of little weight with re¬
gard to records; which few have occafion to read, but
fuch as do, or ought to, underftand the rudiments of
Latin. And befides, it may be obferved of the law-
Latin, as the very ingenious Sir John Davis obferves
of the law-French, “ that it is fo very eafy to be
learned, that the meaneft wit that ever came to the
ftudy of the law doth come to underftand it almoftpey-
feftly in ten days without a. reader.”
It is true, indeed, that the many terms of art, with
which the law abounds, are fufficiently harlh when
Latinized (yet not more fo than thofe of other fciences),
and may, as Mr Selden obferves, give offence “ to
fome grammarians of fqueamilh ftomachs, who would
rather choofe to live in ignorance of things the moft
ufeful and important, than to have their delicate ears
wounded by the ufe of a word unknown to Cicero,
Salluft, or the other writers of the Auguftan age.”
Yet this is no more than muft unavoidably happen when
things of modern ufe, of which the Romans had no
idea, and confequently no phrafes to exprefs them,
Come to be delivered in the Latin tongue. It would
puzzle the moft claffical fcholar to find an appellation,
in his pure Latinity, for a conftable, a record, or a
deed of feoffment: it is therefore to be imputed as
much to necefiity as ignorance, that they were ftyled
in our forenfic dialed!, ceitftabularius, recordum, and
feoffamentum. Thus again, another uncouth word of
our ancient laws (for I defend not the ridiculous bar-
barifms fometimes introduced by the ignorance of mo¬
dern pradiifers), the fubftantive murdrum, or the verb
murdrare, however harlh and unclafiical it may feera,
was neceffarily framed to exprefs a particular offence ;
fxnce no other word in being, occidere, interficere, necare,
or the like, was fufficient to exprefs the intention of
the criminal, or quo animo the adt was perpetrated ;
and therefore by no means came up to the notion of
murder at prefent entertained by a law ; viz. a killing
•with malice aforethought.
A fimilar neceflity to this produced a fimilar effedt
at Byzantium, when the Roman laws were turned into
Greek for the ufe of the oriental empire: for, without
any regard to Attic elegance, the lawyers of the im¬
perial courts made no fcruple to tranflate^rfci commif
farios, • cubic ulum, Y-uCvxXut* • fHum fa' Law
milias, ■era'ta-pufuKiac • repudium, pea’uJio* ; compromijfum, Langua
no^fo^io-o-ov; reverentia et obfequium, *««>? c-tjunov;
and the like. They ftudied more the exadt and pre-
cife import of the words, than the neatnefs and delicacy
of their cadence. And it may be fuggefted, that the
terms of the law are not more numerous, more un¬
couth, or more difficult to be explained by a teacher,
than thofe of logic, phyfics, and the whole circle of
Ariftotle's philofophy; nay, even of the politer arts
of architedlure and its kindred ftudies, or the fcience
of rhetoric itfelf. Sir Thomas More’s famous legal
queftion contains in it nothing more difficult, than the
definition which in his time the philofophers currently
gave of their materia prima, the groundwork of all na¬
tural knowledge ; that it is neque quid, neque quantum,
neque quale, neque aliquid eorum quibus ens determinatur ; or
its fubfequent explanation by Adrian Heereboard, who
affures us, that materia prhna non efl corpus, neque per
formam corporeitatis, neque per fimplicem effentiam : ejl ta-
men ens, et quidem fubjlantia, licet incompleta ; habetque ac¬
tum ex fe entitativum, et fimul efl potentia fubjediva. The
law, therefore, with regard to its technical phrafes,
ftands upon the fame footing with other ftudies, and
requells only the fame indulgence.
This technical Latin continued in ufe from the time
of its firft introdudlion, till the fubverfion of our an¬
cient conftitution under Cromwell; when, among many
other innovations in the law, fome for the better and
fome for the worfe, the language of our records was al¬
tered and turned into Englifh. But, at the reftoration
of king Charles, this novelty was no longer counte¬
nanced ; the praftifer* finding it very difficult to ex¬
prefs themfelves fo concifely or fignificantly in any o-
ther language but the Latin. And thus it continued
without any fenfible inconvenience till about the year
1730, when it was again thought proper that the pro¬
ceedings at law fhould be done into Englifh, and it
was accordingly fo ordered by ftatute 4 Geo. II. c. 26.
This was done, in order that the common people
might have knowledge and underftanding of what
was alleged or done for and againft them in the
procefs and pleadings, the judgment and entries in
caufe. Which purpofe it is doubtful how well it
has anfwered ; but there is reafon to fufpeA, that
the people are now, after many years experience,
altogether as ignorant in matters of law as before. On
the other hand, thefe inconveniences have already
arifen from the alteration ; that now many clerks and
attorneys are hardly able to read, much lefs to under¬
ftand, a tecord even of fo modern a date as the reign
of George I. And it has much enhanced the expence
of all legal proceedings : for fince the pra&ifers are
confined (for the fake of the ftamp-duties, which are
thereby confiderably increafed) to write only a dated
number of words in a fheet; and as the Englifh lan¬
guage, through the multitude of its particles, is much
more verbofe than the Latin ; it follows, that the num¬
ber of fheets muft be very much augmented by the
change. The tranflation alfo of technical phrafes, and
the names pf writs and other procefs,Svere found to
be fo very ridiculous (a writ of nifi prius, quare impedit,
ferifacias, habeas corpus, and the reft, not being ca¬
pable of an Englifh drefs with any degree of feriouf.
nefs), that in two years time a new ad was obliged to
LAW [ 727 1 LAW
ws'Law. be made, 6 Geo. II. c. 14. which allows all technical
, Ir-v——^ WOrds to continue in the ufual language, and has
thereby defeated every beneficial purpofe of the former
ftatute.
Trial by Wager of Law, (vacliatiolegis ;) a fpecies of
trial, in the Englifh law, fo called, as another fpecies is
ftyled “ wager of battel,” vadiath duelli, (fee Battel):
becaufe, as in the wager of battel, the defendant gave
a pledge, gage, or vadium, or try the caufe by bat¬
tel 5 fo here he was put in fureties or vadios, that at
fuch a day he will make his law, that is, take the be¬
nefit which the law has allowed him, (fee the article
Trial). For our anceftors confidered, that there
were many cafes where an innocent man, of good cre¬
dit, might be overborne by a multitude of falfe wit-
neffes ; and therefore eftablilhed this fpecies of trial,
I by the oath of the defendant himfelf: for if he will ab-
folutely fwear himfelf not chargeable, and appears to
• be a perfon of reputation, he fltall go free, and for ever
acquitted of the debt, or other caufe of adtion.
ckj}. The manner of waging and making law is this.
mmt. He that has waged, or given fecurity, to make his
law, brings with him into court eleven of his neigh¬
bours : a cuftom which we find particularly defcribed
fo early as in the league between Alfred and Guthrun
the Dane; for by the old Saxon conftitution every
man’s credit in courts of law depended upon the opi¬
nion which his neighbours had of his veracity. The
defendant then, Handing at the end of the.bar, is ad-
monilhed by the judges of the nature and danger of a
! falfe path. And if he ftill perfifts, he is to repeat
this or the like oath : “ Hear this, ye juftices, that I
do not owe unto Richard Jones the fum of ten pounds
nor any penny thereof, in manner and form as the faid
Richard hath declared againft me. So help me God.”
And thereupon his eleven neighbours or compurga¬
tors fhall avow upon their oaths, that they believe in
their confciences that he faith the truth ; fo that him¬
felf muft be fworn de jidelitate, and the eleven de credu-
litate.
In the old Swedilh or Gothic conftitution, wager
of law was not only permitted, as it is in criminal
cafes, unlefs the faft be extremely clear againft the
prifoner; but was alfo abfolutely required, in many
mlooi, civil cafes : which an author of their own very juftly
> 1. c. charges as being the fource of frequent perjury. This,
he tells us, was owing to the Popifh eccletiaftics, who
introduced this method of purgation from their canon
law; and, having fown a plentiful crop of oaths in all
judicial proceedings, reaped afterwaids an ample har-
veft of perjuries: for perjuries were punifhed in part
by pecuniary fines, payable to the coffers of the
church. But with us in England wager of law is ne¬
ver required; and then only admitted, where an adlion
is brought upon fuch matters as may be fuppofed to
be privately tranfafted between the parties, and where¬
in the defendant may be preftimed to have made fatis-
fa&ion without being able to prove it. Therefore it
is only in adlions of debt upon fimple contrail, or for
" amercement, in a&ions of detinue, and of account,
where the debt may have been paid, the goods refto-
! red, or the account balanced, without any evidence of
either. And by fuch wager of law (when admitted)
the plaintiff is perpetually barred ; for the law-, in the
fimplicity of the ancient times, prefumed that no o^e
-5
would forfwear himfelf for any worldly thing. Wager Cuftom-
of law, however, lieth in a real a&ion, where the te-
nant alleges he was not legally fummoned to appear,. 'a"s' .
as well as in mere perfonal contrails.
The wager of law was never permitted but where
the defendant bore a fair and unreproachable charac¬
ter; and it was alfo confined to fuch cafes where a
debt might be fuppofed to be difcharged, or fatisfac-
tion made in private, without any witntffes to atteft
it: and many other prudential reftriilions accompa¬
nied this indulgence. But at length it was confidered,
that (even under all its reftriilions.) it threw too great
a temptation in the way of indigent or profligate men:-
and therefore by degrees new remedies were deviled,
and new forms of ailion were introduced, wherein no
defendant is at liberty to wage his law-. So that now
no plaintiff need at all apprehend any danger from the
hardinefs of his debtor’s confcience, unlefs he volunta¬
rily choofes to rely on his adverfary’s veracity, by-
bringing an obfolete, in (lead of a modern, aition.
Therefore, one fhall hardly hear at prefent of an ac¬
tion of debt brought upon a fimple contrail: that be¬
ing fupplied by an aition of trefpafs on the cafe for the
breach of a promife or ajumpfit; wherein, though the
fpecific debt cannot be recovered, yet damages may,
equivalent to the fpecific debt. And, this being an
ailion of trefpafs, no law can be waged therein. So,
inltead of an ailion of detinue to recover the very thing
detained, an aition of trefpafs on the cafe in trover and
converfion is ufually brought; wherein, though the
horfe or other fpecific chattel cannot be had, yet the
defendant fhall pay damages for the converfion, equal
to the value of the chattel; and for this trefpafs alfp
no wager of law is allowed. In the room of aitiona
of account, a bill in equity is ufually filed: wherein,
though the defendant anfwers upon his oath, yet fuch
oath is not conclufive to the plaintiff; but he may
prove every article by other evidence, in contradiilion
to what the defendant has fworn. So that wager of
law is quite out of ufe, being avoided by the mode of
bringing the ailion ; but ftill it is not out of force.
And therefore, when a new ftatute infliils a penalty,
and gives an ailion of debt for recovering it, it is u-
fual to add, “ in which no wager of law- ftiall be al¬
lowed 1” otherwife an hardy delinquent might efcape
any penalty of the law, by fwearing he had never in¬
curred, or elfe had difcharged it.
Cuflom-Houfe Laws. The expedient of exailing.
duties on goods imported, or exported, has been a-
dopted by every commercial nation in Europe. The
attention of the Britifh legiflature has not been confi¬
ned to the ohjeil of raifing a revenue alone, but they
have attempted by duties, exemptions, drawbacks,
bounties, and other regulations, to direil the national
trade into thofe channels that contribute moft to the
public benefit. And, in order to obtain every requi-
fite information, all goods, exported or imported,
whether liable to duty or not, are required to be en¬
tered at the tefpedlive cuflom houfes ; and, from thefe
entries, accounts are regularly made up of the whole
Britifti trade, diftinguifhing the articles, their quanti¬
ty and value, and the countries which fupply or re¬
ceive them.
The objedls of the Britifh legiflature may be redu¬
ced to the following heads :
LAW [ 738 ] LAW
Cufrotn- Firlt, To encourage the employment of Britidi
Laws* Upping and feamen, for the purpof* of fupplylng our
» ■ navy when public exigencies require.
Secondly, To increafe the quantity of money In the
nation, by prohibiting the exportation of Britilh coin,
by encouraging exportation, and difcouraging impor¬
tation, and by promoting agriculture, fifheriea, and
manufaftures. For thefe purpofes, it is penal to en¬
tice certain manufadturers abroad, or export the tools
ufed in their manufadhrres ; the exportation of raw
materials is, in moft inftances, prohibited; and their
importation permitted free from duty, and fometimes
rewarded with a bounty. The exportation of fome
goods, manufa&ured to a certain length only (for
example white cloth), is loaded with a duty, but per¬
mitted duty free when the manufafture is carried to
its full extent. The importation of rival manufaftures
is loaded with heavy duties, or abfolutely prohibited.
Thefe reftridfions are moft fevere towards nations with
which the balance of trade is fuppofed againft us, or
which are confidered as our moft formidable rivals in
power or commerce. Upon this principle the com¬
merce with France, till lately, laboured under the
heavieft reftridtions.
Thirdly, To fecure us plenty of neceffaries for fub-
fiftence and manufadture, by difcouraging the expor¬
tation of fome articles that confume by length of time,
and regulating the corn-trade according to the exigen¬
cies of the feafons.
Fourthly, To fecure the trade of the colonies to
the mother-country, and preferve a mutual inter-
courfe, by encouraging the produce of their ftaple-
commodities, and reftraining their progrefs in thefe
manufadtures which they receive from us in exchange.
HamUtin's The foundation of our commercial regulations is the
JntfoduSiian famous adf of navigation, which was firft enadted du-
to Mctchan*j-jng the time of the commonwealth, and adopted by
,Je’ the firft parliament after the reftoration. The fub-
ftance of this aft, and fubfcquent amendments, is as
follows.
1. Goods from Afia, Africa, and America, may
not be imported, except in Britifh fhips duly naviga¬
ted, or (hips belonging to the Britifh plantations ; and
they can only be imported from the place of their pro-
dudlion or manufadture, or the port where they are
ufually firft (hipped for tranfportation. Goods of the
Spanifh or Portuguefe plantations, imported from
Spain and Portugal in Britifh (hips, bullion and fome
other inconfiderable articles are excepted.
The reftriftion on European goods is not universal,
but extends to feyeral of the bulkieft articles. Ruffian
goods, mafts, timber, boards, fait, pitch, rafin, tar,
hemp, flax, raifins, figs, prunes, olives, oil, corn, fu-
gar, potafhes, wine, and vinegar, may not be import¬
ed, except in (hips belonging to Great Britain or Ire¬
land, legally manned ; nor Turkey goods and currants,
except in (hips Britifh built; or in (hips belonging to
the country where thefe goods are produced or manu-
faftured, or firft (hipped for exportation ; and, if im¬
ported in foreign (hips, they pay alien’s duty.
In order to intitle a (hip to the privileges of a Bri¬
tifh (hip, it muft be built in Britain, and belong en¬
tirely to Britilh fubjefts; and the mafier, and three-
fourths of the mariners, muft be Britifh fubjefts, ex¬
cept in cafe of death, or unavoidable accidents. In
K° 179.
time of war, the proportion of Britifh mariners requi¬
red is generally confined to one-fourth ; and the fame
proportion only is required in the Greenland fifhery.
No goods may be imported into, or exported from,
the plantations in Afia, Africa, or America, except
in drips built in Britain, Ireland, or the plantations,
or prize-(hips, manned by Britifti fubjefts, duly re-
giftered, and legally navigated.
The following goods, enumerated in the aft of na¬
vigation and fubfequent afts, may not be exported
from the plantations, except to fome other plantation
or to Britain : Tobacco, cotton-wool, indigo, ginger,
fuftic, and other dying wood, molafles, hemp, copper-
ore, beaver-(leins and other furs, pitch, tar, turpen¬
tine, mafts, yards, and bolfprits, coffee, pymento, co¬
coa-nuts, whale fins, raw filk, pot and pearl afhes.
Rice and fugar were formerly comprehended in this
lift, but their exportation is now permitted under cer¬
tain reftriftions.
Iron may not be imported to Europe, except t®
Ireland 5 and none of the non-enumerated may be im¬
ported to any country north of Cape Finifterre, ex¬
cept the Bay of Bifcay and Ireland.
2. For the more effeftual prevention of fmuggling,
no goods may be imported in veffels belonging to Bri¬
tifh fubjefts, and no wine, in any veffel whatever, un
lefs the mafter have a manifeft on board, containing
the name, meafure, and built of the (hip, the place to
which it belongs, and a diftinft enumeration of the
goods on board, and places where they were laden.
If the (hip be cleared from any place under his Maje-
fty’s dominions, the manifeft muft be attelled by the
chief officer of the cuftoms, or chief magiftrate, who
is required to tranfmit a copy thereof to the place of
deftination. Ship-mafters muft deliver copies of this
manifeft to the firft cuftom-houfe officer who goes on
board within four leagues of the (bore, and alfo to the
firft who goes on board within the limits of any port,
and muft deliver the original manifeft to. the cuftom-
houfe at their arrival, and make report of their cargo
upon oath. If the report difagree with the manifeft,
or either difagree with the cargo on board, the (hip-
mafter is liable in the penalty of L. 200. The pro¬
prietors of the goods muft enter them, and pay the
duties within 20 days; otherwife they may be carried
to the cuftom-houfe, and fold by auftion, if not relie¬
ved within fix months; and the overplus of the value,
after paying duty and charges, paid to the proprie¬
tors.
3. The importation of cattle, beef, mutton, and
pork, except from Ireland, woollen cloths, malt, and
various articles of hardware, cutlery, and earthen ware,
is prohibited: Alfo the following goods from Germa¬
ny and the Netherlands; olive oil, pitch, tar, pot-
afhes, rofin, fait, tobacco, wines, except Rhenifh
wine, and Hungary wines from Hamburgh.
4. The importation of various other goods is re-
ftrifted by particular regulations refpefting the time
and place of importation, the packages, the burden
of the (hip, the requifition of a licence, and other cir-
cumftances.
To guard more effeftually againft clandeftine trade,
the importation of fome articles is only permitted in
(hips of a certain burden, whofe operations are not ea-
fily concealed. Spirits muft be imported in (hips of
10®
LAW r 729 J L A W
!oO tons or upwards, except rum, and fpirlts of Bri-
tifli plantations, which are only reftrifted to 70 tons;
wine, 60 tons; tea, tobacco, and fnuff, 50 tons; fait,
40 tons. Wine, fpirits, and tobacco are alfo reftrift-
ed in refpeft of the packages in which they may be
imported.
5. Diamonds and precious Hones, flax, flax-feed,
linen-rags, beaver-wool, wool for clothiers, linen-yarn
unbleached, and moft. drugs ufed in dying, may be
imported duty free.
6. All goods imported are liable to duties, except
fuel* as are exprefsly exempted. The revenue of cu-
ftoms is of great antiquity in Britain, but was new-
modelled at the reftoration of Charles II. A fubfidy
of tonnage on wines, and of poundage, or 1 s. per
pound value of other goods, was granted during the
king’s life, and, after feveral prolongations, rendered
perpetual. A book of rates was compofed for afeer-
taining thefe values ; and articles not rated paid duty
according to the value, as affirmed upon oath by the
importer. If the goods be valued too low by the im¬
porter, the cuftom-houfe officer may feize them, upon
paying to the proprietor the value he fwore to, and
10 per cent, for profit; fuch goods to be fold, and
the overplus paid into the cuftoms. Various addi¬
tional duties have been impofed ; fome on all goods,
fame on particular kinds; fome according to the rates,
fome unconne&ed with the rates; fome with an al¬
lowance of certain abatements, fome without any al¬
lowance ; the greater part to be paid down in ready
money, and a few for which fecarity may be granted ;
often with variations, according to the flrip’s place
and circumftances of importation. The number of
branches amounted to upwards of 50 ; and fometimes
more‘than 10 were chargeable on the fame articles.
By this means, the revenue of the cuftoms has be¬
come a fubjecl of much intricacy. The inconvenien-
ces which this gave rife to are now removed by the
confolidation aft; which appoints one fixed duty fof
each article free from fraftions, inftead of the various
branches to which they were formerly fubjeft.
7. Goods of moll kinds may be exported duty free
when regularly entered ; and thofe that have paid du¬
ty on importation are generally intitled to drawback
of part, fometimes of the whole, when re exported
within three years, upon certificate that the duties
were paid on importation, and oath of their identity.
In fome cafes, a bounty is given on manufaftured
goods, when the materials from which they are ma¬
nufaftured have paid duty on importation; and ma¬
nufactures fubjeft to excife, have generally the whole
or part of the excife duties returned.
8. The following goods are prohibited to be ex¬
ported; white-alhes, horns, unwrought hides of black-
cattle, tallow, coin, brafs, copper, engines for knit¬
ting ftockings, tools for cotton, linen, woollen, filk,-
iron, and fteel manufactures; wool, woolfdls, wool¬
len yarn, fullers earth, fulling clay, and tobacco pipe¬
clay.
9. The objeft of the laws refpefting the corn-trade
is to encourage agriculture, by not only permitting
the free exportation, but rewarding it with a bounty
when the prices are low, and checking the importa¬
tion by a heavy duty ; and, to prevent fcarcity, by
prohibiting the exportation when the prices are high,
and permitting importation at an eafy duty. Various
temporary laws have been enafted for thefe purpofes,
and fometimes other expedients employed in times of
fcarcity, fuch as prohibiting the diilillery from corn,
and manufafture of ftarch : And by a permanent law
1773, the low duties and bounties are regulated as
under;
Wheat at or above
Rye,
Peafe and beans,
Oats,
Barley,
Lo
48 s.
32 s.
32 s.
l6 8.
24 S.
w duty,
per qr 6 d-
2 d.
2 d.
Bounty.
under 44 s. 5 s,
28 s. 3 s.
28 s. no bounty.
14 s. 2 8.
22 s. 2 s. 6d.
The duties, when the prices are lower than in the firft
column, amount to a prohibition. When the prices
are higher than in the column prefixed tb the bounty,
no exportation is permitted. When oats are under
the bounty price, oatmeal is intitled to a bounty of
2 s. 6d. per quarter.
10. Bounties are allowed on the exportation of re¬
fined fugar, fail cloth, linen under limited prices, filk
fluffs of Britifh manufafture, cordage, fpirits when
barley is under 24 s. beef, pork, and the following
kinds of fifh, falmon, herrings, pilchards, cod, ling,
flake, and fprats.
Various other bounties are allowed for the encou¬
ragement of our fiflieries. Ships from 150 to 300
tons employed in the Greenland whale-fiihery, and
conforming to the regulations preferibed, are allowed
30 s. per ton. Veffels employed in the herring-fifliery
receive 20s. per ton, befides a bounty on the herrings
caught and cured, amounting in fome cafes to 4s. per
barrel. Other bounties are granted to a limited num¬
ber of the moft fuccefsful veffels employed in the her-
Vol. I£. Part II.
ring and Newfoundland fiiheries, and in the fouther#
whale-fifhery.
It is unneceffary and imprafticable, in this place, to
enter into a full detail of oiir cuftom-houfe laws. In¬
deed, all that can be admitted into a work of this
kind, muft convey but very imperfeft information 5
and even that little becomes ufelefs in a ffiort time
from alterations in the law. We have therefore only
marked the general outlines in the prefent article ;
which, however, will be fufficient to enable the read¬
er to judge of the principles upon which the Britifti
legiflarure has afted. How far the means employed
have contributed to the ends propofed, and how far
the ends themfelves are always wife; or whether a
trade encumbered by fewer reftriftions would not
prove more extenfive and beneficial; has been a fub¬
jeft of much difeuffion : and of late a more liberal fy-
ftem has been embraced in our commercial treaty with
France, and in other regulations.
Mercantile Laws. The laws relating to commercial
and maritime affairs approach nearer to uniformity
4 Z through
L A \V
through the different countries of Europe, th.an thofe
on other fubjefts. Some of the fundamental regula¬
tions have been taken from the Roman law; others
have been fuggefted by experience, during the pro-
grefs of commerce; and the whole have been gradual¬
ly reduced to a fyftem, and adopted into the laws of
trading nations, but with fome local varieties and ex¬
ceptions.
The Britifh legiflature has enacted many ft^tutes re-
fpecting commerce ; yet the greater part of our mer¬
cantile law is to be colle&ed from the decifions of our
courts of juftice, founded on the cuftcm of merchants.
A proof of fuch cuftom, where no-direft ftatute inter¬
feres, determines the controverfy, and becomes a pre¬
cedent for regulating like cafes afterwards. The ex-
iilence of a cuftom not formerly recognifed, is, in Eng¬
land, determined by a jury of merchants.
The moft common mercantile contracts are thofe be¬
tween buyer and feller ; between faftor and employer;
between partners ; between the owners, mailers, ma¬
riners, jind freighters of fhips; between infurers and
the owners of the fubjedl infured ; and between the
parties concerned in tranfa&ing bills of exchange. See
FAcroRAtJE, Sale, Partnership,Insurance, Bill,
&c. and the next article.
Maritime Laws. The moft ancient fyftem of mari¬
time laws is that of Rhodes, which was in force du¬
ring the time of the Grecian empire, and afterwards
incorporated into the Roman law. Although, in fome
parts, not applicable to the prefent ftate of trade, and,
in others, now hardly intelligible, it contains the ground¬
work of the moft equitable and beneficial rules obfer-
•ved in modern commerce. A like fyftem was fet forth
by Richard I. of England, called the Statutes of Okron;
and another, by the town of Wifby,- in the ifland of
Gothland. From thefe fy Items, improved and enlarged
in the courfe of time, our general maritime law is de¬
rived. The jurifdi&ion of matters purely maritime
belongs, in England, to the court of admiralty, which
proceeds on the civil law ; but their proceedings are
fubjedt to the controul, and their decifions to the re¬
view, of the fuperior courts.
We ill all here confider the obligations which fubfift
between the mafters or owners of fhips, the freighters,
and the furnifhers of provifions or repairs.
I. Majlers and Freighters. A charter-party is a
contraft between the mafter and freighters, in which
the fhip and voyage is deferibed, and the time and
conditions of performing it are afeertained.
The freight is moft frequently determined for the
whole voyage, without refpedl to time. Sometimes it
depends on the time.
In the former cafe, it is either fixed at a certain fum
for the whole cargo ; or fo much per ton, barrel-bulk,
or other weight or meafure ; or fo much per cent, on
the value of the cargo. This laft is common on goods
fent to America; and the invoices are produced to af-
eertain the value.
The burden of the fhipjs generally mentioned in the
contraft, in this manner, one hundred tons, or thereby ;
and the number mentioned ought not to differ above
5 tons, at moft, from the exaft meafure. If a certain
fum be agreed on for the freight of the fhip, it muft
all be paid, although the fhip, when meafured, fhould
prove lefs, unlefs the burden be warranted. If the
LAW
fhip be freighted for tranfporting cattle, or flaves, at fo
much a head, and fome of them die on the paffage, ~"V"
freight is only due for fuch as are delivered alive;
but, if for lading them, it is due for all that were put'
on board.
When a whole fhip is freighted, if the mafter fuffers
any other goods befides thoie of the freighter to be
put on board, he is liable for damages.
It is common to mention the number of days that
the fhip fhall continue at each port to load or unload.
The expreffion ufed is, word weather days; to fignify,
that Sundays, holidays, and days when the weather
flops the work, are not reckoned. If the fhip be de¬
tained longer, a daily allowance is often agreed on, ia
name of demurrage.
If the voyage be completed in terms of the agree¬
ment, without any misfortune, the mafter has a right
to demand payment of the freight before he delivers
the goods. But if the fafe delivery be prevented by
any fault or accident, the parties are liable, according
to the/ollowing rules.
If the merchant do not* load the fhip within the
time agreed on, the mafter may engage with another,,
and recover damages.
If the merchant load the fhip, and recal it after it
has fet fail, he muft pay the whole freight; but if he
unload it before it fets fail, he is liable for damages
only.
If a merchant loads goods which it is not lawful to*
export, and the fhip be prevented from proceeding
on that account, he muft pay the freight notwith-
ftanding.
If the fhipmafter be not ready to proceed on the
voyage at the time agreed on, the merchant may load,
the whole, or part of the cargo, on board another
fhip, and recover damages ; but chance, or notorious
accident, by the marine law, releafcs the mafter from
damages.
If an embargo be laid on the fhip before it fails, the
charter-party is diffolved, and the merchant pays the
expence of loading and unloading; but if the embargo
be only for a fhort limited time, the voyage fhall
performed when it expires, and neither party is liable
for damages.
If the fhipmafter fails to any other port than that
agreed on, without neceflity, he is liable for damages ^
if through neceflity, he mult fail to the port agreed on*
at his own expence.
If a (hip be taken by the enemy, and retaken or
ranfomed, the charter-party continues in force.
If the mafter transfer the goods from his own fhip;
to another, without neceflky, and they perifh, he ia
liable for the value ; but if his own fhip be in immi¬
nent danger, the goods may be put on board another
fhip at the rifk of the owner.
If a fhip be freighted out and home, and a fum a-
greed on for the whole voyage, nothing is due till it
return ; aid the whole is loft if the fhip be loft on the
return.
If a certain fum be fpecified for the homeward voy¬
age, it is due, although the faftor abroad fhould have
no goods to fend home.
In the cafe of a fhip freighted to Madeira, Caroli¬
na, and home, a particular freight fixed for the home¬
ward voyage, and an option referved for the^ faftor afc
z Carolina
1 73° I
LAW [ 731 ] LAW
Carolina to decline it, uhlefs the (hip arrived before
ill of March : the fhipmafter, forefeeing he could not
arrive there within that time, and might be difap-
pointed of a freight, did not go there at all. He
was found liable in daifiages, as the obligation was
abfolute on his part, and conditional only on the
other.
If the goods be damaged without fault of the (hip
or mafter, the owner is not obliged to receive them
and pay freight, but he muft either receive the whole,
or abandon the whole; he cannot.choofe thofe that are
in beft order, and rejeft the others. If the goods be
damaged through the infufficiency of the (hip, the
matter is liable for the fame 5 but, if it be owing to
ftrefs of weather, he is not accountable. It is cuftom-
ary for (hipmafters, when they fufpeft damage, to take
a protejl agalnjl •wind and ^weather at their arrival.
But as this is the declaration of a party, it does
not bear credit, unlefs fupported by collateral circum-
ftances.
If part of the goods be thrown over-board, or ta-
icen by the enemy, the part delivered pays freight.
The (hipmafter is accountable for all the goods re¬
ceived on board, by himfelf or mariners, unlefs they
perilh by the a<ft of Gon, or of the king’s enemies.
Shipmafters are not liable for leakage on liquors ;
nor accountable for the contents of packages, unlefs
packed and delivered in their prefence.
Upon a principle of equity, that the labourer is
worthy of his hire, differences afifing with regard to
freight, when the cafe is doubtful, ought rather to be
determined in favour of the (hipmafter.
2. Ship and Owners with Creditors. When debts are
-contra&ed for provifions or repairs to a (hip, or arife
from a failure in any of the above mentioned obliga¬
tions, the (hip and tackle, and the owners, are liable
for the debt, as well as the matter.
By the mercantile law, the owners are liable in all
cafes, without limitation; but by ftatute, they are not
liable for embezzlement beyond their value of (hip,
tackle, and freight.
A (hipmafter may pledge his (hip for neceflary re¬
pairs during a voyage ; and this hypothecation is im¬
plied by the maritime law when fuch debts are con-
traftcd. This regulation is neceflary, and is therefore
adopted, by all commercial nations ; for, otherwife,
the matter might not find credit for neceflary repairs,
and the (hip might be loft. If repairs be made at dif
ferent places, the laft are preferable.
The relief againft the (hip is competent to the court
of admiralty in England, only when repairs are fur-
nifhed during the coatfe of a voyage; for the neceffity
of the cafe extends no further If a (hip be repaired
at home (e. £. upon the river Thames), the creditor is
only intitled to relief at common law.
The creditor may fue either the matters or owners;
but if he undertook the work on the fpecial promife
of the one, the pther is not liable.
If the matter buys provifions on credit, the owners
are liable for the, debt, though they have given him
■money to pay them.
If a (hip be moitgaged, and afterwards loft at fea,
the owners muft pay the debt; for the mortgage is
only an additional fecurity, though there be no exprefs
wolds to that purpofe in the covenant.
If a (hip be taken by the enemy, and ranfomed, the
owners are liable to pay the ranfom, though the ran- '•—v"”
fomer die in the hands of the captors.
3. Owners of Jhip and cargo with each other. There
is a mutual obligation which fubfift.s between all the
owners of a (hip and cargo. In time of danger, it
is often neceflary to incur a certain lofs of part for
the greater fecurity of the reft ; to cut a cable ; to
lighten the (hip, by throwing part of the goods over¬
board ; to run it alhore ; or the like : and as it is un-
reafonable that the owners of the thing expofed for
the common fafety (hould bear the whole lofs, it is
defrayed by an equal contribution among the proprie¬
tors of the (hip, cargo, and freight. This is the fa¬
mous Lex Rhodia de ja£lut and is now called a general
average.
The cuftom of valuing goods which contribute to a
general average, is not uniform in all places. They
are generally valued at the price they yield at the port
of deftination, charges deduced ; and goods thrown
overboard are valued at the price they would have
yielded there. Sailors wages, cloaths and money be¬
longing to paflengers, and goods belonging to the king,
pay no general average; but proprietors of gold and
filver, in cafe of goods being thrown overboard, con¬
tribute to the full extent of their intereft.
The following particulars are charged as general a-
Verage : Damage fuftained in an engagement with the
enemy ; attendance on the wounded, and rewards gi¬
ven for fervice in time of danger, or gratuities.to the
widows or children of the (lain ; ranfom $ goods given
to the enemy in the nature of ranfom; charges of bring¬
ing the (hip to a place of fafety when in danger from
the enemy, or waiting for convoy ; charges o( quaran¬
tine 5 goods throwq overboard; mafts or rigging cut %
holes cut in the (hip to clear it of water; pilotage,
when a lake is fprung ; damage, when voluntarily run
aground, and expence of bringing, it afloat ; goods
loft by being put in a lighter; the long boat loft in
lightening the Ihip in time of danger; hire of cables
and anchors; charges of laying in ballad, victualling,
and guarding the (hip when detained ; charges at law,
in reclaiming the (hip and cargo; intereft and com-
miflion on all thefe debuifements
Though goods put on board a lighter, and loft, are
charged as a general average; yet if the lighter be
faved, and the (hip with the reft of the goods be loft,
the goods in the lighter belong to their refpeCtive pro¬
prietors, without being liable to arty contribution.
If part of the goods be plundered by a pirate, the
proprietor or (hipmafter is not intitled to any contri¬
bution.
The eflential circumftances that conftitute a general
average are thefe ; the lofs muft be the effeCft of a vo¬
luntary aCtion ; and the objeCt of that aCtion the com¬
mon fafety of the whole. Quarantine, which is allow¬
ed, feems not to fall within this defeription.
4. Quarantine. See Quarantine.
5. Wrecks. See Wreck.
6. Imprefs. See Impressing.
7. Infurance. See Insurance..
Game-Laws. See the article Game.
Sir William Blackftonc, treating of the alterations in
our laws, and mentioning franchifes granted of chafe
and free warren, as well to preferve the breed of ani-
4Z 2 mala,
LAW [ 73? ] LAW
Law. mals, as to indulge the fubjeA, adds, “ From a fimi-
lar principle to which, though the foreft laws are now
mitigated, and by degrees grown entirely obfolete;
yet from this root has fprung a bajlardflip, known by
the name of the game-law, now arrived to and wan¬
toning in its highett vigour: both founded upon the
fame unreafonable notion of permanent property in
wild creatures; and both produ&ive of the fame ty¬
ranny to the commons; but with this difference, that
the foreft-laws eftablifhed only one mighty hunter
throughout the land ; the game laws have raifed a little
Nimrod in every manor And in one refpeft the an¬
cient law was much lefs unreafonable than the modern;
for the king’s grantee of a chafe or free-warren, might
kill game in every part of his franchife ; but now,
though a freeholder of lefs than L. xoo a-year is for-
liddenio hill partridge upon his own ejlate, yet nobody
elfe (not even the lord of the manor, unlefs he hath
a grant of free warren) can do it without committing a
irefpafs and fibjeSing himfelf to an aftion.
Under the article Game, the deftroying fuch beafts
and fowls as are ranked under that denomination, was
obferved (upon the old principles of the foreft-law)
to be a trefpafs and offence in all perfons alike, who
have not authority from the crown to kill game (which
is royal property) by the grant of either a free war¬
ren, or at leaft a manor of their own. But the laws
called the game-laws have alfo inflidted additional pu-
niftrments (chiefly pecuniary) on perfons guilty of this
general offence, unlefs they be people of fuch rank or
fortune as is therein particularly fpecified. All perfons,
therefore, of what property or diftinftion foever, that
kill game out of their own territories, or even upon
their own eftates/without the king’s licence expreffed
by the grant of a franchife, are guilty of the firft ori¬
ginal offence of encroaching on the royal prerogative.
And thofe indigent perfons who do fo, without ha¬
ving fuch rank or fortune as is generally called, a qua¬
lification, are guilty, not only of the original offence,
but of the aggravations alfo created by the ftatutes
for preferving the game : which aggravations are fo
feverely puniffed, and thofe puniftiments fo implaca¬
bly inflidted, that the offence againft the king is fel-
dom thought of, provided the miferable delinquent can
make his peace with the lord of the manor. The only
rational footing upon which this offence, thus aggra¬
vated, can be confidered as a crime, is, that in low
and indigent perfons it promotes idlenefs, and takes
them away from their proper employments and call¬
ings : which is an offence againft the public police and
economy of the commonwealth.
The ftatutes for preferving the game are many and
various, and not a little obfeure and intricate; it be¬
ing remarked, that in one flatute only, 5 Ann. c. 14.
there is falfe grammar in no fewer than fix places, be-
fides other miftakes: the occafion of which, or what
denomination of perfons were probably the penners of
thefe ftatutes, it is unneceffary here to inquire.. It
may be in general fufficient to obfetve, that the qua¬
lifications for killing game, as they are ufually called,,
or more properly the exemptions from the penalties
inflidfed by the ftatute law, are, l. The having a free¬
hold eftate of L. too per annum; there being fifty
times the property required to enable a man to kill a
jaatfcridge, as to vote for a knight of the flute. 2, A
leafehold for 99 years of L. 150 per annum. 3. Being
the fon and heir apparent of an efquire (a very loofe
and vague defeription) or perfon of fuperior degree.
4. Being the owner or keeper of a foreft, park, chafe,
or waren. For unqualified perfons tranfgrefling thefe
laws, by killing game, keeping engines for that pur-
pofe, or even having game in their cuftody, or for per¬
fons (however qualified) that kill game, or have it in
poffeflion, at unfeafonable times of the year, or unfea*
fonable hours of the day or night, on Sundays or on
Chriftmas day, there are various penalties alfigned, cor¬
poral and pecuniary, by different ftatutes (after-men¬
tioned), on any of which, but only on one at a time,
the juftices may convidt in a fummary way, or (in moft
of them) profecutions may be carried on at the aflizes.
And,laftly, by ftatuteaSGeo.II.c. 12. nopetfon,how-<*‘
ever qualified to kill, may make merchandife of this
valuable privilege, by felling or expofing to fale any
game, on pain of like forfeiture as if he had no quali¬
fication.
The ftatutes above referred to are as follow. No
perfon (hall take pheafants or partridges with engines
in another man’s ground, without licence, on pain of
10I. flat. 11 Hen. VII. c. 13. If any perfon ihall take
or kill any pheafants or partridges with any net in the
night-time, they (hall forfeit 20 s. for every pheafant,
and 10s. for every partridge taken; and hunting with
fpaniels in Handing corn, in cars a forfeiture of 40 s.
23 Eliz. c. 10. Thofe who kill any pheafant, par¬
tridge, duck, heron, hare, or other game, are liable
to a forfeiture of 20s. for every fowl and hare; and
felling, or buying to fell again, any hare, pheafant, &c.
the forfeiture is iqs. for each hare, &c. 1 Jac. I. c. 17,
Alfo pheafants or partridges are not to be taken be¬
tween the firft of July and the laft of Auguft, on pain
of imprifonment for a month, unlefs the offenders pay
20s. for every pheafant, &c. killed: and conftables,
having a Juftice of peace’s warrant, may fearch for
game and nets, in the poffeflion of perfons not quali¬
fied by law to kill game or to keep fuch nets,
7 Jac. I. c. 11. Conftables, by a warrant of a juftice
of peace, are to fearch houfes of fufpe&ed perfons for
game : and if any game be found upon them, and they
do not give a good account how they came by the
fame, they (hall forfeit for every hare, pheafant, or
partridge, not under 5 s. nor exceeding 20s. And in¬
ferior tradefmen hunting, &c. are fubjeft to the pe¬
nalties of the aft, and may likewife be fued for tref¬
pafs. If officers of the army or foldiers kill game with¬
out leave, they forfeit 5I. an officer, and 10s. a fol-
dier; 4 & 5 W. and M. c. 23. Higglers, chapmen,
carriers, inn-keepers, victuallers, &c. having in their
cuftody hare, pheafant, partridge, heath, game, &c.
(except fent by fbme perfon qualified to kill game);,
(hall forfeit for every hare and fowl 5I. to be levied
by diftrefs and fale of their goods, being proved by one
witnefs, before a juftice ; and for want of diftrefs ftisll
be committed to the houfe of correftion for three
months : one moiety of the forfeiture to the informer,
and the other to the poor. And felling game, or of¬
fering the fame to fale, incurs the like penalty; where¬
in hare and other game found in a ffiop, &c. is ad¬
judged an expofing to fale : killing hares in the night
is liable to the fame penalties : and if any perfons fhall
drive wild-fowls with nets, between the firft day of July
LAW [ 7W 1 LAW
Ji Law< and tKe firfl; of September, they ft all forfeit. 5 s. for
JT-- every fowl; 5 Ann. c. 14. 9 Ann. c. 25. If any
p * unqualified perfon ftall keep a gun, he ftall forfeit
10I.; and perfons being qualified may take guns from
thofe that are not, and break them ; 21 & 22 Car. II.
c. 25. and 33 H. VIIL c. 6. One juftice of peace, up-
Ion examination and proof of -he offence, may commit
the offender till he hath paid the forfeiture of 101.
And perfons, not qualified by law, keeping dogs, nets,
or other engines to kill game, being convi&ed thereof
before a juftice of peace, ftall forfeit 5I. or be fent to
the houfe of corre&ion for three months; and the
dogs, game, &c. ftall be taken from them, by the
ftatute 5 Ann. If a perfon hunt upon the ground of
another, fuch other perfon cannot juftify killing of his
I dogs, as appears by 2 Roll. Abr. 567. But it was
otherwife adjudged Mich. 33 Car. II. in C. B.
2 Cro. 44. and fee 3. Lev. xxviii. In a&ions of debt,
tam, 8cc. by a common informer on the ftatute
5 Ann. for 15I. wherein the plaintiff declared on two
■ feveral counts., one for tol. for killing two partridges,
the other for jl. for keeping an engine to deftroy the
game, not being qualified, &c. the plaintiff had a ver*
did for 5I. only : this adion was brought by virtue of
the ftat. 8 Geo. I. See ftat. 9 Geo. I. c. 22. See
likewife 24 Geo. II. c. 34. for the better prefervation
of the game in Scotland. By the ftat. 26 Geo. II.
c. 2. all fuits and adions brought by virtue of ttat. 8
Geo. I. c. for the recovery of any pecuniary pe¬
nalty, or fum of money, for offences committed againft
any law for the better prefervation of the game, ftall
be brought before the end of the fecond term after the
offence committed.
By 28 Geo. II. c. t2. perfons felling, or expofrng
- to fale, any game, are liable to the penalties inflided
by 5 Ann. c. 14. on higglers, &c. offering game to
fale : and game found in the houfe or poffefiion of a
poulterer, falefman, fiftmonger, cook, or paftry cook,
is deemed expofing thereof to fale.
By 2 Geo. III. c. 19. after the ift June 1762, no
perfon may take, kill, buy or fell, or have in his cu-
ftody, any partridge, between 12th February and ift
September, or pheafant between ill February and [ft
Odober, or heath-fowl between ift January and 20th
Auguft, or groufe between ift December and 25th
July, in any year; pheafants taken in their proper
feafon, and kept in mews, or breeding places, except¬
ed : and perfons offending in any of the cafes afore-
faid, forfeit jl. per bird, to the profecutor,. to be re¬
covered, with full cofts, in any of the courts at Weft-
minfter. By this ad, likewife, the whole of the pecu¬
niary penalties under the 8 Geo. I. c. 19. may be fued
for, and recovered to the foie ufe of the profecutor,
with double cofts ; and no part thereof to go to the
poor of the parift.
By 5 George III. c. 14. perfons convided of en¬
tering warrens in the night-time, and taking or kill¬
ing coneys ihere, or aiding or affifting therein, may
be punifted by tranfportation, or by whipping,- fine,
or imprifonment. Perfons convided on this ad,
not liable to be convided under any former ad. This
ad does not extend to t e deftroying coneys in the
day-time, on the fea and river banks in the county
©f Lincoln, &c. No fatisfadion to be made for da¬
mages occafronsd by entry, unlefs they exceed is. It
may aot be improper to mention an ad lately made,
and not yet repealed, viz. 10 Geo III. c. 19. for pre¬
fervation of the game, which ftows the importance of
the objed. It is thereby enaded, That if any per¬
fon kill any hare, &c. between fan fetting and fun-
rifing, or ufe any gun, &c. for deftroying game,
ftall for the firft offence be imprifoned for any time
not exceeding fix nor lefs than three months: if guilty
of a fecond offence, after convidion of a firft, to be
imprifoned for any time not exceeding 12 months nor
lefs than fix ; and ftall alfo, within three days after
the time of his commitment, either for the firft or for
any other offence, be once publicly whipped.
By 25 George III. c. 50. and 31 George III. c. 21.
every perfon in Great Britain (the royal family ex¬
cepted), who ftall, after July 1 1785, ufe any dog,
gun, net, or other engine, for the taking or deftruc-
tion of game (not as ading as gamekeeper), ftall de¬
liver in a paper or account in writing, containing his
name and place of abode, to the clerk of the peace or
his deputy, and annually take out a certificate there¬
of ; and every fuch certificate ftall be charged with *
ftamp-duty of L. 2, 2 s. (and an additional L. 1, 1 s. by
31 Geo. III. c. 21.) making in the whole L. 3, 3 s.-—
Every deputation of a gamekeeper ftall be regiltered
with the clerk of the peace, and fuch gamekeeper
ftall annually take out a certificate thereof; which
certificate ftall be charged with a ftamp duty of 10s. 6d.
(and an additional 10 s. <5d. by 31 Geo. III. c. 21),
making in the whole L. 1, is.—The duties to be un¬
der the management of the commiflioners of the ftamp-
office.
From and after the faid ift of July 1785, the clerk,
of the peace ftall annually deliver to perfons requiring
the fame, duly ftamped, a certificate or licence ac¬
cording to the form therein mentioned, for which he
ftall be intitled to demand 1 s. for his trouble j and on
refufal or negleft to deliver the fame, forfeit L. 20.
—Every certificate to bear date the day when iffued,
and to continue in force until the ill day of July then-
following, on penalty of 20I.
After the ift day of July 1785, any perfon that
ftall ufe any greyhound, hound, pointer, fetting-dog*
fpaniel, or other dog, or any gun, net, or engine, for
taking or killing" of game, without a certificate, is-
liable to the penalty of 201. And if any gamekeeper
ftall, for the fpace of 20 days after the faid ift day of
July, or if any gamekeeper thereafter to be appointed
ftall, for the fpace of 20 days next after fuch ap¬
pointment,. negledl or refufe to regifter his deputation
and take out a certificate thereof, he is liable to the-
penalty of 201.
The clerks of the peace are to tranfmit to the
ftamp-office in London alphabetical lifts of the certi¬
ficates granted in every year before the ift day of Au¬
guft, under penalty of 201. Thefe lifts are to be kept
at the ftamp-office in London, and there to be in*
fpe&ed on payment of is.:. And the commiffioners of
the ftamp duties are, once or oftener in every year, as
foon as fuch lifts are traafmitted to them, to caufe the
fame to be publilhed in the newfpapers circulating in
each county, or fuch public paper as they-fhall think
mo ft proper.
If any gamekeeper, who ftall have regiftered his
deputation, and taken out a certificate thereof, ftall.
be changed, and a new gamekeeper appointed in his
Head, the firfl; «crtificate is declared null and void^.,
LAW [ 734 ] L A W
and the perfon adding under the fame after notice, is
liable to the penalty of 20I. And any perfon in pur-
fuit of game, who {hall refufe to produce his certifi¬
cate, or to tell his name and place of abode, on {hall
give in any falfe or fidlitious name or place of abode
to any perfon requiring the fame, who (hall have ob¬
tained a certificate, is liable to the penalty of 501.
The certificates are not to authotife perfons to kill
game at any time prohibited by law, nor to give any
perfon any right to kill game, unlefs fuch perfon fhall
be qualified fo to do by the laws now in being, but lhall
be liable to the fame penalties as if this adf had not
palled. [So that though by this aft qualified and
unqualified perfons are equally included, yet having
a certificate does not give an unqualified perfon a right
to kill game : the point of right ftill Hands upon the
former afts of parliament; and any unqualified perfon
killing game without a certificate, is not only liable
to the penalty inflifted by this aft, but alfo to all the
Military Law. See Military and Marine.
fromer penalties relating to the killing of game, Sec.}
Witneffes refufing to appear on juftices fummons,
or appearing and refufing to give evidence, forfeit 1 o 1.
The certificates obtained under deputations, not to be
given in evidence for killing of game by a gamekeeper
out of the manor, in refpeft of which fuch deputa¬
tion or appointment was given and made. Perfons
counterfeiting ftamps to fuffer death as felons.
Penalties exceeding 201. are to be recovered in any
of his majefty’s courts of record at Weftminfter; and
penalties not exceeding 201. are recoverable before
two juftices, and may be levied by diftrefs. The whole
of the penalties go to the informer.
LAW (John), the famous projeftor, was the eld-
eft fon of a goldfmith burgefs in Edinburgh, by E-
lizabeth Campbell heirefs of Lauriefton near that city ;
and was born about the year »68x. He was bred to
no bufinefs; but poflefled great abilities, and a very
fertile invention. He had the addrefs, when but a
very young man, to recommend himfelf to the king’s
minifters in Scotland to arrange and fit the revenue
.accounts, which were in great diforder at the time of
fettling the equivalent before the union of the king¬
doms. The attention of the Scottilh parliament be¬
ing alfo turned to the contrivance of fome means for
fupplying the kingdom with money, and facilitating
the circulation of fpecie, for want of which the in-
duftry of Scotland languilhed-; he propofed to them,
for thefe purpofes; the eftablifhment of a bank of a
particular kind, which he feems to have imagined
might iffue paper to the amount of the whole value
of all the lands in the country: but this fcheme
the parliament by no means thought it expedient to
adopt.
His father dying about the year 1704, Law fuc-
.ceeded to the fmall eftate of Lauriefton; but the rents
being infufficient for his expences, he had recourfe to
gaming. He was tall and graceful in his perfon, and
much addifted to gallantry and finery ; and giving a
fort of ton at Edinburgh, he went commonly by the
name of Beau Laiu. He was forced to fly his coun¬
try, however, in the midft of his career, in confe-
-quence of having fought a duel and killed his anta-
.gonift ; and in fome of the French literary gazettes it
is faid that he run off with a married lady. In his
flight from juftice Us vifited Italy ; and was haniflted
from Venice and Genoa, becaufe he contrived to
drain the youth of thefe cities of their money, by his
fuperiority in calculation, that is, by being a cheat
and a (harper. He wandered over all Italy, living on
the event of the moft Angular.bets and wagers, which
feemed to be advantagt* us to thofe who were curious
after novelty; but which were always of the moft cer¬
tain fuccefs with regard to him. He arrived at Tu¬
rin, and propofed his fyftem to the duke of Savoy,
who faw atjonce, that, by deceiving his fubjefts, he
would in a fhort time have the whole money of the
kingdom in his poiTeflion : but that fagacious prince
alking him how his fubjefts were to pay their taxes
when all their money (hould be gone, Law was dif*
concerted, not expefting fuch a queftion.
Having been baniftied from Italy, and thus repulfed
at Turin, Law proceeded to Paris, where he was al¬
ready known as a projector. In the lifetime of Louis
XIV. he had tranfmitted his fchemes to Defmareft:
and to Chamillard, who had rejected them as dan¬
gerous innovations. He now propofed them to the
Due d’Orleans, who dtfired Noailles to examine
them, to be as favourable in his report as polfible-, and
to remark fuch of them as were prafticable. Noailles
called in the afiiftance of feveral merchants and bank¬
ers who were averfe to the fyftem. Law then propo-'
fed the eftabliftiment of a bank, compofed of a com¬
pany, with a ftock of fix millions. Such an inftitu-
tion proir.ifed to be very advantageous to commerce-.
An arret of the 2d March 1716 eftabliftied this bank,
by .authority, in favour of Law and his affociates; two
hundred thoufand (hares were inftituted of one thou-
fand livres each ; and Law depofited in it to the value of
two or three thoufand crowns which he had accumulated
in Italy, by gaming or otherwife. This eftabliftiment
very much difpleafed the bankers, becaufe at the be¬
ginning bufinefs was tranfafted here at a very fmall
premium, which the old financiers had charged very
highly. Many people had at firft little confidence in
this bank; but when it was found that the payments
were made with quicknefs and punctuality, they began
to prefer its notes to ready money. In confequence of
this, (hares rofe to more than 20 times their original va¬
lue ; and in 1719 their valuation was more than 80 times
the amount of all the current fpecie in the kingdom. But
the following year, this great fabric of falfe credit fell
to the ground, and almoft overthrew the French go¬
vernment, ruining fome thoufands of families ; and it
is remarkable, that the fame defparate game was play¬
ed by the South Sea direftors in England, in the fame
fatal year, 1730. Law being exiled as foon as the
credit of his projefts began to fail, retired to Venice,
where he died in 17.29.
The principles upon which Law’s original fcheme was
founded, are explained by himfdfin A Diftourfe concern¬
ing Money and Trade., which he publfihed in Scotland
where (as we have feen^ he firft propofed it. “ The
fplendid but viiionary ideas which are fet forth in that
and fome other works upon the fame principles (Dr
Adam Smith obferves), ftill continue to make an im-
preflion upon many people, and have perhaps in. part
contributed to that excefs of banking which has of
late been complained of both in Scotland and in other
places.”
LAW
LAW r 735 1 LAW
LAW (Edmund), D. D. blftiop of Carlifle, was
born in the parifh of Cartmel in Lancafhire, in the
year 1703. His father, who was a clergyman, held a
fmall chapel in that neigbourhood *, but the family had
been fituated at Alkham, in the county of Weftrnore-
land. He was educated for fome time at Cartmel
fchool, afterwards at the free grammar-fchool at Ken¬
dal ; from which he went, very well inftrutfed in the
learning of grammar fchools, to St John’s college in
Cambridge.
Soon after taking his firft degree, he was elefted fel¬
low of Chrift-college in that univerfity. During hisreli-
dence in which college, he became known to the public
by a Tranflation of Archbifhop King’s Effay upon the
Origin of Evil, with copious notes; in which many me-
taphyfical fubjefts, curious and interefting in their own
feature, are treated of with great ingenuity, learning,
and novelty. To this work was prefixed, under the
name of a Preliminary Differtation, a very valuable
piece, written by the reverend Mr Gay of Sidney col¬
lege. Our bilhop always fpoke of this gentleman in
terms of the greateft refpeft. In the Bible and in the
writings of Mr Locke, no man, he ufed to fay, was fo
well verfed.
Pie alfo, whilft at Chrift-college, undertook and
went through a very laborious part in preparing for
the prefs an edition of Stephens’s Thefaurus. His ac¬
quaintance, during this his firft refidence in the univer¬
fity, was principally with Dr Waterland, the learned
mafterof Magdalencollege; Dr Jortin, a name known to
every fcholar ; a;.d Dr Taylor, the editor of Demof-
thenes.
In the year 1737 he was prefented by the univerfity
to the living of Grayftock in the county of Cumber¬
land, areftory of about 300 1. a-year. The advowfon
of this benefice belonged to the family of Howards of
Grayftock, but devolved to the unrverfky, for this turn,
by virtue of an aft of parliament, which transfers to thefe
two bodies the nomination tofuch benefices as appertain,
at'the time of the vacancy, to the patronage of a Roman
catholic. The right, however, of the univerfity. was con-
tefted ; and it was not till after a law-iuit of two years
continuance that Mr Law was fettled in his living.
Soon after this, he married Mary the daughter of John
Chriftian, Efq; of Unerigg, in the county of Cumber¬
land ; a lady whofe chara&er is remembered with ten-
dernefs and efteem by all who kneW her.
In 1743, he was promoted by Sir George Fleming,
bifliop of Carlifie, to the archdeaconry of that diocefe;
and in *746 went from Grayftock to refide at Saiktld,
a pleafant village upon the banks of the river Eden,
the reflory of which is annexed to the archdeaconry.
Mr Law was not one of thofe who lofe and lorget
therr.felves in the country. During his refidenee at
Salkeld, he publifhed Confiderations on the Theory of
Religion : to which were fubjoined, Refleftions on the
Life and Chara&er of Chrirt ; and an Appendix con¬
cerning the ufe of the words Soul and Spirit in ho¬
ly feriptare, and the ftate of the dead there de:
feribed.
Dr Keene held at this time, with the bifhopric of
Chefter, the mafterfhip of Peterhoufe in Cambridge.
Defiring to leave the univerfity, he procured Dr Law
to be elefted to fucceed him in that ftation. This
lock place in the year 1756 ; in which year Dr Law
refigned his archdeaconry in favour of Mr Eyre, a bro- ^
ther-in -law of Dr Keene. Two years before this, he had  '
proceeded to his degree of Dodtor in Divinity ; in his
public exercife for which, he defended the do<arine of
what is ufually called the “ deep of the foul.”
About the year 1760, he wuis appointed head libra¬
rian of the univerfity ; a fituation which, as it pro¬
cured an eafy and quick accefs to books, was peculiar¬
ly agreeable to bis tafte and habits. Some time after
this, he was alfo appointed cafuiftical profeflor. In
the year 1762, he fuffered an irreparable lofs by the
death of his lady ; a lofs in itfelf every way affli&ing,
and rendered more fo by the fituation of his family,
which then confifted of eleven children, many of them
very young. Some years afterwards, he received fe-
veral preferments, which were rather honourable ex-
preffions of regard from his friends than of much ad¬
vantage to his fortune.
By Dr Cornwallis, then bifhop of Litchfield, after¬
wards, archbiihop of Canterbury, who had been his
pupil at Chrift-college, he was appointed to the arch¬
deaconry of Staffordfhire, and to a prebend in the
church of Litchfield. By his old acquaintance Dr
Green, biftiop of Lincoln, he was made a prebendary
of that church. But in the year 1767, by the inter¬
vention of the duke of Newcaftie, to whofe intereft, in
the memorable conteft for the high-ftewardfhip of the
univerfity, he had adhered in oppofition to fome temp¬
tations, he obtained a ftall in the chuich of Durham.
The year after this, the duke of Grafton, who had a
fhort time before been elefted chancellor of the
univerfity, recommended the mafter of Peterhoufe to
his majefty for the biftiopric of .Carlifle. This recom¬
mendation was made not only without folicitation on
his part or that of his friends, but without his know¬
ledge, until the duke’s intention in his favour was
fignified to him by the archbifhop.
In or about the year 1777, our bifhop gave to the
public a handfiame'edition, in three volumes quarto,
of the Works of Mr Locke, with a Life of the Author,
and a Preface. Mr Locke’s writings and chara&er ha
held in the higheft efteem, and feems to have drawn
from them many of his own principles : He was a dif-
ciple of that fchool. About the fame time he publifh¬
ed a trad, which engaged fome attention in the con-
troverfy concerning fubfeription ; and he publifhed
new editions of his two principal works, with confi-
derable additions, and fome alterations.
Dr Law held the fee of Carlifle almoft 19 years; du¬
ring which time he twice onlyomittedfpending thefum-
mer months in his diocefe at the bifhop’s refidence at
RofeCaftle; a fituation with which he was much plea fed,
not only on account of the natural beauty of the place,
but becaufe it reftored him to the country, in which he
had fpent the bed part of his lifei In the year 1787
he paid this vifit in a ftate of great weaknefs and ex-
hauftion; and died at Rofe about a month after his ar¬
rival there, on the 14th day. of Auguft, and in the
84th year of his age.
The lift: of the bifhop of Carlifle was a life of incef-
fant reading and thought, almoft entirely dire&ed to
metaphy fical and religious inquiries. Befides the works
already mentioned, he publifhed, in 1734 or I735‘»
a very ingenious Inquiry into the Ideas of Space, Time,
&c. in which he combats the opinions of Dr Clarke
anL
LAW r 736 ] A W
and his adherents on thefe fubje&s : but the tenet by
which his name and writings are principally diftin-
guifhed, is “ that Jefus Chrift, at his fecond coming,
will, by an aft of his power, reftore to life and con-
fcioufnefs the dead of the human fpecies, who, by their
own nature, and without this interpofition, would re¬
main in the ftate of infenfibility to which the death
brought upon mankind by the fin of Adam had redu¬
ced them.” He interpreted literally that faying of
St Paul, 1 Cor. xv. 2t. “ As by man came death,
by man came alfo the refurreftion of the dead.”
This opinion had no other effeft upon his own mind
than to increafe his reverence for Chriftianity, and for
its divine Founder. He retained it, as he did his other
fpeculative opinions, without laying, as many are wont
to do, an extravagant ftrefs upon their importance,
and without pretending to more certainty than the fub-
jeft allowed of. No man formed his own conclufions
with more freedom, or treated thofe of others with
greater candour and equity. He never quarrelled with
any perfon for differing from him, or confidered that
difference as a fufficient reafon for queftioning any
man’s fincerity, or judging meanly of his underftand-
ing. He was zealoufly attached to religious liberty,
becaufe he thought that it leads to truth ; yet from
his heart he loved peace. But he did not perceive any
repugnancy in thefe two things. There was nothing
in his elevation to his bilhopric which he fpoke of with
more pleafure, than its being a proof that decent free¬
dom of inquiry was not difcouraged.
He was a man of great foftnefs of manners, and of
the mildeft and mod tranquil difpofition. His voice
was never raifed above its ordinary pitch. His counte¬
nance feemed never to have been ruffled; it preferved the
fame kind and compofed afpeft, truly indicating the
calmnefsand benignity of his temper. He had an utter
diflike of large and mixed companies. Next to his
books, his chief fatisfaftion was in the ferious conver-
fation of a literary companion, or in the company of
a few friends. In this fort of fociety he would open
bis mind with great unrefervednefs, and with a pecu¬
liar turn and fprightlinefs of expreffion. His perfon
was low, but well formed : his complexion fair and de¬
licate. Except occafional interruptions by the gout,
he had fort he greateft part of his life enjoyed good
health ; and when not confined by that diftemper, was
full of motion and aftivity. About nine yeajs before
his death, he was greatly enfeebled by a fevere attack
of the gout in his ftomach; and a (hort time after that,
loft the ufe of one of his legs. Notwithttanding his
fondnefs for exercife, he refigned himfelf to this change,
not only without complaint, but without any fenlible
diminution of his cheerfulnefs and good-humour. His
fault (for we are not writing a panegyric) was the
general fault of retired and ftudious charafters,too great
a degree of inaftion and facility in his public ftation.
The modefty, or rather bafhfulnefs of his nature, to¬
gether with an extreme unwillingnefs to give pain,
rendered him fometimes lefs firm and efficient in the
adminiftration of authority than was requifite. But it
is the condition of human morality. There is an op-
pofition between fome virtues which feldom permits
them to fubfift together in perfection.
The bifhop was interred with due folemnity in his
cathedral church, in which a handfome monument is
Kdi79*
erefted to his memory, bearing the following infcrip-
tion:
Columnar hujus ffipultus eft ad pedem
Edmundus Law, S. T. P.
per xix fere annos hujufce ecclefias Epifcopua.
In evangelica veritate exquirenda,
et vindicanda,
ad extremum ufque feneftutem,
operam navavit indefeffam.
Quo autem ftudio et affeftu veritatem,
eodem et libertatem Chriftianam coluit;
Religionem fimplicem et incorruptam,
nifi falva libertate,
ftare non poffe arbitratus.
Obiit Aug. xiv. MDCCLXXXVII.
iEtat. lxxxiv.
LAWBURROWS, in Scots law. See Law,
Part III. N°clxxxiii. 16.
LAWENBURG, Duchy, a territory of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Lower Saxony, bounded by the
duchy of Holftein on the north and weft, by the
duchy of Mecklenburg on the eaft, and by the duchy
of Lunenburgh, from which it is feparated by the ri¬
ver Elbe, on the weft ; being about 85 miles long,
and 20 broad. The chief towns are Lawenburg, Mol-
len, Wittemburg, and Ratzeburg. It belongs to the
eleftor of Honover.
Lawenburg, a city of Germany in the circle of
Lower Saxony, and capital of a duchy of the fame
name. It is a fmall but populous town, fituated on
the Elbe, under the brow of a very high hill, from
whence there is a delightful profpeft over the ad¬
jacent country. It has a caftle on an eminence,
and is convenient for trade. E. Long. to. ci. N.
Lat. 53. 36.
Lawenburg, a town of Germany in Farther Po¬
merania, and the chief place of a territory of the fame
name, belonging to the eleftor of Brandenburg.
LAWERS, an eminent engraver, who flouriffled
about the middle of the 16th century. He was a na¬
tive of Flanders, and probably ftudied under Paul
Pontius, whofe ftyle of engraving he frequently imita¬
ted. He poffeffed a confiderable fflare of merit; but
was by no means equal to that great mafter, either in
the excellency of the handling of the graver, or know¬
ledge of drawing. He engraved from feveral painters ;
but his beft works are from the piftures of Rubens.
LAWES (Henry), a celebrated mufician, and the
Purcell of his time. He was a fervant to Charles I.
in his public and private mufic, and fet fome of the
works of almoft every poet of eminence in that reign.
The Comus of Milton, and feveral of the lyrics of Wal¬
ler, were fet by him ; and both thefe poets have done
him honour in their verfes. He compofed a confider¬
able number of pfalm-tunes in the Cantica Sacra, for
three voices and an organ ; and many more of hiscom-
pofitions are to be feen in a work called Select airs ami
dialogues; alfo in the Treafury of mufic, and the Mufi-
cal companion. He died in 1662.
Lawes (William), was brother to the former, and
a moft capital mufician. He made above 30 feveral
forts of mufic for voices and inftruments; nor was
there any inftrument then in ufe, but he compofed to
it as aptly as if he had ftudied that alone. In the mu¬
fic fchool at Oxford are two large manufcript volumes
of
m ■
LAW [ 737 ] Lay
jXawlcfi of hjg works In fcore for various inftruments, He was
| It a commiflary under general Gerard in the civil war,
| wrencc' and, to the great regret of the king, was killed at the
} ' fiege of Chtiter in 1645.
LAWLESS court, a court faid to be held an¬
nually on King’s Hill at Rochford in Effex, on the
Wednefday morning after Michaelmas-day at c^ck-
crowing, where they whifper, and have no candle,
nor any pen and ink, but only a coal. Perfons who
owe fuit, or fervice, and do not appear, forfeit double
their rent every hour they are miffing.
This fervile attendance, Cambden informs us, was
Iimpofed on the tenants for confpiring at the like un-
feafonable hour to raife a commotion. The court be¬
longs to the honour of Raleigh, and to the earl of
1 Warwick ; and is called laivlefs, from its being held at
an unlawful hour.
LAWINGEN, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia ; formerly imperial, but now fubjedt to the
duke of Neuburg. Here the duke of Bavaria, in
1704, fortified his camp to defend his country againft
the Britiffi Forces and their allies commanded by the
duke of Marlborough, who forced their intrench-
ments. It is feated on the Danube, in E. Long. 10.
29. N. Lat. 38. 32.
LAWN, a fpacious plain in a park, or adjoining
to a noble feat. As to the dimenfions of a lawn : In
j a large park, it ffiould be as extenfive as the ground
will permit; and, if poffible, it ffiould never be lefs
than 50 acres: but in gardens of a moderate extent, a
lawn of 10 acres is fufficient ; and in thofe of the
largeft fize, 15 acres. The beft lituation for a lawn
is in the front of the houfe: and here, if the houfe
front the eaft, it will be extremely convenient; but
the moft defirable afpecl for a lawn is that of the
fouth-eaft. As to the figure of the lawn, fome re¬
commend an exadi fquare, others an oblong fquare,
fome an oval, and others a circular figure: but nei¬
ther of thefe are to be regarded. It, ought to be fo
contrived, as to fuit the ground ; and there ffiould
be trees planted for ffiade on the boundaries of the
lawn, fo the fides may be broken by irregular planta¬
tions of trees, which, if there are not fome good pfo-
fpe&s beyond the lawn, ffiould bound it on every fide,
and be brought round pretty near to each end of the
houfe. If in thefe plantations round the lawn, the
trees are placed irregularly, fome breaking much for¬
warder on the lawn than others, and not crowded too
clofe together, thty will make a better appearance
than any regular plantations can poffibly do; and if
there are variety of trees, properly difpofed, they will
have a good effedl; but only thofe which make a fine
appearance, and grow large, ftraight, and handfome,-
ffiould be admitted here. The moft proper trees for
this purpofe, are the elm, oak, chefnut, and beech;
and if there are fome clumps of ever-green trees inter¬
mixed with the others, they will add to the beauty of
I the whole, efpecially in the winter-feafon; the beft
forts for this purpofe are lord Weymouth’s pine, and
the filver and fpruce firs.
Lawn, in manufa&ures, a fine fort of linen, remark¬
able for being ufed in the fleeves of biffiops.
LAWRENCE (St), the largeft river in north A-
merica, proceeding from the lake Ontario, from which
it runs a courfe of 700 miles to the Atlantic ocean. It
Vot. IX. Part. II.
is navigable as far as (Quebec, which is above 460 Lawfonia.
miles ; but beyond Montreal it is fo full of ffioals and
rocks, that it will not admit large veffels without dan- ■*
ger, unlefs the channel be very well known.
LAWSONIA, Egyptian privet: A genus of
the monogynia order, belonging to the oftandria clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. The calyx is
quadrifid 5 the petals four ; the ftamina four in pairs;
the capfule is quadrilccular and polyfpermous. There
are two fpecies, the inermis and fpinofa, both natives
of India. Some authors take the firft to be the plant
termed by the Arabians henna or alhenna ; the pulveri-
fed leaves of which are much ufed by the eaftern na¬
tions for dying their nails yellow: but others, Dr Haf-
felquift in particular, attribute that effeft to the leaves
of the other fpecies of Egyptian privet which bears
prickly blanches. It is probable, that neither fet of
wiiters are miftaken, and that the ffirub in queftion is
a variety only of the thorny lawfonia, rendered mild
by culture.
Alhenna grows naturally and is cultivated through¬
out India, as alfo in Egypt, Paleftine, and Perfia. In
thofe countries, fays Haffelquift, it flowers from May
to Auguft. The leaves being pulverifed, are made
with water into a pafte, which the inhabitants of thofe
countries bind on the nails of their hands and feet,
keeping it on all night. The deep yellow colour that
is thus obtained is confiderably permanent, not requi¬
ring to be renewed for feveral weeks. It would
feem that this cuftom is very ancient in Egypt ; the
nails of fome mummies being found dyed in this
manner. The dried flowers of henna afford a fragrant
fmell, which, it its affirmed, women with child cannot
bear.
LAWYER, fignifies a counfellor, or one that is
learned or Ikilled in the law. See Counsellor, Bar¬
rister, and Serjeant.
LAY, a kind of ancient poem among the French,
con lifting of very ffiort verfes.
There were two forts of lays ; the great, and the
little. The firft was a poem confifting of twelve cou¬
plets of verfes, of different meafures. The other was
a poem confifting of fixteen or twenty verfes, divided
into four couplets.
Thefe lays were the lyric poetry of the old French
poets, who were imitated by fome among the Engliffi.
They were principally ufed on melancholy fubje&s,
and v' faid to have been formed on the model of the
trochaic verles of Greek and Latin tragedies.
Father Mourgues givea u; an extraordinary inftance
of one of thefe ancient lays, in hL Treatife cf French
Poetry :
Sur Vappuls du monde
S>ue faut il qu'on fonde ,
D’efpoir?
Cette mer profonde,
En debris feconde'
Fait voir
Calme au matin, Ponde
Et P or age y gronde
Lefair.
LAY-Brothers, among the Romanifts, thofe pious
but illiterate perfons, who devote themfelves in fome
convent to the fervice of the religious. They wear a
5 A different
L A Z [ 738 ] L A Z
different habit from that of the religious; but never
enter into the choir, nor are prefent at the chapters 5
nor do they make any other vow except of conftancy
and obedience. In the nunneries there are alfo lay-
fifters.
L/ir-Man, one who follows a fecular employment,
and has not entered into holy orders.
LAYERS, in gardening, are tender fhoots or twigs
of trees, laid or buried in the ground, till, having
ftruck root, they are feparated from the parent-tree,
and become diftinft plants.—The propagating trees by
layers is done in the following manner: The branches
of the trees are to be flit a little way, and laid under
the mould for about half a foot; the ground fhould
be firft made very light, and after they are laid they
fhould be gently watered. If they will not remain
eafily in the pofuion they are put in, they mud be
pegged down with wooden hooks : the bed feafon for
doing this is, for ever-greens, toward the end of Au-
gufl, and, for other trees, in the beginning of Febru¬
ary. If they are found to have taken root, they are
to be cut off from the main plant the fucceeding win¬
ter, and planted out. If the branch is too high from
the ground, a tub of earth is to be raifed to a proper
height for it. Some pare off the rhind, and others
twid the branch before they lay it, but this is not ne-
ceffary. The end of the layer fliould be about a foot
out of the ground ; and the branch may be either tied
tight round with a wire, or cut upwards from a joint,
or cut round for an inch or two at the place, and it is
a good method to pierce feveral hole* through it with
an awl above the part tied with the wire.
LAYING the land, in navigation, the date of
motion which increafes the didance from the coad,
fo as to make it appear lower and fmaller, a circum-
flance which evidently arifes from the intervening con¬
vexity of the fur face of the fea. It is ufed in contra-
diftion to ratfing the land, which is produced by
the oppofite motion of approach towards it. See
Land.
LAZAR-house, or Lazaretto, a public build¬
ing, in the nature of an hofpital, to receive the poor,
gnd thofe afflitted with contagious didempers. In
fome places, lazarettos are appointed for the perform¬
ance of quarantine ; in which cafe, thofe are obliged
to be confined in them who are fufpe&ed to have come
from places infe&ed with the plague.
LAYSTOFF, or Lowestoff, a town of Suffolk
117 miles from London, feems to hang over the fea;
and its chief bufinefs is fifliing for cod.in the north fea,
and for herring, mackarel, and fprats, at home. The
church being three furKigs off, there is a chapel in the
place. Having been a part of the ancient demefnes
of the crown, this town has a charter and a feal,
by the former of which the inhabitants are exempted
from ferving on juries. Here is a market on Wednef-
day, and two fairs in the year. Some take this to be
the mod eadern part of Britain.
LAZULI, or Lapis Lazuli, a fpecies of zeolite
belonging to the clafs of argillaceous earths. See
Clay, n° 7. It is of a blue colour. That which is
of a fine blue inclining to purple, has obtained the
name of Oriental; but the pale blue islefs edeemed.
It is frequently variegated with yellow, and white fhi-
aing veins and fpeckles y which the common people
take for gold and filver, though they are in truth no¬
thing but marcafites. The lapis lazuli has the follow¬
ing properties : i. It retains its blue colour for a long
time in a calcining heat; but changes at lad to a
brown, z. It melts eafily in the fire to a white frothy
flag; which puffs up greatly when expofed to the
flame of a blow-pipe ; but with a Arong heat in a co¬
vered veffel, it becomes clear and folid, with blue clouds
in it. 3. It does not ferment with acids; but, if
boiled with oil of vitriol, it flowly diffolves, and lofea
its blue colour. On adding a folution of fixed alkali,
it precipitates a white earth, which "being fcorified
with borax, yields a filver coloured regulus, varying iiv
bignefs according to the different fpecimens of the
done. 4. By fcorification with lead, it yields filver,
fometimes in the quantity of two ounces to a hundred
weight of the done. 5. Oil of vitriol difcovers the
prefence of filver more certainly in lapis lazuli than fpi-
rit of nitre. 6. On adding fpiritof fal ammoniac to
any folution either of crude or calcined lapis lazuh, no¬
blue colour is produced ; a certain proof that it does
not depend on copper ; which is further confirmed by
the fixity of the blue colour in the fire, and the colour
of the flag or glafs., 7. It is fomewhat harder than
the other kinds of zeolite, but does not approach to
the hardnefs of quartz or other filiceous dones in ge¬
neral ; for the pared and fined lapis lazuli may be rub¬
bed into a white powder by means of deel, though it
takes a polifh like maible. 8. When perfeftly calcined,
it is a little attrafted by the loaddone i and when fco¬
rified with lead, the flag becomes of a greenifli colour,
not like that produced by copper, but fuch as is always,
produced by iron mixed with a calcareous fubdance.
Mongez informs us, that fome of the parts of lapis,
lazuli will drike fire with ded. According to Cron-
dedt, it is fddom found pure ; but generally full of
veins of quartz, limedone, and marcafite : but for the
experiments by which the above mentioned qualities,
were determined, the pured pieces were picked ; fuch
as had been examined through a magnifying glafs, and
judged as free from heterogeneous mixture as polfible..
Our author expreffes a wiih that fuch as are in poffcf-
fion of any quantity of the done would make farther
experiments, in order to determine what fubdance it ia
which produces the blue colour fo condant in the fire,
fince it cannot depend either on copper or iron ; for
though thefe metals, on certain occafions, give a blue
colour, yet they never produce any other but what in-
llantly vaniftics in the fire, and is tjcdroyed by means
of an alkali, “ What is mentioned in feveral books
(fays he) can by no means be obje&ed here; fince in
thele proceffes the filver employed is mixed with cop,-
per and other fubdances which contain a volatile alka¬
li, whereby the blue colour is produced.”
In the year 1761 M. Margraaf publifhed fbme ex¬
periments on the lapis lazuli; in which he agrees in a
great meafure with Crondedt. According to him, the
lapis lazuli does not contain any copper ; but he found
iu it a calcareous and gypfeous fubdance, though he
took care to pick out the very pured bits he could
find. EngeHrom, however, is of opinion, that the cal¬
careous fubdance is not effential to lapis lazuli; a$
Crontledt fays, that the lapis lazuli he tried did not
ferment with acids. He farther mentions, that when dif-
felved in any of the mineral acidsj it always turned
6 theca
LEA [ 739 1 LEA
LescWade, them into a jelly. Some of his experiments alfo feem
Lea‘1, , to indicate, that all kinds of lapis lazuli do not con-
.fcB—Y——' tajn f1iver> though many of them do.
The lapis lazuli is found in many parts of the
world; but that of Afia and Africa is much fupe-
rior both in beauty and real value to the Bohemian
and German kind, which is too often fold in its place.
LEACHLADE, a town of Gloucefterfhire, 12
miles eaft from Cirencefter, 29 miles from Gloucefter,
and 60 from London. The river Thames waters it on
the fouth and eaft: fides, and divides it from Wiltlhire
and Berkfhire. The Leach runs through the north
fide of the parifti. The Thames river is navigable for
barges of 50 tons burden, but want of water one part
of the year makes the navigation very uncertain. Here
is a fmall market on Tuefday, and two fairs in the
year. The church is a large handfome building, with
double ades, fupported by two rows of fluted pillars.
LEAD, one of the imperfecft metals, of a dull white
colour inclining to blue, the leaft dutftile, the leaft
claftic, and the leaft fonorous, of the whole, pofTeifes a
confiderable degree of fpeciftc gravity, reaching from
H.3 to 11.479. It is found,
1. Native. Cronftedt and fome other mineralogifts
have doubted whether native lead was ever found in
the earth, but the matter is now decided by innumer¬
able teftimonies. It appears from the Philofophical
Tranfaftions for 1772, that fome fmall pieces of native
lead were found in the county of Monmouth in Wales.
It is faid alfo to be found in the Vivarrais in France.
Bomare mentions a curious fpecimen of native lead
kept in the colle&ion of the abbe Nolin at Paris, that
had been found in the lead mines of Pompean, near
Rennes in Brittany. It was very malleable, could be
cut with a knife without crumbling, and eafily melted
over the flame of a candle. It weighed about two
pounds ; was imbedded in an earthy lead ore of a red-
d!(h colour ; and had a flaty vein that went through
the middle of it.
2. Lead/par, is fometimes tranfparent, but general¬
ly opake, and cryftallized in regular forms of a lami¬
nar or ftriated texture. Lead ochre, or native cerufs,
is the fame fubftance, but in a loofe form, or indurated
and ihapelefs. Sometimes it is found in a filky form.
Both contain Force iron,calcareous earth, and clay ; and
both grow red or yellowifh when heated. They effer-
vefce with acids, and afford from 60 to 80 or 90 per
tent, of lead. They are found in Brittany, Lorrain,
Germany, and England.
M. Sage, of the royal academy of Paris, pretended,
that the white lead ore from Poulawen in the county
of Bretagne in France, was mineralized by the marine
acid ; but his miftake was detected by the commif-
lioners of that academy. This ore, according to the
fame academicians, is compofed of ftriated cryftals, of
a whitifh pale red or grey colour. There is a lead ore
of this kind fametimes grey and fometimes yellow,
which is very heavy. Its ftru&ure is either lameliated
or flbrous, and its laminae can hardly be feparated ; but
it is friable, and may be cut with 1 knife. Sometimes
it is cryftallized ; and fometimes its fibres are extreme-
\ ly thin, femitranfparent, and have a filky look. They
tffervefce with acids, decrepitate in the fire, and feem
to bfe the aerial add by which the lead is mineralifed.
The fparry lead ore has often a femitranfparency
like the fparry fluor; its cryftals being generally ter¬
minated by hexahedral prifms, or cylindrical columns,
ttriated, and apparently compofed of a great number
of filaments. Thefe fparry cryftals are always found
in the fame places with the galenas or fulphurated lead
ores ; and feem to be formed from their decompofition
after the lofs of their fulphur ; fo that it is not un¬
common to find galenas which are beginning to pafs into
a ftate of white lead. There is a black ore of lead,
which may be fuppofed to be in an intermediate ftate
betwixt the white lead ore and galena, as it feems to
be a true white lead tinged by the hepatic vapours of
the fulphur on its parting from the galena. There is
alfio a green tranfparent lead, having a more or lefs
yellowifh caft. It frequently has no regular form, and
appears like a kind of mofs. When this green ore is
cryftallized, it confifts of hexahedral truncated prifms,
terminated by fix-tided pyramids, either entire or
truncated near the bafe. Profeffor Brunnich tells us,
that the green and the black lead ores from Saxony,
and the Hungarian blue ores, are prifmatic. Accord¬
ing to Kirwan and Mongez, the green lead ores are ei¬
ther cryftallized in needles as in Brittany, or in a loofe
powder as in Saxony ; but moftly adhering to and in-
vefting quartz. They owe their green colour to iron, fel-
dom containing any copper, and are very rare. Brun¬
nich mentions a fapphire-coloured ore on'cefound among
fome white lead fpar at Wendifh Lemen. It was ea¬
fily melted by the blow-pipe. Natural red-lead or mi¬
nium has been found in fome Siberian mines. It is
found either cryftallized, or in fliapelefs maffes, or in
powder, iu which it agrees with the brown or yellow
ores. Dr J. R. Forfler brought fome of this cryftal¬
lized red lead ore from Ruffia. The cryftals were cu¬
bical, and the colour feemed rather pale. The red Si¬
berian ores are perfectly rhombic ; thofe from Bohe¬
mia have a cubical or rhomboidal form. Sulphur and
arfenic have been found in the red ones, but the others
have not been fufliciently inveftigated. Moft of them
effervefce with acids.
3. /irfenical lead-fpar. Cronftedt fays that he tried
an ore of this kind from an unknown place in Ger¬
many, and found that no metal could be melted from
it by means of the blow-pipe as could be done by
other fpars; but by doing it in a crucible, that part
of the arfenic which did not fly off was likewife redu¬
ced, and found in the form of grains difperfed, and
forced into the lead. Another ore fimilar to this, and
which likewife was not eafily reduced by means of the
blow-pipe, always fliot into polygonal, but chiefly hexa¬
gonal cryftals, after being melted, having fhining fur-
faces. Profeffor Brunnich obferves, that thefe ores
effervefce with acids, and contain 40 per cent, of lead.
4. The lley-glanz. of the Germans contains lead mi¬
neralized with fulphur alone, and of this there are two
or three varieties. At Villach in Auftria there is faid
to be found a potters lead-ore containing not the fmall-
eft portion of filver.
5. Lead mineralifed ly the vitriolic acid, is gene¬
rally in the form of a white mafs, foluble in 18 times
its quantity of water. Sometimes it is blackifh, and
cryftallized in very long ftrise, or in friable ftalaftites ;
this laft variety efflorefces in the air, and is converted
5 A 2 into
LEA [ 74° 1 LEA
into a true vitriol of lead. According to Mr Kirwan,
it does not eftervefce nor is foluble in other acids,
but may be reduced by laying it on a burning coal.
It! originates from the decompofition of fulphurated
lead ores. Dr Withering informs us, that it is found
in great quantity in the ifland of Anglefey; but uni¬
ted to iron, and not reducible by the blow-pipe or
charcoal.
6. Lead mineralized hy the phofphoric acid, was
lately difcovered by Mr Gahn. It is of a greenifh, yel¬
low, or reddifh colour, and does effervefce with acids.
After folution.in nitrous acid, the lead may be pre¬
cipitated from this ore by the vitriolic acid. An
hundred grains of lead are produced from 137 of this
precipitate waflied and dried. The decanted liquor
evaporated to drynefs affords the phofphoric acid, from
which the inflammable compound may be produced
by diftillation with charcoal. Seven ounces of this
lead ore from the neighbourhood of Friburg, treated
in the manner juft mentioned, yielded by diftillation
144 grains of phofphorus. A compound fimilar to
this ore may be obtained by mixing pure phofphoric
acid (that is, fuch as is combined with the volatile al¬
kali, for the fofTile alkali in the mierocofmic fait hin¬
ders the operation) with red lead.
7. Galena, or potters ore'," in which the metal is
mineralized by fulphurated filver. According to Mr
Kirwan it is the moft common of all the lead ores, of
a bluilh dark lead colour, formed of cubes of a mode¬
rate fize, or in grains of a cubic figure, whofe corners
have been cut off ; its texture is lamellar, anditshard-
nefs varying in different fpeeimens. That which is
formed into grains is fuppofed to be the richeft in fil¬
ver; but even this contains only about, one or one
and a half percent, that is, about 12 or 18 ounces
per quintal; and the pooreft not above 60 grains.
Ores that yield about half an ounce "of filver per quin¬
tal are barely worth the extracting. Different fpeci-
mens alfo vary in the quantity of fulphur they contain,
from 15 to 25 per cent, and that which contains the
leaft is in fome degree malleable. The proportion of iron
in this ore is very fmall, but the lead is from 60 to 85
per cent. M. Monnet afferts, that galena is infoluble
"in the nitrous acid ; but Dr Watfon has fhown, that
it is completely diffolved by the acid when diluted.
The fpecific gravity of galena is from 7.000 to 7.780.
It yields a yellow’ flag when melted.
M. Fouffcroy diftinguifhes feveral varieties of this
sore. 1. Cubic galena, the cubes of which are of va¬
rious ftzes', and fo*nd either Angle or in groups; it is
often found with the angles truncated, and is common
at Freyberg. 2. In maffes, without any regularconfigu-
ration”; very common at St Ma'tre. j.With large facets.
It docs not compoferegularcryftalsjbut is entirely form¬
ed of large laminae. 4. With fmall facets, appearing
like mica, compofed of white and very brilliant fcales.
It is called white filver ore, becaufe it contains a con-
fiderable quantity of that metal. 5. Small grained
galena, fo called becaufe it has a very clofe grain. It
is like wife very rich in filver, and is found with the
foregoing ore. No galena, excepting that of* Ca-
rinthia, is .known to be without filver ; but it has
beeil obferved, that thofe which afford the moft filver
have the fmalleft facets. 6. Galena cryftallized like
lead fpar, in hexagonal prifms or cylindrical columns,
contains little filver, and feems to be merely fpathofe
lead, mineralized without having loft its form. Cry-
ftals of pure fpathofe lead entirely covered with a very
fine galena, are fometimes found in the fame piece,
together with others which are changed into galenq
throughout.
8. Antimomal lead-ore, in which the metal is mi¬
neralized by fulphur with filver and regulus of anti¬
mony. This is of the fame colour with galena, but
its texture is different, being radiated, filamentous,
or ftriated. When heated, it yields a white fmoke ; and
it affords from 40 to 50 per cent, of lead, and from half
an ounce to two ounces of filver/er quintal.
9. Pyritous lead-ore, mineralized by fulphur with
filver and a large proportion of iron. This is of a
brown or yellowifh colour ; of an oblong or ftala&iti-
cal form ; friable ; and of a lamellar, ftriated, or loofe
texture ; affording 18 or 20 per cent, of lead at moft,
which is obtained merely by melting it, the iron de¬
taining the fulphur. It is only a mixture of galena
with the brown pyrites.
TO. Lead mineralized by arfenic, was lately difcovered
in Siberia. It is of a pale colour externally, but in¬
ternally of a deep red. It is for the mpft part cry¬
ftallized in rhomboidal parallelepipeds, or irregular
pyramids. Lehman fays, that it contains fulphur, ar¬
fenic, and about 34/er cent, of lead ; ancf Mr Pallas fays,
that it contains fome filver alfo. It was found near
Catherineburg in Siberia; and Lehman fays, that on
being reduced to powder, it refembled the beft carmine.
A fpecimen examined by Mongez was of a yellow-
greenifti colour, and was found among quartz in the
fame country, and contained fome arfenic. Both
thefe, according to M. Magellan, may be eafily reduced
by means of a blow-pipe.
11. Stony orfandy lead-ores, confift either of the cal-
ciform or the galena kind, intimately mixed and diffu-
fed through ftones and earth, chiefly of the ^calcareous
or barytic genus. To this fpecies Mongez refers the
earthy lead ore, falfely called native majficot, found
in the lead mines of Pompean in Brittany, principally
in Llid pieces. Thefe are either yellowifh or grey
they appear bright like glafs when broken, and effer-
vefee with acids; whence it appears that the ore con¬
tains fixed air. Sometimes it is mixed with clay.
12. The mine of Morngenftern at Freyberg has
a peculiar variety of lead-ore containing filver, and
which deferves to be noticed on account of its yellow-
ifh-brown colour, and likewife on account of its fin-
gulai figure, which confifts of {lender cylinders. Some¬
times it is found in dentritical forms, like the knit cobalt..
Moft of the ores of lead contain filver ; and thofe
kinds of galena which do not, are very fcarce. In
Hungary and Tranfylvania, the lead ore contains a
quantity of gold as well as filver. Sometimes the pot¬
ters ores are found fo poor in filver, that it is not worth
the expence of extrafting it. Thefe, when free from
mixtures of the rock, are employed without any
fufion to glaze earthen ware ; and a coitfiderable trade
is carried on in the Mediterranean with fuch ores from
the mines of Sardinia and France.
Lead, expofed to heat, melts long before it is ig¬
nited. By a ftrong heat it becomes volatile, and flies
off in vapours. If fuft'ered to cool very flowly, and the
melted portion be poured off from that which is be¬
come
* LEA [ 741 ] LEA
come foil'd, it is found to be cryftallized in quadrangu¬
lar pyramids. When melted with the contadt of air,
it foon becomes covered with a grey dull pellicle, which
fyy proper management is converted into minium, as
explained under the article Chemistry ; and by this
operation it becomes heavier by about ten pounds in
the hundred, though it is faid that at Nuremberg it
gains twice as much. By too much heat minium lofes
its beautiful red colour, and affumes that of a pale yel¬
low : by a. heat ftill more violent, it melts into a tranf-.
parent glafs, fo fufible, that it penetrates the crucible
and efcapes,. But if one part of fand be added to
three parts of calx of lead, the fand melts, by the affilt-
ance of the calx, into a beautiful amber-mloured glafs.
With two parts of lead and one of fand, it refembles a
topaz. A fimilar quantity of the calx of lead, added
to common glafs, does not alter its tranfparence, .but
gives it a greater degree of weight, and more efpecially
a kind of undluoufnefs, which renders it capable of be¬
ing cut and polilhed more eafily without breaking.
This glafs is very proper for making achromatic lenfes ;
but is fubjeft to veins, and to have a gelatinous ap¬
pearance. “ The Englilh (fays M. Fourcroy) call
it Jlint glafs } our workmen find great difficulty in fe-
lefting pieces of any confiderable magnitude, exempt
from Arire, iu.that which is imported from England.”
This great imperfe&ion feems, in-Macquer’s opinion,
to depend on the principles of the., glafs not being
.uniformly combined: for that purpofe it is neceffary
tlvat it fhould be kept in fufion for a.long time ; but
as the lead would by that means be diffipated, the
flint-glafs would lofe a part of its denfity and undtu-
oufnefs, which are its chief merit.
M. Magellan tells us, that it is the pureft calx of lead
called minium, made immediately from the metal, and
the moft pure quartzous fand, with pure mineral al¬
kali, or rather with good nitre, that produce, when
properlymelted, the heft flint-glafs. The greater the
proportion of red-lead, the heavier is the glafs, and
of courfe its refradtionj the greater ; an efiential re-
quifite for fuch glafs as is employed for the lenfes of
achromatic telefcopes. It muft, however, be obfer-
ved, that glafs made with lead has the defedf of be¬
ing of unequal denfity, for want of a perfedt mixture
of all its parts; fo that it is extremely difficult to find
pieces of a few inches diameter among hundred weights
of this glafs, that ffiall be quite free from filaments and
Arise. By chance the late Mr Dollond procured a pot
of pure flint-glafs, from which he made the admirable
triple objedf lenfes of three feet and a half focus,
which have been fo much admired ; but no fuch other
glafs has yet been found, though very confiderable
premiums have been offered for the method of pro¬
ducing the beft kind of glafs for optical inftruments.
All the calces of lead, efpecially minium, have a
great attradfion for fixed air. If therefore we Aiould
defire a calx of lead in perfedt purity, it mud be kept
defended from the contadt of air, or flightly calcined
before it is ufed, in order to feparate the fixed air
it may have abforbed. When expofed to the air, it
tarniffies in proportion to the dampnefs of the air,
and contradls a white ruff, which is not a pure calx,
but combined with the fixed air imbibed from the at-
mofphere. It is, not altered by puje water ; and there¬
fore we muA conclude, that the whitiffi cruA with
which the internal part of lead pipes through which
water runs is ufually covered, muA be owing to the
faline fubftances contained in the water.
“ All the phenomena of the calcinacion of lead
(fays M. Magellan), and of its reduftion to the metal¬
lic ftate, (how that it has the fmalleft adhefion to phlo-
giAon ; as appears by the Ample adlion of fire, which
feparates both, whilA their attradlion is equally quick
in its redudtion to the metallic Aate. A common wa¬
fer, which owes its colour to red-lead, by being burn¬
ed in the flame of a candle, immediately exhibits pure
globules or little drops of the metal. The readinefs
with which lead parts with its phlogifton is ffiown by
the. curious experiment lately performed at Paris by
Daftor Luzuriagu penfioner of the court of Spain.
He put four ounces of lead-(hot wetted with water
into a pint bottle filled with atmofpheric air, and clo-
fed with a Aopple. Having ffiaken it feveral times,
a black powder was produced, which foon turned
white: on opening the bottle at the end of 24 hours,
the air was found to have loA a fifth part of its bulk,
and to have become phlogiAicated. DepMogifiicated
air was Aill more reduced in hulk; but the contrary
took place when inflammable air was employed.”
Cauftic alkaline lixivia, boiled on lead, diffolve a
fmall quantity of it, and corrode more. It has been
obferved, that plants do not thrive fo well in leaden as
in earthen veffels.
In Holland, and perhaps in other places, it has
been cufiomary to corredt the .moA offenfive expreffed
oils, as that of rape-feed and rancid oils of almonds or
olives, by impregnating them with lead. This dan¬
gerous abufe may be difcovered by mixing a little of
that oil with a folution of orpiment made in lime-
water : for, on ffiaking them together, and fuffering
them to reA, the oil, if it has any faturnine tint, will
appear-of an orange red ; but if pure, of a pale yel-
lowifh one. A fimilar abufe has alfo been pracfifed
with acid wines, which diffolve as much of the lead as
communicate a fweetiffi tafie. This is difcovered in a
fimilar manner; and upon this principle is founded the
liquor probatorius, or teA-liquor. This liquor is nothing
elfe than a folution of orpiment or liver of fulphur in
lime-water. If a few drops of this folution be put in a
glafs of the fufpe&ed liquor, it will exhibit a precipitation
like a dark-coloured cloud. This is owing to the at¬
tachment of the lead to the fulphur-in the orpiment.
If lead, or its calces, in powder, be mixed with a fo¬
lution of hepar fulphuris, a decompofition enfues, but
the alkali is not thus, deprived of its fulphur. Inftead
of this, it is re-converted into vitriolated tartar ; the
lead feizes the phlogifton of the fulphur, and allows
the vitriolic acid to unite with the alkali.
Lead unites with moA other metals. It cannot,
however, be united with iron : but if both are expo-
fed to the fire in a proper veAel, the lead fcorifies the
iron by feizing on its phlogifton ; after which it melts
with the calx into a dark-coloured glafs. This pro¬
perty which lead pofleffes, of reducing all the imper¬
fect metals to a glafs, is the reafon of its being ufed
in the purification of gold and filver ; neither of which
can be touched by it, but remain pure in the bottom
of the cupel. This procefs is the more complete by
reafon
LEA [ 742 ] LEA
reafon of the great efficacy of lead in diflolving earthy bove mentioned from the habitual contaft of the me-
though’ they neither take it in-
y bodies. In this refpeft it is fo powerful a flux,
that no earthen veffel or crucible can contain it when
fufed, of whatever materials the veflel be made. A
mixture of raw and burned clay {lands the aftion of
lead for the greateft length of time ; but at laft this
alfo gives way, and is corroded in the Tides,
tal or its calces, <
ternally, nor are expofed to its fumes.
Blaci-LsAD (Plumbago), a genus of inflammable
fubftances, frequently confounded with molybdana ; the
appearance of which is nearly the fame, though the
qualities are very different. Black-lead, when pure, r
Litharge, a fort of refufe of lead, is employed in extremely black ; but when frefh cut, appears of a
the compofition of all the finer glaffes called fiajles,
which are defigned as imitations of precious ftones.
The addition of litharge renders them more folid and
bluiflr white, and Alining like lead. It is micaceous,
and minutely fcaly; eafily broken, and of a granular
and dull appearance when broken. Its tradi on paper
brilliant. The principal ingredients are the pureft of is much darker than that of molybdsena, which has
flint, purified alkali, borax, and litharge; the other fine filvery appearance; by which means they are ea-
additions, chiefly of metallic calces, are added, mere¬
ly for the fake of tinging them with various colours.
Lead is employed in making of various veffels, as
cifterns for water, large boilers for chemical and other
fily diftinguilhed from one another. Black-lead is too
foft to ftrike fire with fteel: it is infoluble in acids ;
but in a very ftrong fire, when expofed to the air at
the fame time, it is entirely volatile, leaving only a little
purpofes, &c. It is frequently mixed with tin by the iron and a fmall quantity of filiceous earth. It may
pewterers; a practice which M. Fourcroy fets forth be decompofed by deflagration with nitre ; but the
as very dangerous, and gives the following procefs for common fluxes are not capable of procuring its fufion.
detedting it: “ Diflblve two ounces of the fufpedled Its fpecific gravity is from 1.987 to 2.267. According
metal in five ounces of a good pure nitrous acid. The to Scheele, this fubltance confifis of phlogifton com-
calx of tin is to be wafhed with four pounds of diftilled bined with aerial acid : but M. Pelletier has fhown,
water, and dried, and the water evaporated by the that when pure it neither produces fixed nor inflam-
heat of a water-bath. By this evaporation nitre of mable air 5 both which, when found, are entirely owing
lead is procured ; which being calcined, the weight to the fubftances that are mixed with it. Mr Scheele
of the refidue fhows the quantity of metal contained fays, that one part of plumbago requires ten of nitre
in the tin, allowing a few grains for the augmentation to decompofe it, but charcoal only five. The conclu-
of weight arifing from calcination, as well as the other fion drawn from hence, <r;iz. that plumbago contains
metallic fubftances, fuch as zinc and copper, which twice as much phlogifton as charcoal, however, is by
the tin under examination may contain. Bayan and no means juft; for the phlogifton may be defended
■Gharlard by this method afeertained, that fine from the a&ion of the nitre, by means we cannot pof-
wrought tin or pewter contains about 10 pounds of fiblyknow, in the one and not in the other. Dc-Ptieft-
lead in the 100; and that the common tin fold in ley’s experiments on the diffipation of charcoal into
France under that name, often contains 25 pounds in
the fame quantity; an enormous dofe, fufficient to
txpofe thofe who ufe veffels made of this compofition
to the greateft .danger.”
There are feveral methods ufed by pewterers to drf-
cover the finenefs of tin. This is done in fome cafes
inflammable air alfo fhow, that charcoal is little or
nothing elfe than mere phlogifton, fo that no fubftance
whatever can contain more. From thefe experiments
Mr Kirwan concludes, that 100 parts of plumbago
contain 67 of phlogifton; becaufe 100 grains of nitre
contain 33 of real nitrous acid ; all of which are de-
‘by Ample infpe&ion, the judgment being affifted by compofed when it receives as much phlogifton as is ne-
tne weight and noife produced in bending the metal, ceffary to convert it into nitrous acid, or a little more.
But the heft method is by trying the fpecific gravity But 33 grains of nitrous acid are converted into ni-
of the metal; which will difeover a very fmall quantity trous air by 67 grains of phlogifton ; the remaining 33
of lead, the difference betwixt the two metals being fo parts may be water, or other volatile fubftance. By
,confiderable. the experiments of Meffrs Gahn and Hielm, it appears,
Lead, when taken into the human body, is pro- that 100 grains of plumbago, calcined in a muffle, loft
duftive of various diforders, particularly a dangerous 90 grains in weight; the remainder being a ferrugi-
kind of colic terminating in a palfy 5 and as all the nous earth, and the fulpbnreous fmtll firowed that it
.common earthen ware is glazed with minium, the ufc contained fome pyrites, both which were accidental to
of it cannot be fuppofed to be void of danger in all the black lead. M. Pelletier, however, as has already
cafes. Fountains, or veffels of lead which contain been hinted, affirms, that plumbago is volatilized in a
w.ater, often communicate a noxious quality to it ftrong fire, without producing any aerial vapour what-
when fuffered lo remain long full. Its vapour is dan- ever; whence we muft conclude, that the plumbago
gerous to the workmen who melt it, and the fumes ufed by Scheele had not been quite pure. In clofe vef-
falling upon the grafs render it poifonous to the cattle fe'ls, however, all agree, that black-lead fuftatns a vehe-.
who eat it; the fifir who inhabit the waters near ment fire for a long time without any fenfible diminu-
fmelting houfes foon die, nor is it fafe for any ani- tion of weight. This is fimilar to charcoal ; which
mal to drink of it. In cafes of poifoning by lead, an- for a long time was fuppofed to be indettruftible in
timonial emetics are recommended. Navier preferibes clofe vtffels: but Dr Prieftley has fhown, that in a
liver of fulphur and hepatic waters. The internal ufe very violent fire, in clofe veffels, charcoal begins to
of lead is certainly dangerous, though it is often pre- emit inflammable air, and continues to do fo without
feribed in medicine; and even the external ufe of it is any end of the procefs that he could perceive; whence
not altogether fafe. Certain it is, that all workmen it is probable, that in this way alfo charcoal might be
iw.ha.dcal much in lead, are fubjedt to the cholic a- entirely diTpetjcd, provided we could find veffels capable
of
LEA L 743 3 LEA
of fuftalning fuch a long and vehement heat. No ex.
periments have been made with black-lead in this way,
either with the folar heat in vacuo, or with a violent
heat in an iron or other veffel capable of refilling a
long continued heat.
Cronftedt, when treating of this mineral, obferves,
that “ Mr Pott examined it in clofe veffels, and Mr
Quid in an open fire ; from which difference in the
mode of treatment, different notions had arifen : be-
caufe the black-lead, when treated in clofe veffels, or
when immediately put into a ftrong charcoal fire, is
almoft unalterable; but in a calcining heat, becomes
almofl entirely volatile. This is the cafe with feveral
of the other mineral phlogiftons; and from this we
may in general learn, how neceffary it is to examine
the mineral bodies by many and different methods,
and to endeavour to multiply the experiments more
than has hitherto been done.*'
With regard to the reduction of metallic calces,
which ought to be accomplilhed by this phlogijlic fub-
ftance, M. Pelletier affirms, that it cannot be done un-
Lefs the black-lead be mixed with fixed alkali, in the
fame manner as when charcoal is employed in fuch cir-
cumftances. It cannot be combined with iron, as
Bergman afferts ; nor with any other metal, though it
may be Amply interfperfed betwixt its particles. M.
Pelletier indeed owns, that there is a kind of plumbago
found fwimming over the melted iron in large furnaces
where iron-ores are fmelted ; but he thinks, that this
mutt have been naturally mixed with the mineral. It
is alfo the only known plumbago of a very diftindt la¬
mellar form; as he obferved in the pieces obtained
from the iron works at Valiancy in the French pro¬
vince of Berry.
Black-lead is found of different kinds; vi%. i. Of a
fteel-grained and dull texture ; naturally black, but
when rubbed affording a dark-lead colour. 2. Of a
granulated and fcaly appearance at the fame time. It
is found in different countries, as Germany, France,
Spain, the Cape of Good Hope, and America ; but
generally in fmall quantities, and of very different qua¬
lities. The beft fort, however, and the fitteft of all
for making pencils, is that met with in the county of
Cumberland in England. It is found in fuch plenty at
a place called Borro<wdale in this county, that hence
not only the whole iftand of Britain, but the whole
continent of Europe, may be faid to be fupplied. “ I
have feen (fays M. Magellan) various fpecimens from
different countries ; but their coarfe texture and bad
quality cannot bear any comparifon with that of Bor-
rowdale ; though it fometimes, but feldom, contains
pyritaceous particles of iron. It is but a few years
ago, that this mine feemed to be almoft exhauited ;
but by digging feme few yards through the ftrata un¬
derneath, according to the advice of an experienced
miner, whofe opinion had been long unattended to, a
very thick and rich vein of the beft black-lead has
been difeovered, to the great joy of the proprietors
and advantage of the public.”
The principal ufe of black lead is for making pen¬
cils for drawing; which have the advantage of mark¬
ing paper very diftinftly for a time, though their traces
may afterwards be entirely rubbed out by foft bread
or elallic gum. To, form the pencils, the lead is cut
into thin puralklopipeds, and put into quadrangular
grooves cut in pieces of cyprefs wood; and a Hit being
glued over, they are worked into fmall cylinders like
quills. A coarfer kind are made by working up the
powder of black lead with fulphur, or fome mucilagi¬
nous fubftance ; but thefe anfwer only for carpenters,
or fome very coarfe drawings. One part of plumbago
with three of clay, and fome cows hair, makes an ex¬
cellent coating for retorts, as it keeps its form even
after the retorts have melted. The famous crucibles of
Ypfen are formed of plumbago mixed with day. Thefe
are known in Britain by the name of Heffian cruci¬
bles ; but a manufacture of the fame kind is now efta-
blilhed at Chelfea in the neighbourhood of London,
where crucibles are manufactured nearly of the fame
quality with the foreign ones. The powder of black-
lead ferves alfo to cover the ftraps for razors ; and it
is with it that the caft-iron work, fuch as ftoves, &c«.
receive a glofs on their furface. An application, how¬
ever, perhaps as ufeful as any other, is that of black-lead
to fmooth the furfaces of wooden work which are fub-
je&ed to much friCtion, as wooden ferews, packers
preffes, &c.; neither greafy nor oily fubftances. nor
foapy ointments, produce inch a good effeft upoa
them.
Milled Lead. See Chemistry, n° X2iy.
Poifon of Lead. See Poison.
Sheet-LEAD. See Plumbery.
LEAF, a part of a plant extended into length andi
breadth in fuch a manner as to have one fide diftin-
guifhable from the other. This is Miller’s definition.
Linnaeus denominates leaves “ the organs of motion,
or mufcles of the plant.”—The leaves are not merely
ornamental to plants ; they ferve very ufeful purpofes,
and make part of the organs of vegetation.
The greater number of plants, particularly trees,,
are furnifhed with leaves : in mulhrooms, and ftmibby
horfe-tail, they are totally wanting. Ludwig defines
leaves to be fibrous and cellular proceffes of the plant,
which are of various figures, but generally extended
into a plain membrapaceous or Ikinny fubftance. They
are of a deeper green than the foot-ftalks on which
they ftand, and are formed by the expanfion of the
veffels of the ftalk, among which, in feveral leaves,
the proper veffels are diftinguiffied by the particular
tafte, colour, and fmell, of the liquors contained with¬
in them.
By the expanfion of the vtffels.of the ftalk, are pro¬
duced feveral ramifications or branches, which, crofs-
ing each other mutually, form a kind of net; the
meffies or interftices of which are filled up with a ten¬
der cellular fubftance, called the pidp, pith, or paren-
chyjna. This pulpy fubftance is frequently confumed.
by certain fmall infefts, whilft the. membranous net
remaining untouched exhibits the genuine ikeleton of;
the leaf.
The net in queftion is covered externally with an
epidermis or fcarf-lkin, which appears to be a conti¬
nuation of the fcarf-lkin of the ftalk, and perhaps,
of that of the ftem. M, Defauffure, a judicious na-
turalift, has attempted to prove, that this fcarf Ikin,
like that of the petals, is.a true bark, compofed itfelff
of an epidermis and cortical net; thefe parts feem to-
be the organs of perfpiration, which ferve to diffipate.
the fuptrfluous juices.
The conical net is furnifhed, principally on the-
forfaoe-
LEA [ 744 J LEA
Gold-Leaf, furface of the leaf, with a great nutnbsr of fuckers or
abforbent veflels, deftined to imbibe the humidity of
the air. The upper furface, turned towards heaven,
ferves as a defence to the lower, which looks down¬
ward ; and this difpofition is fo effential to the vege¬
table economy, that, if a branch is overturned in fuch
a manner as to deftroy the natural dire&ion of the
leaves, they will, of themfelves, in a very fhort time,
refume their former pofition ; and that as often as the
branch is thus overturned.
Leaves, then, are ufeful and neceflary organs ; trees
perifh when totally diverted of them. In general,
plants ftript of any of their leaves, cannot (hoot vigo-
roufly : witnefs thofe which have undergone the de¬
predations of infers; witnefs, likewife, the very com¬
mon pra&ife of (tripping off fome of the leaves from
plants, when we would fufpend their growth, or di-
minirti the number of their (hoots. This method is
fometimes obferved with corn and the efculent grades;
and, in cold years, is pra&ifed on fruit-trees and vines,
to render the fruit riper and better coloured: but in
this cafe it is proper to wait till the fruits have acquired
their full bulk, as the leaves contribute greatly to
their growth, but hinder, when too numerous, that
exquifite reftifying of the juices, which is fo necedary
to render them delicious and palatable.
When vegetation ceafes, the organs of perfpiration
and infpiration become fuperfluous. Plants, there¬
fore, are not always adorned with leaves : they pro¬
duce new ones every year; and every year the greater
part are totally diverted of them, and remain naked
during the winter. See Plant.
LsAF-InfeB. See Cimex.
Leaf, in clocks and watches, an appellation given
to the notches of their pinions.
GoIcI-Leaf, ufually (ignifies fine gold beaten into
plates of an exceeding thinnefs, which are well known
in the arts of gilding, &c. The preparation of gold-
leaf, according to Dr Lewis, is as follows
“ The gold is melted in a black-lead crucible, with
fome borax, in a wind furnace, called by theVorkmen
a wind-hole : as foon as it appears in perfeft fufion, it
is poured out into an iron ingot mould, fix or eight
inches long, and three quarters of an inch wide, pre-
vioufly greafed, and heated, fo as to make the tallow
run and fmoke, but not to take flame. The bar of
gold is made red-hot, to burn off the un6tuous matter,
and forged on an anvil into a long plate, which is fur-
•ther extended, by being parted repeatedly between
polifhed fteel rollers, till it becomes a ribbon as thin
as paper. Formerly the whole of this extenfion was
procured by means of the hammer, and fome of the
French workmen are (till faid to follow the fame
pra&ice : but the ufe of the flatting-mill both abridges
the operation, and renders the plate of more uniform
thicknefs. The ribbon is divided by compafles, and
cut with (beers into equal pieces, which cunfequently
are of equal weights: thefe are forged on an anvil till
they are an inch fquare ; and afterwards well nealed,
to correft the rigidity which the metal has con-
tratted in the hammering and flatting. Two ounces
of gold, or 960 grains, the quantity which the work¬
men ufualiy melt at a time, make 150 of thefe fquares,
whence each of them weighs fix grains and two-fifths;
and as 902 grains of gold make a cubic inch, the
NJ 179.
thicknefs of the fquare plates is about the 766th part Gold
of an inch.
“ In order to the further extenfion of thefe pieces
into fine leaves, it is neceffary to interpofe fome fmooth
body between them and the hammer, for foftening its
blow, and defending them from the rudenefs of its
immediate aftion : as alfo to place between every two
of the pieces fome proper intermedium, which, while
it prevents their uniting together, or injuring one
another, may fuffer them freely to extend. Both thefe
ends are anfwered by certain animal membranes.
“ The gold-beaters ufe three kinds of membranes ;
for the outfide cover, common parchment made of
fheep-flcin ; for interlaying with the gold, firft the
fmoothert and clofeft vellum, made of calfdkin ; and
afterwards the much finer (kins of ox-gut, flript off
from the large ftraight gut (lit open, curioufly pre¬
pared on purpofe for this ufe, and hence called gold¬
beater's Jhin. The preparation of thefe laft is a ditlindl
bufinefs, pra&ifed by only two or three perfons in the
kingdom, fome of the particulars of which I have not
fatisfa&orily learned. The general procefs is faid to
confift, in applying one upon another, by the fmooth
fides, in a moiit rtate, in which they readily cohere
and unite infeparably; ftretching them on a frame,
and carefully fcraping off the fat and rough matter, fo
as to leave only the fine exterior membrane of the gut;
beating them between double leaves of paper, to force
out what unftuofity may remain in them ; moiftening
them once or twice with an infufion of warm fpices ;
and laftly, drying and preffing them. It is faid, that
fome calcined gypfum, or plafler of Paris, is rubbed
with a hare’s foot both on the vellum and the ox«gut
(kins, which fills up fuch minute holes as may happen
in them, and prevents the gold-leaf from flicking, as
it would do to the Ample animal-membrane. It is
obfervable, that, notwithftanding the vart extent to
which the gold is beaten between thefe ikins, and the
great tenuity of the (kins themfelves, yet they fuftain
continual repetitions of the proceL for feveral months,
without extending or growing thinner. Our work¬
men find, that, after 70 or do repetitions, the (kins,
though they contrad no haw, will no longer permit
the gold to extend between them ; but that they may
. be again rendered fic for ufe by impregnating them
with the virtue which they have loft, and that even
holes in them may be repaired by the dexterous appli¬
cation of f-^(h pieces of (kin: a microfcopical exami¬
nation of fome (kins that had been long ufed plainly
(howea thefe repairs. The method of reftoring their
virtae is faid in the Encyclopedic to be, by interlaying
them with leaves of paper moiftened with vinegar
white-wine, beating them for a whole day, and after¬
wards rubbing them over as at firft with plafter of
Paris. The gold is faid to extend between them more
eafily, after they have been ufed a little, than when
they are new.
“ The beating of the gold is performed on a fmooth
block of black marble, weighing from 200 to 600
pounds, the heavier the better; about nine inches
fquare on the tipper furface, and fometimes lefs, fitted
into the middle of a wooden frame, about two feet
fquare, fo as that the furface of the marble and the
frame form one continuous plane. Three of the fides
are ftunilhed with a high ledge; and the front, which
4 is
LEA [ 745 ] LEA
‘Leaf, {a open, has a leather flap faftened to it, which the
v—“' gold-beater takes before him as an apron, for prcfer-
ving the fragments of gold that fall off. Three hato*
jners are employed, all of them with two round and
fomewhat convex faces, though commonly the work¬
man ufes only one of the faces: the firft, called the
cvtch-hammer, is about four inches in diameter, and
weighs 15 or 16 pounds, and fometimes 20, though
few workmen can manage thofe of this lall lize : the
fecond, called the Jhodering-hammer, weighs about 12
pounds, and is about the fame diameter : the third,
called the gold-hammer, or jinifhing-hammer, weighs 10
or 11 pounds, and is nearly of the fame width. The
French ufe four hammers, differing both in fize and
fhape from thofe of our workmen : they have only one
face, being in figure truncated cones. The firft has
very little convexity, is near five inches in diameter,
and weighs 14 or 15 pounds: the fecond is more con¬
vex than the firft, about an inch narrower, and fcarcely
half its weight: the third, ftill more convex, is only
about two inches wide, and four or five pounds in
weight: the fourth or finilhing hammer is near as
heavy as the firft, but narrower by an inch, and the
moft convex of all. As thefe hammers differ fo re¬
markably from ours, I thought proper to infert them,
leaving the workmen to judge what advantage one fet
may have above the other.
“ A hundred and fifty of the pieces of gold are
interlaid with leaves of vellum, three or four inches
fquare, one vellum leaf being placed between every
two of the pieces, and about 20 more of the vellum
leaves on the outfides ; over thefe is drawn a parch¬
ment cafe, open at both ends, and over this another in
a contrary direftion, fo that the affemblage of gold
and vellum leaves is kept tight and clofe on all fides.
The whole is beaten with the heavieft hammer, and
every now and then turned upfide down, till the gold
is ftretched to the extent of the vellum; the cafe being
from time to time opened for difcovering how the ex-
tenfion goes on, and the packet, at times, bent and
rolled as it were between the hands, for procuring fuf-
ficient freedom to the gold, or, as the workmen fay,
to make the gold work. The pieces, taken out from
between the vellum leaves, are cut in four with a fteel
knife ; and the 600 divifions, hence refulting, are in¬
terlaid, in the fame manner, with pieces of the ox-gut
fldns five inches fquare. The beating being repeated
with a lighter hammer till the golden plates have again
acquired the extent of the fkins, they are a fecond
time divided in four : the inftrument ufed for this di-
vifion is a piece of cane cut to an edge, the leaves be¬
ing now fo light, that the moifture of the air or breath
condenfing on a metalline knife would occafion them
to ftick to it. Thefe laft divifions being fo numerous,
that the fkins neceffary for interpofing between them
would make the packet too thick to be beaten at
once, they are parted into three parcels, which are
beaten feparately, with the fmalleft hammer, till they
are ftretched for the third time to the fize of the
fkins: they are now found to be reduced to the great-
eft thinnefs they will admit of; and indeed many of
them, before this period, break or fail. The French
workmen, according to the minute detail of this pro-
cefs given in the Encyclopedic, repeat the divifion and
the beating once more; but as the fquares of gold,
Vot. IX. Part. II.
taken for the firft operation, have four times the areaC»oH-Leaf.
of thofe ufed among us, the number of leaves from an ——v—
equal area is the fame in both methods, viz. 16 from
a fquare inch. In the beating, however Ample the
procefs appears to be, a good deal of addrefs is requi-
fite, for applying the hammers fb as to extend the
metal uniformly from the middle to the fides : one im¬
proper blow is apt not only to break the gold leaves,
but to cut the fkins.
“ After the laft beating, the leaves are taken Up by
the end of a cane inftrument, and, being blown flat on
a leacher-cufhion, are cut to a fize, one by one, with a
fquare frame of cane made of a proper fharpnefs, or
with a frame of wood edged with cane : they are then
fitted into books of 25 leaves each, the paper of which
is well fmoothed, and rubbed with red-bole to prevent
their flicking to it. The French, for fixing the leaves,
ufe only the cane-knife ; cutting them firft ftraight on
one fide, fitting them into the book by the ftraight
fide, and then paring off the fuperfluous parts of the
gold about the edges of the book. The fize of the
French gold leaves is from fomewhat lefs than three
inches to three and three quarters fquare; that of ours,
from three inches to three and three-eighths.
“ The procefs of gold-beating is confiderably in¬
fluenced by the weather. In wet weather, the fldns
grow fomewhat damp, and in this ftate make the ex-
tenfion of the gold more tedious : the French are faid
to dry and prefs them at every time of ufing ; with
care not to overdry them, which would render them
unfit for farther fervice. Our workmen complain
more of froft, which appears to affefl the metalline
leaves themfelves: in froft, a gold-leaf cannot eafily
be blown flat, but breaks, wrinkles, or runs together.
“ Gold-leaf ought to be prepared from the fine ft
gold; as the admixture of other metals, though in too
fmall a proportion to fenfibly affed the colour of the
leaf, would difpofe it to lofe of its beauty in the air.
And indeed there is little temptation to the workman
to ufe any other; the greater hardnefs of alloyed gold
occafioning as much to be loft in point of time and
labour, and in the greater number of leaves that break,
as can be gained by any quantity of alloy that would
not be at once difcoverable by the eye. All jnetals
render gold harder and more difficult of extenfion:
even filver, which in this refpeft feems to alter its qua¬
lity lefs than any other metal, produces with gold a
mixture fenfibly harder than either of them feparately,
and this hardnefs is in no art more felt than in the
gold-beater’s. The French are faid to prepare what
is called the green gold-leaf, from a compoiition of one
part of copper and two of filver with eighty of gold.
But this is probably a miftake : for.fuch an admixture
gives no greennefs to gold: and I have been informed
by our workmen, that this kind of leaf is made from
the fame fine gold as the higheft gold-coloured, fort,
the greenifh hue being only a fuperficial teint indu¬
ced upon the gold in fome part of the procefs: thi*
greenifti leaf is little otherwife ufed than for the gild¬
ing of certain books.
“ But though the gold beater cannot advantageoufly
diminifh the quantity of gpld in the leaf by the ad¬
mixture of any other fubftance with the gold, yet
means have been contrived, for fome particular pur-
p'ofes, of faving the precious metal, by producing a
$ B kind
LEA
[ 74* 1
LEA
league, kind of leaf called party-gold, whofe balls Is fdver, fixed up in places of public concourfe, and fometimes Leagu
and which has only a fuperficial coat of gold upon one read at the fpiemn games. Some exchanged certain ll
fide: a thick leaf of filver and a thinner one of gold, 0r tejfera upon the occafion, and frequently
laid flat on one another, heated and preffed together, fent embafladors, on^fome appointed day, to keep them
unite and cohere.; and being then beaten into fine in mind of their engagements to each otiier.
leaves, as in the foregoing procefs, the gold, though The ceremonies of the Romans in making leagues
its quantity is only about one-fourth of that of the were performed by the Feciaks. See Feciales.
filver, continues every where to cover it, the exteu- Leagues of the Grifons, are a part of Switzerland,
fion of the former keeping pace with that of the confifting of three fubdivifions, viz. the upper league,
latter. the league of the houfe of God, and the league of the
LEAGUE, a meafure of length, containing more ten jurifdiftions. See the article Grisons.
or fewer geometrical paces, according to the different ‘The League, by way of eminence, denotes that fa-
ufages and cuftoms of countries. A league at fea, mous one on foot in France, from the year 1576 to
where it is chiefly ufed by us, being a land-meafure 1593. Its intent was to prevent the fucceffion of
moftly peculiar to the French and Germans, contains Henry IV. who was of the reformed religion, to
3000 geometrical paces, or three Englilh miles. The the crown ; and it ended with his abjuration of that
French league fometimes contains the fame meafure, faith.
and in fome parts of France it confifts of 3500 paces : The leaguers, or confederates, were of three kinds,
the mean or common league confifts of 2400 paces, The zealous leaguers aimed at the utter deftruftion not
and the little league of 2000. The Spanilh leagues only of the Huguenots, but alfo of the miniftry. The
are larger than the French, 17 Spanilh leagues ma- Spanj/h leaguers had principally in view the transfer-
king a degree, or 20 French leagues, or 6g± Englilh ring the crown of France to the king of Spain, or the
ftatute-miles. The Dutch and German leagues con- infanta his daughter. The moderate leaguers aimed on-
tain each four geographical miles. The Perfiam leagues ly at the extirpation of Calvinifm, without any altera-
are pretty near of the fame extent with the Spanifh ; tion of the government.
that is, they are equal to four Italian miles : which is LEAK, at fea, is a hole in the^fhip, through which
pretty near to what Herodotus calls the length of the the water comes in. A fhip is faid to fpring a leak
Perfian parafang, which contained 30 ftadia, eight when fhe begins to leak or to let in the water. The
whereof, according to Strabo, make a mile. The manner of flopping a leak is to put into it a plug wrap-
word comes from leuca, or leuga, an ancient Gaulifti ped in oakum and well tarred, or in a tawrpawling
word for an itinerary meafure, and retained in that clout, which keeps out the water, or nailing a piece
fenfe by the Romans. Some derive the word leuca of Iheet lead on the place. Seamen fometimes flop a
from Mux*?, “ white as the Gauls, in imitation of leak by thrufting a piece of fait beef into it. The
the Romans, marked the fpaces and diftances of their fea-water, fays Mr Boyle, being freiher than the brine
roads with white ftones. imbibed by the beef, penetrates into its body, and
League alfo denotes an alliance or confederacy be- caufes it to fwell fo as to bear ftrongly againft the ed-
tween princes and ftates for their mutual aid, either in ges of the broken plank, and thereby flops the influx
attacking fome common enemy, or in defending them- of the water.—A ready way to find a leak in a ihip is
felves. The word comes from liga, which in the cor- to apply the narrower end of a fpeaking trumpet to
rupt Latin was ufed for a confederacy : Qua quis cum the ear, and the other to the fide of the fhip where the
a.lio ligatur. leak is fuppofed to be ; then the noife of the water if-
Leagues, among the Greeks, were of three forts : fuing in at the leak will be heard diftin&ly, whereby it
1. Xm-ovJ'x, 2uv3-i?x«, or whereby both parties were may be difeovered.
obliged to ceafe from hoftihties, without even moleft- LEAKAGE, the ftate of a veflel that leaks, or lets
ing the allies of each other ; 2. E.x‘yaxtCL, whereby they water or other liquid ooze in or out.
engaged to lend affiftance to each other in cafe of in- Leakage, in commerce, is an allowance of \2 per
vafion ; and, 3. whereby they engaged to cent, in the cuftoms, allowed to importers of wines for
have the fame friends and enemies, and to aflift each the wafte or damage it is fuppofed to have received in
other upon all occafions. All thefe leagues were con- the paifage : an allowance of two barrels in 22 is al-
firmed with oaths, and imprecations, and facrifices. fo made to the brewers of jale and beer by the excife-
The viftims moll generally ufed were a boar, ram, or office.
goat, fometimes all three; and fometimes bulls and LEAKE (Richard), mafter-gunner of England,
lambs. They cut out the tefticles of the animal, and was born at Harwich in 1629, and was bred to the
Rood upon them while they fwore; and fome of the fea. At the reftoration, he was made mafter-gunner
hair of the vi&im was diftributed to all prefent. Then of the Princefs, a frigate of 50 guns; and in the firft
they cut the animal’s throat, which was called °pxi* Dutch war diftinguilhed himfelf by his Ikill and bra-
tsjwveiv, in Latin,/enVe ftedus.—This done, they repeat- very in two extraordinary actions ; one againft 15 fail
ed their oaths and imprecations, calling the gods to of Dutch men of war; and another in 1667 againft two
witnefs the honefty of their intentions. A libation Danes in the Baltic, in which the commanding offi-
was then made of wine, which at thi^time was mixed, cers of the Princefs being killed or defperately wound-
to imply their conjun&ion and union: while this was ed, the command, according to the rules of war at
pouring out, they prayed that the blood of him who that time, fell to the gunner. In 1669, he was promo-
ffiould break the treaty might be poured out in like ted to be gunner of the Royal Prince, a firft-rate man
manner. Upon thefe occafions no part of the vidim of war. He was engaged, with his two fons Henry
was eaten. Still further to increafe the folemnity of and John, in the battle againft Van Tromp, in 1673 »
this obligation, the league was engraven upon brafs, when the Royal Prince had all her mails ihot away.
LEA
[ 747 1
LEA
near 400 of her men killed and difabled, and moll of he relieved Gibraltar, which the French had befieged
her upper tier of guns difmounted. As fhe lay thus by fea, and the Spaniards by land, fo feafonably, that
like a wreck, a great Dutch man of war came down the enemy was to have attacked the town that very night
upon her with two fire-fliips, either to burn or carry in feveral places, and would undoubtedly have made
her off; and Captain Rooke, afterwards Sir George, themfelves mailers of it. Five hundred Spaniards had,-
thinking it impoffible to defend her, ordered the men
to fave their lives, and the colours to be ftruck. Mr
Deake hearing this, ordered the lieutenant off the quar¬
ter deck, and took the command upon himfelf, fay¬
ing, “ The Royal Prince (hall never be given up to
the enemy while I am alive to defend her.” The un-
by the help of rope-ladders, climbed up the rocks by
a way that was thought inacceffible. At the fame time
they had got a great number of boats to land 3000 men
at the New Mole, who, by making a vigorous aifault
on the fide next the fea, were to draw the garrifon to
oppofe that attack, while the 500 concealed men ruih-
daunted fpirit of the brave gunner infpiredthe fmallre- ed into the town. Thefe being the next day drawn
fidue of the ihip’s company with refolution : they re- by hunger out of their ambufcade, were difcovered ; on
turned with alacrity to the fight, and under the direc- which Sir John affifting the garrifon with failors and
tion of this valiant gunner and his two fons funk both marines, they were attacked with fuch vigour, that,,
the fire-fhips, and obliged the man of war to fheer off; though they had taken an oath not to furrender to the
and having thus faved the Royal Prince, he brought Englifh, 190 common foldiers and 30 officers took
her into Chatham. But Mr Leake’s joy in obtaining quarter; 200 were killed on the fpot; and the reft,
this vidtory was damped by the lofs of Henry, his el- who endeavoured to make their efcape, fell headlong
deft fon, who was killed near him. Soon after, Mr down the rock. He was foon after made vice-admiral
Leake was preferred to the command of a yacht, and of the white, and then twice relieved that fortrefs.
alfo made gunner of Whitehall. In 1677, he obtain- The laft time, he attacked five fhips of the French
ed a grant for life of the office of mafter-gunner of fleet coming out of the bay, of whom two were ta-
England, and flore-keeper of the ordnance at Wool- ken, and two run afhore and were deftroyed : baron
wich. By thefe polls he had full fcope for his genius. Pointi died foon after, of the wounds he received in
He accordingly, among other things, invented the the battle ; and in a few days the enemy raifed the
. cufhee-piece ; and contrived to fire a mortar by the fiege. In the year 1705, Sir John was engaged in the
blaft of a piece, which has been ufed ever fince. He
was alfo the principal contriver of what the French
reduction of Barcelona ; and the next year relieved that
city, when it was reduced to the laft extremity, and
call infernals, ufed at the bombardment at St Malo’s obliged king Philip to raife the fiege. Soon after he
1693. Mr Leake had a furprifing genius for all in¬
ventions of this kind ; and had frequent trials of fkill
with French and Dutch gunners and engineers in
took the city of Carthagena ; from whence proceed¬
ing to Alicant and Joyce, both thefe fubmitted to
him ; and he concluded the exploits of that year with
Woolwich warren, at which king Charles II. and the the reduftion of the city and ifland of Majorca. Up¬
on his return home, prince George of Denmark made
him a prefent of a ring valued at 4001. and he had the
in the art of making compofitions for fireworks ; of honour of receiving 1000 1. from the queen as a reward
duke of York were often prefent, and he never fail¬
ed to excel all his competitors: nor was he lefs fkilled
which he likewife made frequent trials with equal fuc-
cefs.
Leake (Sir John), an Engliffi admiral, diftinguiih-
ed by his bravery and fuccefs, was born in 1656, and
was taught mathematics and gunnery by Mr Richard
Leake' his father, who was mafter-gunner of Eng¬
land. Entering early into the navy, he diftinguilhed
for his fervices. Upon the unhappy death of Sir
Cloudefly Shovel, in 1707, he was made admiral of
the white, and commander in chief of her majefty’s
fleet ; and the next year, furprifing a convoy of the
enemy’s corn, he fent it to Barcelona, and thus faved
both that city and the confederate army from the dan¬
ger of famine : foon after, convoying the new queen
himfelf under his father in 1673, in the memorable of Spain to king Charles her confort, her majefty
•engagement between Sir Edward Spragg and Van made him a prefent of a diamond ring of 500 pounds
Tromp, when but 16 years of age; and being after- value. He then proceeded to the ifland of Sardinia,
wards made captain, he fignalized himfelf, among which he reduced to the obedience of king Charles ;
other occafions, by executing the defperate attempt of and foon after affifted the lord Stanhope in the conqueft
convoying fome vi&ualers into Londonderry, which of Minorca. Then returning home, he was appointed
obliged the enemy to raife the fiege ; and at the fa¬
mous battle of La Hogue. In 1702, being made
commodore of a fquadton, he deftroyed the French
trade and fettlements at Newfoundland, and reftored
the Englifti to the pofleffion of the whole ifland. On
his return he was created rear-admiral ; foon after, he
one of the council to the lord high admiral ; and in
1709, was made rear admiral of Great Britain. He
was feveral times chofen member of parliament for Ro-
chefter ; and in 1712 conduded the Englifti forces to
take pofleffion of Dunkirk. But upon the acceflioit
of king George I. he was fuperfeded, and allowed a
is made vice-admiral of the blue, and was afterwards penfion of 600 1. a-year. After this he lived privately
knighted. He was engaged with admiral Rook in
taking Gibraltar : foon after which, he particularly di-
Ilinguiftied himfelf in the general engagement off Ma¬
laga ; when commanding the leading fquadron of the
van, confifting only of fix fhips, he drove that of the
enemy, confifling of 13, out of the line of battle, fo dif¬
abled that they never returned to the fight. In 1705,
till his death, which happened at his houfe in Green¬
wich in 1720.
Leake (Stephen Martin, Efq;) fon of Captain
Martin, went through different ranks in the heralds
office till he came to be garter. He was the fit ft per-
fon who wrote profefiedly on our Englifh coins, two
editions of his “ Hiftorical Account” of which were
5 B 3 publiftled
LEA [ 748 ] LEA
Lfander publiflied t>y him with plates, under the title of Num-
mi Britannici Hijloria, I^ondon, 1726, 8vo; the fe-
. ''eap‘ 1 cond. much improved, London, 1745, 8vo. He
printed, in 1750, “The Life of Sir John Leake,
knight, admiral of the fleet,” &c. to whom he was
indebted for a confiderable eftate; which the Admiral
devifed to truftees for the ufe of his fon for life ; and
upon his death to Captain Martin (who married Lady
Leake’s After) and his heirs : By which means it came
to the Captain’s fon ; who, in gratitude to the me¬
mory of Sir John Leake, wrote an accurate account
ef his life, of which only 50 copies were printed. In
1 766, he printed alfo 50 copies of “ The Statutes of
the Order of the Garter,” 410. He died in 1773;
and was buried in his chancel in the parifh-church of
Thorp in Eflex, of which manor he was lord.
LEANDER, in poetic hiftory, a young man of
Abydos in Afta. He ufed to fwim over the Helle-
fpont by night to viftt Hero his miftrefs, who fet
forth a light to guide him: but in a tempeftuous win¬
ter-night he was drowned; upon which Hero feeing
him dead on the fhore, call herfelf headlong from the
tower, and died alfo. See Hero.
LEAO, in natural hiftory, a mineral fubftance ap¬
proaching to the nature of the lapis lazuli, found in
the Eaft Indies, and of great ufe in the Chinefe por¬
celain manufactures, being the flneft blue they are
poflefled of. This ftone is found in the ftrata of pit-
coal, or in thofe of a yellowifti or reddiih earth in the
neighbourhood of the veins of coal. There are often
found pieces of it lying on the furface of the ground,
and thefe are a fure indication that more will be
found on dipping. It is generally found in oblong
pieces of the flze of a Anger, not round, but flat.
Some of this is very fine, and fome coarfe and of a
bad colour. The latter is very common ; but the Ane
fort is fcarce, and greatly valued. It is not eafy to
diftinguifli them at Aght, but they are found by ex¬
periment ; and the trying one piece is generally fufH-
cient for judging of the whole mine, for all that is
found in the fame place is ufually of the fame fort.
The manner of preparing it for ufe is this : They
firft wafh it very clean, to feparate it from the earth
or any other foulnefs it may have : they then lay it
at the bottom of their baking furnaces; and when it
has been thus calcined for three or four hours, it is
taken out, and powdered very ftne in large mortars of
porcelain, with ftone peftles faced with iron. When
the powder is perfeflly Ane, they pour in boiling wa¬
ter, and grind that with the reft, and when it is
thoroughly incorporated, they add more, and Anally
pour it off after fome time fettling. The remainder
at the bottom of the mortar, which is the coarfer
part, they grind again with more water; and fo on
tiil they have made the whole flne, excepting a little
dirt or grit. When this is done, all the liquors are
mixed together, and well flirted. They are fuffered
to Hand two or three minutes after this, and then
poured off with the powder remaining in them : this
is fuffered to fubAde gradually, and is the flne blue
ufed in their beft works, our common fmalt ferving
for the blue of all the common china ware.
LEAP, in mufle, is when the fong does not pro¬
ceed by conjoint degrees, as when between each note
thei« is an interval of a third, a fourth, ftfth, &c.
LEAP-Year. See Year, and Chronoiogy, n° 24. Leaping
Lovers-LsAP. See Leucata. II
LEAPING, or Vaulting, was an exercife much 'e* ‘ ,
ufed both amongft the Greeks and Romans. The
Grecians called it A\^a, and performed it with weights
upon their heads and (boulders. Sometimes they car¬
ried the weights in their hands, which were of differ¬
ent flgures, but generally oval and made with holes
or covered with thongs, through which the contend¬
ers put their Angers. Thefe weights were called
A\%ptc The conteft was who could leap the higheft
and fartheft. The place from whence they jumped
was called Bxhf, and that to which they leaped,
taKafi/iiva, becaufe the ground was there dug up.
This exercife was performed in the fame manner by
the Romans.
LEAR, the name of a Britifh king faid in old
chronicles to have fucceeded his father Bladud, about
A. M. 3160. The ftory of this king and his three
daughters, is well known from Shakefpeare’s excellent
tragedy founded on it.
LEASE, from the French lai/er, demittere, “ to
let,” in law, a demife,, or letting of lands, tenements,
or hereditaments, unto another for life, term of years,
or at will, for a rent referved.
A leafe is either written, called an indenture, deed-
poll, or leafe in writing ; or by word of mouth, called
leafe parole.
All eftates, interefts of freehold, or terms for years
in lands, &c. not put in writing and flgned by the
parties, (hall have no greater effe£f than as eftates at
will; unlefs it be of leafes not exceeding three years
from the making ; wherein the rent referved (hall be
two-thirds of the value of the things demifed. Leafes
exceeding three years muft be made in writing; and if
the fubftance of a leafe be put in writing, and Agned
by the parties, though it be not fealed, it (hall have
the effed of a leafe for years, &c.
An alignment differs from a leafe only in this ; that
by a leafe one' grants an intereft lefs than his own, re-
ferving to himfelf a reverflon ; in aflignments he parts
with the whole property, and the alEgnee (lands to
all intents and purpofes in the place of the afligaor.
Lease, in Scots law. See Tack.
Lease an<\ Releafe, a fpecies of conveyance ufed
in the Englifli law, flrft invented by Serjeant Moore,
foon after the ftatute of ufes, and now the mod com¬
mon of any, and therefore not to be (haken ; though
very great lawyers (as particularly Mr Noy) have
formerly doubted its validity. It is thus contrived.
A leafe, or rather bargain and fale, upon fome pecu¬
niary conflderation, for one year, is made by the te¬
nant of the freehold to the leffee or bargainee. Now
this, without any inrolment, makes the bargainor
(land feifed to the ufe of the bargainee, and vefts in
the bargainee the ufe of the term for a year; and then
the ftatutc immediately annexes the poffejfwn. He
therefore, being thus in poffeffion, is capable of re¬
ceiving a releafe of the freehold and reverflon, which
muft be made to a tenant in poffeffion: and according¬
ly, the next day, a releafe is granted to him. This
is held to fupply the place of livery of feifln ; and fo
a conveyance by leafe and releafe is faid to amount to
a feoffment.
LEASH, among fportfmen, denotes three crea-
turea
LEA
• tures of any kind} but chiefly gre-hounds, foxes;
^ bucks, and hares.
The term /ea/b alfo fignifies a line to hold in a hunt¬
ing dog ; and a fmall long thong of leather, by which
a falconer holds his hawk.
LEASING making, in Scots law, the uttering
of words tending to excite difcord between the king
and his people ; alfo called verbal /edition.
LEATHER, the Hein of feveral forts of beads
dreffed and prepared for the ufe of various manufac¬
turers, whofe bufiuefs it is to make them up.
Dyeing of Leather, Skins, &c. Blue is given by
fteeping the fubjeft a day in urine and indigo, then
boiling it with alum : or it may be given by temper¬
ing the indigo with red-wine, and wafhing the (kins
therewith. Red is given by wafhing the flcins, and
laying them two hours in galls, then wringing them
out, dipping them in a liquor made with liguftrum,
alum, and verdigreafe in water ; and laftly, in a dye
made of brazil-wood, boiled with ley. Purple is gi¬
ven by wetting the fldns with a folution of roche alum
in warm water ; and, when dry again, rubbing them
with the hand with a decoction of log-wood in colder.
Green is given by fmearing the fkin with fap-green
and alum-water boiled. Dark green is alfo given with
fteel-filings and fal armoniac fteeped in urine till foft,
then fmeared over the fkin 5 which is to be dried in
the (hade. Sky-colour is given with indigo fteeped in
boiling water, and the next morning warmed and
fmeared over the fltin. Tellovu, by fmearing the fkin
over with aloes and linfeed-oil diffolved and drained ;
or by infufing it in weld. Orange-colour is given by
fmearing with fuftic berries boiled in alum-water; or,
for a deep orange, with turmeric.
ProceJ/es for Dyeing L £ at h e a Red and Yellow as
prattifd in Turkey, with diretiions for Preparing and
'Tanning the Skins y as communicated ly Mr Philippo, a
native of Armenia, who received from the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts. i5c. one hundred pounds, and al¬
fo the gold medal of the Society, as a reward for di/cover¬
ing this fecret.
[ 749 ]
LEA
fkins, and water fufficient to make the mixture mode- ]
rately fluid, which will be about a gallon to each pound L
of bran. In this drench let the fkins lie three days 5
at the end of which time they muft be well worked,
apd afterwards returned into the drench two days
longer. They muft then be taken out and rub¬
bed between the hands; the water fqueezed from
them, and the bran fcraped off clear from both fides
of the fkins. After this they muft be again wafhed
ten times in clear water, and the water fqueezed out
of them.
Thus far the pteparatory procefs of all the (kins,-
whether intended to be dyed red or yellow, is the fame;
but afterwards thofe which are to be dyetl red, muft;
be treated as follows.
3. Preparation in Honey and Bran of the Skins that
are to be dyed Red. Mix one pound of honey with
three pints of luke warm water, and ftir them toge¬
ther till the honey is diffolved. Then add two double
handfuls of bran ; and taking four fkins (for which the
above quantity of the mixture will be fufficient) work
them well in it one after another. Afterwards fold up.
each fkin feparately into a round form, with the flefh-
fide inwards; and lay them in an earthen pan, or other
proper veffel; if in the fummer, by the fide of each,
other; but in the winter, on the top of each other.
Place the veffel in a floping pofition, fo that fuch part
of the fluid as may fpontaneoufly drain from the fkins,
may pafs from them. An acid^fermentation will then'
life in the liquor, and the flcins will fwell confiderably.
In this ftate they muft continue for feven or eight
days; but the moifture that drains from them muft.
be poured off, once or twice a-day, as occafion may re¬
quire. After this a further preparation in fait is ne-
ceffary; and which muft be performed in the follow¬
ing manner.
4 Preparation in Salt, of the Skins to be dyed Red..
After the flcins have been fermented in the honey and
bran, as above mentioned, let them be taken out of that
mixture on the eighth or ninth day, and well rubbed,
with dry common fea-falt, in the proportion of about
1. Firfl Preparation of the Skins, loth for Red and half a pound to each fkin ; the fait muft be well rub-
Tellow Leather, by dreffing them in Lime. Let the fkins,
dried with the hair on, be firft laid to foak in clean
water for three days ; let them then be broken over
the fkfh-fide, put into frefh water for two days long¬
er, and afterwards hung up to drain half an hour.
Let them now be broken on the fkfh-fide, limed in
cold lime on the fame fide, and doubled together with
the grain fide outward. In this ftate they muft be
hung up within-doors over a frame for five or fix days,
till the hair be loofe; which muft then be taken off,
and the flcins returned into the lime-pit for about
three weeks. Take them out, and let them be well
worked flefli and grain, every fixth or feventh day du¬
ring that time : after which, let them be wafhed ten
times in clear water, changing the water at each wafh¬
ing. They are next to be prepared in drench, as be¬
low mentioned.
bed and worked with them. This will make them con-
tradt again, and pait with a further confiderable quan¬
tity of moifturc ; which muft be fqueezed out by draw¬
ing each fkin feparately through the hands. They
muft next be fcraped clean on both Tides from the bran,
fuperfluous fait, and moifture tnat may adhere to them..
After which, dry fait muft be ftrewed over the grain-
fide, and well rubbed in with the hand. 'They are
then to be doubled with thefkfh-fide outwards, length-
wife from neck to tail, and a little more dry fait muft
be thinly ftrewed over the flefh-fide, and rubbed in-;
for the two laft operations, about a pound and a half
of fait will be fufficient for each fkin. They muft then
be put, thus folded on each other, between two clean
boards, placed floping, breadthwife ; and a heavy
weight laid on the upper board, in order gradually to
prefs out what moifture they will thus part with. In
this ftate of preffure, they muft be continued two days!
or longer, till it is convenient to dye them, for which.
2. Second Preparation of the Skins for both the Red
and Tellow Dyes by drenching. After fqueezing the „
water out of the flcins, put them into a mixture of bran they will then be duly prepared,
and water, warm as new milk, in the following pro- 5- Preparation of the Red Dye,
portions ; viz, about three pounds of bran, for five tion for fourJkh ” '
a proper propor-
Put eight gallons of water into a
copper^
LEA [ 750 ] LEA
l.'i&tfitr. copper, withfeven ounces of flienan (a) tied up in a
v-’*-' linen bag. Light a fire under a copper ; and when the
■water has boiled about a quarter of an hour, take out
the bag of fhenan, and put into the boiling fluid or
lixivium, ift, two drams of alum 5 2dly, two drams
pomegranate bark ; 3dly, three quarters of an ounce
of turmeric; 4thly, three ounces ofcochineal; 5thly, two
ounces of loaf-fugar. Let the whole mixture boil about
fix minutes, then cover the fire, and take out a quart
of liquor, putting it into a flat earthen pan ; and when
it is as cold as new milk, take one Ikin, folded length-
wife, the grain-fide outwards, and dip it in the liquor,
rubbing it gently with the hands. Then taking out
the fldn, hang it up to drain, and throw away the fu-
perfluous dye. Proceed in the fame manner with the
remaining three Ikins ; repeating the operation of each
Ikin feparately, eight times, fqueezing the flcins by
drawing them through the hands before each frefli dip¬
ping. Lay them now on one fide of a large pan, fet
Jloping, to drain off as much of the moiflure as will
run from them without preffure, for about two hours,
or till they are cold ; then tan them as below dire&ed.
6. Tanning the Red Skins. Powder four ounces of
the bell white galls in a marble mortar, fifting it thro’
a fine fieve. Mix the powder with about three quarts
of water, and work the fkins well in this mixture for
half an hour or more, folding up the fkins four-fold.
Let them lie in this tan for 24 hours ; when they mull
be worked again as before ; then taken out, fcraped
clean on both fides from the firft galls, and put into a
like quantity of frefh galls and water. In this frefh
mixture they muft be again well worked for three
quarters of an hour ; then folded up as before, and left
in the frefli tan for three days. On the fourth day
they muft; be taken out, wafhed clean from the galls in
feven or eight frefh quantities of water, and then hung
tip to dry.
7. Manner of Drejjing the Skins after they are tanned.
When the fkins have been treated as above, and are
very near dry, they fhould be fcraped with the proper
inftrument or fcraper on the flefh-fide, to reduce them
to a proper degree of thicjenefs. They are then to be
laid on a fmooth board, and glazed by rubbing them
with a fmooth glafs. After which they muft be oiled,
by rubbing them with olive-oil, by means of a linen
rag, in the proportion of one ounce and a half of oil
for four fkins: they are then to be grained on a grain-
ing-board, lengthwife, breadthwife, and cornerwife,
or from corner to corner.
8. Preparations with Galls, for the Skins to be dyed
Tellow. After the four fkins are taken out of the
drench of bran, and clean wafhed as before dire&ed in
the fecond article, they muft be very well worked, half
an hour or more, in a mixture of a pound and an half of
the beft white galls, finely powdered, with two quarts
of clean water. The fkins are then to be feparately
doubled lengthwife, rolled up with the flefh-fide out¬
wards, laid in the mixture, and dofe prefled down on
each other, in which ftate they muft continue two whole
days. On the third day let them be again worked in
the tan ; and afterwards fcraped clean from the galls,
with an ivory or brafs inftrument (for no iron muft
touch them). They muft then be put into a frefh tan,
made of two pounds of galls finely powdered, with a-
bout three quarts of water, and well worked therein
15 times. After this they muft be doubled, rolled up
as before, and laid in the fecond tan for three days.
On the third day a quarter of a pound of white fea-
falt muft; be worked into each Ikin ; and the fltins dou¬
bled up as before, and returned into the tan, till the
day following, when they are to be taken out, and well
wafhed fix times in cold water, and four times in wa¬
ter lukewarm. The water muft be then well fqueezed
out, by laying the fltins under prefiure, for about half
an hour, between two boards, with a weight of about
200 or 300 pounds laid upon the uppermoft board,
when they will be ready for the dye.
9. Preparation of the Tellow Dye, in. the proper pro¬
portion for four Skins. Mix fix ounces of caffiari ge*
hira (b), or dgehira, or the berries of the eaftern
rhamnus, with the fame quantity of alum ; and pound
them together till they be fine, in a marble or brafs
mortar, with a brafs peftle. Then dividing the mate¬
rials, thus powdered, into three equal parts of four
ounces each, put one of thofe three parts into about a
pint and a half of water, in a china or earthen veflfel,
and ftir the mixture together. Let the fluid ftand to
cool, till it will not feald the hand. Then fpreading
one of the fltins flat on a table, in a warm room, with
the grain-fide uppermoft, pour a fourth part of the
tinging liquor, prepared as above dire&ed, over the
upper or grain-fide, fpreading it equally over the fkin
with the hand, and rubbing it well in. Afterwards do
the like with the other three fltins, for which the mix¬
ture firft made will be fufficient.
This operation muft be repeated twice more on each
fkin feparately, with the remaining eight ounces of the
powder of the berries, and alum, with the above men¬
tioned due proportions of hot water, put to them as
before diredfed.
The
(a) Shenan is a drug much ufed by dyers in the Eait; and may eafily be procured at any of the ports of
Syria and Africa, in the Levant. It is the Eaftern jointed-kali, called by botanifts falicornia ; and grows in
great plenty in thofe and other parts of the Eaft. There is a lefler fpecies of the falicornia on our coaft,
which, from its great affinity with the fhenan, might be prefumed to have the fame qualities. On fome trials,
however, it has not appeared to anfwer the intention of the fhenan ; but it will not be prudent to purfue the
examination of this further, as fome unknown circumftances in the colle&ing or ufing the Englifh falicornia
might occafion the mifearriage. But be this as it may, the Eaftern fhenan may, at all events, be eafily procu¬
red in any quantity, at a very trifling expence, by any of the captains of Turkey fhips, at Aleppo, Smyrna,
&c.
(b) The qaffiari gehira is the berries of an eaftern rhamnus, or buckthorn-tree ; and may be had at Alep¬
po, and other parts of the Levant, at a fmall price. The common Avignon or yellow berries may be fubftitu-
ted, but not with fo good an effedl; the caffiari gehira being a ftronger and brighter yellow dye, both for this-
nfe and alfo that of colouring paper-hangings, &c.
LEA L 75* 1 LEG
leather, The (kins, when dyed, are to oe hung up on a
t Leaven, wooden frame, without being folded, with the grain-
^ ' r~mm~ fide outwards, about three quarters of an hour to drain;
when they muft be carried to a river or ftream of run¬
ning water, and well wafhed therein fix times or more.
After this they muft be put under preflure for about
an hour, till the water be well fqueezed out; afterwards
the (kins muft be hung up to dry in a warm room.
This being done, the fkina are to be dreffed and
grained as before direfted for thofe dyed red; except
the oiling, which muft be omitted.
Blacking Leather, In the tanning of leather it
is fo much impregnated with the aftringent parts of
oak-bark, or with that matter which ftrikes a black
with green vitriol, that rubbing it over three or four
times with a folution of the vitriol, or with a folution
of iron made in vegetable acids, is fufficient for ftaining
it black. Of this we may be convinced by dropping
a little of the iolution on the unblacked fide of com¬
mon {hoe-leather. This operation is performed by the
currier ; who, after the colouring, gives a glofs to the
leather with a folution of gum-arabic and fize made
in vinegar. Where the previous aftringent impregna¬
tion is infufficient to give due colour, and for thofe
forts of leather which have not been tanned, fome galls
or other aftringents arc added to the folution of iron ;
and in many cafes, particularly for the finer forts of
leather, and for renewing the blacknefs, ivory or lamp¬
black are ufed. A mixture of either of thefe with lin-
feed oil makes the common oil-blacking. For a ftiining
blacking, fmall beer or water are taken inftead of oil,
in the quantity of about a pint to an ounce of the
ivory-black, with the addition of half an ounce of
brown fugar and as much gum-arabic. The white of
an egg, fubftituted for the gum, makes the black
more fliining, but is fuppofed to hurt the leather, and
make it apt to crack. It muft be obvious, however,
that all thefe compofitions admit of a great many va¬
riations.
Gilding of Leather. Take glair of the whites of
eggs, or gum water, and with a brufti rub over the
leather with either of them : then lay on the gold or
filver, and, letting them dry, burnifti them. See the
articles Gilding and Burnishing.
To drefs or cover Leather with Silver or Golf. Take
brown-red ; grind or move it on a ftone with a muller,
adding water and chalk ; and when the latter is dif-
folved, rub or lightly daub the leather over with it,
till it looks a little whitifh; and then lay on the leaf-
filver or gold before the leather is quite dry, laying
the leaves a little over each other, that there may not
be the leaft part uncovered ; and when they have well
clofed with the leather, and are fufficiently dried on and
hardened, rub them over with an ivory polifher, or the
foretooth of a horfe.
LEAVEN, a piece of four dough, ufed to ferment
and render light a much larger quantity of dough or
pafte. See Bread, Barm, and Baking.
Leaven was ftri&ly forbidden by the law of Mofes
during the feven days of the paflbver ; and the Jews, in
obedience to this law, very carefully purified their
houfes from all leaven as foon as the vigil of the feaft
began. Nothing of honey or leaven was to have place
in any thing prefented to the Lord, upon his altar,
during this folemnity. If, during the feaft, the leaft
particle of leaven was found in their houfes, they ima- Leaves
gined the whole was polluted, for a little leaven lea- , Jl
veneth the whole lump. Leaven, in its fiffumtive ~~1C3'
fenfe, fignifies the bad paffions of envy and malice,
and rancour, which four the temper, and extend their
ferment over the focial affe&ions ; whereas unleaven¬
ed bread implies fincerity and truth. It is frequently
ufed for any kind of moral contagion.
LEAVES of plants. See Leaf.
Colours extruded from Leaves. See Colour-Ma¬
ting, n° 37.
LEBADEA, or Lebadia, an ancient town of
Boeotia, on the borders of Phocis, fituated between
Helicon and Chxronea, near Corontea. In it flood
the oracle of Jupiter Trophonius, which whoever went
to confult, defeended into a fubterraneous gulf.
LEBEDA, an ancient fea-port town of Africa, in
the kingdom of Tripoli, with a pretty good harbour,
and an old cattle, leated on the Mediterranean Sea ;
in E. Long. 14. 50. N. Lat 32. 10.
LEBEHOS, reckoned among the twelve ancient
cities of Ionia, was fituated to the fouth of Smyrna.
It was the refidence of ftage-players, and the place
where they met from all parts of Ionia, as far as the
Hellefpont, and celebrated annual games in honour of
Bacchus, (Strabo). It was overthrown by Lyfimachus,
who removed the inhabitants to Ephefus; fcarce ever
after recovering itfelf, and becoming rather a village
than a town, (Horace.) 6
LEBEN, or Lebena, (anc. geog.) one of the
port-towns of the Gortynians, near the promontory
Leon, on the fouth-eaft fide of Crete; famous for a
temple of ALfculapius in imitation of that of Cyre-
naica. 1
LEBRLXA, an ancient, ftrong, and pleafant town
of Spain, in Andalufia ; feated on a territory abound¬
ing in corn, wine, and a great number of olive-trees,
of whofe fruit they make the heft oil in Spain. W. Lon.
5. 32. N. Lat. 36. 52.
LEBUS, a town of Germany, in the circle of Up¬
per Saxony, and in the marquifate of Brandenburg,
with a biftiop’s fee, fecularized in favour of the houfe
of Brandenburg. It is feated on the river Oder, in
E. Long. 14. 55. N. Lat. 52. 28.
LECCEj a rich, populous, and moft beautiful town
of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples and in the Terra
d’Otranto, of which it is the chief place, and the fee
of a bifliop. E. Long. 18. 20. N. Lat. 40. 38.
LECCO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan,
feated on the eaftern fide of the lake Como. E. Long.
9. 40. N. Lat. 45. 45.
LECHLADE, a town of Gloucefterfhire in Eng¬
land, feated at the confluence of the river Lech with
the Thames. W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 51. 42.
LECHNICH, a town of Germany in'the circle of
the Lower Rhine, and in the ele&orace of Cologne.
E. Long. 6. 35. N. Lat. 50. 40.
LECTI, beds or couches, were of two kinds a-
mongft the Romans, as being deftined to two different
ufes, to lie upon at entertainments, and to repofe upon
for nightly reft. The firft were called ledi tricliniares.
the other letti cubicularii. See Beds.
LEC l IC A, was a litter or vehicle, in which the
Romans were carried. It was of two kinds, covered
and uncovered. The covered lexica is called by Pli-
5 ny
L E C [ 752 ] LED
Left tear ii ny eubiculum viatorum, a traveller’s bed-chamber: And
II indeed we are informed that Auguftus frequently or-
. 'e ^rer8- dered his fervants to ftop his litter that he might fleep
upon the road. This vehicle was carried by fix or
eight men called ledicarii. The le&ica differed from
the fella, for in the firft the traveller could recline him-
felf for fleep, in the latter he was obliged to fit. The
leftica was invented in Bithynia ; the fella was a Ro¬
man machine, and efteemed the more honourable of
the two. Leftica was alfo the name of the funeral
bed or bier for carrying out the dead.
LECTICARII, among the Romans, fervants who
carried the Lectica.
LECTICARIUS was alfo an officer in the Greek
church, whofe bufinefs it was to bear off the bodies of
thofe who died, and to bury them. Thefe were other-
wife denominated decani and copiate.
LECTIO, reading. Confidered in a medicinal view,
it is faid by Celfus, lib. i. cap. 4. to be bad, efpecially
after fupper, for thofe whofe heads are weak ; and in
lib. 1. cap. 8. he recommends reading with an audible
voice for fuch as have weak ftomachs. It is alfo
direfted by Paulus iEginetus as an exercife, lib. 1.
cap. 19.
LECTISTERNIUM, afolemn ceremony obferved
by the Romans in times of public danger, wherein an
entertainment was prepared with great magnificence,
and ferved up in the temples. The gods were invited
to partake of the good cheer, and their llatues placed
upon couches round the table in the fame manner as
men ufed to fit at meet. The firft leftifternium held
at Rome was in honour of Apollo, Latona, Diana,
Hercules, Mercury, and Neptune, to put a ftop to a
contagious diftemper which raged amongft the cattle,
in the year of Rome 354. At thefe feafts the Epulo-
nes prtfided, and the facred banquet was called epulum.
See Epulo, JEpulum, &c.
Something like the ledftifternium was occafionally
obferved amongft the Greeks, according to Cafau-
bon.
LECTORES, among the Remans, fervants in great
mens houfes, who were employed in reading while
their mafters were at fupper. They were called by the
Greeks Anagnostje.
LECTOURE, an ancient and ftrong town of
France, in Gafcony, with a caftle and a bifhop’s fee;
feated on a mountain at the foot of which runs the ri¬
ver Gers. E. Long. o. 42. N. Lat. 43. 56.
LECTURERS, in England, are an order of preach¬
ers in parifh churches, diftinft from the reftor, vicar,
and curate. They are chofen by the veftry, or chief
inhabitants of the parifti, fupported by voluntary fub-
feriptions and legacies, and are ufually the afternoon
preachers in the Sunday fervice. The term is alfo
more generally applied to thofe who preach on Sun¬
day, or on any ftated day of the week, in churches,
or other places of public worihip. By 13 & 14 Car. II.
cap. 4. lecturers in churches, unlicenfed, and not con¬
forming to the liturgy, fliall be difabled, and flrall alfo
fuffer three months imprifonment in the common gaol;
and two juftices, or the mayor in a town corporate,
fliall, upon certificate from the ordinary, commit
them accordingly. Where there are leftures founded
by the donations of pious perfons, the lefturers are
appointed by the founders without any interpofition
N° 179.
or confent of re&ors of churches, 5cc. though with the Bed*' I
leave and approbation of the bifhop ; fuch as that of
Lady Moyer’s at St Paul’s. But the le&urer is not Le^im‘,
intitled to the pulpit, without the confent of the ree- v  ' j
tor or vicar, who is poffeffed of the freehold of the
church.
LED A, (fab. hift.) a daughter of king Thefpius
and Eurythemis, who married Tyndarus king of Spar¬
ta. She was feen bathing in the river Eurotas by Ju¬
piter, when (he was fome few days advanced in her
pregnancy, and the god, ftruck with her beauty, re-
folved to deceive her. He perfuaded Venus to change
herfeif into an eagle, while he affumed the form of a
fwan, and after this metamorphofis Jupiter, as if fear¬
ful of the tyrannical cruelty of the bird of prey, fled
through the air into the arms of Leda, who willingly
flickered the trembling fwan from the affaults of his
fuperior enemy. The careffes with which the naked
Leda received the fvvan, enabled Jupiter to avail him-
felf of his fituation, and nine months after this ad¬
venture the wife of Tyndarus brought forth two eggs,
of one of which fprung Pollux and Helena, and of the
other Caftor and Clytemneftra. The two former were
deemed the offspring of Jupiter, and the others claimed
Tyndarus for their father. Some mythologifts attri¬
bute this amour to Nemefis and not to Leda 5 and
they farther mention, that Leda was entrufted with
the education of the children which fprung from the
eggs brought forth by Nemefis. To reconcile this di-
verfity of opinions, others maintain that Leda received
the name of Nemejis after death. Homer and Hefiod
make no mention of the metamorphofis of Jupiter into
a fwan, whence fome have imagined that the fable
was unknown to thefe twe ancient poets, and probably
invented fince their age.
LEDBURY, a town of Herefordlhire in England.
It is a well-built town feated on a rich clay foil, and
inhabited moftly by clothiers, who carry on a pretty
large trade. V/. Long. 2. 27. N. Lat. 52. 6.
LEDESMA, an ancient and ftrong town of Spain,
in the kingdom of Leon, feated on the river Tome, in
W. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 47. 2.
LEDGER, the principal book wherein merchants
enter their accounts. See Book-keeping.
LEDUM, marsh cistus, or Wild Rofemary ! A
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de-
candria clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 1 8th order, Bicornes. The calyx is
quinquefid ; the corolla plain and quinquepartite ^ the
qapfule quinquelocular, and opening at the bafe. There
is but one fpecies, viz. the paluftre, with very narrow
leaves. This grows naturally upon bogs and moffe#
in many parts of Yorkfhire, Cheihire, and Lancaftiire ;
rifing with a flender ftirubby ftalk about two feet high,
dividing into many flender branches, garniftied with
narrow leaves, not much unlike thbfe of heath. The
flowers are produced in fmali clufters at the end of the
branches, and are ftiaped like thofe oL the ftrawberry-
tree, but fpread open wider at top. Thefe are of a
reddilh colour, and in the. natural places of their growth
are fucceeded by feed-veffels filled with fmall feeds
which ripen in autumn.—This plant is with great dif¬
ficulty kept in a garden; for as it naturally grows upon
bogs, unlefs the plants have a fimilar foil they will
sot thrive. They muft be procured from the places of
t their
LEE C . 753 ] LEE
their growth, and taken up with good roots, otherwife did not long furvhe his enlargement, dying at the Lcr
they will not live. early age of. 34. Cibber, in his Lives of the Poets,
LEE, an epithet ufed by feamen to diftinguifh that fays he perifned unfortunately in a night-ramble in
part of the hemifpbere to which the wind is dire&ed, London flreets.—His Theodofius and Alexander the
from the other part whence it arifes ; which latter is Great are flock-plays, and to this day are often a&ed
accordingly called to wi/ufouard. This exprefiiqn is with great applaufe. The late Mr Barry was parti-
chiefly ufed when the wind crofles the line of a (hip’s culaily fortunate in the charadter of the Macedonian
courfe, fo that all on a tide of her is called to wind- Hero.
ward, and all on the oppofite fide to leeward. Hence, Lee-Penny, or Lee-Jlone, a curious piece of antiqui-
Under the Lee, implies farther to the leeward, or ty belonging to the family of Lee in Scotland, and
farther from |hat part of the horizon whence the wind of which the following account has been given in the
blows : as, , Gentleman’s Magazine for December 1787. ,
Under the Lee of the Shore; l e. at a fliort diftance It is a ftone of a dark red colour and triangular
from the Ihore which lies to windward. This phrafe lhape, and its fize about half an inch each fide. It is
is commonly underftood to exprefs the fituation of a 'fet in a piece of filver coin, which, though much dc-
veflel anchored, or failing under the weather-lhore, faced, by fome letters ftill remaining is fuppofed to be
where there is always fmoother water, and lefs danger a {lulling of Edwaid I. the crofs being very plain, as
©f heavy feas, than at a great diflance from it. it is on his (hillings.—It has been, by tradition, in
LEE-Larches, the fudden and violent rolls which a the Lee family fince the year 1320 odds ; that is, a
Chip often takes to the leeward in a high fea, parti- little after the death of King Robert Bruce, who ha-
cularly when a large wave (hikes her on the weather- ving ordered his heart to be carried to the Holy Land,
fide. there to be buried, one of the noble family of Dou-
LRE-Side, ^ that part of a (hip or boat which lies glas was fent with it, and it is faid got the Crowned
between the maft and the fide fartheft /rom the dircc- Heart in his Arms from that circumftance: but the per-
tion of the wind ; or otherwife, the half of a (hip, fon who carried the heart was Simon Locard of Lee,
which is prefled down towards the water by the effort who juft about this time borrowed a large fum of mo-
of the fails, as feparated from the other half by a line ney from Sir William de Lendfay, prior of Air, for
drawn through the middle of her length. . That part which he granted a bond of annuity of ten popnds of
of the (hip which lies to windward of this line is filver, during the life of the faid Sir William de Lend-
accordingly called the weather fide. Thus admit a (hip fay, out of his lands of Lee and Cartland. The on¬
to be failing fouthward, with the wind at eaft, then ginal bond, dated 1323, and witnefled by the princi-
is her (larboard or right fide the lee-fide; and the lar- pal nobility of the country, is ftill remaining among *
board, or left, the weather-fide. the family papers.
LEE-Stone. See Lee-Penny. As this was a great fum in thofe days, it is thought
Lee-Way. See Navigation. it was borrowed for that expedition ; and, from his
LEE (Nathaniel), a very eminent dramatic poet being the perfon who carried the royal heart, he
of the lad century, was the fon of a clergyman, who changed his name to Lockheart, as it is fometimes
gave him a liberal education.—He received his firft fpelled, or Lockhart, and got a heart within a Lck
rudiments of learning at Weftminfter fchool; from for part of his arms, with the motto Corda feraia fan-
whence he went to Trinity-college, Cambridge.— do.—This Simon Lockhart having taken prifoner a
Coming to London, however, his inclination prompt- Saracen piince or chief, his wife came to ranfom him ;
ed him to appear on the theatre; but he was not and on counting out the money or jewels, this ftone
more fuccefsful in reprefenting the thoughts of other fell out of her purfe, which (he haftily fnatched up;
men, than many a genius befides, who have been which Simon Lockhart obferving, infilled to have it,
equally unfortunate in treading the ftage, although elfe he would not give up his prifoner.—(Upon this the
they knew fo well how to write for it. He produced lady gave it him, and told him its many virtues, •vi%.
11 tragedies, all of which contain a very great por- that it cured all difeafes in cattle, and the bite of a
tion of true poetic enthufiafm. None, if any, ever mad dog both in man and bead. Ii is ufed by dip-
felt the pallion of love more truly ; nor could any one ping the ftone in water, which is given to the difea-
deferibe it with more tendernefs. Addifon commends fed cattle to drink; and the perfon who has been bit,
Ills genius highly ; obferving, that none of our Eng- and the wound or part infedted, is waftied with the
li(h poets had a happier turn for tragedy, although water. There are no words ufed in the dipping of the
his natural fire and unbridled impetuofity hurried him ftone, nor any money taken by the fervants, without
beyond all bounds of probability, and fometimes were incurring the owner’s difpleafure. Many are the cures .
quite out of nature. The truth is, this poet’s ima- faid to be performed by it, and people come from all
ginatjon ran away with his reafon; fo that at length parts of Scotland, and even as far up in England as
he became quite crazy ; and grew fo mad, that his Yorkfhire, to get the water in which the ftone is
friends were obliged to confine him in bedlam, where dipped, to give their cattle, when ill of the mur-
he made that famous witty reply to a coxcomb ferib- rain efpecially, and black leg.—A great many years
bier, who had the cruelty to jeer him with his mis- ago, a complaint was made to the ecclefiaftical courts
fortune, by obferving that it was an eafy thing to againft the laird of Lee, then Sir James Lockhart, for
write like a madman:—“No (faid Lee), it is not ufing witchcraft.—It is faid, when the plague was la(t
an eafy thing to write like a madman ; but it is very at Newcatlle, the inhabitants fent for the Lee-penny,
eafy to write like a fool.” Lee had the good for- and gave a bond for a large fum in trull for the loan;
tune to recover the uk of his reafon fo far as to be and that they thought it did fo much good, that they
difeharged from his mdancholy confinement j but he offered to pay the money, and keep the Lee-penny ; but
Vol. IX. Part IL 5 C the
LEE [ 754 3 LEE
tlie gentleman would not part with it. A copy of this
1 eeds k°n{* >8 very well attefted to have been among the fa-
_ ' ■ mily papers, but fuppofed to have been fpoiled, along
with many more valuable ones, about 50 years ago, by
rain getting into the charter-room, during a long mi¬
nority, and no family refiding at Lee.
The moft remarkable cure performed upon any per-
fon, was that of Lady Baird of Sauchtonhall, near
Edinburgh ; who having been bit by a mad dog, was
come the length of a hydrophobia; upon which, ha-
ving fent to beg the Lee-penny might be fent to her
houfe, {be ufed it for fome weeks, drinking and bath¬
ing in the water it was dipped in, and was quite reco¬
vered. This happened above 80 years ago ; but it is
very well attefted, having been told by the lady of the
then laird of Lee, and who died within thefe thirty
years. She alfo told, that her huflrand Mr Lockhart,
and ftie, were entertained at Sauchtonhall by Sir Ro¬
bert Baird and his lady, for feveral days, in the moft
fumptuous manner, on account of the lady’s recovery,
and in gratitude for the loan of the Lee-penny fo long,
as it was never allowed to be carried away from the
houfe of Lee.
N. B. It was tried by a lapidary, and found to be
a ftone ; but of what kind he could not tell.
LEECH, in zoology. See Hirudo.
Leeches in a ftiip, the borders or edges of a fail
which are either {loping or perpendicular.
The leeches of all fails whofe tops and bottoms are
parallel to the deck, or at right angles to the maft,
are denominated from the {hip’s fide, and the fail to
which they belong ; as theJlarl/oard-leech of the main-
fail, the /re-leech of the fore top fail, &c. But the
fails which are fixed obliquely on the mafts have their
leeches named from their fituation with refpedit to the
drip’s length ; as the ^ore-leech of the mizen, the after-
leech of the jib or fore-ftay fail, &c.
LEECH-Lines, certain ropes faftened to the middle
of the leeches of the main-fail and fore-fail, and com¬
municating with blocks under the oppofite fides of the
top, whence they pafs downwards to the deck, fer-
ving to trufs up thofe fails to the yard as occafton re¬
quires. See Brails.
Leech-Rope, a name given to that part of the bolt-
rope to which the border or fkirt of a fail is fewed.
In all fails whofe oppofite leeches are of the fame
length, it is terminated above the earing, and below
the clue. See BocT-Rope, Clue, and Earing.
LEEDS, a town of the Weft Riding ofYorklhire,
196 miles from London, has a magnificent ftone-bridge
over the river Aire to the fuburbs. It was incorpo¬
rated by King Charles I. with a chief alderman, nine
burgefies, and 20 alfiftants; and by Charles II. with
a mayor, 12 aldermen, and 24 affiftants. It has been
a long time famous for the woollen manufa&ure, and
is one of the largeft and moft flouriftring towns in the
county, yet had but one church till the reign of
Charles I. By the late inland navigation, it has com¬
munication with the rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe,
Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon,
&c. which navigation, including its windings, ex¬
tends above 500 miles in the counties of Lincoln,
Nottingham, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, Chefter, Staf¬
ford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c.
Here is a long ftreet full of {hops, and a hall for the
fale of cloth, built in lyyS. The merchants of this Lee!*,
place, York, and Hull, {hip them off at the latter,
for Holland, Hamburgh, and the north. After ring- »
ing of the market-bell at fix or feven in the morning,
the chapmen come and match their patterns, when
they treat for the cloth with a whifper, becaufe the
clothiers {landings are fo near each other; and per¬
haps 20,0001. worth of cloth is fold in an hour’s
time. At half an hour after eight the bell rings again,
when the clothiers make room for the linen-drapers,
hardware-men, (hoemakers, fruiterers, &c. At the
fame time the ftrambles are well ftored with all forts
of filh and flefh ; and 500 horfe loads of apples have
been counted here in a day. There is a magnificent
hall, where they alfo fell great quantities of white
cloth ; and here is a noble guildhall, with a fine marble
ftatue of Cbieen Anne, erefled about the year 1714.
Its river being navigable by boats, they fend other
goods, befides their cloth, to Wakefield, York, and
Hull, and furnifh York with coals. There is a houfe
called Red-hall, bccatife it was the firft brick-building
in the town, and K. Charles I. had an apartment in it,
which is ever fince called the K'rrfs chamber. There
is another place called Tower-hill, on which there was
once a tower; befides which, there was a caftle whiclv
King Stephen befieged in his march to Scotland.
Here was alfo a park, where are now inclofures.
There is a workhoufe here of free-ftone, where poor
children are taught to mix wool, and perform other
eafy branches 'of that manufafture, and a part of it
has been ufed many years as an hofpital for the recep¬
tion of the aged poor. Here are three alms-houfes,.
and two charity-fchools of blue-coat boys to the
number of too. In the cieling of St Peter’s, its on¬
ly parochial church, the delivery of the law to Mofes
is finely painted in fiefco by Parmentier. It is a ve¬
nerable free-ftone pile built in the cathedral fafhion,
and feemsto have been the patch-work of fever al ages.
The increafe of building in Leeds in the year 1785, was
nearly 400 houfes. There is a Prelbyterian meeting-
houfe here, erefted in 1691, called the new chapelT
which is the ftatelieft, if not the oldeft, of that deno¬
mination in the north of England; and in the town
and its fuburbs are feveral other meeting houfes, as is
always obfervable in towns of great trade and manu¬
facture. It is noted for fome medicinal fprings ; one
of which, called St Peter's, is an extreme cold one, and
has been very beneficial in rheumatifms, rickets, &c.
Here is an hofpital for relief of the poor, who had
been honeft and induftrious, endowed with Sol. a-
year, befides 10I. a-year for a matter to read prayers
and inftruCt them; alfo a free fchool. Its markets
are Tuefdays and Saturdays, and the market-laws are
more ftriCtly ohferved here than any where. It has
two fairs in the year. Leeds, though a large town,
fends no members to parliament.
LEEK, in botany. See Alltum.
Leek, a town of Staffordlhire in England, 155
miles from London. It lies among the barren moor¬
lands, has a manufa&ure of buttons, a market on
Wednefday, and 7 fairs in the year. In the church¬
yard, at the fouth eaft corner of the chancel, are the
remains of a Danifti crofs, now upright, and to feet
diigh from the ground, beneath which are three fteps.
In Blue-hills in the neighborhood are coal-mines;
Leer
(I
Leenw.
LEE C 755 3 LEG
and a fait ftream comes from thence, which tinges the
ftones and earth through which it runs with a rufty
, colour, and, with the infufion of galls, turns as black
as ink. Here are rocks of a moft furprifing height,
without any turf or mould upon them.
LEER, in glafs-making, a fort of third furnace,
intended to anneal and cool by proper degrees the
vefl’els when made. This properly comprehends two
parts, the tower and leer. The tower is that part
which lies directly above the melting-furnace, with a
partition between them of a foot thick, in the midll
whereof there is a round hole, placed exa£Uy over the
furnace, through which the flame and heat pafs into
the tower: on the floor of this tower the veflels are
fet to anneal. There are two openings by which the
veflels are put into this tower* and after Handing there
fome time they are put into iron pans, which by de¬
grees are drawn out all along that part of this furnace,
which is properly called the her i which is five or fix
yards long, that the veflels may cool by degrees. This
leer is continued to its tower and arched all along, and
is about four feet wide, and high within. The glafles
are cool by that time they are come to the mouth of
this, which enters into a room where the glafles are
placed when taken out.
LEES, the grofleft and moft ponderous parts of li¬
quors, which, being feparated by fermentation, fall to
the bottom. The word comes from the French lie;
and that either from limus “ mud,” or from Lyeus
one of the furnames of Bacchus; or, according to du
Cange, from /«, a corrupt Latin word fignifying the
fame.—The vinegar-makers make a great trade of
the lees of wine dried and made into cakes, after having
fqueezed out the remains of the liquor in prefles.
LEET, or court leet (kta vifus franciplegii)t
is a court of record, ordained for puniftiing offences
againft the crown ; and is faid to be the moft ancient
court of the land. It inquires of all offences under
Etgh treafon ; but thofe who are to be punilhed with
lofs of life or member, are only inquirable and pre-
fentable here, and to be certified over to the juftices
ofaflife, (Stat. i. Edw. III.). And this court is called
the view of frank pledge, becaufe the king is to be there
certified by the view of the fteward, how many people
are within every leet, and have an account of their good
manners and government ; and every perfon of the
age of 12 years, who hath remained thete for a year
and a day, may be fworn to be faithful to the king,
and the people are to be kept in peace, &c. A leet
is incident to a hundred, as a court baron to a manor:
for by grant of a hundred, a leet paffeth ; and a hun-
-dred cannot be without a leet.—The ufual method of
punilhment in the court-leet, is by fine and amerce¬
ment ; the former affeffed by the fteward, and the lat¬
ter by the jury.
LEEUW (William de), an eminent engraver of
the lalt century. He was a native of Flanders, and
the difciple of Soutman, whofe manner of engraving,
or rather etching, he imitated. His prints generally
appear harlh at firft fight* but grow into favour upon
examination, and feveral of them have great effedt;
particularly his Daniel in the lion’s den, a large plate
lengthwife, from Rubens. The firft impreflions of
this plate are before the name of Dankertz was added,
aod are now extremely rare and dear.
Leeward Ship, a veffel that falls much to leeward Leeward
of her courfe, when failing clofe-hauled, and confe- 1)
quently lofes much ground.
To Leeward, towards that part of the horizon *
which lies under the lee, or whither the wind bloweth. ,
Thus, “ We faw a fleet under the lee,” and, “ We faw
a fleet to leeward,” are fynonymous expreflions.
LEG, in anatomy, the whole lower extremity
from the acetabula of the ofla innominata, com*
monly divided into three parts, viz. the thigh, the
leg properly fo called, and the foot. See Anatomy,
n0 <5o.
LEGACY, in Scots law, a donation by one perfon
to another, to be paid by the giver’s executor after his
death. See Law, n°clxxxi, 3.
LEGATE, a cardinal or bifhop, whom the pope
fends as his ambaffador to fovereign princes. See Am¬
bassador.
There are three kinds of legates, viz. legates a
latere, legates de latere, and legates by office, or legati
nati: of thefe the moft confiderable are the legates a
latere, the next are the legates de latere. See the ar¬
ticle Latere.
Legates by office are thofe who have not any parti¬
cular legation given' them ; but who, by virtue of their
dignity and rank in the church, become legates: fuch
are the archbilhop of Rheims and Arles* but the au¬
thority of thefe legates is much inferior to that of the
legates a latere.
The power of a legate is fometimes given without
the title. Some of the nuncios are invefted with it.
It was one of the ecclefiaftical privileges of England
from the Norman conqueft, that no foreign legate
ftiould be obtruded upon the Englifh, unlefs the king
fhould defire it upon fome extraordinary emergency,
as when a cafe was too difficult for the Englilh pre¬
lates to determine.
The term legate comes from legatus, which Varro
derives from legere, “ to choofe and others from le~
gare, delegare, “ to fend, delegate.”
Court of the Legate, was a court obtained by Car¬
dinal Woolfey of Pope Leo X. in the ninth year of
Henry VIII. wherein he, as legate of the pope, had
power to prove wills, and difpenfe with offences a-
gainft the fpiritual laws, &c. It was but of Ihort con¬
tinuance.
LEGATEE, in Scots law, the perfon to whom a
legacy is provided.
LEGATIO libera, was a privilege frequently ob¬
tained of the ftate, by fenators of Rome, for going
into any province or country, upon their own private
bufinefs, in the quality of legati or envoys from the fe-
nate, that the dignity of this nominal office might fe*
cure them a good reception, and have an influence
on the management of their concerns. The cities and
towns through which they paffed were obliged to de¬
fray their expences.—This was called libera legatia,
becaufe they might lay afide the office as foon as
they pleafed, and were not encumbered with any aftual
truft.
LEGATUS, a military officer amongft the Ro¬
mans, who commanded as deputy of the commander
in chief. The legati, at their firft ihftitution, were not
fo much to command as to advife. They were gene¬
rally chofen by the confuls, with the approbation of
5 C 2 the
LEG [ 756 ] LEG
Legend, the fenate. As to the number of the legally we have
no certain information, though we may upon good
grounds affign one to every legion. In the abfence of
conful or proconful, they had the honour to ufe the
fafces.
Under the emperors there were two forts of legati,
confulares, and pruetoril. ' The firll commanded whole
armies, as the emperors lieutenant-geiferals ; and the
other had the command of particular legions.
The hgati under the proconfuls in the provinces,
ferved forjudging inferior caufes, and management of
fmaller concerns, remitting things of great moment to
the governor or prefident himfelf. This was the ori¬
ginal office of the legatias was hinted above ; though,
as we have feen, they were afterwards admitted to com¬
mand in the army.
LEGEND, any idle or ridiculous ftory told by
the Romanifts concerning their faints, and other
perfons, in order to fupport the credit of their reli¬
gion.
The legend was originally a book ufcd in the old
Romifh churches, containing the leflbns to be read at
divine fervice ; hence the lives of the faints and mar¬
tyrs came to be called legends, becaufe chapters were
read out of them at matins, and at the refeftories of
religious houfes. Among thefe the golden legend,
which is a colle&ion of the lives of the faints, was re¬
ceived in the church with great applaufe, which it
maintained for 200 years ; though it is fo full of ridi¬
culous and romantic ftories, that the Romanifts them-
felves are now afhamed of it.
Legend is alfo ufed by authors to fignify the words
©rlettersengraven about the margins, &c.of coins. Thus
the legend of a French crown is, sit nomen domini
UENEDicrvMjthatofa moidore, in hoc signo vinces:
an thofe of the laft emperors of Conftantinople, we find
IESVS CHRISTVS BASILEVS BASILEON, IHS XPS WIKA, LegtfnL
IESVS CHRISTVS VINCIT. —
Legend is alfo applied to the infcription of medals,
which ferves to explain the figures or devices repre-
fented on them. In ftridtnefs, the legend differs from
the infcription; this laft properly fignifying words
placed on the reverfe of a medal, in lieu of figures.
It feems as if the ancients had intended their medals
ffiould ferve both as images and as emblems; the for-
mer for the common people, and the other for perfons
of tafte and parts ; the images to reprefent the faces
of princes ; emblems their virtues and great adlions ;
fo that the legend is to be looked on as the foul of
the medal, and the figures as the body.
Every medal has properly two legends ; that on the
front, and that on the reverfe. The firft generally
ferves only to diftinguiffi the perfon. by his name,
titles, offices, &c. the latter is intended to exprefs his
noble and virtuous fentiments, his good deeds, and
the advantages the public has reaped by him. This,
however, does not hold univerfally; for fometimes we
find the titles lhared between both fides, and fome¬
times alfo the legend.
In the medals of cities and provinces, as the head
is ufually the genius of the place, or at leaft fome
deity adored there, the legend is the name of the city,
province, or deity, or of both together; and the re¬
verfe is fome fymbol of the city, &c. frequently with¬
out a legend, fometimes with that of one of its ma-
giftrates.
Legends generally commemorate the virtues of
princes, their honour and confecrations, fignal events,
public monuments, deities, vows, privileges, &c.
which are either in Latin or Greek, or a mixture of
both, and are intended to eternize their names, and
the benefits done i>y them to the empire.
L EGERDEMAIN,
Or Sleig ht of Hand;
DENOMINATION given to certain deceptive
performances, which either depend altogether on
dexterity and addrefs, or derive but a fmall degree
of aid from philofophical principles. Of thefe we (hall
prefent our readers with a feleftion of the beft that
have been either explained in books or publicly ex¬
hibited.
A Sect. I. Performances with Cups and Balls.
yrdimi- The following method of exercifing this Ample and
liaryexPla'-ingenious amufement is that praftifed by one Mr
Winons. j£0pp a German, whofe performances are defervedly
preferred to thofe of former artifts. In this, however,
as in all the other branches belonging to the art
of legerdemain, it is not fufficient that a perfon
has the requifite dexterity, or Height of hand; it is
neceffary alfo to take off the attention of the fpec-
tators by fome entertaining difcourfe ; which not on¬
ly prevents difcovery, but adds greatly to the amufe¬
ment of che company; for which reafon, fuch dif-
courfe is inferted in this article.
3
To play his part properly, the performer on cups
and balls ought to provide himfelf with a bag about
12 inches long, and from eight to ten in depth. The
infide muft be furnilhed with a number of pockets
for holding the feveral articles neceffary in the amufe¬
ment ; and this bag the performer muft hang before
him.
The materials neceffary for the performer are,
1. Three white polfthed tin-cups, reprefented by Plata
A, B, and C (fig. 1.) in the (hape of a truncated cone cc>LXVi^"
with a double ledge D towards the bafe. This ledge,
which is about half an inch in breadth, ferves to raife
the cups eafily by, admitting alfq the hand to pafs a
fmall cork ball (fee fig. 5.) The upper part Eof the
cup ought to be hollowed in the form of a fphere, fuf¬
ficient to confain the balls without their appearing
above the upper edge of the cups.
2. It isallo neceffary to have a fmall rod, called Ja¬
cob’s faffs which is ufually made of ebony, and neatly
tipt with ivory at both ends. This is frequently ufed
for ftriking on the cups ; and being held in the hand
where the balls are alto kept, it gives the operator-an
oppor- -
757
Sea. I. L E G E R
opportunity of keeping that hand generally fhut, or of
varying its pofition, in order to avoid being difcover-
ed. The balls are made of cork, blackened by flight
burning on the outfide.
The dexterity in performing this operation confifts
in artfully fecreting a ball in the right hand, and ma¬
king it to appear or difappear in the fame hand. The
fecreting it between the fingers is called conjuring the
ball, at which time the fpe&ators are to fuppofe that
it is kept rn the other hand, or that it was paffed un¬
der a cup ; but if it is made to reappear when held fe-
cretly in the hand, they muft believe that it came out
of the place laft; touched by the fingers.
Conjuring the ball is performed by putting it between
the place of the thumb A and the finger B (fig. z.),
conveying it with the thumb, by rolling it upon the
fingers the length of the line B C, moving the middle
finger D to a diftance, and placing the ball at the junc¬
tion of the fingers C (fig. 3.} ; but in this part of the
operation it is neceflary to hold the ball rather tight,
left it fliould fall down and difcover the fecret. In-or¬
der to make it appear, we muft bring back the ball the
fame way from C to D ; and every time that it is con¬
jured, or made to difappear, as well as when it is made
to reappear, the palm of the hand ftiould be turned
from the fide of the table on which the operator is
playing.
While this part of the trick is performing, the ope¬
rator muft let the fpe&ators know that the ball has
been palled under a cup, or into another hand ; and in
the firft cafe he makes a motion with the hand (as re-
prefented fig. 4.) indicating that he had thrown it
through the cup ; at which time alfo he conjures it,
approaching the two fingers of the right hand towards
the left, which laft he holds open, and makes a motion
as if the ball had been placed there, Ihutting the left
hand inftantly. It is alfo to be fuppofed, at every
time when a ball feems to be placed below a cup, that
it has been held in the left hand ; and when he taifes
the cup with the right hand as in fig. 5. the left hand
muft be opened, and he refts the ball at that inftant
upon the hollow of the other, Hiding it along the
fingers.
At the time the ball is to be put fecretly under
the cup, it Ihould lie between the two fingers of the
right hand (fig. 5.) With this hand he raifes the cup ;
and placing it on the table, lets go the ball, which, ac¬
cording to its pofition in fig. 6. Ihould be found near
the edge of the cup when taken into the hand. If
he would put the ball fecretly between the two cups, it
muft be let go by jerking it towards the bottom of
the cup which he holds, and places it very quickly on
that in which the ball is to be found. When the ball
is in this fituation, if the operator (hould want it to
difappear, he. muft raife the two cups with his right
hand, and draw out haftily that under which the ball is
placed ; at the fame inftant lowering with his left hand
the other cup, under which he places it.
In fpeaking of the tricks which follow, terms are
made ufe of which explain whether what is faid be
feigned or true; of which terms explanations are gi¬
ven, and numbers adapted to the explanations of the
different opeations which follow.
I. To put the ball under the cup : Really done, with
the fingers of the right or left hand.
II. To put the ball under the cup} or in the hand,-—
D E M A I N.
A feigned conjuration ; pretending to fhut it up in the
left hand, which is afterwards opened, in order to have
it fuppofed that the ball is under the cup or elfe-
where. See fig. 3.
III. Topafs the ball under the cup.—The ball fuppo¬
fed to be conjured is to be really introduced,
IV. To pafs the ball between the cups, is likewife real.
V. To make tbi ball which is between the cups difap-
pear.—This is likewife real; and performed, as has al¬
ready been deferibed, by drawing back with much pre¬
cipitation and dexterity the cup on which it is placed,
and lowering upon the table that which is above, and
under which the ball muft of confequtnce be found.
VI. To take the ball. Real.—It is taken betweeu
two fingers of the right-hand, and fhown before con¬
juration.
VJI. To take away the ballfrom under the cup. This
is done by taking it away in the fight of the fpedia-
tors.
VIII. To draw the ball. Feigned; or by pretend¬
ing to draw it from the end of the rod, from the cup»
or any other place, by bringing into the fingers the
ball which was fecreted.
IX. To throw the ball through the cup, is to conjure :
it in pretending to throw it.
X. To raife up the cups. This is really^done in three
ways ; viz. either with the right hand, the rod, or
the left hand. The firft is when the ball is to be fe¬
cretly inferted in returning the cup to its place. In
the fecend, the rod is to be put on the tops of the
cups to turn them over again, fo that the balls may be
fliown which were to be paffed into them The third
is when the operator intends to fhow that no balls are
in the cups, or that there are fome.
XI. To cover a cup. This is really done, by taking
with the right hand that which is to be put over ano¬
ther, and introducing at the fame time a ball between
the two.
XII. To recover a cup. It is done by taking wuth -
the left hand the cup to ve put over pr above, without .
introducing any thing into it.
The Performances.
I. To put a ball under each cup, and take it out again.
Having placed on the table the three cups and little j^g^***
rod, as fhown in fig. 1. the performer muft begin his
manoeuvres, by endeavouring to amufe the fpedtators
with fome kind of entertaining difeourfe. Nothing can
be more a-propos than the origin of the little rod and
cups ; and he muft be very affiduous in this fort of dif¬
eourfe to take off the eyes of the fpeftators as much
as pofiible. The following may be a fpecimen of the
manner in which he ought,to addrefs his audience:
“ There are, many perfons who meddle with the play
of the. cups and balls, and yet know nothing about
them. This is by no means extraordinary : even I
who now play before you, pretend to know but little.
Nay, fome time ago, I was fuch a novice as to think
of playing before a numerous affembly with glafs cup?,
in which you may guefs I did not meet with great ap-
plaufe. I do not indeed pra&ife this method but be¬
fore fuch as are aftually blind ; neither do I play with
China cups, left, through aukwardnefs in feigning to
break their handles, I fhould do fo in reality. Thefe
aie the cups which anfwer my purpofes. They are
made of fuch metal as the alchy mills attributed to
Jypitsz.
7j8 L E O E R D
Jupiter and Mars, or, to fpeak more properly and in¬
telligibly, they are made of tin. Behold and examine
thefe clips (Jhonuing the cups to the company, and putting
them on the table :J All my faience, and it is in that in
which it is admirable, confifts in deceiving the eyes,
and pafling the balls into the cups without your per¬
ceiving flow it is done. I advife you therefore to pay
no attention to my words, but to examine well my
hands, (Jhonving his hands). If there is in this compa¬
ny any perfon who has the misfortune to ufe fpefta-
cles, he may retire; but the mod clear-fighted will
fee nothing there.
“ Here is the little Jacob’s rod (Jhowing the red
•with the left hand) ; that is to fay, the magazine from
which I take all my balls (taking fecretly ‘with the other
hand a ball from his bdgy which he hides between hisJin-
JHers). There is not one in England fo well furnifhed.
Obferve, that the more I take from it the more re¬
main: I draw from it {VIII.) this ball, (Jhowing tt,
and placing it upon the table, (I.) Obferve that there
is nothing under the cups (jhowing the injide of the
cups), and that I have no other ball in my hands,
(/bowing his hands). I take (VI.) this ball: I put it
(II.) under this tirft cup. I draw (VIII.) a ftcond
ball from my little rod, and I put it under this fecond
cup (aBually done). It is proper here to tell you,
that the generality of thofe who play the cups only
■feign to put the balls there ^ but I do not deceive you,
and I aftually put them there. ■(He raifes the cup B,
and taking the ball which he has put under it into his right-
hand fingers, [hows it to the company). 1 return it (II.)
under the fame cup. I take (VIII.) this third, and
;put it (II.) in the fame way under this laft cup. You
are about to fay that this is not very extraordinary,
and that you could do it as well yourfelves. I agree
with you ; but the difficulty confifts in taking out
thefe balls again through the cups, (Jlriking the JirJl cup
•with the rod). I take (VIII.) this firft ball (Jhowing
it) : I put it (II.) into my hand, and fend it to Con-
Ilantinople, (he opens the lef. hand). I take (VIII.) ■
this, (Jlriking with the rod on the fecond cup). I put it
(II.) into my hand, and I fend it to the-Eaft Indies,
/opening his left hand). I take (VIII.) the laft, and I
put it (I.)on the table: Obferve that there are no more
under any of thefe cups, (turning down the cups with the
rod).
2. With the Jingle ball remaining on the table, to pafs a
hall through each of -the cups, and to take it off from the fame.
44 I return the cups to their places, and take (VI.)
this ball, and I put it under this firft cup. I take it
back again (VIII.) : obferve that it is not there now,
frajing (X.) the cup with the left hand). I put it (II.)
under this other cup : 1 take it out again (VIII.) in
the fame manner, (raifing (X.) the cup). I put it (II.)
under the laft cup, and take it out again, (VIII.)
(raifing the lajl cup -with the left hand, and placing the ball
4>n the table).
3. With the Jingle ball remaining on the table, to take
.away a ball through two or three cups.— In this perform¬
ance the three cups are diftinguiihed by A, B, C, as
in fig. 1.
“ I never have any ball fecreted in my hands, as
the greateft part of them who play the cups and balls
|tave (Jhowing his hands). I take (VI.) this ball, and
E M A I N. Sefl.
I put it (II.) tinder this cup B. I cover it (XII.)
with this cup C, and I take again (VIII.) this ball thro’
the two cups (Jhows the ball in placing it on the table, re¬
turns afterwards the cup C to its place, and raifes (X.)
the cup B to Jhow that there if nothing there). I take
again (VI.)this fame ball. I put it (II.) under the
fame cup B : I cover it (XII.) with the two other
cops C and A; and I take out (VIII.) this ball
through the three cups (Jhowing it and placing it on the
table).
4. With the Jingle ball remaining on the table, to pafs the
fame ball from cup to cup.—“ I now beg of you to pay
every poffible attention, and you will very dillinfMy
fee this ball pafs from one cup into the other (putting
the cups at a greater di/lance from each other). I take
(VI.) this ball, and I put it (II.) under the cup C :
there is nothing under this cup B (raifingit, introducing the
ball, and taking the rod in his hand). I command that
which I have put under the cup C to pafs under that
B. You fee it (moving the end of the rodfrom one -cup
to the other, as if he followed the ball)', obferve that it is
pailed (raifing the cup with his left hand, and taking the
ball with his right, Jhows it to the company). I return
it (II.) under this cup B ; there is nothing under this
A (raifing the cup with his right hand, and introducing
the ball there). I am going to pafs it under this laft
cup A. Look well; come near ; (making as if in fee¬
ing it he would /how with the end of the rod the path that
it took). You did not fee it pafs i I am not much
furprifed : I did not fee it myfelf; however, here it is
under the cup (raifing the cup A, and placing it on the
table ).
5. With the fame ball remaining on the table. The cups
being covered, to pafs a ballfrom one into the other, with¬
out raifing them up.—“ I was very right in telling you,
that the moft clear-fighted would not fee very much;
but, for your comfort, here is^a trick in which you
will fee nothing at all. I take this ball, and put it
(II.) under this cup B. I cover it (XI.) with the
two other cups (taking one in each hand, and introducing
the ball upon the cup B) : pay attention, that there is
abfolutely nothing in my hands (Jhowing them). I
command this ball to mount up upon the firft cup
(taking up the two cups, and putting them in their places,
he Jhows that it has mounted). I return (II.) this ball
under the fame cup B. I cover it as before (covers it
in taking a cup in each hand, and introducing a ball between
the fecond and third cup-) I take (the only ball with
which he plays being under the third cup, he cannot Jhow it,
but ads as if he had taken it out, and put it into the fin¬
gers cf his left hand, which he holds in the air, in condud-
ing the handfrom onefide to the other). I take the ball,
which is under thefe three cups; and I throw it thro*
the firft cup (feigning to throw it): obferve that I have
not conjured the ball, having nothing in my hands
{Jhowing them)', it is pafled, however, (rafing thefirjl
cup with the le/t hand, putting the ball upon the table and
the cups in their places.)
6. With the Jingle ball remaining on the table, to pafs a
ball through the table and two cups.—“ You are undoubt¬
edly fuprifed, that, having but a fingle ball, I have
been able, after having ffiown it to you, to pafs it un¬
der this cup without raifing it; but let not that afto-
nHh you: I have fecrets much more wonderful. I
convey,
759
I. LEGERDEMAIN.
convey, for example, the fteeple of one village into the fame cup B (raiftng this cup, andJhotoTng that they
another : 1 have fympathstic quadrants, with which a are loth there, and placing them upon the table).
converfation may be held at 200 leagues ditlance : I 10. With the two balls which are upon the table. Two
have a flying chariot which can conduct me to Rome balls having been put under the fame cup, to pafs them un¬
in three days. 1 will fhow all thefe curiofities as foon der two others.—“ When 1 was at college, the tutor
as my machines are entirely completed ; that is to fay, told me, it was neceffary to know how to do my cxer-
in a few centuries: but to amufe you till the arrival cife in two ways. 1 have juft now palled thefe two
of all thefe prodigies, I now continue the entertainment balls into the middle cup ; 1 am now to make them go
of the cups and bails. I put (II.) this ball under the out; the one is not more difficult for me than the o*
cup A. 1 take it away again (VIII.) (Jhowing it, and ther. I take therefore thefe two balls, and place them
feigning to put it into his left-handfingers). I cover (XI.) under this cup B (putting ine ball under the cup, and con-
this cup with the two others B and C (introducing the juring the other) ; obferve that there is nothing under
ball between thefe two cups, vfing always the right hand, the cup A, nor under the other C (introducing into this
and feigning fiill to hold it in his left), and I pafs this fame lafi the ball that he conjured) : I command one of thefe
ball through the table and the two cups (putting the balls, which are under the middle cup, to pafs under
left hand under the table.) There it is parted (raifing the the one or the other of thefe two cups A and C. Be-
fiyfl cup.) hold it already gone {raifing the cup B to fhow that there
7. With the fame ball. A ball having been put under a is no more than a Jingle ball; and taking, with the right
cup, to take it away again, and to pafs it between two hand, the ball which is underneath, he Jhows it, and puts it
others.— “ Here is again a very pretty trick : I take {ll.) under the fame cup lb). Let us fee into which cup it
this ball, and I put it (II.) under this cup A. Ob- has parted {raifing immediately the cup A, and introducing
ferve, that there is nothing under the others (Jhowing the ball that he took from the cup B) : here it is under
them and introducing the ball under the cup C), nor in this cup C {raifing the cup ;) I command the other ball
my hands: I take this ball, which is under the cup A to pafs under this cup A {he rafes it, and /hows that it
(feigning to take it out, and raifing the bottom of the paffedthere)." This trick is frequently done with three
cup fo that the fpeSators may not attend to his fingers), balls, but it appears much more extraordinary with
I cover this cup C with the two others A and B, and two.
I throw it (IX.) through thefe two cups {raifing them, 11 • With thefe two balls, a third which lx Jhows, and
and Jhowing that the ball is paffed there). a fourth fecreted in his hands ; to pafs three balls under the
8. With this Jingle ball and a Jhilling ; to pafs a ball fame cup,—“ All this is but a trifle ; I am going to
from one hand into the other—“ I take this ball; I put Ihow you another trick with three balls (taking out of
it (II.) into this hand, and I put into the other the the bag a third ball, and placing it on the table, fecreting
(hilling. In which hand do you think the ball is? or at the fame time a fourth in his hand). Obferve that there
in which do you think the (hilling may be?” (Whatever is nothing under any of thefe cups (raifing them, and in-
anfwer the fpeclator makes, the performer Jhows him that traducing them under the cup C). I take this firft ball,
he is miftaken, and that the whole is in the right hand; and and throw it (IX.) through this cup C. Obferve that
this truth ferves as a pretence to take a ball from the bag it is parted {raifing (X.) the cup with the right hand); l
in putting the Jhilling back into it.) take this fecond ball, and throw it (XL) through the
The performer may, however, without breaking the fame cup. There it is parted {rafing (X.) again the
connexion of thefe operations, difpenfe with this trick, cup) \ I take the third, and I make it pafs the fame
and feign to drop the ball he plays with, which affords {raifing (X.) the cup, and Jhowing that thefe are pajfed
him a pretence for taking another. under all the three).
9. With the ball remaining on the table, and that which 12. With the three balls remaining under the-cup, and
is fecretly taken out of the bag ; to pafs under a cup tlx that held fecretly in the hand; to pafs two balls from one
two balls put under the others.—The operator goes on cup into another, at the choice of a perfon, without touch-
with his difeourfe : “ In order to give you Hill farther ing any of the cups.—“ Here is another in which I have
amufement, I take this ball and cut it in two (taking never been able to comprehend any thing; but it will
*/ in his left hand, and holding the red with his right; aftonilh you much {ra'fing the cup C, and taking away
feigning to cut it, he puts afterwards the rod on the table, the three balls from their places, he puts them under each
and brings back to his fingers ends the ball which he took cup, and in raifing the cup C introduces there the fourth
out of the bag). Nothing is fo commodious as to be ball which he held fecretly in his hand). I take this ball
able in this manner to multiply the balls. When I am {that which is under the cup B), and 1 pot it (II.) under
in want of money, I cut them again and again, until the fame cup. I take this {the ballfrom the cup A), and
I may have had five or fix bufhels (placing the two balls I place it (I.) under the fame cup {puttingthere ailfo that
on the table). Obferve that there is nothing under this which was fecreted in his hand) : I take this laft, and I
cup A. I put there (II.) this firft ball: there is throw it (IX.) through the cup C; and to (how that
nothing more under the two other cups (introducing I do not deceive you, behold it paffed {rafing (X.)
the ball under the cup B). I take this fecond ball, and the cup that has been fixed upon, which fufiyofe to be C,
I put it (II.) under the cup C: there is now a ball and Jhowing that there are two). I take again thefe
under thefe two cups A and C. I take away (VIII.) two balls, and put them under the cup C {puttingreally
from this cup C this ball, and I throw it (IX.) thro’ but one) : obferve that there is no more under this cup
the middle cup B : obferve that it is parted (rafing the B {introducing there the ball that he hadjufi taken awayy
cup B, and introducing there the fecond ball). I command and Jhowing that he had no other in his hand) ; I com-
this, which is under the other cup A, to pafs under mand one of thefe balls, which are under this cup Cr
t E G E R I
to go arul Join lLat which is under this A. Ohferve that
it is pa fled. There! {riijing the cup C, and returning the
ttuo halls under the fame cup, and raifng C, in order to
Jhonu that there is hut a Jingle one ; and he places it again
under the fame cup : he dees nut raife the eup B under which
a hall remains').
13. With the three halls that were placed upon cups,
and that which remains hidden under the middle cup ; to
paps under the fame cup the halls put under the others.—
“ I take this ball (that which is upon the. cup C), and I
put it (IT.) under the fame cup C ; and I order it to
pafs into this cup B: there it is paffed (in raifng this cup
he introduces a third ball). I take this third ball, and
put4t (II.) under this cup C ; and I command it to
pafs into the cup B alon^g the table, and id the fight
of the fp' &ators {taking the rod in his left hand, feigning
to fhow the way ^that it pajfed between the two cups).
You did not fee it then? Here it is {He draws it
(VIII.) from the end of the rod, which appears to Jhow
it). Go quickly {throwing it (IX.) through the cup
B ; andJhowing that they are all three there, and that
there is nothing under the two others ; placing afterwards
three of the balls on the table, and fecreting the fourth in
his hand).
14. With the three IHls remaining upon the table, and
that which is held fecretly in his hand.—Multiplication of
the balls.
For this trick there mull be a tin vafe (fee fig. 8-),
at the bottom of which there mull be contrived a falfe
bottom A, which will fall down at pleafure : that is to
fay, in reverfing it upon the table, by means of a fmall
trigger placed at the bafe of one of the handles B, in¬
troducing previoufly between the falfe and true bot¬
toms a dozen of balls. The operator goes on with his
difeourfe.
“If any of the company believe in witches, I
would give my advice that they fhould believe in them
no longer ; as what I am about to do is much more
furprifing than the feats of any witch—I put (I.)
thefe three balls under the-three cups you fee on the
table : I take away (VII.) this fir it ball {that which is
■under the cup C), and I put it (II.) into this vafe. I
take this, and I alfo put it (II.) into the vafe. I
take away (VII.) this third (that which is under the
cup A), and I throw it (II.) the fame way”. (Emery
Yme that he raifes one- of the cups to take away the ball,
he introduces that which always remains fecreted in his
right hand; and this he repeats, conjlantly taking out one
hall and putting in another, till he has introduced all the
twelve balls ; after which he refumes his difeourfe.) “You
imagine, perhaps, that I always make ufe of the fame
balls ; but, to prove the contrary, here they are, (in¬
verting the vafe fo as to turn them all out).
In this trick, if the vafe be well made, the infide
may be fhown, and it may even be previoufly invert¬
ed ; in which cafe, it will not be fuppofed that any
'ba'ls have been put into it.
3. With the three balls remaining under each of the
cups, dand that which is hidden in his hand; to pafs one
ball under each of the three cups.
“ I put all thefe balls into my pocket. I take
(VI.) this (the one fecreted in his hand), and I make
it pafs through the table under this firft cup C, (con¬
juring it). I take another from my bag (Jhowing the
fame ball). I make it pafs in the fame manner through
N° 179
> E M A I N. Sea.
this B, {conjures it again). I take a third (Jawing
Jlill the fame), and I make it pafs under this laft cup
A {conjuring it). Here are all the three palled (turn¬
ing over the cups, and in taking them up again introduces
the ball that he has in his hand under tH cup B, and puts
the three balls upon the three cups.
16. With the three balls put upon each cup, and that
which was introduced under the middle cup ; to draw
two balls through the fame cup.—“ There will he want¬
ed now only two balls.” Here the operator takes
that which is under the cup C, and puts it (II.) in¬
to his bag. He takes in the fingers of his right hand
the ball which is on the cup B, (bowing it ; and with
the other covers the cup B, with that paffing (IV.)
there the ball which he feigned to put into his bag.
Pie then takes the ball which is under the cup A
with the right hand ; and Ihowing a ball in each
hand, tells the company that he put them (II.) under
the cup A } though he adlually puts but one, which
he holds in his left. He then draws one of thefe
balls through the fame cup A, Ihowing it, and pla¬
cing it upon the cup C. He then raifes the cup A,
and takes, the ball which is under it with his right
hand, adding, “ There remains but one more.” While
pronouncing thefe words, he puts it (II.) under the
cup. *“ I take (adds he) the other ball,” {raiftng
the cup, andfhowing that it is there no longer) ; then, ta¬
king one of the two balls which feemed to remain
alone, he put it (II.) into his bag, faying, “ I re¬
turn this into my bag.”
17. With a ball which is hidden under the middle cup,
another hidden under that which covers it, that which re¬
mains in the hand, and a fourth which is upon the table }
to pafs the fame ball fuccejfively through the three cups.—
The preceding trick was only on purpofe to prepare
the fpe&ators for this; as they now imagine that the
performer played only with one ball. He may now
addrefs them in the following manner:
“ I am now going to make a very pretty trick with
this fingle ball. I forgot to fhow it to you at the
beginning: I cover (XI.) thefe cups (putting the cup
A upon C and B). I take (VI.) this ball, and l
throw it (IX.) through the firft cup ;” [rajing (X.)
the cup A with the right hand). He then (hows that it
is pafied between C and A ; and, putting it in its
place, he introduces th'ere that which he has in his
hand. “ I take (fays he) (VI.) this fame ball, and
I throw it through the other cup C ;” and while he
fays fo, he raifes (X.) the cup C, fhovving that it has
pafled, introducing there that which he has in his
hand, and putting it in the place of the former. “ I
take again (continues he) (VI.) this fame ball, and I
throw it (IX.) through that laft cup B,” {raifng (IX.)
the cup ^>.) During which time he takes away the
ball from under it with, his left hand, then places it
on the table, and returns the cup to its place, intro¬
ducing there the ball which he has in his left hand.
18. V/ith the three balls which are under the cups,
that which is on the table, and two which he takes from
the bag ; to pafs under a cup the balls put under the two
others without raifng thefe lajl.—The performer may
proceed in his difeourfe in the following manner:
“ Let us now return to the order of the entertain¬
ment which I have interrupted, and continue to play
with three balls.” He now takes two balls from his
bagi
Sea.
I. LEGERDEMAIN.
bag, by which means he in faft plays with fix balls, and throws it (IX.) between the two cups B and C.
though he pretends to play only with three. Thefe In announcing its paflage he raifes the cup (.X.),
two balls, together with that which remains on the (hows that it is pafled, and introduces the ball in his
table, he puts on the top of each cup. “ I take hand. He then takes the ball under the cup B, and
(fays he) (VI,) this ball, {that which is on the cup C). throws it (IX.) through the two cups C and B. An-
1 throw it (IX.) through that cup: there it is paf- nouncing to the company its paflage, he raifes (X.)
fed.” He now raifes (X.) the cup, fhows it; and the cup, and fliows that there are two balls, introdu-
thus has an opportunity of introducing the ball which cing (III.) at the fame time the third. He then take*
he has in his hand. “ I take (VI.) this {the ball the laft ball, viz. that which is under the cup A, co
which is under the cup B), and throw it (IX.) through vers again with the left hand the two cups B and C,
the cup B.” At this he raifes the cup with his left and throws (IX.) the third ball through thefe two
hand, Ihowing that it has paffed, and covering it a- cups. He then announces their paflage, raifes the
gain. “ I take again (VIII.) this ball from the fame two cups, and (hows the three balls, covering again
cup, and throw it (IX ) through that C: obferve that the cup C with the two others.
it is pafled.” Then, raifing up (X.) the cup C, 22. With the three balls which are upon the cup C,
(bowing that there are then two there, he introduces and the one in his hand; to take out the three through
other two which he had in his hand. “ I take (fays two cups.—“ I take (fays the performer) (VIII.) the
he) (IV.) this ball (fi&flf«■ ww/er A), and firfl: ball, and put it (II.) into my bag. I take
I throw it (IX) through the fame cup A. There! (VIII.) in the fame manner the fecond, and I put
it is pafled,” {raijing the cup C) ; after which he (hows it alfo into my bag. 1 take (VIII ) the third, and
the three balls, and introduces there that which was I put it into my bag. (putting in really that which he
in his hand, putting the three balls upon the table. had in his hand.) While he defires the fpedlatqrs to
19. With the three balls which remain under the cups, obferve that there are no more in the cups, he raifes
and the three others which remain upon the table } to pafs the cup A with the left hand, and, putting it in its
Jeparately the three balls through each cup.—In this ma- place, raifes with the right hand the cup C. In fup-
neuvre the performer pats again the three balls porting it with the cup B, he puts it down quickly*
which are upon the table upon the top of each cup. and a little on the fide of B, and at the fame time
He takes that which is on the cup C, and throws it places C on the table, under which will be found the
(IX.) through the farne cup; and while he announ- three balls, which had not time to feparate.
ces this to the company, he raifes (X.) the cup: ta- 23. With the three balls remaining under the middle cup,
king awray( VIII.) the ball, (bowing that it has pafled, and three others taken out of the bag ; to pafs, in one
introducing there that which was in his hand, and aftion, three balls through a cup.—This trick is be-
putting the fame ball upon the fame cup- He then gUn by the performer taking three balls from his bag,
takes that which is upon the cup B, and throw's it and putting them on the top of the cup B, which he
(IX.) through the fame cup ; (hows that it is paffed, covers with the cup A. Ordering them to difappear
takes it away (VII.), and introduces the ball that and to pafs under the cup C, he takes aw'ay very fud-
vvas in his hand under this cup, putting it *n like denly with the left hand the cup B, as is done in the
manner on the cup. Then he takes the ball which is preceding trick, leaving in the middle of the play the
on the cup A, and throws it (IX.) through the fame cup C, under which the balls are found. Taking them
cup A. As he announces irs paflage he raifes the cup, then away, and replacing them on the fame cup, he
taking away (VII.) and (bowing the ball; introdu- makes them return again in the fame manner under the
cing in the fame manner that which was in his hand ; cup C. At laft he takes the three balls, and putting
putting this firft at the top of the cup A, and then them in his bag, pretends to pafs them through the
(hows that it is not in his hand, and that he has but tejble under the cup where the others were. He then
three balls. returns two or three of thefe laft balls into his bag,
20. With the three balls remaining upon the table, and and takes two white balls, which he puts upon the
thofc ivhkh are under each cup. Having put the balls in- table.
to the bag, to make them return under the cups.—“ I take 24. With the black ball remaining on the table, two 0-
thefe three balls, and I return them into my bag. ther white balls, and a black one which he holds fecretly in
(keeping one in his hand). Behold to what all is redu- his hand; to pafs three balls from one cup into another.
ced that I had to (how you for your amufement- I N. B. To make the balls white, they are rubbed
did know fome more very pretty tricks, but I have with a little chalk inftead of being blackened with the
forgot them. (Pretending to mufe for a moment) : Ah ! candle.
I ftill remember two or three very pleafing ones. “ Let us now (fays the operator) have a trick to
Come, my little balls! Return under the cups, {turn- prove that I do not conjure the balls. There is nothing
ing over the cups). See how nimble they ate, and obe- under this cup C, (introducing the black ball that was in
dient at the fame time {covering them again with the his hand). There is no great thing under this B. I -
cups.) place there thefe three balls, {the three which are
2 1. With the three balls which are under the cups, and upon the table, of which he conjures the white one.)
that in his hand; to pafs the balls through the two cups. There is nothing more under this third cup A, (intro-
—tHere the operator begins with taking away (VII.) ducing there the white ball). I order one of thefe two
the ball which is under the cup C; he covers it with white balls which are under the cup B, to pafs under
the cup B ; and pafles (III ) the other ball which he this A.” With thefe words he raifes the cup B; and
has in his right hand between the two cups. He then taking the white ball in the fingers of his left hand,
takes (VI.) the ball which he had in his left hand, and the black one in thofc of the right, he (hows them,
Vot. IX. Part II. 5 I> faying,
76l
762 L E G E R D
faying, “ Obferve that there is but one white one.
I put again thefe two under the cup B.”
While fpeaking thus he puts the white one under the
cup, and conjures the other, while feigning to put it
in with that of the left hand. He then announces its
paffage ; and while he does fo, raifes the cup A,
and introduces the black ball. Commanding then the
black ball to pafs under the cup A, he raifes the cup
B, takes in his right-hand fingers the ball which is
there, and fhows it. “ I put it again (fays he) (II.)
tinder this cup (conjuring it); and I fhow you that it
is pafled under this A, (introducing there the white ball.)
I order at laft the white ball, which is under this cup
B, to pafs into this A.” While telling the company
that it is palled, he raifes the cup A, and puts the
three balls upon each cup, the . black one upon the
middle.
25. With the three balls put at the top of the cupst and
that which has been inferted under one of them in the prece¬
ding trick ; to change the colour of the balls. The opera¬
tor goes on with his difcourfe : “ If there is any one
here who knows how to play the cups and balls, he
will do well to obferve, that it is not peffible to do
this trick -by the common method, and with three
balls only. However, I have no more, (jhowing his
hands). I take this white ball (that which is upon the
cup C), and I throw it (IX.) through this cup {the
fame under which he left a black ball in the preceding
trick). I take this black ball (with the left-hand
fingers); there is nothing under this cup B, (introdu¬
cing there the white ball). I throw it (IX.) through
this cup B, {taking again the ball-in his right-handfin¬
gers'). I take this other white ball, {with his left-
hand fingers). There is nothing under this cup A,
(introducing the block ball) : I throw it (IX.) through
the cup A, {taking it again into his right-handfingers to
conjure it). Obferve that they have all changed their
colour,’' {covering each of them with their cups).
26. With the three balls which are left under the cups,
two white balls, and a black one that he took trick by trick
from his bag ; to change the fitz.es of the balls.— In per¬
forming this trick the opeiator takes away the white
ball which is under the cup C with his left-hand fin¬
gers, and, raifing the cup with his right, introduces
there a white ball which he took out of his bag. The
•white ball which he introduces is kept in his hand with
the fourth and little finger; and he raifes the cup in
the fame manner as when he introduces the balls.
In turning over the cup afterwards, he advances his
band to introduce this ball. Thefe balls firould be fil¬
led with horfe-hair or paper, fo that they may be very
light, and make no noife. The operator then tells his
company, that he makes the ball pafs through the
table under the Tame cup } and while he fpeaks thus,
he takes the ball again in his right hand, and while
putting his hand under the table, he takes a black ball
out of the bag. He then takes away the ball from
the cup B, introducing the black tone in its dead.
He then tells the fpediators, that he makes it repafs
through the table ; and, while he tells them fo, he takes
a white ball; then, while taking away that which is
under the cup A, he introduces that ball, making it
repafs in the fame manner through the table, and at
laft (hows them to the company, and covers them with
their cups.
E M A I N. Seft. It,
27. With the three balls which are under the cups, two
other black balls, and a white one that was taken trick by
trick from his bag ; to pafs the balls from one cup into
another.—“ Obferve well (fays the operator), that there
are two white balls under thefe two cups A and C,
and a black one under this {raifing the ’dups). I cover
again thefe three balls {covering each, of them with a cup),
I make to pafs out through the table'the white ball
which is under the cup C.” Here he takes a white
ball from his bag ; and in order not to fail, the black
and white balls (hould be in feparate pockets. Having
taken out the ball, he puts the firft into his bag, tell¬
ing the company that there is now nothing under the
cup C ; and while he fays fo, he raifes it, holding the
ball with his little finger, proceeding in his difcourfe
as follows. “ I take away this ball {that which is under
the cup &), and I pafs it through the table under the
cup C {taking a black ball from his bag.”) While
the paflage of this ball is announced, he raifes the cup
C to take it away and (how it; and introducing there
this black ball, “ I put again (fays he) this other
white ball into my bag, and I command the black
one which is under the cup B to pafs under this. It
is no longer under this cup and while he fays fo,
he raifes the cup B, in fupporting with his little fin¬
ger the ball which remains there. Announcing its
paflage, he raifes the cup C and (hows the ball; taking
it afterwards into the left-hand, throws it into the air,
returning it into his right hand, and feigning to throw
it into the air a fecond time, he lets it fall into his
bag ; catling his eyes upwards and downwards as if
he faw it fall upon the cup B ; he raifes this cup, and
(hows it to the fpectators, as the former, pafled through
the cup.
Sect. II. Performances with the Cards.
Previous to the performances with cards, it willbe
neceffary to explain the method of making the pafs;
that is, bringing a certain number of cards from the
bottom of the pack to the top ; as many of thefe per¬
formances depend on that manceuvre.
I. Hold the pack ofcards-in your right hand, fo that Of making j
the palm of your hand may be under the cards : place the paft.
the thumb of that hand on one fide of the pack, the
firft, fecond, and third fingers on the other fide, and
your little finger between thofe cards that are to be
brought to the top and the reft of the pack. Then
place your left hand over the cards, in fuch a manner
that the thumb may be at C (fig. 20, 21.), the fore- Plate ^
finger at A, and the other fingers at B. CCLXVL ]
The hands and the two parts of the cards being thus
difpofed, you draw off the lower cards confined by
the little finger and the other parts of the right hand,
and place them, with an imperceptible motion, on the
top of the pack.
It is quite neceffary, before you attempt any of the
experiments that depend on making the pafs, that you
can perform it fo dexteroufly that the eye cannot di-
ftinguifti the motion of your hand ; otherwife, inftead
of deceiving others, you will expofe yourfelf. It isal-
fo proper that the cards make no noife, as that will oc-
cafion fufpicion. This dexterity is not to be attained
without fome pra&ice,
There is a method of preparing a pack of cards, by
4 inferting
Sea. II. L E G E H D
infettingf one or more that are a fmall matter longer or
wider than the rell; which preparation wilt be necef*
fary in feveral of the following experiments.
The can! of Have a pack in which there is a long card; open
divination, the pack at that part where the long card is, and pre-
fent the pack to a perfon in fuch a manner that he will
naturally draw that card. He is then to put it^ into
any part of the pack, and Ihuffle the cards. You take
the pack, and offer the fame card in like manner to a
fecond or third perfon ; obferving, however, that they
do not ftand near enough to fee the card each other
draws. You then draw feveral cards yourfelf, among
which is the long card, and alk each of the parties if
his card be among thofe cards, and he will naturally
fay Yes, as they have all drawn the fame card. You
then fhuffle all the card,? together, and cutting them at
the long card, you hold it before the firtt perfon, fo
that the others may not fee it, and tell him that iskis
card. You then put it again in the pack, and fhuf-
fling them a fecond time, you cut again at the fame
card, and hold it in like manner to the fecond perfon,
and fo of the reft (a).
If the ftrft perfon fhould not draw the long card,
*ach of the parties muft draw different cards; when,
cutting the pack at the long card, you put thofe they
have drawn over it, and feeming to fhuffte the cards
indiferiminately, you cut them again at the long catd,
and flrow one of them his card. You then fhuffle and
cut again, in the fame manner, and fhow another per¬
fon his card, and fo on ; remembering, that the card
<lrawn by the laft perfon is the firft next the long card;
and fo of the others.
This experiment may be performed without the long
card, in the following manner. Let a perfon draw
any card whatever, and replace it in the pack: you
then make the pafs, and bring that card to the top of
the pack, and fhuffle them without loling fight of that
card. You then offer that card to a fecond perfon,.
that he may draw it, and put it in the middle of the
pack. You make the pafs and fhuffle the cards a fe¬
cond time in the fame manner, and offer the card to a
third perfon, and fo again to a fourth or fifth, as is
more fully explained further on.
The four 3* You let a perfon draw any four cards from the
confedera- pack, and tell him to think on one of them. When he
Md cards. r(.tuni3 you the four cards, you dexteroufly place two of
them under the pack and two on the top. Under
thofe at the bottom you place four cards of any fort;
and then, taking eignt or ten from the bottom-cards,
you fpread them on the table, and afk the perfon if the
card he fixed on be among them. If he fay N«, you
are fure it is one of the two cards on the top. You
then pafs thofe two cards to the bottom, and drawing
off the loweft of them, you aik him if that is not his
card. If he again fay No, you take that card up, and
bid him draw his card from tire bottom of the pack.
If the perfon fay his card is among thofe you firft
drew from the bottom, you muft dexteroufly take up
the four cards that you put under them, and, placing
E M A I N. 763.
tbofe on the top, let the other two be the bottom-
cards of the pack, which you are to draw in the man¬
ner before deferibed. •
4. After.a card has been drawn, you place it under Divination
the long card, and by Ihuffling them dexteroufly you by the
bring it to top of the pack. Then lay, or throw, the fwo‘d*'
pack on the ground, obferving where the top card lies.
A handkerchief is then bound*over your eyes, in fuch
a manner however that you can fee the ground, which
may be eafily done. A fword is then put into your
hand, with which you touch feveral of the cards, feem-
ingly in great doubt, but never lofing fight of the top-
card, in which at laft you fix the point of the fword,
and prefent it to him who drew it. Two or three
cards may be difeovered in the fame manner, that is,
by placing them under the long card, and then bring¬
ing them to the top of the pack.
5. You muft have in the pack two cards of the fame The tranf-
fort, fuppofe the king of fpades. One of thefe is to be mutable
placed next the bottom-card, which may be the fevenl'ar<^8"
of hearts, or any other card. The other is to be pla¬
ced at top.1 Youthen (huffle the cards, without dif-
placing thofe three cards, and Ihow a perfon that the
bottom-card is the feven of hearts. Then drawing that
card privately afide with your finger, which you have
wetted for that purpofe, you take the king of fpades
from the bottom, which the perfon fuppofe; to be the
feven of hearts, and lay it on the table, telling him to
cover it with his hand. You then Ihuffle the cards
again, without difplacing the firft and laft card, and
paffing the other king of fpades at the top to the bot¬
tom, you (how it to another perfon. You then dra.v
that privately away; and taking the bottom-card, which
will then be the feven of hearts, you lay that on the
table, and tell the fecond perfon, who believes it to be
the king of fpades, to cover it with his hand.
You then command the feven of hearts, which is
fuppofed to be under the hand of the firft perfon, to
change into the king of fpades; and the king of fpades,
which is fuppofed to be under the hand of the fecond
perfon, to change into the feven of hearts; and when
the two parties take their hands off, and turn up the
cards, they will fee, to their no fmall aftonifhment, af¬
ter having fo carefully obferved the bottom-cards, that
your commands are pun&ually obeyed.
6. Take a card, the fame as your long card, and The in¬
rolling it up very clofe, put it in an egg, by making eompre-
a hole as fmall as pofiible, and which you are to fill ^
up carefully with white wax. You then offer the long fition. "
card to be drawn; and when it is replaced in the pack
you (huffie the cards feveral times, giving the egg to
the perfon who drew the card, and, while he is break¬
ing it, you privately withdraw the long card, that it
may appear, upon examining the cards, to have gone
from the pack into the egg. This experiment may be
rendered more furprifing by having feveral eggs, in
each of which is placed a card of the fame fort, and
then giving the perfon the liberty to choofe which egg
he thinks fit.
5 D 2 This
( a) There is frequently exhibited another experiment, fimilar to this, which is by making a perfon draw the
long card ; then giving him the pack, you tell him to place his card where he pleafes and (huffle them, and
you will then name his card or cut the pack where it is. You may alfo tell him to put the pack in his packet,
and you will draw the card ; which you may eafily do by the touch.
764
L E G E R D
This deception may be ftill further diverfified, by
having, as molt public performers have, a confederate,
who is previoufly to know the egg in which the card
is placed; for you may then break the other eggs,
and fliow that the only one that contains a card is
that in which you direfted it to be.
To name 7. Divide a piquet pack of cards into two parts by
feveral a ]ong card. Let the firfl part contain a quint to a
twoperfbns k*ng in c^u^8 anc^ Spades, the four-eighths, the ten of
have drawn diamonds, and ten of hearts ; and let the other part
contain the two quart majors in hearts and diamonds,
the four fevens, and the four nines (b).
Then-fhuffle the cards, but obferve not to difplace
any of thofe cards of the lall part which are under the
long card. You then Cur at that card, and leave the
pack in two parts. Next, prefent the firft of thofe
parts to a perfon, and tell him to draw two or three
cards, and place the remainder on the table. You
prefent the fecond parcel in like manner to another.
Then having dexteroufly placed the cards drawn by
the firft perfon in the fecond parcel and thofe drawn
by the fecund peifon in the firft parcel, you fhufflv the
cards, obferving to difplace none but the upper cards.
Then fprcading the cards on the table, you name thofe
that each perfon drew ; which you will very eafily
do, by obferving the cards that are changed in each
parcel.
converTb! ^ ^ aCe ipac^es ^x> wlth f°ap> a heart, and
convcr« .e on ^ ace ^ jltarlS) a fpacjef in fuch a manner that
th'ry will eafily flip off.
Show thefe two aces to the company ; then taking
the ace of fpades, you dtfire a perfon to put his foot
upon it, and as you place it on the ground, draw
away the fpade. In like manner you place the feem-
ing ace ©f heans under the foot of another perfon.
You then command the two cards to change their
places ; and that they obey your command, the two
perfons, on taking up their cards, will have ocular
demonftration. A deception fimilar to this is fome-
times pra&ifed with one card, fuppofe the ace of
fpades, over which a heart is placed flightly. After
fhowing a perfon the card, you let him hold one end
of it, and you hold the other, and whde you amufe
him with difcourfe, you Aide off the heart. Then
laying the card on the table, you bid him cover it
with his hand. You then knock under the table and
command the heart to turn into the ace of fpades.
By deceptions like thefe, people of little experience
and much conceit are frequently deprived of their mo¬
ney, and rendered ridicu’ous.
The fifteen 9. You muft be prepared with two cards, like
thouland thofe reprefented by fig. 22. and with a common ace
^vrCf• and a five of diamonds.
The five of diamonds and the two prepa ed cards
are to be difpofed as in fig. 23. and holding them in
your hand, you fay, “ A certain Frenchman left
15,000 livres, which are reprefented by thefe three
cards, to his three fons. The two youngeft agreed to
leave their 5000, each of them, in the hands of the
elder, that he might improve it.” While you are
telling this ftory, you lay the 5 on the table, and put
the ace in its place, and at the fame time artfully
E M A I N. Sed. II.
change the pofition of the other two cards, that the
three cards may appear as in fig. 24. You then re¬
fume your difcourfe, “ The eldeft brother, in lead of
improving the money, loft it all by gaming, except
3000 livres, as you here fee.” You then lay the ace
on the table, and, taking up the 5, continue your ftbry:
“ The eldeft, forry for having loft the money, went to
the Eaft Indies with thefe 3000, and brought back
15,000.” You then fhow the cards in the fame pofi¬
tion as at firft, in fig. 22.
To render this deception agreeable, it muft be per¬
formed with dexterity, and Ihould not be repeated,
but the cards immediately put in the pocket ; and
you fhould have five common cards in your pocket,
ready to fhow, if any one fhould defire to fee them.
10 Take a parcel of caids, fuppofe 40, among’j’, tel! the
which inlert two long cards : let the firll be, for ex- number of
ample, the 15th and the other the 26th, from the tard
top. Seem to ftuiffle the cards, and then cutting them the“we,8h{
at the firft long card, poife thofe you have cut off hi
your hand, and fay, “ there fhould be here 15 cards.”
Cut them again at the fecond long card, and fay,
There are here only. 11 cards.” Then poifing the re¬
mainder, you fay, “here are 14 cards ”
11. Several different cards being fhown to different To name
perfons■> that each of them may fix on one of thofe cards ; feveral
to name that on which each perfon has fixed. —There muft ^hkh0dif
be as many different carls fhown to each perfon asfereilt ,er.
there are perfons to choofe : therefore, fuppofe there fons have
are three perfons, then to each of them you muft fhow^^1
three cards; and telling the fiift perfon to retain one
in his memory, you lay thofe three cards down, and
fhow three others to the fecond perfon, and fo to the
third. You then take up the firft perfon’s cards, and
lay them down one by one, feparately, with their faces
upward. You next place the fecond perfon’s card
over the firft, and in like manner the third perfon’s
card over the fecond’s; fo that in each parcel there will
be one card belonging to each perfon. You then afk
each of them in which parcel his card is; and when
• you know that, you immediately know which card it
is ; for the firft perfon’s card will always be the firft,
the fecond perfon’s the fecond, and the third perfon’s
the third, in that parcel where they each fay his
card is.
This experiment may be performed with a fingle
perfon, by letting him fix on three, four, or more
cards. In this cafe you muft ftiow him as many par¬
cels as he is to choofe cards, and every parcel muft
confilt of that number, out of which he muft fix on
one ; and you then proceed as before, he telling you
the parcel that contains each of his cards.
12. Make a ring large enough to go on the fecond The magic,
or third finger (fig. 15.), in which let there be fet a ring,
large traniparent ftone, to the botto n of which muft
be fixed a fmall piece of black filk, that may be
either drawn afide or expanded by turning the ftone
round. Under the filk is to be the figure uf a fmall
card.
Then make a perfon draw the fame fort of card as
that at the bottom of the ring, and tell him to burn it
in the candle. Having firft ftvown him the ring, you.
take
(b) The cards may be divided in any other manner that is eafy to be rememberetL
LE <t EK U E AI TsT.
Plate CCLXVI.
.'ia. ir.
t she magic
►ijsa-c^y.
Ifr: Plate
j;::clxvii.
1 The two
inagic port-
folios.
L E G E R I
take part of the burnt earth and reducing it to pow¬
der, you rub the ftone with it, and at the fame time
turn it artfully about, fo that thefmall card at bottom
may come in view.
t 3. To change one card into another.—Provide a ma¬
hogany tea caddy about four or five inches deep, and
long enough to admit a common fized playing card :
(fee fig. 9 ). This caddy muft be furnifhed with a
moving falfe bottom B, moveable upon hinges on the
infide edge of the front A. This bottom may be
made of brafs, tin, or lead ; and the faife bottom muft
be fo exaiftly fitted, that it cannot, from a flight view,
be diftinguifhed from the other. The infide of both
caddy and falfe bottom ought to be lined with ..black
or other dark-coloured cloth or velvet, fo that it may
not make any noife in falling down. It would be pro¬
per that the falfe bottom fhould rife with a fpring to¬
wards the front, and it muft be kept tight with a brafs
fpring-catch (a, fig. 10.) ferewed to the left fide of
the box near the top, and which is hid by the cloth
covering. The end of this fpring proje&s a little into
the front. It is driven back, to let go the failfe bottom,
by means of a fmall bent wire lb let into the front of
the caddy; and this pin is moved by the bolt r, which,
when the box is locked, (hoots out againft it, by rea-
fon of the fpring being driven in ; by which means
the bottom fprings down, and covers the card placed
in the box.
Before you attempt to (how any trick with this
caddy, a card muft be placed in the infide between
the front A and the falfe bottom B, fpringing
Up the bottom afterwards againft the front; after
which it is ready for ufe, and fliown openly to the
company without any danger of a d’fcovery.
Two perfons may now be defired to draw two dif
ferent cards from a pack, one of which muft be the
fame wi;h the one concealed in the caddy. Taking
this card from the perfon who drew it, you put it in
the pack, pretend to (huiHe it, but keep the card ei
ther uppermolt or undermoft, fo that you can ealiiy
find it afterwards. Defiring then the other perfon to
come forward and put his card very attentively into
the caddy, you in the mean time fecretly convey away
from the pack the card drawn by the other ; then,
giving him the key, you defire the caddy to be locked
up. After fome pretended conjurations, defire him to
unlock it again and take out the card ; which he will
find not to be his, but that drawn by his neighbour :
his card being apparently vaniftted from the caddy, as
the other is from the pack.
14. PaoviDEtwo pieces of pafteboard Aand B(fig. 11.)
of equal dinuniions, 34 inches long and three broad.
Place thefe befide one another, as ftiown in the figure.
Take then a very fmooth filk ribbon, and put a band
of it from C to E towards the edge of the pafteboard
A, and another from D to F in fuch a manner as to
come beyond the pafteboard, and to admit of being
folded over at the two ends. This muft be glued on
the back of the board A at the places C and D, and
at the back of the board B at the places E and F.
Place two other bands in a fimilar manner on the
pafteboard B, turnfng them over on the back of the
fame board at the places I and L, and at the back of A
at the places G and PI. Th-efe two bands fttould fall
ia the infide of the paileboatd, according to the breadth
> E M A I N.
of the ribbons. The two pafteboards being now placed
the one upon the other, will form a kind of port-folio,
one of the fides of which will always be hinged when
the other is opened. Four fmall bands of the fame
ribbon are to be put at the four extremities of the
fides MNQR of the two pieces of pafteboard j obfer-
ving that they pafs below the bands already placed.
Glue their ends in the fame manner as their ends at
the back of the boards, ornamenting alfo the two fidea
O and P of the pafteboard B with pieces of the fame
ribbon ; but thefe fix laft bands are of no ufe in the
performance.
Two pieces of paper folded like the cover of a letter
muft now be provided, large enough to cover the two
ribbons GI and HL, as well as the fpace contained
within them. Glue one of thefe upon the two rib¬
bons, and apply the other below this; fo that the up-
permoft of thefe two wrappers may fall exaftly over
the other, inclofing and hiding the two ribbons en¬
tirely A fecond port folio fimilarly conftru&ed ia
now to be provided, and both of them covered with
coloured paper from the fides where the ribbons are
glued and folded —The deceptions with thefe port¬
folios are as follows.
r. Two cards, chofcn at random, having been Jhul up
in two feparate places ; to make them pafs reciprocally from
the one into the other.—The port-folios being con (truck¬
ed in the manner above deferibed; if you open one of
them either on the one fide or on the other, one of
the paper wrappers will always be vilible ; and thus it
will naturahy be fuppofed that there is no more but
one. Having then fecretly inclofed a card in each of
the wrappets of the port-folios, procure a pack of
cards that has but two forts, and cattle two perfons
fairly draw two cards fimilar to the firft. Prefent then
a port-folio, open, to the firft perfon who drew a card
fimilar to that which was placed in the fecond, defiring
him to place it in the wrapper which he finds vacant.
Take back then the port folio ; and, in placing it on
the table, artfully turn it over ; having placed likewife
in the vacant wrapper of the feeond port-folio the card
drawn by the fecond perfon ; and putting it in the
fame way upon the table, command the cards recipro¬
cally to pafs from the one port-folio into the other
and open them fo that each of the perfons may take
out the card which the other inferted.
2. fl card being Jhut up in the port folio ; to make it
return into the pack.—To perform this, procure a pack
which has two cards of the fame kind. One of thefc
is to be openly drawn, and the perfon who has'done
fo muft betold to fhut it up under the wrapper of one
of the port folios ; and inform him that you will make
it return into the pack. Give him the port-folio to blowr
upon ; and on opening it,'prefent him with the empty
wj apper, to (how him that his card is not there ; after
which, prefenting him with the pack, he will rind there,
the other card, which he will naturally imagine to be
the one he put into the wrapper. %
3. To make an anfaver appear to a quejlionfecretly 'written*
Tranfcnbe on different cards a certain number of que-
ftions, and on others the lame queftions with their an-
fwers; taking care to have the hand-writing as much
alike as poffible, fo that no difference can eafily. be
perceived. The fame caution muft be obferved with
regard to the cards themi'elves ; which,, for that reafon,
766
The card i
the mirror
Plate
CCLXVI
The mar¬
vellous
?afe.
L EGERDEMAIN.
Sea. II*
ought to be plain ones. Having written wTth a pen¬
cil at the bottom of the full queftions their correfpond-
ing anfwers, (hut up one of them fecretly in the port¬
folio ; and prefenting them to any perfon, let him
draw as by chance that which is fimilar to the one thus
(hut upt. Make him then place in the other wrapper
the queftion which he had drawn ; and telling him that
you are about to write an anfwer even-through the
port-folio, take a glafs, and pretend to read in it the
anfwer to the queftion. Open it afterwards, fo that he
may take out the other card himfelf, and he will ima¬
gine it to be the one he felefted.
In performing this trick, it will be proper to have a
port-folio of the fame kind with *he two defcribed,
which opens only at one fide, and which confequently
has but one wrapper. This muft be (hown to fuch as
feem to be too inquifitive, and will be of ufe to pre¬
vent them from entertaining any idea that the folio
opens upon both fides. The former muft therefore be
immediately put into the pocket, in order to give an
opportunity of drawing out the other in cafe the port¬
folio (hould be aflced for.
i 15. PaoviDEa mirror, eitherround,as A (fig. 18.).,
or oval, the frame of which muft be at leaft as wide as
a card. The glafs in the middle muft be made to
move in the two grooves CD and EF, and fo much
of the quickfilver muft be fcraped off as is equal to
the fize of a common card. You will obferve that
-the glafs muft; likewife be wider than the diftance be¬
tween the frame by at leaft the width of a card.
Then pafte over the part where the quickfilver is
rubbed off a piece of pafteboard, on which is a card
that muft exactly fit the fpace, which muft at firft be
placed behind the frame.
This mirror muft be placed again! a partition,
through which is to go two firings, by which an af-
fiftant in the adjoining room can eafily move the glafs
in the grooves, and confequently make the card ap¬
pear or difappear at pleafure (c).
Matters being thus prepared, you contrive to make
a perfon draw the fame fort of card with that fixed
to the mirror, and place it in the middle of the pack :
you then make the pafs, and bring it to the bottom;
you then direft the ptrfon to look for his card in the
mirror, when the confederate behind the partition is
to draw it (lowly forward, and it will appear as if pla¬
ced between the glafs and the quickfilver. While the
glafs is drawing forward, you Hide oft' the card from
the bottom of the ^ack, and convey it awayi
The card fixed to the mirror may eafily be changed
each time the experimentis performed. This experiment
may alfo be made with a print that has a glafs before it
and a frame of fufficient width, by making a flit in the
frame through which the card is to pafs ; but the effe&
will not be fo ftriking as in the mirror.
16. Place a vafe of wood crpafteboard A B (fig. 19.)
on a bracket L, fixed to the partition M. Let the
infide of this vafe be divided into five parts, c,
and let the diviliona c and d be wide enough to ad¬
mit a pack of cards, and thufe of e, ft g, one card
only.
Fix a thread or filk at the point H, the other end
of which pafiing down the diviiion d, and over the
pully I, runs along the bracket L, and goes out be¬
hind the partition M-
Take three cards from a picpiet pack, and place
one of them in each of the divihons e, f, g, making
the filk thread or line go under each of them. In
the divifion c, put the pack of cards from which you
have taken the three cards that are in the other divi*
fions.
Then take another p« of cards, at the top of
which are to be three cards ’ the fame fort with thofe
in the three fmall divifions; at. making the pafs, bring
them to the middle of the pac -nd let them be drawn
by three different perfons. n give them all the
cards to fliuftle ; after which place the pack in the di¬
vifion dy and tell the parties they (hall fee the three
cards they drew come, at their command, feparately
out of the vafe.
An affiftant behind the partition then drawing the
line with a gentle and equal motion, the three cards
will gradually rife out of the vaCe. Then take the
cards out of the divifion c, and (how that thofe three
cards are gone from the pack.
The vafe muft; be placed fo high that the infide
cannot be feen by the company. You may perform
this experiment alfo without an afiiftant, by fixing a
weight to the end of the filk line, which is to be placed
011 a fuppbrt, and let down at plcafure by means of a
fpring in the partition.
17. Let a ("mall perfpe&ive glafs be made, that (3 The divi-1
wide enough, at the end where the objedt-glafs is pla-natiug psr*,
ted, to hold a table fimilar to the following.
1.131 10..132 19.133
2.231 11..232 20.233
3.331 12..332 21.333
4.121 13.122 22123
5221 14..222 23.223
6.321 15..322 24,323
7.in 16..112 25.113
8.211 17..212 26213
9.311 18.312 27.313
Take a pack of cards that confifts of 37 only, and
giving them to a perfon, defire him to fix on any one,
then (hulfle them, and give the pack to you. Place
the 27 cards in three heaps, by laying down one al¬
ternately on each heap ; but before you lay each card
down, (how it to the perlon, without feeing it your-
felf; and when the three heaps are finiftied, aik him
at what number, from 1 to 27, he will have his card
appear,
(c) This experiment may be performed without an afiiftant, if a table be placed againft the partition, and
the ft ring from the glafs be made to pafs through a leg of it, and communicate with a fmall trigger, which
you may eafily pu(h down with your foot; and at the fame time wiping the glafs with your handkerchief, as
if to make the card appear the more confpicuous. It may alfo be diverfified, by having the figure of a head,
fuppofe that of fame abfent friend, in the place of the card.
767
II.
EGE11DEMAIN.
appear, and m which heap it then is ? Then-look at
the heap through the glafa, and if the firfl of the three
numbers which {lands againft that number it is to ap¬
pear at be i, put that heap at top; if the number be 2,
put it in the middle; and if it be 3, put it at bottom.
Then divide the cards into three heaps, in the fame
manner, a fecond and third time, and his card will
then be at the number he ch fe-
For example ; Suppofe he defire that his card {hall
be the 20th from the top, arid the firlt time of making
the heaps he fay it is in the third heap : you then
look at the table in the perfpe&ive, holding it at the
fame time over that heap, and you fee that the firft
figure is 2; you therefore put that figure in the middle
of the pack. The fecond and third times you in like
manner put the heap in which he fays it is, at the
bottom, the number each time being 3. Then look¬
ing at the pack with your glafs, as if to difcover which
the card was, you lay the cards down one by one, and
the 20th card will be that he fixed on.
You may {how the perfon his card in the fame man¬
ner, without afking him at what number it {hall appear,
by fixing on any number yourfelf.
The foregoing experiments with the cards will be
found fufficient to explain moft others of a fimilar na¬
ture that have or may be made : the number of which
is very great. To perform thofe we have defcribed
requires no great pra&ice ; the two principal points
are, the making the pafs in a dexterous manner, and a
certain addrefs by which you influence a perfon to
draw the card you prefent. Thofe that are performed
by the long card are in general the moft eafy, but
they are confined to a pack of cards that is ready pre¬
pared ; whereas thofe which depend on making the
pafe, may be performed with any pack that is offered.
Sect. III. Experiments -with Sympathetic Inks.
[See Sympathetic 1nk.~\
* -
Experiments with Class I.
I. Makr a book of 70 or 80 leaves ; and in the co¬
ver at the end of it let there be a cafe, which opens
next the binding that it be not perceived.
At the top of each right hand page write any
queftion you pleafe; and at the beginning of the book
let there be a table of all thofe queftions, with the
number of the page where each is contained. Then
write with common ink, on feparate papers, each
about half the fize of the pages in the book, the fame
queftions that are in the book, and under each of them
write, with the ink made of the impregnation of fa-
turn, or the diffolution of bifmuth, the anfwer.
Soak a double paper in the vivifying liquor made of
quickilime and orpiment, or the phlogifton of the liver
of fulpher, and place it, juft before you make the ex¬
periment, in the cafe that is in the cover of the book.
Then deliver fome of the papers on which the que¬
ftions are wrote to the company ; and, after they have
chofen fuch as they would have anfwered, they put
them in thofe leaves where the fame queftions are con¬
tained, and, {hutting the book for a few minutes, the
fulphureous fpirit with which the paper in the cover
of the book is imbibed, will penetrate the leaves, and
make the anfwers vifible, which will be of a brown
colour, and more or lefs deep in proportion to the
time the book has been clofed (d).
2. Make a box about four inches long, and three The mar-
wide, as ABCD, and quite fliallow. Let it fhut with ve!lousPor*
hinges and fallen with a hook ; and let it have twotra‘t>^S;,7*
bottoms, the loweft of wood, that draws out by a
groove, and the uppermoft of pafteboard. Between
thefe two bottoms is to be placed a paper dipped in
the vivifying liquor mentioned in the laft experiment.
Let' there be alfo a board of the fame fize with the
infide of the box, which being placed in it may-prefs
a paper againft the pafteboard bottom.
Then take feveral pieces of paper, of the fame fize
with the infide of the box, and draw on them the
figures of men and women, in different attitudes and
employments, as walking,1 riding, reading, writing,
&c. Thefe figures muft be drawn with a new pen, or
pencil, dipped in the impregnation of Saturn.
Being thus provided, and having privately placed
the paper dipped in the vivifying liquor between the two
bottoms, you tell a perfon you will {how him what an
ahfent friend of his is doing at the prefent hour. You
then give him the paper adapted to the employment
you intend, and tell him to write his friend’s name at
the bottom, that you may not change the paper.
Then placing that paper next the pafteboard bottom,
and putting the piece of wood over it, you {hut the
box. After amufing him with difeourfe for three or
four minutes, you take out the paper, when he will fee
his friend in the employment you have afligned him.
3. Let a workman make a hand of wood, as in fig. The aniffi
16. fixed at the end next the elbqw to the piece E}cialhand.
the ends of which go through the ferews CD and EF.
The fore and middle fingers, and the thumb, are to
be moveable at their joints. There muft go a wire
through the arm, that is fixed at one end to the fore¬
finger, and at the other to the piece E, round which it
is to move : under the t« o joints of the two fingers are «
alfo placed two fmall fprings, which are to raife it up.
To the fore-finger and thumb fix two fmall rings,,
through which a pen may be put, fo as not to impede
their motion. Under the arm at the point I, place
a fmall brafs roller, which ferves to fuftain the arm.
The pedeftal on which this hand is placed muft be
at leaft a foot long, if the hand be of the natural fize,
and about eight inches wide. This pedeftal muft be
hollow, and at the part ST there muft be an opening
about three inches long and two inches wide ; the
whole pedeftal may be covered with a thin {luff, by
which the hole will be concealed. There is to be a
valve, or fort of trap door, on the infide of the pe¬
deftal, which is to fallen againft the opening.
Over the hand and pedeftal place a glafs frame, aa
in the figure : cover the hand with fine leather of flefti
colour, and decorate the arm with a ruffle and cuff,
which will entirely conceal the machinery.
Then take a number of cards, and write on them
different queftions ; and on the fame number of papers
write.
(d) If a weight be placed upon the book, the effed will be the fooner produced. Or you may put the
book in a box that will prefs it clofe down. <
768 L E G E R D
write, with the impregnation of lead, the anfwers.
Give the cards to any one, and let him choofe a que-
flion ; and you place the paper with the anfwer under
the pen in the hand, letting him firft fee there is no
writing on it (e). Now the pedeftal being placed
againft a partition, the end F is to go through it.
Therefore an afliftant, upon a fignal given, turns a
handle fixed to F; and, as the piece E turns round, the
wires that move the fingers and thumb are alternately
lengthened and Shortened, by which their joints are
kept in continual motion ; and the fcrew at the fame
time turning gently from F towards G, gives the
whole arm a motion which very much refembles that
of nature (f).
The hand and pen ferve here merely to afiift the
iilufion : but if a bit of fponge, dipped in the vivify-
ing liquor, be placed at the end of the pen, as it goes
over the writing on the paper, it will make it become
gradually vifible, and in this cafe the trap door and
dipped paper may be omitted (g).
Deception with Class II.
Thewri- 4. Take feveral pieces of paper, of a fize that you
ting apainft can in any book that will go into your pocket,
the wall. an(j wrjte at t0p eacb 0f them a queftion, with
common ink, and under it write the anfwer with
the folutibn of gold or filver. Give any of thefe
papers, clofely wrapt up, to a perfon, and tell him
to place it againll the wall of his chamber, and keep¬
ing the door locked he will next day find the anfwer
wrote on it.
As the gold ink will fometimes give a yellow caft
to the paper, you may previoufly give a flight tinflure
of that kind to the papers you ufe for this purpofe.
Deception with Class III.
Magical 5- On different papers draw the figures of feveral
vegetations.leaves or flowers with one of the colourlefs juices men¬
tioned : then take one of the correfponding leaves or
flowers, and laying it on an iron plate, over a cha-
, fing-difh of hot coals, let it burn to afties. Put thefe
allies into a fieve, in which there is fome very fine fteel-
filings, and fift them over the paper on which the
flower is drawn, when they will adhere to the gluti¬
nous liquor, and form an exadt reprefentation of the
figure of the leaf or flower.
Deceptions with Class IV.
The talif- 6 Make a little triangular box, each fide of which
naan, fig. 7. i$ to be about five inches, and let its infide be divi¬
ded into three parts. The firft part A, which makes
the bottom of the box, is to be covered by the fe-
cond part B, in form of a cafe, and let the top C ex¬
actly cover the part B, as is expreffed in the figure
and the profiles. ;
N° 186.
E M A I N. Sea. HI,
Upon the bottom of the box let there be a plate of
copper, about one-twentieth of an inch thick, on
which let there be a number of hieroglyphic charac¬
ters contiguous to each other, and cut in different forts
of metal.
On the top of the cover place a knob O, that goes
through it, and to which the copper triangle QJs to
be fixed occafionally, in fuch manner as it may go
into the cafe B. There muft be a fpace of one quar¬
ter of an inch between the triangle Q^and the bot¬
tom of the cafe B ; into which another plate of cop¬
per, of that thicknefs, may be placed.
The outfide of this talifman may be decorated with
uncommon figures or chara&ers, to give it the ap¬
pearance of greater myftery.
On feveral pieces of paper, of the fame fize with
the infide of the talifman, write different queftions in
common ink, and write the anfwers in thofe different
forts of fympathetic ink that appear when heated,
obferving that each word of the anfwer is to be wrote
in a different ink.
Having properly heated the triangle, and placed it
under the cover, you introduce the talifman, and tell
any one of the company to choofe one of the papers
on which the queftions are wrote, and place it in the
talifman, and he will immediately have an anfwer
wrote on that pape»-, the words of which will be of
different colours, according to the different metals of
which the talifman is compofed. The paper being
placed in the talifman,. and the cover placed over it,
the heat of the triangle will make the anfwer vifible
in a few moments This experiment may be repeat¬
ed if the triangle be made fufficiently hot; and t>yo
papers may be placed in the talifman at the fame
time.
This deception, when well executed, occafions a
furprife that cannot be conceived by a mere deferip-
tion.
7. Make a wooden pedeftal ABr about ten inchesThe fibyl*,,
long, eight wide, and one deep : and at one end ere&fi&* S'
a box C, about ten inches high, eight broad, and two
and a half deep.
The top of the pedeftal muft Aide in a groove, on
which inferibe a dial M, of fix inches diameter, and
which is to be divided into nineteen equal parts, in
twelve of which write the names of the months, and
mark the refpe&ive figns of the zodiac; and in the
feven other divifions, which muft be next the end B,
write the days of the week, and mark the figures of
the planets. Next the inner circle NO, make an
opening into the box, of about one tenth of an inch.
On the centre of the dial place an index that turns
freely on its centre. .
Within the pedeftal place a pulley P, about four
inches diameter, which is to turn on an axis that is
dire&ly
(e) The paper dipped in the vivifying liquor is to be previoufly placed againft the opening in the table, and
fupported by the trap-door.
(f) This might be performed without an affiftant* by means of a trigger placed in the leg of the table, and
communicating with the handles, which the operator might thruft down with his foot. Where expence is not
regarded, there may be a complete figure of a man in wood, or plafter of Paris, feated by the table.
(g) You may alfo have a glafs ink ftand, with fome of the vivifying liquor, into which the pen may be dip¬
ped, and it will then appear to write with common ink. The fpedtators ihould not be permitted to come very
near this machine, which may be applied to feveral other purpofes.
769
Sea.
II. LEGERDEMAIN.
dire&ly under the centre of the dial; and on the up¬
per part of that axis fix a bent index R, which comes
out at the opening made by the inner circle (h), and
pafles over thofe feven divifions only on which are
wrote the days of the week.
Within the box C, let there be two rollers S and
T, as in the figure : let that of S contain a fpring ;
and at the end of T let there be a pulley V, of three
quarters of an inch diameter, round which goes a
firing or thread that paffes under the final! pulley X,
and is fattened to that of P: fo that when the laft
pulley makes about one-third of a turn, that of V may
make three or four turns.
There mutt alfo be a fcroll of paper, about two feet
long, and each end of which mutt be patted to one of
the rollers. In the front of the box, between the two
rollers, make an aperture D, about four inches long,
and one inch and a half wide: to this opening let there
be a little flap or Aider, by which it may be clofed at
pleafure.
The apparatus being thus difpofed, place the index
R fucceflively againft each of the divifions marked
with one of the planets ; and as the paper is gradually
wound up the roller, mark, againft that part which is
at the aperture D, the name of one of the following
fibyls:
The Hellefpontian*
Cumean
Artemifian
Phrygian
Albunean
Perfian
Libyan
fibyl.
On each of the feven cards write a different que-
ftion, and draw one of the feven planets. Next, take
a memorandum book that contains feven leaves, and
on each of them write the name of one of the fore¬
going fibyls ; in each of the leaves place feveral pieces
of paper, and on each of them write, with the fym-
pathetic ink that does not appear till the paper is
heated, different anfwers to the fame queftion.
Then give a perfon the feven cards on which the
queftions are wrote, and tell him to choofe one of
them privately, and conceal the reft, fo that it can¬
not poffibly be known which of them he has chofen.
Next, tell him to place the index that points to the
month againft that in which he was born (1), and to
place the index of the planets againft that which is on
the card he has chofen, and which is to prefide over
the anfwer: you tell him to do this privately, that
no one may fee him, and after that to cover the dial
with his handkerchief. Then let him open the door
that is before the aperture in the box, and tell you
the name of the fibyl there vifible.
You then open the memorandum-book, and taking
out the papers that are in the leaf where the name of
the fibyl juft mentioned is wrote, you defire him to
Vol. IX. Part II.
choofe any one of them he thinks proper. Tire talif-
man ufed in the laft experiment being properly heated,
is then to be introduced, when you direA the perfon
to put the blank paper into it; and taking it out a
few moments after, he will find the anfwer to his que¬
ftion.
To make this operation appear the more extraordi¬
nary, it will be proper to have a fmall prefs or cup¬
board, at the back of which there is a door that
opens into an adjoining room, by which means an af-
fiftant having prepared the talifman, may place it in
the cup-board the moment before it is wanted. This
contrivance will be ufeful on many other occafions.
8. Provide an urn of wood or metal about fix™
inches high, and two and a half diameter in the wideft^' magtCr
part, and of fuch figure in other refpe&s as you think
proper (fee fig. 9.J. Let there be a cylinder of cop¬
per C, (fig. 10.) of about one-eighth of an inch dia¬
meter, which is to fill a hole AB made in the urn.
The top of this cylinder is to be in the top of the urn,
fo that it may be eafily taken out. To this urn there
muft be a cover D, which fits it exa&ly.
On a fmall fquare piece of paper draw the figure of
a flower or leaf, with that fort of fympathetic ink
whofe colour moft refembles it. You then prefent fe¬
veral forts of flowers or leaves to a perfon, and defire
him to choofe any one of them. Then put that flow¬
er on a chafingdifh of hot coals ; and, taking the pa¬
per on which it is fecretly drawn, you give it to the
perfon to examine, and then put it in the urn, having
previoufly heated the cylinder (x). Then taking fome
of the allies of the burnt flower, you ftrew them over
the paper, after which you take it out and Ihow the
company the figure of that flower. While the flower
is burning, you may fprinkle fome powder over it,
fuppofe that of faltpetre ; and by that, mixed with
the alhes of the flower, the company may imagine the
effeft is produced.
The prefs or cupboard mentioned in the preceding
experiment, will be here very convenient for heating
the cylinder and placing it in the urn. A limilar de¬
ception may be performed by putting the paper in a
copper veffel, that may be placed on an iron plate over
the chafingdilh in which the flower is burnt. But this
method has not fo myfterious an appearance as the
other, and in fome perfons may caufe a fufpicion that
the effeft is produced by heat.
9. To perform this experiment, you muft obferve, Tjje C0M4,
that there are feveral letters which may be changed vertible
into others, without any appearance of the alteration; cards,
as, the a into d, the c into a, e, d, g, o, or y, the i
into b, dy or /, the / into /, the 0 into a, d, g, or q,
the v into j, &c.
Take a parcel of cards, fuppofe 20, and on one of
them write, with the ink of the fourth clafs, the word
/am (l), and on the other, with the fame ink, the
words old woman; then holding them to the fire, they
will both become vifible. Now you will obferve, that
5 E by
(h) If the axis be made to pafs through the top of the pedeftal, this opening will not be neceffary.
(1) Thefe months and the index are of no other ufe than to give the experiment an air of greater my-
ftery.
(k) There are fome forts of fympathetic inks that require much more heat than others.
(u) Thefe letters Ihould not be joined.
77°
LEGERDEMAIN. Setf.
by altering tbe a in the word law into d, and adding
o before the /, and oman after the w. it becomes old
woman. Therefore, you make thofe alterations with
the inviiible ink, and let it remain fo. On the reft, of
the cards you write any words you think fit.
Prefent the cards in fuch a manner to two perfons,
that one of them (hall draw the word law, and the
other the words old woman. You then tell the perfon
who drew the word law, that it (hall difappear, and
the words on the other card (hall be wrote in its place;
and that you may not change the cards, defire each of
the parties to write his name on his card. Then put¬
ting the cards together, and holding them before the
fire, as if to dry the names juft wrote, the word 7aw
will prefcntly change into old woman.
This experiment may be varied by fixing on a word
that may be changed into three other words, and ma¬
king four perfons draw the cards on which th.-fe words
are wrote ; and it may be further diverfified by choo-
fing three fuch words, as that the firft can be changed
into the fecond, and the fecond into the third. You
then tell him who drew the firft; word, that it (hall be
changed into that drawn by the fecond perfon ; and
h'm you tell, that his word (hall be changed into that
of the third perfon.
Theoracu- ,0, Write on feveral flips of paper different que-
lar letters, ftions, and fuch as may be anfwered by the name of
fome perfon ; for example, Who is the merrieft man
in the company? Anfwer, Mr ** *. To whom will
Mifs * * * be married ? Anfwer, To Mr * * *.
Thefe queftions are to be wrote in the fympathetic
ink of this clafs, and expofed to the fire, and the an-
fweis wrote in the fame ink, and left invifible. The
papers are to be folded in form of letters, and in fuch
manner that the part where the name is wrote (hall be
direftly under the feal, and the heat of the wax will
make it vifible. Then give the letter to the perfon
who requires the anfwer, and he will find it plainly
wrote.
A deception fimilar to this may be made with a
number of blank cards, on each of which an ace of
fpades is drawn with the invifible ink ; then let a per¬
fon choofe any one of them, and inclofe it in a letter-
cafe, prepared in fuch manner that the figure of the
ace (hall be direftly under the feal, and on opening
the letter it will be immediately vifible.
Deceptions with Class V.
nous chara&ers, and obferve that the bottom of the
cover mull reft upon this cloth.
Then provide a flip of paper GH (fig. 12.) of the
fame fize with the bottom of the box ; and at each
end of it write, with the green fympathetic ink, the
name of a different card, and make fome private mark
by which you can tell at which end each name is
wrote (m).
Take a parcel of cards, and offer thofe two of them
whofe names are wrote on the paper to the two per¬
fons, that they may draw them. You tell the parties
to keep their cards to themfelves, and you propofe to
make the names of thofe cards appear upon a flip of
paper, which you put into the box. You then afk
which name of the two cards (hall appear firft. The
copper-plate being prtvioufly heated and placed in the
cover, you put it over that end of the paper on which
is the name required, and it will prefently appear.
Then taking the paper out and (bowing the name
wrote, you put it in again, turning the other end to
the fide of the box where the plate is, and it will in
like manner become vifible.
The firft name may be made to difappear at the
fame time that the fecond appears, if the cloth at the
end oppofite to that where the plate is be made damp.
12 Take a print that reprefents winter, and trace Winter
over the proper parts of the trees, plants, and ground,
with the green fympathetic ink 5 obferving to make11110 fpr*nS>
fome parts deeper than others, according to their di-
ftance. When thofe parts are dry, paint the other
objefts with their natural colours. Then put the print
in a frame with a glafs, and cover the back of it with
a paper that is pafted over its border only.
When this print is expofed to the heat of a mode¬
rate fire, or to the warm rays of the fun, all the graft
and foliage will turn to a pleafing green; and if a yel¬
low tint be given to fome parts of the print, before the
fympathetic ink be drawn over, this green will be of
different (hades; and the feene that a minute before
reprefented winter, will now be changed to fpring.
When this print is placed in the cold, winter will again
appear, and will again be driven away by the warm
rays of the fun. This alternate change of feafons may
be repeated as often as you pleafe; remembering,
however, as was before obferved, not to make the
print at any time too hot, for then a faded autumn
will f»r ever remain.
Theincem- II. Have a box that is divided into three parts*
prehenfible after the fame manner as the talifman in the 21ft ex*
wnti%. periment, except that, inftead of being triangular, it
muft be of a long fquare (fee fig. 14.) Divide its top
B into two equal parts D and E, as in fig. 13. and to
the part D adjuft a plate of copper L, about one quar¬
ter of an inch thick, and under both the plate L and
the opening E place a cloth. The upper part C muft
have a button by which it may be fixed on the cover
B, fo as to appear of one piece with it.
At the bottom of the box place a piece of cloth, or
other fluff, on which you may ftamp certain myfte-
Deceptions with Class VII.
13. Provide a number of artificial flowers, fuch asxherevi
rofes, jonquils, pinks, or any other you find conveni- fied bon-
ent. Thefe flowers muft be made of white thread or quets.
filk, and their leaves of parchment. Dip the rofes in
the red fympathetic ink, the jonquils in the yellow,
the pinks in the violet, and their leaves in a folution
of fait of tartar. When they are all dry, form them in¬
to fmall bouquets, which will all appear white, and may
be ufed in this experiment, either the day they are
dipped, or feveral days after.
You take one of thefe bouquets, and after (howing
. the
(m) That there may be no fufpicion of the paper being prepared, you may cut it from a whole (heet, be¬
fore the company, having previoufly wrote the names.
5
;
g
Sea. III. L E G E R D
the company that every part of ft is white, you dip ft
in an infufion of any of the blue flowers mentioned
under the article Colovr-Making, n° 13. and, draw¬
ing it prefently ont, all the flowers and leaves will ap¬
pear in their natural colours (n).
The tran- ,4> Write on a paper, with the violet liquor, as
fcolorated many letters or words as you pleafe 5 and aik any per-
Smting. fon whether he will have that writing turn to yellow,
green, or red.
Have a fponge with three fides that you can readily
diftinguilh, and dip each of its fides in one of the three
fympathetic inks. Draw the fide of the fponge that
•orrefponds to the colour the perfon has chofe, over
the writing once only ; and it will dire&ly change to
the colour required (o).
Seft. III. Mifccllaneous Performances.
E M A I N. 77I
ing 5, the hour at which the index ftands, and count¬
ing backwards from the hour at which he intends to
rifa ; and the number 17 will necefiarily end at 8,
which ihows that to be the hour he chofe.
That the hour at which the counting ends mull be
that on which he propofed to rife, will be evident on
a little refledf ion ; for if he had began at that hour and
counted 12, he would neceflarily have come to it a-
gain ; and calling the number 17, by adding 5 to it,
only ferves to difguife the matter, but can make no fort
of difference in the counting.
17. If the number 11 be multiplied by any one ofThe'nrapi-
the nine digits, the two figures of the produdf will al- cal centnrj,
ways be fimilar. As follows:
11 11 11 11 11 1.1 11 11 11
1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9
{To tell odds ,5- perfon having an even number of counters in
®r evens. one hand, and an odd number in the other, to tell in which
hand the odd or even number is. Let the perfon mul¬
tiply the number in his right-hand by an odd number,
and the number in his left-hand by an even number,
and tell you if the fum of the produ&s added toge¬
ther be odd or even. If it be even, the even number
is in the right hand ; but if it be odd, the even num¬
ber is in the left hand.
Example.
1. Number in the? 0 T t. 1 r
right hand J 18 Io the left ?
Multipliers 3 2
54 H
>4
Their fum 68
2. Number in the 7 7 In the feft l8
right hand J '
Multipliers 3 2
21 36
< 36.
Their fum 57
To tell at 1(5. To tell, by the dial of a watch, at what hour any
what hour perfon intends to rife. Let the perfon fet the hand of
any perfon the dial to any hour he pleafes, and tell you what hour
intends to that is; and to the number of that hour you add, in
your mind, 12. Then tell him to count privately the
number of that amount upon the dial, beginning with
the next hour to that on which he propofes to rife,
and counting backwards, firft reckoning the number
of the hour at which he has placed the hand. An ex¬
ample will make this plain.
Suppofe the hour at which he intends t© rife be 8,
and that he has placed the hand at 5. You add 12 to
5, and tell him to count 17 on the dial, firfi reckon-
" 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99
Place a parcel of counters on a table, and propofe
to any one to add, alternately, a certain number of
thofe counters, till they amount to 100, but never
to add more than 10 at a time. You tell him, more¬
over, that, if you flake firft, he fhall never make the
even century, hut you will. In order to which, you
muft firft flake 1, and remembering the order of the
above feries, 11, 22, 33, &c. you conftantly add, to
what he flakes, as many as will make one more than
the numbers of that feries, that is, as will make 12,
23, 34, &c. till you come to 89, after which the other
party cannot make the century himfelf, nor prevent you
from making it.
If the other party has no knowledge of numbers,
you may flake any other number firft, under ten, pro¬
vided you take care to fecure fome one of the laft terms,
as 56, 67, 78, &c.
This deception may be performed with other num¬
bers ; and in order to fucceed, you muft divide the
number to be attained by a number that has one di¬
git more than what you can flake each time, and the
remainder will bf the number you muft firft. flake.
Obferve, that, to be fure of fuccefs, there muft be al¬
ways a remainder. Suppofe, for example, the num¬
ber to be attained is 52, making ufe of a pack of cards
inftead of counters, and that you are never to add
more than 6; then divide 52 by the next number a-
bove 6, that is, by 7, and the remainder, which is 3,
will be the number you muft flake firft; and whatever
the other (takes, you muft add as much to it as will
make it equal to the number by which you divided,
that is, 7. Therefore, if his fitft flake be 1, you muft
flake 6, &c. fo that your fecond flake will make the
heap 10, your third flake will make it 17, and fo on,
till you come to 45, when, as he cannot flake more
than 6, you muft make the number 52.
In this, as in the former cafe, if the other perfonr
has no knowledge qf numbers, you may flake any
number firft under 7 5 or you may let him flake firft,
only taking care to fecure either of the numbers 10,
17, 24, 31, &c. after which he cannot make 52, if
5 E 2 you
(k) The liquor fhould be put in a fort of jar with a narrow neck, that it may not be feen by the company;
and you fhould draw the flowers gently out, that the liquor may drop if thin, and they may have time to ac¬
quit e their colours.
(o) The fponge fhould be well cleaned immediately after the experiment.
772
To tell
what num¬
ber a per-
fon private¬
ly fixes on.
To tell the
number of
thrown up
by 3 dice,
without fee
ing them.
To4ell on
what fin¬
ger, joint,
&c. a ring
has been
privately
put.
L E G E R D
you conftantly add as many to his flake as will make
it; 7- . . *
18. A perfon privately fixing on any number, to tell him
that number. After the perfon has fixed on a number,
bid him double it and add 4 to that futn, then multiply
' the whole by 5; to the produft let him add i 2, and mul¬
tiply the amount by 10. From the fum of the whole
let him deduft 320, and tell you the remainder; from
which if you Tut off the two laft figures, the number
that remains will be that fixed on.
Example.
Let the number chofen be - - 7
Which doubled is - - 14
And 4 added to it, makes
Which multiplied by 5, gives - - 90
To which 12 being added, it is - 102
That multiplied by to, makes - - 1020
From which deducing 320, the remainder is 700
And by ftriking off the two cyphers, it becomes
the original number - - - 7
19. Three dice being thrown on a table, to tell the
number of each of them, and the order in which they fiand.
Let the perfon who has thrown the dice double the
number of that next his left hand, and add 5 to that
fum ; then multiply the amount by 5, and to the pro-
"dud? add the number of the middle die ; then let the
whole be multiplied by 10, and to that produdt add
the number of the third die. From the total let £here
be fubtradled 250, and the figures of the number that
remains will anfwer to the points of the three dice as
they (land on the table.
Example. Suppofe the points of the three dice thrown
on the table to be 4, 6, and 2,
Then the double of the firff die will be . 8
To which add .... 5
E M A I N. Sea. III.
him then add the number of the joint ; and, laftly, to
the whole join 35.
He is then to tell you the amount of the whole, from
which you are to fubtraft 35-35, and the remainder
will confift of four /gures, the rirft of which will ex-
prefs the rank in 'which the perfon (lands, the fecond
the hand (the number 1 fignilying the right hand, and
2 the left), the third number the finger, and the fourth
the joint.
Example. Suppofe the perfon who (lands the third
in order has put the ring upon the fecond joint of the
thumb of his left hand ; then
The double of the rank of the third perfon is 6
8 To which add
Multiply the fum by
To which add
And the number of the left hand
Which being multiplied by
To which add the number of the thumb
And multiply again by
Then add the number of the joint
And laftly the number
_5
10
2
67
10
670
1
671
to
6710
6747
3535
That fum multiplied by 5 will be
To which add the number of the middle die
And multiply the fum by
To that produft add the number of the third die 2
From the total 712
Subtradl 250
And the three remaining figures 264
will anfwer to the numbers on the dice, and (how the
order in which they (land.
20. Some perfin in company having put a ring privately
on one of his fingers to name the perfon, the hand, the
finger, and the joint, on which it is placed. Let a third
; perfon double the number of the order in which he
(lands who has the ring, and add 5 to that number ;
then multiply that fum by 5, and to the produdl add
10. Let him next add t to the laid number if the
ring be on the right hand, and 2 if on the left, and
multiply the whole by 10 : to this produdl he mud add
the number of the finger (counting the thumb as the
£rd finger), and multiply the.whole again by 10. Let
From which deducing
The remainder is 3212
Of which, as we have faid, the 3 denotes the third
perfop, the 2 the left hand, the r the thumb, and the
lad 2 the fecond joint.
2 r. Cover the outfide of a fmall memorandum-bookburnt
with black paper, and in one of its inficle covers make writing re.
a flap, to open feeretly, and obferve there mud be no- ftored.
thing over the flap but the black paper that covers thebook.
Mix foot with black or brown foap, with which rub
the fide of the black paper next the flap ; then wipe it
quite clean, fo that a white paper preffed againd it will
not receive any mark.
Provide a black-lead pencil that will not mark with¬
out preflxng hard on the paper. Have likewife a-
fmall box, about the fize of the memorandum-book,
and that opens on both fides, but on one of them by
a private method. Give a perfon the pencil, and a flip
of thin paper, on which he is to write what he thinks
proper: you prefent him the memorandum-book at the
fame time, that he may not write on the bare board.
You tell him to keep what he writes to himfelf, and
dire& him to byrn it on an iron plate laid on a eha-
fingdiflt of coals, and give you the aflies. You then
go into another room to fetch your magic box above
defcribed, and take with you the memorandum-book.
Having previoufly placed a paper under the flap in
the cover of the book, when he preffea hard with the
pencil,.
773
Sea. III. L E G E R D
pencil, to write on the paper, every ftroke, by means
of the ftuff rubbed on the black paper, will appear on
that under the flap. You therefore take it out, and
put it into one fide of the box.
You then return to the other room, and taking a
E M A I N.
box. This part of the deception may likewife be per¬
formed by means of a confederate.
24. ABCD, fig. 15. reprefents a fmall wooden box The threa
feven or eight inches long, two and an half broad, magic pic-
and half an inch deep; the botconv of whiph,tu,e'-
flip of blank paper, you put it into the other fide of by means of two crofs-pieces, is divided into three
the box, firewing the alhes of the burnt paper over it. equal parts. EFGH reprefents the lid, which is fa-fi„. /4j ‘
Thenfliakingtheboxforafew moments, andatthe fame ftened to the bottom by a hinge, and has in front a
time turning it dexteroufly over, you open the other fmall plate fhaped like a lock, and two fmall eyes for
fide, and (how the perfon the paper you firft put in, hooks which ferve to faften it when it is Ihut. ILM
the writing on which he will, readily acknowledge to are three fmall flexible fprings, flat, and about ^ inch
be his. long. NOP are three wooden tablets of the fame fize,
'hetranf- 2Z’ Take two guineas and two (hillings, and grind upon which are marked the figures 3, 4, and 5. The
(fable part of them away, on one fide only, fo that they may tablets are of different thicknefles, and the difference
be but of half the common thicknefs; and obfenre that is fo fmall as not to be perceived by the eye. The
they mull be quite thin at the edge : then rivet a outfide of the box is covered with (hagreen or morocco
guinea and a (hilling together. Lay one - of thefe leather, and on the infide with filk taffety ; thefe cover-
double pieces, with the (hilling upwards, on the palm ings being indifpenfibly neceflary to hide the three fmall
of your hand, at the bottom of your three firft fingers ; fprings abovementioned. Fig. 14. (hows the two
and lay the other piece, With the guinea upward, in hinges E and F bent clofe to the top of the lid ABCL); '
like manner, in the other hand. Let the company take the piece of brafs G, fimilar to a lock, being alfo
notice in which hand is the guinea, and in which the curved to the lid. A fmall brafs ftud is rivetted upon
A fmall brafs ftud u
the end of each of thefe fprings inferted into the lid„
and paffes thrbugh the curved part of each of the
hinges and the lock ; fo that on the outfide they ap¬
pear as the heads of fmall pins which fallen them upon
the lid. Thefe fmall duds will be elevated more c
(hilling. Then as you (hut your hands, you naturally
turn the pieces over; and when you open them again,
the (hilling and the guinea will appear to have chan¬
ged their places.
23. Provide a round tin-box, of the fize of a large .   
The pene- fnufF.box; and in this place eight other boxes, which lefs according to the thickneffes of the tablets, that
trauve ^.jj ^ eafily into each other, and let the lead may be (hut up in each of the partitions in which they
of them be of a fize to hold a guinea. Each of may be found placed ; fo that the tablet N elevates
thefe boxes (hould (hut with a hinge : and to the lead them more than the tablet O, and the latter lefs than,
of them there mud be a ftnall lock, that is faftened
with a fpring, but cannot be opened without a key:
and obferve that all thefe boxes mud (hut fo freely
P ; though thefe elevations are but barely fenfible to
the fight or touch, and that by a perfon accuftomed
to look at or handle them. Thus it may be eafily
that they may be all clofed at once. Place thefe boxes known in whatever order the tablets are placed, hovv-
a each other, with their tops open (fee fig. 12.)
the drawer of the table on which you make your ex¬
periments ; or, if you pleafe, in your pocket, in fuch a
manner that they cannot be difplaced,
ever carefully (hut up; and confequently the numbers-,
named as inclofed.
Give mow the box to any indifferent perfon, leave
   j t him at liberty to form with the tablets any number he
Then a(k a perfon to lend you a new guinea, and pleafes, defiring him to return the box well (hut up ; then
defire him to mark it, that it may not be changed taking the box, and determining by the touch, or rather
You take this piece in one hand, and in the other you by the eye, what order the tablets are in, it wiil be very
have another of the fame appearance; and putting your furprifing to hear you declare the number without fee-
hand in the drawer you flip the piece that is marked mg it.
into the lead box, and, (hutting them all at once, you iY. B. It will ftill be equally poflible to difeover the.
take them out. Then (howing the piece you have in number, though the tablets (hould be returned with
your hand, and which the company fuppofe to be the the bottom upwards, or even though one (hould be
fame that was marked, you pretend to make it pais withdrawn in order to defeat your defign; particular-
through the box, and dexteroufly convey it away. ly if care has been taken to make the ftuds remain even
You then prefent the box, for the fpedtators do not with the plates when a number is omitted,
yet know there are more than one, to any perfon in 25. To difeover any particular counter which has ieen The nume°
company ; who, when he opens it, finds another, and fecretlyplaced within a box that turns upon it.—This table,rical tabJe’
another, till he comes to the laft, but that he cannot which is made of wood, is reprefented by A, fig. 16.
open vyithout the key (fee fig. 13.) which youthen It is of an hexagonal (hape, and about three, or four
give him, and retiring to a diftant part of the room, inches diameter. For the fake of neatnefs in appear-
you tell him to take out the guinea himfelf, and fee if ance,. a proportionably fized pillar with a foot is fixed
it be that he marked. to it. Round a centre there turns a fmall round box
This deception may be made more furprifing, by B of about | inch diameter in the infide, the lid of
putting the key into the fnuff-box of one of the com- which takes off at B. At the bottom of this box,,
yany ; which you may do by afleing him for a pinch of near the circumference in the infide, is fixed a brkfa
his (huff, and at the fame time conceal the key, which pin to fit a hole made in a flat ivory counter (hown
muil be very fmall, among the fnuff: and when the at 3, fig. 17. The pin and counter are reprefented.
perfon who is to open the box a(ks for the key, you in fig. 18. which is a flat view of fig. j 6 with the
tell him that one of the company has it in his fnuff- lid of the box B taken off. Oppofite to the. pin d*.
774
LEGERDEMAIN. Sea. Ill
in the fame figure, D reprefents a fine dot defigned
as a fecret mark on the outfide of the box, which
ferves always as a guide to the number of the counter
privately placed in the infide of the box, as is after¬
wards particularly explained. Upon one of the cor¬
ners of the table is an ivory mark C, fig. 16. and 18.
which ferves to place the fpot a upon the counters in
its proper pofition. See fig. ry. There are 12 coun¬
ters fitted to the box B, marked 10, 20, &c. as far
as 120, on the middle of each. On each of thefe
•counters is the hole l, fig. 17. and 18. which goes over
the pin in the bottom of the box; and on one fide of
this hole a red or black fpot is placed in the following
manner. When n° 10 is put into the box, the fpot
muft be fo far to the left hand of the hole, that when
it is brought to the mark C, fig. 18. the hole b will be
oppofite to the fide marked I. When n° 20 is put
in, the fpot being brought to the mark U will carry
the hole to the corner marked 2. When n° 30 is put
in, and the fpot brought oppofite to C, the hole will
be brought againft the fide marked 3, as is fhown in
the figure, and fo on for the reft. Therefore, as op¬
pofite to the brafs pin, or hole in the counter on the
outfide of the box B, there is a fecret mark D already
mentioned, this muft ferve as an index to the‘number
contained in the box, according as it is oppofite to a
fide or corner of the table.
Give now the table with the box and the 12 coun¬
ters to any perfon, and defire him to put one of the
counters fecretly into the box, keeping the reft to
himfelf; and, after having placed the hole over the
pin in the box, to place particularly, by turning the box
round, the fpot a againft the mark C on the table. Let
him then cover the box, give you the table, and keep
the counters to himfelf. Obferve then privately what
-fide or corner the fecret outfide mark D Hands againft,
reckon the tens accordingly, and tell him the num¬
ber.
26. To draw out of the well with a bucket any one of
tveft013^ C four ^Hmrs which have been previoujly mixed and put into
it.—Provide two tin cylinders of feven or eight inches
height; the diameter of the largeft, reprefented by AB
fig. 19. to be four inches, and that of the leaft, CD,
two inches. Place the fmall one within the larger,
and conned them together by foldering to them tour
tin partitions, making the equal fpaces e,f g, h. Turn
a piece of wood three inches thick, hollow withinfide,
and lined with tin, of which a fe&ion is given, fig. 20.
Into this the exterior cylinder fhould be clofely fitted
at a and b. Another circle of wood (of which a fedion is
given fig. 21.), hollov/ed at a, b, and c, is alfo to be
procured, and which may cover exadly the fpace be¬
tween the two cylinders ; and, laftly, let the whole be
eonftruded in fuch a manner, that when thefe three fe-
parate pieces are placed together, they may reprefent
a well, as in fig. 22. The two tyafs or wooden pil¬
lars A A, with the axis and handle C, ferve to let down
and draw up a fmall glafs bucket B, an inch and an
half in diameter. Make alfo four tin refervoirs of the
fame height with the cylinder, and fo thaped as to
fill the four fpaces e, f, g, h, (fig. 19.) which muft be
well clofed at their extremities B and C. On the top
of each make a fmall hole about the tenth part of an
inch diameter, and folder at the bafe C a fmall tube
D, the end of which ftiould be bent towards the infide
of the well when the refervoir is placed in it, Solder
on the top of each refervoir a fmall fpring lever and
prop ABDE, fig. 23. This fpring will ferve always to
prefs the end of the lever D down upon the hole at
the top of the refervoir B ; and in order to cover it
more perfe&ly, a fmall piece of leather is to be glued
on to the end of the lever D. Laftly, a fmall peg or
ftud C is placed at the end of each of the levers, and
which muft be clofe to the under part of the wooden
circle which covers the refervoirs. To conceal thefe
ftuds, and at the fame time to" be able to prefs upon
them with the fingers, circular apertures, as fhown in
fig. 21. muft be made in the piece of wood, the top
covered with a piece of vellum, and the whole neatly
painted with oil-colour.
If now you plunge one of thefe refervoirs perpendi¬
cularly into any liquor, in prelfing on the ftud, fo as
to uncover the hole at the top, it will be filled with
the liquor in proportion to the depth to which it is
immerged ; and as long as the lever continues to prefs
upon the hole by means of the fpring, the liquor can¬
not run out for want of air, though it will do fo the
moment the ftud is prefled upon and the air admitted.
If the refervoir is properly placed, then the liquor
will flow out of it into the glafs-bucket when let down
to a proper depth.
Fill now the four refervoirs with the four different
liquors; putting them in their places, and covering
them with the circular top. Take a quantity of the
fame liquors, mix them well together, and pour the
whole into the well; after which you may draw out
any one which the company defires, by letting down
the bucket, and prefling fecretly upon the ftud be¬
longing to the refervoir which contains it, and which
will thus difeharge the liquor it contains.
27. Provide a fmall tin mortar, that is double, as The refufiai
A (fig. 8.), whofe bottom B turns round on an axis, tated flow-
by means of a fpring which communicates with theer>
piece C. There muft be a hollow fpace under the rri^vT
falfe bottom. To the under fide of the bottom ^ *
fallen, by a thread of fine filk, a flower, with its ilalk
and leaves.
Then take a flower that exaftly refembles the other,
and plucking it from the ftalk, and all the leaves from
each other, put them into the mortar, and pound them
with a fmall peftle; after which you fhow the mortar
to the company, that they may fee the parts are all
bruifed.
Then taking the mortar up in your hands, you hold
it over the flame of a lamp or candle, by whofe warmth
the flower is fuppofed to be reftored; and at the fame
time prefling the piece at C, the bottom will turn
round, the bruifed parts defeend into the fpace under
the bottom, and the whole flower will be at top : you
then put your hand into the .mortar, and eafily break¬
ing the filk thread, which may be very fhort as well as
fine, you take the flower out and prefent it to the com¬
pany. _ _
There is an experiment fimilar to this, in which a
live bird is concealed at the bottom of the mortar, and
one that is dead is pounded in it; after which, by the
motion of the bottom, the live bird is fet at liberty.
But furely the pounding a bird in a mortar, though it
be dead, muft produce, in perfons of any delicacy,
more difguft than entertainment.
28.‘.
Iea.Iir. L E G £ R
he lumi- 28. Procure a tin box ABCD (fig. i.)about eight
.iious oracle. jnc}je3 high, four wide, and two deep, and let it be
I fixed on the wooden Iknd E. On two of the infides
let there be a groove FG ; and in the front an open¬
ing I, three inches wide and one high.
At the back of the box lev there be a little tin-door,
that opens outward, by which two wax candles M
may be put in. Let the top of the box have a cover
of the fame metal, in which there are feveral holes,
and which may be taken off at pleafure.
Provide a double glafs OP (fig. 2.) conftrufted in
the fame manner as that in the laft experiment. On
*ne of its fides you are to pafte a black paper, the
length of which is to be divided into three parts, and
the breadth into fifteen; in every two ®f thefe fifteen
divifions you cut out letters, which will .make in the
whole three anfwers to thr.ee queftions that may be
propofed. On the other fide of the glafs pafte a very
thin paper, and to the top fallen a finall cord, by which
they may be made to rife or defcend in the groove
FG. . •
Then take a flip of pafteboard RS (fig. 3.), one
inch and a half wide and three inches long, which is
to be divided into fifteen equal parts fimilar to thofe
of the paper OP, and cut out fpaces, as in the figure,
fo that this paper, Aiding horizontally before OP, will
either cover or conceal the letters cut in that.
This pafteboard is to Hide between two brafs wires,
and is to be fattened to one fide of the box, by a firing
that communicates with a finall brafs fpring ; and to
the other fide, by a ftring faftened to the box by a
fmall piece of wax, fo fituated that the ftring may be
eafily fet at liberty by the heat of the candles placed
i& the’box.
•Take a parcel of cards, and write on them different
queftions, three of which are to correfpond with the
anfwers on the glafs. Shuffle thefe cards, and let a
perfon draw any one of the three queftions. Then by
railing the glafs you bring the anfwer againft the hole
D E M AIN. 7:
in the front of the box. You next place the candles
in the box, the heat of which will melt the wax that
holds the paper RS, which being then drawn by the
fpring, the anfwer will be vifiljle; and in proportion as
the compofition between the glalfea becomes diluted
by the increafe of the heat, the letters will become
more ftrongly illuminated.
The letters cut in the paper may be made to anfwer
feveral different queftions, as has been explained in
other experiments; and the whole parcel of cards may
confift of queftions that may be anfwered by one or
other of the three divifions in the paper.
29. Make a tin box ABCD (fig. 4.), with a co- \ flower
ver M, that takes off. Let this box be fupported by produced
the pedeltal FGHI, of the fame metal, and on which
there is a little door L. In the front of this box isa' CS*
to be a gfafs O.
In a groove, at a fmall diftance from O, place a
double glafs of the fame fort with that in the laft ex¬
periment. Between the front and back glaffes place a
fmall upright tin tube fupported by the crofs-piece R.
Let there be alfo a fmall chafingdifh placed in the
pedeftal FGHI. The box is to be open behind Yoa
privately place a flower (qJ in the tin tube R; and
prefenting one that refembles it to any perfon (r), de¬
fire him to burn it on the coals in the chating-diftr.
You then ftrew fpme powder over the coals, which
may be fuppofed to aid the afhes in producing the
flower ; and then put the chafingdifh in the pedeftaL
under the box. the heat by degrees melts .the com¬
pofition between the glaffes, the flower will gradually
appear; but when the chafingdifh is taken away, and
the power of the afhes is fuppofed to be removed, the
flower foon difappears.
For entertaining experiments, ‘illufions, &c. of a
philofophical nature, fee the articles Acoustics,
Catoptrics, Chromatics, Dioptrics, Electri¬
city, Hydrostatics, Magnetism, Pyrotechnics,
&c.
LEG
LEG
, . LEGER-line, in mufic, §ne added to the ftaff of
five lines, when the afeending or defeending notes run
very high or low : there are fometimes many of thefe
lines both above and below the ftaff, to the number of
four or five.
LEGHORN, anciently caHed*Z,$«ra/.r Portus, but
by the modern Italians Livorno, a handfome town of
Italy, in the duchy of Tufcany, and a free port, about
30 miles fouth weft from Florence, in the territory of
Pifa. The ^ilf defe& of the harbour is its being too
fhallow for ll^e fhips. Cofmo I. had this town in
exchange for Sarzana, from the Genoefe; and it is the
only fea-poft, in the duchy. It was then but a mean
unhealthy place; but is now very handfome, and well-
built, with broad, ftraight, parallel ftreets. it is alfo
well fortified ; but wants good water, which muft be
brought from Pifa, 14 miles diftant. It is about 2
milts in cirquit, and the general form of it is fquare.
Part of it has the convenience of canals; one of which
is 5 miles in length, and, joining the Arno, merchan-
dife and paffengers are thus conveyed to Pifa. The
port, confiding of two havens, one for the duke’s gal¬
leys, and the other for merchant (hips, is furrounded
with a double mole, above a mile and a half in length,
and defended, together with the town, by a good ci¬
tadel and 1 2 forts. Roman Catholics, Jews, Greeks,
Armenians, Mahometans, and even the Englifti facto¬
ry, are indulged in.the public exercife of their religion;
but other Proteftants muft be fatisfied with the pri¬
vate. The irade carried "on here is very great, and
moft of it paffes through the hands of the Jews.
Though only two piaftres, or feudi, are paid for every
bale.
(qj This flower muft not be placed fo near as to make h in the leaft degree vifible.
(r) You may prefent feveral flowers, and let the perlOn chpole any one of them. In this cafe, while he
burning the flower, you fetch the box f^dm another apartment, and at the fame time put in a correfponding
flower, which will make the experiment (till more furprifing,
Leghorn*
LEG [ 776 1 LEG
“Leghorn bale, great or (mail, imported or exported, yet the
I! duties on all provifions and commodities brought from
» eg’on' , the continent to the town are very heavy. The num¬
ber of.the inhabitants is faid to be about 45,000; and
one third of thefe are Jews, who live in a particular
■quarter, but without any mark of diftinftion, and have
a fine fynagogue. They have engrofled the coral ma-
nufa£tory, have a confiderable trade, and pofiefs the
chief riches of the place. The garrifon confifts of
2000 men. The walks on the ramparts are very a-
greeable. There is good anchorage in the road ; but
Ihips riding there are much expofed to the weather
and the Barbary corfairs. The number of Englilh
families in Leghorn are about 36; they are much fa¬
voured by the government, and carry on a good trade.
The power of the inquifition is limited to ecclefiaftical
matters and Roman Catholics. There are a great
many Turkilh Haves here, brought in by the duke’s
galleys, who are often fent out on a cruize againft the
corfairs of Barbary. The lighthoufe Hands on a rock
in the fea; near which is the Lazaretto, where qua¬
rantine is performed. Another fource, from which
the duke draws a great revenue, is the monopoly of
brandy, tobacco, and fait; but that, with the heavy
duties, makes provifions dear. The Turks, who are not
Haves, live in a particular quarter, near that of the Jews.
The common proftitutes alfo have a particular place
affigned them, out of which they mull not be feen,
without leave from the commilfary. The number of
the rowers in the galleys, whether Turkilh Haves, cri¬
minals, or volunteers, are about 2000. In the area be¬
fore the darfena or inner harbour, is a fine ftatue of
Duke Ferdinand, with four Turkilh Haves, in bronze,
chained to the pedeftal. The ducal palace is one of
the finell flruftures in the town, and the ordinary refi-
dence of the governor. Leghorn is the fee of a bi-
fhop, and has a noble cathedral; but the other chur¬
ches are not remarkable. E. Long. 11. o. N. Lat. 43.
3°-
LEGIO VII. Gemina, (anc. geog.) a town or
flation of that legion in the Allures. Now Leon, ca¬
pital of the province of that name in Spain. W. Long.
6. 5. Lat. 43.—Another Legio, a town of Galilee ;
from which Jerome determines the diftances of the
places in Galilee ; not a bare encampment, though
the name might originally be owing to that circum-
ftance; it lay 15 miles to the well of Nazareth, be¬
tween mount Tabor and the Mediterranean. Now
thought to be Legune.
LEGION, in Roman antiquity, a body of foot
which confided of different numbers at different periods
of time. The word comes from the Latin legere, to
choofe ; becaufe, when the legions were raifed, they
made choice of fuch of their youth as were mod pro¬
per to bear arms.
In the time of Romulus the legion confided of 3000
foot and 300 horfe ; though, after the reception of the
Sabines, it was augmented to 4000. In the war with
Hannibal, it was raifed to 5000, after this it funk to
4000 01 4500 ; this was the number in the time of
Polybius. The number of legions kept in pay toge¬
ther, differed according to times and occafions. Du¬
ring the confular date four legions were fitted up every
year, and divided betwixt the two confuls; yet we
meet with the number of 16 or 18, as the fituation of
N° 180. '
affairs required. Augudus maintained a Handing ar¬
my of 23 or 25 legions ; but this number in after times
is feldom found. The different legions borrowed their
names from the order in which they were raifed; hence
we read of legio prima, fecunda, tertia : but as there
might be many prima, fecunda, tertia, &c. they were
furnamed from the emperors, as Augujla, Claudiana,
Galbiana, Flavia, Ulpia, Trajana, Antoniana, &c. or
from the provinces which had been conquered by
their means, as Parthica, Scythica, Gallica, Arabica,
&c. or from the deities under whofe protection the
commanders had particularly placed themfelves, as Mi-
nervia, Apollinaris, See. or from the region where they
were quartered, as Cretenjis, Cyreriaica, Britannica, See.
or from particular accidents, as adjutrix, martia, fulmi-
vatrix, rapax, viSlrix.
Each legion was divided into 10 cohorts, each co¬
hort into 1 o companies, and each company into two
centuries. The chief commander of the legion was
called legatus, i. e. lieutenant.
The ilandards borne by the legions were various ; at
fird, the dandard was a wolf, in honour of Romulus’s
nurfe ; afterwards an hog, which animal was ufually
facrificed at the conclufion of a treaty, to indicate that
war is undertaken with a view to peace ; fometimes a
minotaur, to remind the general of his duty of fecrecy,
of which the labyrinth was an emblem, and confe-
quently the minotaur ; a horfe was alfo borne, alfo a
boar ; and Marius, we are told, was the fird who chan¬
ged all thefe for the eagle.
LEGISLATOR, a lawgiver, or perfon who eda-
blifhes the polity and laws of a date. Such was Mo-
fes, among the Jews; Lycurgus, among the Lacede¬
monians, &c. See Mosaic Law.
The fird laws amongd the Athenians feem to have
been thofe of Thefeus ; for* what we can find earlier
than this period is involved in fable. After Thefeua
came Draco the Archon, whofe laws were faid, for
their feverity, to have been written with blood : by his
laws every offence was punifhed with death; fo that
dealing an apple, and betraying their country, were
treated as equal crimes. Thefe laws were afterwards
repealed by Solon, except fuch as related to murder;
By way of diftinftion, Draco’s laws were called o^/noi,
and Solon’s No^oi. The laws of Solon were in a great
meafure fufpended during the ufutpation of Pifidratus;
but, after the expulfion of his family, were revived with
fome additions by Clidhenes. After this, the form of
government was again changed, fird by the four hun¬
dred, and afterwards by the thirty tyrants ; but thefe
dorms being over, the ancient laws were again redored
in the Archonihip of Euclides, and others edablilhed
at the indance of Diodes, Aridophon, and, lad of all,
of Demetrius the Phalerian. This is a ffiort flcetch of
the hidoiy of the Athenian legiflation, before that
date fubmitted to the Roman yoke. But many laws
were ena&ed by the fuffrages of the people on parti¬
cular exigencies ; the decrees of the fenate continued
to have the force of laws no longer than a year. If a
new law was to be propofed to the affembly, it was ne-
ceffary to write it upon a white tablet, and fix it up
fome days before the meeting, led their judgment
fliould be caught by furprife. The laws were careful¬
ly revifed every year; and if any of them, from a
change of circumdancea, were found unfuitable or
pre-
Legion,
Legiflator
LEI [ 777 1 LEI
J Legitima- prejudicial, they were repealed: This was called
tion r«» »o^«v, becaufe the fufFrages were given
leibnitz by holding up of hands. The firft laws amongft the
Grecians were unwritten and compofed in verfe,
that the common people mfght with more eafe commit
them to memory. Solon penned his laws upon wood¬
en tablets, called ; and fome authors with great
probability affert, that they were written in the manner
called B«reotr,So*, from left to right, and from right a-
gain to left, in the fame manner as oxen walk the fur¬
rows in plowing thus,
EKAIOS AP
V023WUX
It was againft the law for any perfon to erafe a decree,
and certain perfons called Tfapy-aUs, were appointed
to prevent any corruption ; whofe bufinefs it was alfo
to tranfcribe the old and enter the new ones.
At Rome the people were in a great meafure their
own legiflators ; though Solon may be faid, in fome
fenfe, to have been their legiflator, as the decemviri,
who were created for the making of laws, borrowed a
;great number from thofe of Solon. See Lex.
With us the legiflative power is lodged in the king,
lords, and commons aifembled in parliament. See Law
and Parliament.
LEGITIMATION, an aft whereby illegitimate
children are rendered legitimate. See Bastard.
LEGITIME, in Scots law, that (hare of the move-
able efftfts belonging to a huiband and wife, which
upon the hufband’s death falls to the children.
LEGUMEN, or Pod, in botany ; a fpecies of feed-
veffel which has two valvesor external openings inclofing
a number of feeds that are faftened along one future on¬
ly. In this laft circumftance the feed-velfcl in queftion
differs from that termed by botanills ftliqua, in which
the inclofed feeds are faflened alternately to both the
futures or joinings of the pod.
The feed-veffel of all the pea bloom or butterfly-
fhaped flowers, the diadelphia of Linnseus, is of this
pod kind. Such, for inflance, is the feed-veffel of the
pea, vetch, lupine, and broom.
LEGUMINOUS, an appellation given to all plants
whofe fruit is a legumen.
LEIBNITZ (Godfrey William-de), an eminent
mathematician and philofopher, was born at Leipfic
in Saxony in 1646. At the age of 15 years, he applied
himfelf to mathematics at Leipfic and Jena; and in
1663, maintained a thefis de Principiis Individuationis.
The year following he was admitted matter of arts.
He read with great attention the Greek philofophers ;
„and endeavoured to reconcile Plato with Ariftotle, as
he afterwards did Ariftotle with Des Cartes. But the
ftudy of the law was his principal view; in which fa¬
culty he was admitted bachelor in 1665. The year
following he would have taken the degree of doftor;
but was refufed it on pretence that he was too young,
though in reality becaufe he had raiftd htmfelf fcveral
enemies by rejecting the principles of Ariftotle and the
fchoolmtn. Upon this he went to Altorf, where he
maintained a thefis de Cafilus Perplex is, with fuch ap-
plaufe, that he had the degree of dodlor conferred on
him. He might have fettled to great advantage at
Paris ; but as it would have been neceffary to have
embraced the Roman Catholic religion, he refufed all
offers. In 1673, be went to England ; where he be¬
came acquainted with Mr Oldenburg, fecretary of
Vol. IX. Past II.
the royal fociety, and Mr John Collins, fellow of LeAmt-
that fociety. In 1676, he returned to England, zian- ,
and thence went into Holland, in order to proceed to V"‘‘”N
Hanover, where he propofed to fettle. Upon his ar¬
rival there, he applied himfelf to enrich the duke’s li¬
brary with the beft books of all kinds. The duke dy¬
ing in 1679, his fucceffor Erneft Auguftus, then bi-
ftiop of Ofnaburgh, fhowed our author the fame favour
as his predeceffor had done, and ordered him to write
the hiftory of the houfe of Brunfwick. He undertook
it, and travelled over Germany and Italy in order to
colleft materials. The eleftor of Brandenburgh, af¬
terwards king of Pruffia, founded an academy at Ber¬
lin by his advice ; aad he was appointed perpetual
prefident, though his affairs would not permit him to
refide conftantly at Berlin. He proje&ed an academy
of the fame kind at Drefden; and this defign would
have been exrcuted, if it had not been prevented by the
confufions in Poland. He was engaged likewife in a
fcheme for an univerfal language. His writings had
long before made him famous over all Europe. Be-
fide the office of privy-counfellor of juftice, which the
ele&or of Hanover had given him, the emperor ap¬
pointed him in 1711 aulic counfellor ; and the czar
made him privy counfellor of juttice, with a penfion of
1000 ducats. He undertook at the fame time the
eftaliihment of an academy of fcience at Vienna;
but the plague prevented the execution of it. How¬
ever, the emperor, as a mark of his favour, fettled a
penfion on him of 2000 florins, and promifed him ano¬
ther of 4000 if he would come and refide at Vienna.
He would have complied with this offer, but he was
prevented by death in 1716. His memory was fo
Itrong, that in order to fix any thing in it, he had no
more to do but to write it once ; and he could even in
his old age repeat Virgil exa&ly. He profeffed the
Lutheran religion, but never went to feimon ; and up¬
on his death bed, his coachman, who was his favour¬
ite fervant, defiring him to fend for a minifter, he re¬
fufed, faying, he had no need of one. Mr Locke and
Mr Molyneux plainly feem to think that he was not fo
gteat a man as he had the reputation of being. Fo¬
reigners did for fome time aferibe to him the ho¬
nour of an invention, of which he received the
firft hints from Sir Ifaac Newton’s letters, who
had difeovered the method of fluxions in 1664 and
1665. But it would be tedious to give the leader
a detail of the difpute concerning the right to that in¬
vention.
LEIBNITZIAN philofophy, or the philofophy of
Leibnitz, is a fyttem of phtlolophy formed and pub-
liihed by its author in the iatt century, partly in emen¬
dation of the Caitelian, and partly in oppolition to the
Newtonian. The bafis of Mr Leibnitz’s philofophy
was that of Des Cartes; for he retained the Cai tefian
fubtile matter, with the univerfal plenitude and vor¬
tices ; and teprefented the iiniverfe as a machine that
fhould proceed for ever by the laws of mechanifm, in
the moil peifedt ftate, by an abfolute inviolable necef-
fity, though in fome things he differs from Des Car¬
tes. After Sir Ifaac Newton’s philofophy was pub-
lilhed in 1687, he printed an effay on the celeftial mo¬
tions, A6t. Eiud. 1689, where he admits of the circu¬
lation ot the ether with Des Cartes, and of gravity
with Sir Ifaac Newton; though he has not reconciled
thefe principles, nor Ihown how gravity arofe from the
S F impulfe
LEI [ 778 ] LEI
Lei'bnit- impulfe of this ether, nor how to account for the pla-
ziag- | netary revolutions, and the laws of the planetary mo-
^ v tions in their refpeftive orbits. That which he calls
the harmonical circulation, is the angular velocity of any
one planet, which decreafes from the perihelium to the
aphelium in the fame proportion as its diftance from
the fun increafes; but this law does not apply to the
motions of the different planets compared together ;
becaufe the velocities of the planets, at their mean di-
ftances, decreafe in the fame proportion as the fquare
roots of the numbers expreffing thofe diftances. Be-
fides, his fyitem is defective, as it does not reconcile
the circulation of the ether with the free motions of
the comets in all direftipns, or with the obliquity of
the planes of the planetary orbits ; nor refolve other
objections to which the hypothefis of the plenum and
vortices is liable. Soon after the period juft mention¬
ed, the difpute commenced concerning the invention of
the method of fluxions, which led Mr Leibnitz to take
a very decided part in oppofuion to the philofophy of
Sir Ifaac tyewton. From the wifdom and goodnefs of
the Deity, and his principle of a fufficientreafon.hecon-
cluded that the univerfe was a perfedt work, or the belt
thatcouldpoffiblyhavebeen made; andthatother things,
which were incommodious and evil, were permitted as
neceffary confequences of what was beft : the material
■fyftem, confidered as a perfeft machine, can never fall
into diforder, or require to be fet right ; and to fup-
pofe that God interpofes in it, is to leflen the fkill of
the author, and the perfection of his work. He ex-
prefsly charges an impious tendency on the philofophy
of Sir Ifaac Newton, becaufe he afferts, that the fabric
of the univerfe and courfe of nature could not continue
for ever in its prefent ftate, but would require, in pro-
cefs of time, to be re-eftablifhed or renewed by the
hand of its Former. The perfection of the univerfe,
by reafon of which it is capable of continuing for ever
by mechanical laws in its prefent ftate, led Mr Leib¬
nitz to diftinguifh between the quantity of motion
and the force of bodies ; and, whilft he owns, in oppo-
iition to Des Cartes, that the former varies, to main¬
tain that the quantity of force is for ever the fame in
the univerfe, and to meafure the forces of bodies by the
fquares of their velocities.
This fyftem. alfo requires the utter exclufion of
atoms, or of any perfe&ly hard and inflexible bodies.
The advocates of it alledge, that according to the law
©f continuity, as they call a law of nature invented for
the fake of the theory, all changes in nature are pro¬
duced by infenfible and infinitely fmall degrees; fo that
no body can, in any cafe, pafs from motion to reft, or
from reft to motion, without palling through all pof-
fible intermediate degrees of motion: whence they con¬
clude, that atoms or perfedly hard bodies are impof-
fible : becaufe if two of them Ihould meet with equal
motions, in contrary directions, they would neceffarily
ftop at once, in violation of the law of continuity.
Mr Leibnitz propofes two principles as the founda¬
tion of all our knowledge ; the firft, that it is impof-
fible for a thing to be and not to be at the fame time,
which, he fays, is the foundation of fpeculative truth :
the other is, that nothing is without a fufficient rea¬
fon why it fhould be fo rather than otherwife; and by
this principle, according to him, we make a tranfition
from abftrafted truths to natural philofophy. Hence
he concludes, that the mind is naturally determined, Leibnitz
in its volitions and elections, by the greateft apparent zian-
good, and that it is impoflible to make a choice be-
tween things perfectly like, which he calls indifeern-
ibles; from whence he infers, that two things perfect¬
ly like could not have been produced even by the Dei¬
ty : and he rejeCls a vacuum, partly becaufe the parts
of it muft be fuppofed perfectly like to each other.
For the fame reafon he alfo rejeCts atoms, and all fi-
milar particles of matter, to each of which, though
divifible in injinitum, he aferibes a monad (ACt. Lipfiae
1698, p.435.) or aCtive kind of principle, endued,
as he fays, with perception and appetite. The effence
of fubltance he places in aCtion or activity, or, as he
expreffes it, in fomething that is between aCting and
the faculty of aCting. He affirms abfolute reft to be
impoffible, and holds motion, or a-fort of nifus, to be
effential to all material fubftances. Each monad he
deferibes as reprefentative of the whole univerfe from
its point of fight; and after all, in one of his letters
he tells us, that matter is not a fubftance, but a fub-
Jlantiatum, or phenomena bien fonde. He frequently ur¬
ges the comparifon between the effeCfs of oppofite mo¬
tives on the mind, and of weights placed in the feales
of a balance, or of powers aCting upon the fame body
with contrary directions. His learned antagonift Dr
Clarke denies that there is a fimilitude between a ba¬
lance moved by weights, and a mind aCtihg upon the
view of certain motives; becaufe the one is entirely
paffive, and the other not only is aCted upon, but acts
alfo. The mind, he owns, is purely paffive in recei¬
ving the impreffion of the motive, which is only a per¬
ception, and is not to be confounded with the power
of aCting after, or in confequence of, that perception.
The difference between a man and a machine does not
confift only in fenfation and intelligence, but in this
power of aCting alfo. The balance, for want of this
power, cannot move at all when the weights are equal;
but a free agent, he fays, when there appear two per¬
fectly alike reafonable ways of aCting, has ftill within
itfelf a power of choofing ; and it may have ftrong and
very good reafons not to forbear.
The tranflator of Molheim’s Ecclefiaftical Hiftory
obferves, that the progrefs of Arminianifm has de¬
clined in Germany and feveral parts of Switzerland, in
confequence of the influence of the Leibnitzian and
Wolfian philofophy. Leibnitz and Wolf, by attacking
that liberty of indifference, which is fuppofed to im¬
ply the power of aCting not only without, but againft,,
motives, ftruck, he fays, at the very foundation of the
Arminian fyftem. He adds, that the greateft poffible
perfection of the univerfe, confidered as the ultimate
end of creating goodnefs, removes from the doCtrine
of predeftination thofe arbitrary procedures and nar¬
row views with which the Calvinifts are fuppofed to
have loaded it, and gives it a new, a more pleafing,
and a more philofophical afpeCt. As the Leibnitzian*
laid down this great end as the fupreme objeCt of God’s
univerfal dominion, and the hope to which all his dif-
penfations are direCtcd; fo they concluded, that if this
end was propofed, it muft be accompliftied. Hence
the doftrine of neceffity, to fulfil the purpofes of a pre¬
deftination founded in wifdom and goodnefs ; a ne¬
ceffity, phyfical and mechanical in the motions of ma¬
terial and inanimate things, but a neceffity moral and
fpiritual
LEI [ 779 ] LEI
Leiccfter. fpintual in the voluntary determinations of intelligent
' 1 » beings, in confequence of propellent motives,4which
produce their effefts with certainty, though thefe ef-
fefts be contingent, and by no means the offspring of
an abfolute and effentially immutable fatality. Thefe
principles, fays the fame writer, are evidently applicable
to the main doctrines of Calvinifm ; by them predefti*
nation is confirmed, though modified with refpett to
its reafons and its end ; by them irrefiftible grace (ir-
refiftible in a moral fenfe) is maintained upon the hy-
pothefis of propellent motives and a moral neceffity :
.the perfevetancc of the faints is alfo explicable upon
the fame fyflem, by a feries of moral caufes producing
a feries of moral effe&s.
LEICESTER, the capital of a county of the fsme
name in England, upon the river Leire, now called
Soare. From its fuuation on the Fofle-way,'and the
many coins and antiquities difcovered here, it feems
probable that it was a place of fome note in the time
of the Romans. In the time of the Saxons it was a
bifhop’s fee, and afterwards fo repaired and fortified
by Edelflida, that it became, according to Matthew
Paris, a moft wealthy place, having 32 parifh-churches ;
but in Henry the Second’s reign it was in a manner,
quite ruined, for joining in rebellion againft him with
Robert earl pf Leicefter. In the reign of Edward III.
however, it began to recover by the favour of his fon
Henry Plantagenet, duke and earl of Lancafter, who
founded and endowed a collegiate church and hofpital
here. It is a borough and corporation, governed by
a mayor, recorder, tteward, bailiff, 24 aldermen, 48
common-council men, a folicitor, a town*clerk, and
two chamberlains, It had its firft charter from king
John. The freemen are exempt from paying toll in
all the fairs and markets of England. It has three
hofpitals, that mentioned above, built by Henry Plan¬
tagenet duke of Lancafter, and capable of fupporting
106 aged people decently; another ereded and en¬
dowed in the reign of Henry VIII. for 12 poor lazars;
and another for fix poor widows. The caftle was a
prodigious large building, where the duke of Lan¬
cafter kept his court. The hall and kitchen ftill re¬
main entire, of which the former is very fpacious and
lofty ; and in the tower over one of the gate-ways is
kept the magazine for the county militia. There was a
famous monaftery here, anciently called, from its fitua-
tion in the meadows, St Mary cle Pratis or Prez. In
thefe meadows is now the courfe for the horfe-race.
It is faid that Richard III. who was killed at the battle
of Bofworth, lies interred in St Margaret’s church.
The chief bufincfs of Leicefter is the ftocking-trade,
which hath produced in general to the amount of
60,0001. a year. In a parliament held here in the
reign of Henry V. the firft law for the burning of
heretics was made, levelled againft the followers of
Wickliffe, who was redtor of Lutterworth in this
county, and where his pulpit is faid ftill to remain.
Tte town fullered greatly in the civil wars, by two
fiegf a upon the back of one another. It has given
the title of earl to feveral noble families. The prefent
earl was created in 1784, and is the marquis of Town-
fhend’s fon. Its market on Saturday is one of the
greateft in England for provifions, efpecially for corn
and cattle ; and it has four fairs in the year.
Le icestershire, an inland county of England, in Leicefter-
form almoft circular. It has Nottinghamftiire and
Deibylhire to the north; Rmlandfhire and Lincoln- Le‘g in‘f
(hue on the eaft ; Warwicklhire on the weft, from
which it is parted by the Roman military way called
P/alling-Jlreet; and by Northamptonfliire on the fouth;
and is about 170 miles in circumfvence. As it lies
at a great diftance from the fea, and is free from
bogs and marfhes, the air rs fweet and wholefome. It
is a champaign country in general, and abundantly-
fertile in corn and grafs, being watered by feveral ri¬
vers, as the Soure, or Sare, which paffes through the
middle of it, and abounds in excellent falmon and other
fifti; the Wreke, Trent, Eye, Senfe, Auker, and
Aven. Thefe rivers being moftly navigable, greatly
facilitate the trade of the county. In fome parts
there is a great fcarcity of fuel, both wood and coal;
but in the more hilly parts there is plenty of both,
together with great flocks of ftieep. Befides wheat,
barley, oats, and peafe, it produces the beft beans in
England. They grow fo tall and luxuriant in fome
places, particularly about Barton in the Beans, that
they look, towards the harveft-time, like a foreft ; and
the inhabitants eat them not only when they are green,
as in other places, but all the year round ; for which
reafon rheir neighbours nickname them lean-lellies.
They have plenty of very good wool, of which they
not only make great quantities of ftockings, but fend
a great quantity unmanufa&ured into other parts of
England. They make great profit of their corn and
pulfe ; and likewife breed great numbers of coach and
dray horfes, moft of the gentlemen being graziers;
and it is not uncommon to rent grafs-farms from
500 1. to 20001. a-year. It is in the midland circuit,
and diocefe of Lincoln ; and fends four members to
parliament, two for Leicefter, and two for the county.
LEIGH (Sir Edward), a very learned Engliih-
man, was born at Shawell in Leicefterftiire, and edu¬
cated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. He was a member
of the long parliament, and one of the members of the
houfe of commons who were appointed to fit in the af-
fembly of divines. He was afterwards colonel of a re¬
giment for the parliament; but in 1648 was numbered
among the Prelbyterians who were turned out, and
in December he was imprifoned. From this period to
the Reftoration he employed himfelf in writing a con-
fiderable number of learned and valuable books, which
fhowed profound learning, a knowledge of the lan¬
guages, and much critical fagacity ; and of which a
lift is given by Anthony Wood. Sir Edward died at
his houfe called Rulhal Hall, in Staffordftiire, June 2.
1671 : and was buried in the chancel of Rulhall
church.
LEIGHLIN, a town of Ireland, fituated in the
county of Carlow, and province of Leinfter ; about
43 miles from Dublin, near the river Barrow. It is a
borough, and returns two members to parliament; par
tronage in the bifhop of the diocefe, this being a bi-
fhopric united to Ferns. At the eaft end of the church
of Old-Leighlin is a famous well covered with great
afli-trees, and dedicated to St Lafarian. This place
was formerly a city, though now a very mean village,
and the cathedral has been kept in good repair. It
was a yo/e bifhopric, founded in 632, and joined to
5 F 2 Ferns
LEI [ 780 ] L E L
SLtighton, Ferns in 1600. It is reported, that Gurtnundus aDa-
■Leinfter. prince was buried in this church. The laft biihop
■ * of Leighlin before its union with Ferns, was the Right
Rev. Robert Grave, who coming by fea to be inflalled,
fuffered (hipwreck in the harbour of Dublin, and pe-
riihed in the waves. This cathedral was burnt to the
ground, it is fain, by lightning; and rebuilt, A. D.
1232, then dedicated to St Lafarian or Lazarinus,
before-mentioned ; fince the fees were joined, it is made
ufe of as a pariih-church. Leighlin-bridge is fituated
about two miles from this village ; it was deftroyed by
the Iriih in 1577. Here are the remains of a caftle and
of an old abbey. This is a poft town, and has fairs in
May, September, and October.
LEIGHTON (Robert), archbiihop of Glafgow.
During Cromwell’s ufurpation, he was minilter of a
church near Edinburgh, and diftinguifhed himfelf by his
charity, and his averfion to rcligiousand political difputes.
The minifters were then called over yearly in the fynod,
and were commonly aiked, Whether they had preached
to the times t “ For God’s fake (anfwered Leighton),
when all my brethren preach to the times, fuffer me to
preach about eternity.” His moderation, however,
giving offence, he retired to a life of privacy. But
foon after, he was called by the unanimous voice of
the magiftratcs, to pretide over the college of Edin¬
burgh ; where, during ten years, he difplaytd all the
talents of a prudent, wife, and learned governor.
Soon after the Reftoration, when the ill-judged affair
of introducing epifcopacy into Scotland was refolved
On, Leighton was confecrated biihop of Dunblane,
and immediately gave an inftance of his moderation :
for when Sharpe and the other biihops intended to
enter Edinburgh in a pompous manner, Leighton re-
monftrated againft it; but finding that what he faid
had no weight, he left them, and went to Edinburgh
alone. Leighton, in his own diocefe, fet fuch a re¬
markable example of moderation, that he was revered
even by the molt rigid of the oppoiite party. He
went about, preaching without any appearance of
pomp ; gave all he had to the poor; and removed none
of the minifters, however exceptionable he might think
their political principles. But finding that none of
the other bifhops would be induced to join, as he
thought, properly in the work, he went to the king,
and refigned his bifhopric, telling him he would not
have a hand in fueh opprtffive meafures. Soon after,
the king and council, partly induced by this good
bifhop’s remonftrances, and partly by their own ob-
fervations, refolved to carry on the caufe of epifcopacy
in Scotland on a different plan ; and with this view,
Leighton was perfuaded to accept of the archbifhopric
of Glafgow, on which he made one effort more; but
finding it not in his power to ftem the violence of the
times, he refigned his archbifhopric, and retired into
Suffex, where he devoted himfelf to a&s of piety. He
died in the year 1684. He was of a moft amiable
difpofition, ftritt in his life, polite, cheerful, engaging
v in his manners, and profoundly learned. He left many
fermons and ufeful tra&s, which are greatly efteemed.
LEINSTER,the eaflern province of Ireland,bound-
ed by Ultter on the north ; St George’s, or the Irifh
Channel, on the eaft and fouth ; and by the provinces
«f Connaught and Muniter on the well. The capital
city of this province and of the kingdom is Dublin. Leiptic,
It contains 12 counties, viz. Carlow, Dublin, Kit- Leith,
dare, Kilkenny, King’s-county, Longford, Louth,
Meath, Queen’s-county, Weft-meath, Wexford, and
Wicklow. It is the moft level and beft cultivated pro¬
vince in the kingdom; containing 2,642,958 Irifh
plantation acres, 858 parifhes, 99 baronies, and 53
boroughs; it is about 124 miles long and 74 broad,
and extends from 510 45' to 550 45' north latitude,
Dermod king of Leinfter marrying his daughter Eva
to Strongbow earl of Pembroke, on his deceafe made
him his univerfal heir; whereby the Earl inherit¬
ed the province of Leinfter, and was afterwards en¬
feoffed of it by Hen. II. He died in 11 76, and left
an only daughter Ifabel, efpoufed to William Marfhal
earl of Pembroke ; by her he had five fons, who fuc-
ceeded to his great eftates in Leinfter. This province
gives title of Duke to the ancient and noble family of
Fitzgerald. In the early ages, this diftrid was almoll
one continued foreft, and was principally the feat of
the Kinfelaghs.
LEIPSIC, a large, ftrong, and populous town o
Mifnia in Germany, with a caftle, and a famous uni-
verfity. It is neat, and regularly built, and the ftreet*
are lighted in the night; it carries on a great trade,
and has a right to flop and fell the merchandizes de-
figned to pafs through it, and the country for 75 miles
round has the fame privilege. There are three great
fairs every year ; at the beginning of the year, Eafter
and Michaelmas, which lalt 15 days each. There are
fix handfome colleges belonging to the univerfity, be-
fides the private colleges. The town-houfe makes an
indifferent appearance, but the exchange is a fine ftruc-
ture. The town was taken by the king of Pruffia in
the late war, but given up by the peace in 1763. It
is feated in a plain between the rivers Saale and Muld,
near the confluencelof the Playffe, the Elfter, and the
Batde. E. Long. 12. 55. N. Lat. 51. 19.
LEITH, (anciently called Inverleith), the port of
Edinburgh, is feated on the banks of the Forth, about
two miles from the capital. It is built on both fides of
the harbour; by which it is divided into two parts,called
North and South Leith. The communication between
thefe was by a Hone bridge of three arches founded by
Robert Ballentyne abbot of Holyrood-houfe in 1493,
but lately pulled down. The harbour is formed by the
conflux of the rivulet called the Water of Leith with the
Frith of Forth. The depth of water, at neap-tides, is
about nine feet; but in high fpring-tides, it is about
16 feet. In the beginning of the prefent century, the
town-council of Edinburgh improved the harbour at
an enormous expenc-, by extending a ftone-pier a con-
fiderable way into the fea. In 1777, they eredled an
additional ftone quay towards its weft fide. Upwards
of . 100 fhips could then lie conveniently in this port t
but it can now admit of a much greater number, in con-
fequence of having lately undergone great improve¬
ments. In order to enlarge it, the old bridge has
been pulled down, and an elegant draw-bridge «rc<fted
a little to the eaftward of the former fite. It is accom¬
modated with wet and dry docks, and other conveni¬
ences for fhip building, which is there carried on to
fome extent, as veffels come to Leith to be repaired
from all parts of Scotland. A new bafon and docks
are
L E I
are propofed to be added; which, when completed,
will render this a very capacious, as well as a moft fafe
and convenient, ftation for trading veflels. And the
road of Leith affords good anchorage for fhips of the
greateft fize.
The harbour of Leith was granted to the commu¬
nity of Edinburgh by king Robert in 1329 ; but the
banks of the harbour belonged to Logan of Reflalrig,
a turbulent and ambitious baron, from whom the citi¬
zens were under the neceffity of purchafing the bank
or wafte piece of ground between the houfes and the
rivulet above mentioned, for the purpofes of wharfs, as
well as for erefting (hops and granaries, neither of
which they could do before. As the filuation of Leith,
however, is much more convenient for trade than that
of Edinburgh, which is two miles didant from the har¬
bour, the inhabitants of the metropolis have fallen upon
various methods of reflraining the trade of Leith. They
firft purchafed, from Logan of Reftalrig, an exclufive
privilege of carrying on every fpecies of traffic in the
town of Leith, and of keeping warehoufes and inns
for the entertainment of llrangers in that place; and
in 1483, the town council prohibited, under fevere
penalties, the citizens of Edinburgh from taking
into partnerfhip any inhabitant of Leith. To free
themftlves from this oppreffion, the people of Leith
purchafed the fuperiority of their town from Logan of
©f Reftalrig for 30001. Scots, and it was ere&ed into
a burgh of barony by the queen regent, Mary of Lor¬
raine, who promifed to erect it into a royal borough.
She died, however, before this was acccomplifhed ; and
upon her death, Francis and Mary, in violation of the
private rights of the people of Leith, re fold the fu¬
periority to the town of Edinburgh, to whom it has
iince been confirmed by grants from fucceffive fove-
xeigns.
On the breaking out of he difturbances at the Re¬
formation, the queen-regent caufed the whole town to
be fortified, that the French troops might have a more
ready inlet into the kingdom. It was accordingly
furrounded with a wall, having eight baftions: but
this wall went no farther than the ftreet now called
Bernard's nook., becaufe at that time the fea came
up the length of that ftreet ^ and even as late as 1623,
a houfe fituated exaftly where the weigh-houfe is at
prefent, is deferibed as bounded on the eaft by the
“ fand of the fea (bore.” All that fpace, therefore,
on which the row of houfes neareft the harbour of Leith
now Hands, has been gained fince that time from the
fea.
In the time of Charles I. a fortification was erefted
at Leith by the Covenanters. Cromwell built a ftrong
fort at the place ftill called the citadel in North Leith ;
but it was pulled down on the reftoration of Charles II.
by order of government. A gate with portcullices
are the prefent remains of that fortification.—A pa¬
lace alfo appears to have formerly flood here, fituated
at the north-eaft boundaiies of the former town, on
the fpot where the prefent weigh-houfe Hands. It
was deftroyed by theEnglifh in the time of HenryVIII.
The remains of this building, called the king's ’work,
with a garden, and a piece of wafte land that furround¬
ed it, was erefted into a barony by James VI. and
bellowed upon Bernard Lindfay of Lochill, groom
of the chamber to that prince. He is faid to have
fully repaired, and appropriated it to the recreations
L E I
of the court; but it foon fell from its dignity, and be- Leith,
came fubfervient to much more ignoble purpofes. The ' "'V*'
tennis court was converted into a weigh houfe; and
the ftreet which bounds it dill bears the name of the
founder, from whom it is called Bernard's nook.
As Leith lay within the parilh of Reftalrig, the
church of Retlalrig was of confequence the place of
worfhip for the inhabitants of Leith; but in 1650
the Affembly ordered that church to be pulled down
as a monument of idolatry, fo that Leith wanted a
parilh-church for upwards of 50 years. During that
period they teforted for worlhip to a large and beau¬
tiful chapel already built, and dedicated to St Mary,
which is now called Souik Leith church ; and in 1609
this chapel was by authority of parliament declared
to be the parifh church of the diftridl; fo that Rdlal-
rig is now in the parilh of South-Leith, as the latter
was formerly in that of Reftalrig. In 1772, a Chapel
of Eafe was eredled by the inhabitants, as the parilh-
church was infufficient to contain the number of hear¬
ers. There are alfo an epifcopal and feveral diffenting
congregations in Leith. North Leith is a parilh by
itfelf, and the church is fituated at what was the north
end of the old bridge.
Though a very great trade is carried on between
Leith and many foreign ports, yet the articles of ex¬
port and import fludluate fo much, that it would be
ufelefs to enter into any details either as to fpecies or
quantity. In general, the imports from Fiance, Spain,
and Portugal, are wines, brandy, and fruits; from
the Weft Indies and America, rice, indigo, rum, fu-
gar, and logwood. But the principal foreign trade of
Leith is by the eaftern feas, for the navigation of which
it is moll happily fituated. To Germany, Holland,
and the Baltic, it exports lead, glafs-ware, linen and
woollen Huffs, and a variety of other goods ; and from
thence it imports immenfe quantities of timber, oak-
bark, hides, linen rags, pearl alhes, flax, hemp, tar, and
many other articles. The Baluc trade, however, is at
prefent rather on the decline; the great extent to which
it was carried on for fome years pall having been
chiefly owing to the vaft increafe of new buildings in
Edinburgh and its environs. The coafting trade is at
prefent the principal branch that employs the Ihipping
at Leith, including thofe which belong to other ports
on the Forth, which are faid to make about one fourth
of the tonage of the Leith veffels. The Ihips employed
in the London trade are in general of a large fize, ele¬
gantly conltrudted, and furnilhed with excellent ac¬
commodations for paffengers. They make at an ave¬
rage four voyages up and down in the year. The
largeft Ihips in this port, however, are thofe employ¬
ed in the Greenland fiihery.
The (hipping at Leith renders the demand for ropes,
fell cloth, and cordage, very confiderable. There were
lately three different companies who carried on thefe
manufadluresjbefides fome private perfons who dealt lefs
confiderably. Tne fiift of thofe companies was efta-
bliihed in the beginning of the prefemt century ; and 20
years ago made, it is faid, larger dividends among the
partners than any trading or manufadluring company
in the nation. There are only three companies at pre¬
fent, but a number of private manufadlurers.
In the middle of the laft century, a manufaftory of
green glafs was eftablilhed at the citadel of Leith.
Chopin bottles were fold at 4s. 6d. per dozen, and
©the®
l 781 ]
L E I
lieKh. other bottles in proportion. Soon afterwards this ar*
t.Jcle was manufa&ured alfo in North Leith; and, in
1707, chopin bottles were fold at 2s. 6d. per dozen,
and fo proportionably. That houfe being burnt
down in i 746, a new houfe was built the following
year on South-Leith fands, and an additional one in
1764. The annual expence of both houfes was be¬
tween 8000 1. and 90001. Another was afterwards
added, and three more have lately been erefted. They
manufadture not only bottles, but alfo window-glafs
and cryftal-ware of all forts.
Manufactures of foft foap and candles were eredted
by St Clair of Roflin and fome merchants; the for-
mer in 1750, and the latter in 1770: a manufacture
of hard foap was alfo eftabliihed in 1770. Befides
thefe, there are a confiderable manufacture for making
cards with which wool is combed, a great carpet-fac¬
tory, and feveral iron-forges. There was alfo a fugar-
houfe : but it has been given up,'as has likewife Mr
St Clair’s foap-work.
The inhabitants of Leith were divided into four
claffes; and thefe eredted into corporations by the queen
dowager, Mary of Lorraine. Thefe were mariners,
mailmen, trades, and traffickers. The firft of thefe
confided of ffiipmafters and failors } the fecond, of
malt-makers and brewers; the third, of coopers, ba¬
kers, fmiths, wrights, &c. ; and the fourth, of mer¬
chants and ffiop-keepers. Of thefe corporations the
mariners are the moft confiderable. They obtained
from Mary of Lorraine a gift, afterwards ratified by
William and Mary, of one penny duty on the ton of
goods in the harbour of Leith, for the fupport of their
poor. This duty, which not many years ago did not
amount to 401. a year, now rifes from 701. to 120 I.
as trade flouriffies. For the fame purpofe the ffiip¬
mafters alfo pay 6d. a-pound out of their own wages
annually ; and the like fum they give upon the wages
of their failors. From thefe and other donations, this
corporation is enabled to pay from 6001. to 7001. a-
year to their poor. Oppofite to South-Leith church
there is a large houfe belonging to them, called the
Trinity-hofpital, becaufe originally confecrated to the
Holy Trinity. In this houfe fome of their poor ufed
formerly to be maintained, but now they are all out-
penfioners. Befides other apartments, this hofpital
contains a large handfome hall for the meetings of the
corporation. Adjoining to the fchool-houfe there is
another hofpital, called king James's hofpital; and
bears upon its front the cypher and arms of that prince.
Here fome poor women belonging to the other corpo¬
rations are maintained.
As the town of Leith was very ill fupplied with wa¬
ter, and the Streets were neither properly cleaned nor
lighted, an adt. for remedying thefe defects was paffed
in the year 1771, appointing certain perfons from a-
mong the magiftrates of Edinburgh, lords of feffion,
inhabitants of Edinburgh and Leith, and members of
the corporations of Leith, commijftoners of police ; em¬
powering them to put this adt in execution ; and, for
that purpofe, to levy a fum not exceeding 6d. in the
pound upon the valued rent of Leith. The great
change which has fince taken place on the ftceets of
Leith ffiows the good effedt of this adt, and that it has
] L E L
both been judicioufly prepared, and attentively exeeu- Leitrjm
ted. ||
Leith is computed to contain about thirteen thou- , Ldand.,
fand inhabitants. The government of the town is
veiled in a magiftrate fent from Edinburgh, having ad¬
miral’s power ; and in two refiding bailies eledted, by
the town-council.
LEITRIM, a county of Ireland, iituated in the
province of Connaught, is bounded on the north by the
bay of Donnegal and part of Fermanagh, on the fouth
and weft by Sligo and Rofcommon, and on the eaft:
by Fermanagh and Cavan. It is a fruitful county;
and, though mountainous, produces great herds of
black cattle ; but has few places of note. It contains
206,830 Iriffi plantation acres, 21 pariffies, 5 baronies,
and 2 boroughs, and fends fix members to parliament;
it is about 42 miles long, and 17 broad.
Leitrim, the {hire town of the county of that
name, is pleafantly, fituated on the banks of the river
Shannon, about 80 miles from Dublin; and appears
to have been formerly a place of fonse note. St Mac
Liegus, fon of Cernac, was bi ffiop here : and his fefti-
val is obferved on the 8th of February. It has fix fairs
in the year,
LEIXLIP, a poll and fair town of Ireland plea-
fantly fituated in the county of Kildare and province
of Leinfter, about 8 miles from Dublin. Near it are
the ruins of the church and caftle of Confy. The caftle
of Leixlip is beautifully feated on the banks of the
river Liffey ; it is a fine edifice with large and pleafant
gardens, at one fide of which is a fine waterfall called
the Salmon-leap, there being plenty of that fpecies of
fiffi hereabouts. A mile from this is Caftletown, the
magnificent feat of Mr Conolly. There are three fairs
here in the year.
LELAND (John), the great Engliffi antiquary,
was born in London about the year 1507.* Having
loft his parents when a child, be had the good for¬
tune to find a friend and patron in one Mr Thomas
Miles, who placed him in St Paul’s fchool, of which
the grammarian Lilye was matter. From that fchool
he was fent to Chrift’s college, Cambridge 5 whence,
after fome years refidence, he removed to AU-Souls,
Oxford. From Oxford he went to Paris, chiefly witft
a defign to ftudy the Greek language, which at that
time was but little underftood in this kingdom. On
his return to England he took orders, and was foon
appointed chaplain to king Henry VIII. who alfo
gave him the reclory of Poppeling, in the marffies of
Calais, appointed him his librarian, and in 153.3
granted to him, by commiffion under the great leal,
the office of king’s antiquary ; an office never borne
by any other perlon before or fince. By this com¬
miffion he was empowered to fearch for ancient wri-^
tings in all the libraries of colleges, abbeys, priories,
&c. in his majefty’s dominions. We are told by his
laft biographer, that he renounced popery foon after
his return to England; but he quotes no authority.
Be this as it may, in 1536, he obtained a difpenia-
tion to keep a curate at Poppeling, and fet out on his
journey in fearch of antiquities. In this employment
he fpent fix years, during which time he vifited every
part of England where monuments of antiquity were
to
L E L
[ 783 ]
L E L
Iceland. tobeexpeAe^. After his return, in thf year > 542, he authors who fucctfliveiy appeared in that caufe. He Lele^fes
was prefented by the king to the rich reclory of Hateley was indeed a mafter in this controverfy ; and his hiftory ^ J
in Oxfordflrirc ; and in the following1 year he gave him of it, ftyled “ A View of the Deiftical Writers that 1 1' i ^
a prebend of King’s College, now Chrill’s church, in have appeared in England in the laft and prefent Cen-
Oxford, befides that of Eaft and Weft Knowle, in the tury, See.” is very greatly and defervedly efteemed.
cathedral of Salilbury. Being thus amply provided In the decline of life he publilhed another laborious
for, he retired to a houfe of his own in the parilh of work, intitled, “ The Advantage and . Neceffity of
Sjt Michael le Querne in London, where he fpent fix the Chriftian Reveltttion, Ihown from the State of Re¬
years more in digefting the materials which he had ligion in the ancient Heathen World, efpecially with
collected. King Henry VIII. died in 1547; and in refpeft to the Knowledge and Worfhip of the One
a fhart time after, poor Leland loft his fenfes. He true God ; a Rule of moral Duty, and a State of fu-
was at firft feized with a deep melancholy, which was ture Rewards and Punifhments ; to which is prefixed,
fucceeded by a total deprivation of his reafon. In this
dreadful ftate he continued till the beginning of the
year 1552, when he was happily releafed by death.
He was buried in the church of St Michael le Querne,
which was deftroyed by the fire in 1666. Mr Leland is
long and preliminary Difcourfe on Natural and Re¬
vealed Religion,” 2 vols 4to. This noble and exten-
five fubjedt, the feveral parts of which have been {light¬
ly and occafionally handled by other writers, Leland
has treated at large with the greateft care, accuracy.
remembered as a man of great learning, an univerfal and candour. And, in his “ View of the Deiftical
linguift, an excellent Latin poet, and a moft indefa- Writers,” his cool and difpaflionate manner of treating
tigable and fkilful antiquary. On his death, king their arguments, and his folid confutation of them,
Edward VI. gave all his papers to Sir John Checke,
his tutor and Latin fecretary of ftate. The king dying,
and Sir John being obliged to leave the kingdom, he
gave four folio volumes of Leland’s collediions to
Humphrey Purefoy, Efq; which, in 1612, were by
his fon given to William Burton, author of the hiftory
of Leiceftetfhire. This gentleman alfo became pof-
feffed of the Itinerary in 8 vols folio, which, in 1632,
he depofited in the Bo.ileian library. Many other of
Leland’s manuferipts, after the death of Sir John
have contributed more to deprefs the caufe of atheifm
and infidelity, than the angry zeal of warm difputants.
But not only his learning and abilities, hutalfn his ami¬
able temper, great modefty, and exemplary life, tecom-
mended his memory to general efteem and affedtion.
He died in 1 766.
LELEGEIS, the ancient name of Miletus, from,
the Leleges, the firft: inhabitants of it.
LELEGES,. anciently a people of Afia, of Greek
original; the name denoting “ a colle&ion of people
Checke, fell into the hands of lord Paget, Sir Wil- they firft occupied the iflands ; then paffing over to the
liana Cecil, and others, which at laft fortunately came continent, they fettled partly in Myfia on the Sinus
into the poflefiion of Sir John Cotton. Thefe manu- Adramyttenus, and partly in that part of Ionia next Ca-
feripts were of great ufe to all our fubfequent antiqua- ria.—There were Leleges alfo of Laconia. Thefe went
rians, particularly Cambden, Sir William Dugdale, to the Trojan war with Altes their king. Achilles plun-
Stowe, Lambard, Dr JJatteley, Atit. Wood, &c. His dered their country, and obliged them to retire to the
Itinerary throughout moft parts of England and Wales, neighbourhood of Halicarnafius, where they fixed their
was publiftied by Mr Hearne, 9 vols 8vo. in 1710-11 ; habitation.—The inhabitants of Laconia and of Me-
as was alfo his Colledanea de rebus Britamtkis, 6 vols gara alfo bore this name for fdme time, from Lelex one
8vo, in 1715. of their kings.
Leland (John), well known by his writings in de- LELEX, an Egyptian who came with a colony to
fence of Chriftianity, was born at Wigan in Lancafture Megara, where he reigned about 200 years before the
in 1691, of eminently pious and virtuous parents. They Trojan war. His fubje&s were called from him Zr/o
took the earlieft care to feafon his mind with proper ges.—Alfo the name of a Greek who was the firft king
inftruftions; but, in his fixth year, the fmall-pox de- of Laconia in Peloponnefus. His fubjedls were alfo
prived him of his underftanding and memory, and ex- called Leleges, and the country where he reigned Le-
punged all his former ideas. He continued in this legla.
deplorable ftate near a twelvemontir, when his fa- LELY (Sir Peter), an excellent painter, born in
culties feemed to fpring up anew ; and though he did Weftphalia in the year 1617. He was placed as a
not retain the leaft traces of any imprefiions made on difciple with Peter Grebber at Haerlem ; and in 1641
him before the diftemper, yet he now difeovered a quick was induced, by the encouragement Charles I. gave to<
apprehenfion and ftrong memory. In a few years after,
his parents fettled in Dublin, which fituation gave him
an eafy introdu&ion to learning and the fciences.
When he was properly qualified by years and ftudy, he
the fine arts, to come to England. He became ftate-
painter to Charles II. who knighted him ; and being as.
complete a gentleman as a painter, that king took plea-
fure in converfing with him. He praftifed portrait-pain-
s called to be pallor to a congregation of Proteftant ting, and fucceeded fo well that he was preferred before
diffenters in that city. He was an able and acceptable all his cotemporaries. Hence he became perpetually
preacher, but his labours were not confined to the pul- involved in bufinefs; fo that he was thereby prevented
pit. The many attacks made on Chrjflianity, and by from going into Italy to finilh the courfe of his ftu-
fome writers of no contemptible abilities, engaged him dies, which in his younger days he was very defirous.
to confider the fubjeft with the exafteft care, and the of: however, he made himfelf amends, by getting the
moft faithful examination. Upon the moft deliberate beft drawings, prints, and paintings, of the moft cele-
inquiry, the truth and divine original, as well as the brated Italian maders. Among thefe were the better part
excellence and importance of Chriftianity, appearing to of the Arundel Colleftion, which he had from that V -
fciin with, great luftre, he publilhed anfwers to feveral mily, many whereof were fold after his death at prodi-
t 4. gioua
LEM
Lemberg, jrlons rates, bearing upon them his ufual mark of
. t'emer>- p. L.—The advantage he reaped from this colle&ion,
^ the belt chofen of any one of his time, appears from
that admirable ftyle which he acquired by daily con-
verfing with the works of thofe great mailers. In his
correft draught and beautiful colouring, but more efpe-
cially in the graceful airs of his heads, and the pleafing
variety of his pollutes, together with the gentle and
r 784 l
LEM
drove him into the Romilh communion to avoid perfecu-
tion. He then became affociate chemill and penfionary in
the royal academy of fciences, and died in 1715. He
wrote, A courfe of chemiftry; An univerlal phar¬
macopoeia ; An univerfal treatife of drugs ; and, A
treatife on antimony.
LEMING, in zoology. See Mus.
LEMMA, (of «« I alfume,”) in mathema-
loofe management of the draperies, he excelled moll of tics, denotes a previous propofuion, laid down in order
v:. —j —/r— .1  u .1—- 1   to ciear way for forog f0llowing demonllration ;
and prefixed either to theorems, in order to render
their demonllration lefs perplexed and intricate ; or to
problems, to make their refolution more eafy and Ihort.
Thus, to prove a pyramid one third of a prifm, or pa-
rallelopipcd, of the fame bafe and height with it, the
his predecefl’ors. Yet the critics remark, that he pre-
ferved in almoll all his female faces a drowfy fweetnefs
of the eyes peculiar to himftlf; for which he is rec¬
koned a mannerift. The hands of his portraits are re¬
markably fine and elegantly turned ; and he frequently
added landfcapes in the back-grounds of his piftures,
in a llyle peculiar to himfelf, and better fuited to his demonllration whereof in the ordinary way is difficult
fubjed than moll men could do. He excelled likewife
in crayon painting. He was familiar with, and much re-
fpe&ed by, perfons of the greatell eminence in the king¬
dom. He became enamoured of a beautiful Englilh
lady, to whom he was fometime after married ; and he
purchafed an eftate at Kew in the county of Surrey,
and troublefome ; this lemma may be premifed, which
is proved in the rules of progreffion, that the fum of
the feries of the fquares, in numbers in arithmetical
progreffion, beginning from o, and going on 1,4,
9, 16, 25, 36, &c. is always fubtriple of the fum
of as many terms, each equal to the greatell; or is al¬
to which he often retired in the latter part of his life, ways one-third of the greateft term multiplied by the
He died of an apoplexy in 1680 at London ; and was
buried at Covent-garden church, where there is a
marble monument eredled to hi» memory, with his bull,
carved by Mr Gibbons, and a Latin epitaph, written,
s faid, by Mr Flatman.
number of terms. Thus, to find the inflexion of a
curve line, this lemma is firtl premifed, that a tan¬
gent may be drawn to the given curve in a given point.
So in phyfics, to the demonllration of moll propo-
fitions, fuch lemmata as thefe are nectlfary firll to be
LEMBERG, a town of Poland, capital of Red allowed: that there is no penetration of dimenfions;
Ruffia, feated in the palatinate of Lemburg, on the ri- that all matter is divifible ; and the like. As alfo in
ver Pclteu. It is pretty well fortified, and defended by the theory of medicine, that where the blood circu-
two citadels, one of which is feated on an eminence with- lates, there is life, &c
outthetown. The fquare, the churches, and the pub- LEMNA,Ducx meat,inbotany; agenus ofthedi-
lic buildings, are magnificent; and it is a large and rich andria order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants ;
trading place. It has'a Roman catholic archbilhop,
and an Armenian as well as a Ruffian bilhop; but the
Protellants are not tolerated. This city was reduced
to the lall extremity by the rebel Coffacs and Tar-
and in the natural method ranking under the 54th order,
Mifcellance The male calyx is monophyllous; there is
no corolla ; the female calyx monophyllous; there is no
corolla, one ftyle; the capfule unilocular. There are
tars, and was forced to redeem itfelf with a large fum three fpecies, all natives of Britain, growing frequently
of money. In 1672, it was befieged in vain by the in ditches arid the (hallow parts of ftagnant waters.
Turks ; but in 1 704, was taken by florm by Char. XII. All of them are acceptable food for ducks and geefe.
of Sweden. E Long. 24. 46. N. Lat. 49. 51.
LEMNIAN earth, Terra Lemma, a medicinal.
LEMERY (Nicholas), a celebrated chemift, born aftringent fort of earth, of a fatty confidence and
at Rouen in Normandy in 1645. After having made reddifh colour; ufed in the fame cafes as bole. It
the tour of France, he, in 1672, commenced an ac- has its name from the ifland of Lemnos, whence it is
quaintance with M. Martyn apothecary to Monfieur chiefly brought. Many form it into round cakes, and
the Prince ; and performed feveral courfes of chemiftry imprefs a feal upon it ; whence it is alfo called terra
in the laboratory of this chemift at the Hotel de Conde; figillata. A fort is faid to be imported from Senegal,
which brought him to the knowledge and efteem of which is not properly an earth, though fo called, but
the prince. He provided himfelf at length with a la¬
boratory of his own, and might have been made a doc¬
compofed of the dried pulp of the fruit of the Baobab.
LEMNIUS (Lasvinus),a famous phyfician. born at
tor of phyfic : but he chofe to continue an apothecary, Ziric Zee in Zealand, in 1505. He pra&ifed phyfic
from his attachment to chemiftry, in which he opened with applaufe ; and after his wife’s death being made
public ledures; and his confluence of fcholars was fo prieft, became canon of Ziric-Zee, where he died in
great as fcarcely to allow him room to perform his 1560. He left feveral efteemed works, the principal
operations. The true principles of chemiftry in his of which is intitled De occultu natura miraculis.
time were but ill underftood ; Lemery was the full
who abolifhed the fenfelcfs jargon of barbarous terms,
LEMNOS (anc. geog.),anoble ifland in the ^Egean
fea, near Thrace, called alfo Dipolit, from its confiding
reduced the fcience to clear and Ample ideas, and pro- of two towns. The firtt inhabitants were the Pelafgi,
mifed nothing that he did not perform. In 1681, he or rather the Thracians, who were murdered by their
was difturbed on account of his religion ; and came to
England, where he was wtll received by Charles II. ;
but affairs not promifing him the fame tranquillity, he
returned to France, and fought for (belter under a Doc¬
tor’s degree ; but the revocation (5f the edict of Nantz
N5 t8o.
wives. After them came the children of the Lemnian
widows by the Argonauts, whofe defeendants were at
laft expelled by the Pelafgi, about 1100 years before
the Chriftian era. Lemnos is about 112 miles in cir¬
cumference according to Pliny ; who fays, that it is of-
^ //a/t ra/M' .< ?r_.,._j(*0?iyys</• /f<rss<ux//<ui. <j5 £*//*•./
iTT^r^/Z/cLucairw . e //sx/st ',///,'<>■ c9. c//v t'// r/'.
Plate CCLXVJtt.
^2
LEMUR.
Lemon
II
•Lemur.
LEM t 785 J L E M
ten fhadoWed by mount Atbos, tbougb at tbe diftance
of 87 miles. It has been called Hipfipyle from queen
, Hipfipyle. It is famous for a certain kind of earth or
chalk called terra Lemnia, or terra figillata from the feal
or impreffion which it can bear, and which is ufed for
confolidating wounds. As the inhabitants were black-
fmiths, the poetB have taken occafion to fix the forges
of Vulcan in that ifland, and to confecrate the whole
country to his divinity. Lemnos is alfo celebrated for a
labyrinth, which, according to fome traditions, furpafled
thofe of Crete and Egypt. Some remains of it were
'ftill vifible in the age of Pliny. The ifland of Lem¬
nos was reduced under the power of Athens by Mil-
tiades.
LEMON, in botany. See Citrus.
Lemon-IJJand, one of the Skelig-iflands fo called ;
Situated off the coaft. of the county of Kerry, in the
province of Munfter in Ireland. It is rather a round
rock, always above water, and therefore no way dan¬
gerous to ihips. An incredible number of gannets and
other birds breed here ; and it is remarkable that the
gannet neftles no where on the fouthern coafts of Ire¬
land but on this rock, though many of them are feen
on all parts of otlr coafts on the wing. There is ano¬
ther rock on the northern coaft of Ireland remarkable
for the fame circtimftance,
LEMONADE, a liquor prepared of water, fugar,
and lemon or citron juice ; it is very cooling and grate¬
ful.
LEMOVICES, a people of Aquitania, fituated be¬
tween the Bituriges Cubi to the north, the Avverni to
the eaft, the Cadurci to the fouth, and tfye Pi£tones to
the weft- Now the Limofin and La Marche.
LEMUR., the Maucauco, in zoology, a genus of
■quadrupeds belonging to the order of primates, the
chara&ersof which are thefe : There are four fore-teeth
in the upper jaw, the intermediate ones being remote;
and fix long, compreffed, parallel teeth in the under
jaw; the dog-teeth are foiitary, and the grinders are
-fomewhat lobated.
1. The tardigradus, or tail-lefs maucauco, a fmall
animal found in Bengal and the ifland of Ceylon. It
is of a very Angular conftrh&ion, and perhaps longer in
proportion to its thicknefs than any other quadruped,
^he head is roundifh, with a {harp-pointed nofe, and
fmall ears: the body is covered with (hort, foft, and
filky afti-coloured and reddilh fur: the toes are nak<?d,
and the nails flat; excepting thofe of the inner toe on
each hind foot, which are long, crooked, and flrarp.
The length of the animal from the nofe to the rump
is fixteen inches.—It lives in the woods, and feeds on
■fruits: In a tame ftate, it appears to be fond of eggs,
and it would alfo greedily devbur tiqall birds. This ani¬
mal hastheina&ivityofthe floth, and creeps flowly along
the ground : it is very tenacious of its hold, and makes
a plaintive noife.
A variety of the above, or according to Mr Pennant
a diftinft fpecies, is,
2. The hris of B.'.fTon, or tardigradus of Seba. It
has a produced dog-like vifage, with the forehead high
above the nofe : tbe ears are large, thin, and rounded:
the body is {lender and weak : limbs are very long
and {lender ; and thumb on each foot is more diftinft,
and feparate from the toea : the hair on the body is
liniverlally {hort, and delicately foft; the colour on the
Vol. IX. Part II.
upper part tawny, beneath vvhitifli. In length, from Lemoe.
the tip of the nofe to the anus, the animal Is only eight
inches. It differs totally in form and in nature from
the preceding; and notwithftanding the epithet of
tardigradus or Jloth given in Seba, it is very active, and
afeenda trees moft nimbly. It has the aftions of an
ape ; and, if we credit Seba, the male climbs the treesj,
and taftes the fruits before it prefents them to its
mate.
3. The mongooz, or woolly maucauco) inhabits Ma-
dagafear, and the iflands to the eaftward as far as Ce¬
lebes. It is about the fize of a cat, and has the whole
upper part of the body covered with long, foft, and
thick fur, a little curled or waved, of a deep brownilh
afli-colour ; the tail is very long, covered with the fame
fort of hair, and of the fame colour. It lives on fruits,
turns its tail over its head to proteit it from rain, and
fleeps on trees ; it is very fportive and good-natured*
and very tender.
4. The catta, or ring-tailed maki, inhabits Mada-
gafear and the neighbouring ifles. It is of the fize of
a cat; has the hair on the top and hind-part of the
head of a deep afti-colour, the back and fides reddiffi,
the belly and infides of the limbs white ; all its hair is
very foft,- clofe and fine, and eredl like the pile of vel¬
vet ; the tail is twice the length of the body. It is very
good natuled, and has all the life of a monkey, with
out its mifehievous difpofition ; it is very clean¬
ly, and has a weak cry. In a wild ftate they go in
troops of 30 or 40, and are eafily tamed when taken
young.
5. The caudatus-niger, or ruffed maucahco, (the
Vari of Buffon), is alfo an inhabitant of Madagafcar.
It is fomewhat larger than the laft; and has long hair
{landing out round the fides of the head like a ruff; a
long tail; the colour of the whole animal generally
black, but fometimea .-white fpotted with black. In
a wild ftate, it is very fierce ; and makes fuch a violent
noife in the wood?, that the cries of two might be
eafily miftaken for the noife made by a hundred.
6. The volans, -or flying maucauco, refembles a bat:
being furnifired with a ftrong membrane like that ani¬
mal, by which it is enabled to fly. It inhabits the
country about Guzarat, the Molucca ifles, and the Phi¬
lippines ; feeds on the fruits of the trees, and is very
diftindl both from the bat and flying fquirrel. Its hi-
ftory, however, is very little known.
7. The tarfier of Buffon (ranked by Mr Pennant
under this genus) has a pointed vifage ; {lender nofe*
bilobated at the end : eyes large and prominent: ears
erett, broad, naked, femitranfparent, an inch and a
half long, with a tuft of hairs between them on,the top
of the head, and long hairs on each fide of the nofe
and on the upper eye-brow. In each jaw are two cut¬
ting and two canine teeth ; which form an exception in
this genus. There are four long {lender toes and a
diftindl thumb'on each foot; the thumbs on the hind feet
very broad and greatly dilated at their ends : the tail
is almoil naked ; the greater part round and fcaly like
that of a rat, but growing hairy toward? the end, -rhich
is tufted. The penis is pendulous ; and the ferotum
and teilicles are of a vail fize in proportion to the ani¬
mal. The length of the animal from nofe to tail ia.
near fix inches; to the hind toes eleven and a half, the
hind legs, like thofe of the jerboa, being of a great
5 G length;
LEM [ 786 ] L E N
I^emures length ; the tail is nine inches and a half long. It in-
habits the remoteft iflands of India, efpecially Amboi-
. na j and is called by the Macaffars podje.
8. The little maucauco has a rounded head, lharp
nofe, long whilkers; two canine teeth in each jaw ;
four cutting teeth in the upper jaw, fix in the low¬
er : feven grinders on each fide; the neareft (harp,
the more diftant lobated : the ears are large, round-
ifh, naked, and membranaceous; the eyes very large
and full. The toes are long, and of unequal lengths ;
the ends round ; the nails round, and very fhort;
except that of the firft toe, which is long and fharp :
the tail is hairy, of the length of the body, and
prelienfile. 'The animal is rather lefs than the black
rat; and, in Mr Pennant’s opinion, feems to be the
fame which Buffdn calls le rat de Madagajcar. It is
fnppofed to live in the palm-trees, and feed on fruits.
It holds its food in its fore-feet like fquirrels ; is
lively, and has a weak cry ; and when it fleeps, it
rolls itfelf up.
There are three or four other fpecies ; thofe above
deferibed are figured on Plate CCLXVIII.
LEMLJRES, in antiquity, fprites or hobgoblins ;
reftlefs ghofts of departed perfons, who return to ter¬
rify and torment the living.
Thefe are the fame with larva, which the ancients
imagined to wander round the world, to frighten good
people, and plague the bad. For which reafon at
Rome they had lemuria or feafts inftituted to appeafe
the manes of the defunft. See Lares.
Apuleius explains the ancient notion of manes thus:
the fouls of men releafed from the bands of the body,
and freed from performing their bodily funftions, be¬
come a kind of dtemons or genii, formerly called lemu-
res. Of thefe lemures, thofe that were kind to their
families were called lares familiares; but thofe who,
for their crimes, were condemned to wander continually,
without meeting with any place of reft, and terrified
good men, and hurt the bad, are vulgarly called
larva.
An ancient commentator on Horace mentions, that
the Romans wrote lemures for remures ; which laft word
was formed from Remus, who was killed by his brother
Romulus, and who returned to earth to torment him.
But Apuleius obferves, that in the ancient Latin
tongue lemures fignifies the foul of a man feparated from
the body by death.
LEMURIA, or Lemuralia, a feaft folemnized at
Rome on the 9th of May, to pacify the manes of the
dead or in honour of the lemures.—It was inftitu¬
ted by Romulus, to appeafe the ghoft of his murder¬
ed brother Remus, which he thought was continually
purfuing him to revenge the horrid crime.—The name
lemuria is therefore fuppofed to be a corruption of Re-
muria, i. e. the feaft of Remus. Sacrifices continued
for three nights, the temples were ftiut up, and mar¬
riages were prohibited during the folemnity. A va¬
riety of whimfical ceremonies were performed, magical
words made ufe of, and the ghofts defired to withdraw,
without endeavouring to hurt or affright their friends
above ground. The chief formalities were ablution,
utting black beans into their mouths, and beating
ettles and pans, to make the goblins keep their di¬
fiance.
LENA, a. great river of Siberia in Afia, which
takes its rife in N. Lat. 52. 30. and E. Long. 124. 3®. l-enpa
from Ferro. After traverfing a large traft of land, it , IJ.
divides itfelf into five branches about Lat. 730. Three . '
of thefe run weftward, and two eaftward, by which it
difeharges itfelf into the Icy Sea. Its three weftern
mouths lie in 1430 E. Long, from Ferro, but theeaft-
ern ones extend to 153. The current is every, where
flow, and its bed entirely free from rocks. The bot¬
tom is fandy, and the banks are in fame places rocky
and mountainous. Sixteen large rivers fall into the
Lena during its courfe to the northern ocean.
Len^ea, a feftival kept by the Greeks in honour of
Bacchus, at which therenvas much feafting and Baccha¬
nalian jollity, accompanied with poetical contentions,
and the exhibition of tragedies. The poor goat was
generally facrificed on the occafion, and treated with
various marks of cruelty and Contempt, as being natu¬
rally fond of broufing on the vine-flioots.
LENFANT (James), a learned French writer bom
in 1661. After ftudying at Saumur, he went to Hei¬
delberg, where he received impofition of hands for the
miniftry in 1684. He difeharged the fun&ions of
this charadter with great reputation there, as chap¬
lain of the elect refs dowager Palatine, and paftor in
ordinary to the French church. The defeent of the
French into the Palatinate obliged our author to de¬
part from Heidelberg in 1688. He went to Berlin,
where the eledtor Frederic, afterward king of Pruflia,
appointed him one of the minifters. There he conti¬
nued 39 years, diftinguilhing himfelf by his writings.
He was preacher to the queen of Prulfia, Charlotta
Sophia; and after her death, to the late king of
Pruflia. In 1707 he took a journey to England and
Holland,’ where he had the honour to preach before
Queen Anne; and might have fettled in London,
with the title of chaplain to her majejly. In 1712 he
went to Helmftadt, in 1715 to Leipfic, and in 1725
to Breflaw, to fearch for rare books and MSS. It is
not certain whether it was he that firft formed the de-
fign ef the Bibllotheque Germanique, which began in
1720 ; or whether it was fuggefted to him by one of
the fociety of learned men, which took the name of
Anonymous, and who ordinarily met at his houfe. He
died in 1728. His principal works are, 1. The Hi-
ftory of the Council of Conftance, 2 vols 4to. 2. A
Hiftory of the Council of Pifa, 2 vols 4to. 3. The
New Teftament tranflated from the Greek into the
French, with Notes by Beaufobre and Lenfant, 2 vols
4to. 4. The Hiftory of Pope Joan, from Spanheim’s
Latin difiertation. 5. Several pieces in the EibUo-
theque Choifie, La Republic des 'Lettres, La Bibliotheque
Germanique, &c.
LENGLET (Nicholas du Frefnoy, 1’abbe), born
at Beauvais in France, 1674, was 3 mo^ fertile and
ufeful French author on a variety of fubjefts, hiftori-
cal, geographical, political, and philofophical. The
following deferve pat titular notice : 1. A Method of
Studying Hiftory, with a Catalogue of the Principal
Hitlorians of every age and country, publilhed in
1713; a work which eftablifhed his reputation as an
hiftorical writer: it was tranflated into moft of the
modern languages, particularly our own, with confi-
derable improvements, by Richard Rawlinfon, LL.D.
and F. R.S. and publifhed at London in tyjo, in
2. vols 8vo. 2. A Copious Abridgment of Univerfal
Hiftory.
L E N
Length Hiftory and Biography, In chronological order, under
II the title of Tablettes chronohgiques ; which made its fir it
. eu0T' . appearance at Paris in 1744, in 2 vols fmall 8vo, and
was univerfally admired by the literati in all parts of
Europe. The author attended with great candour,
as every writer ought, >to well-founded judiciovts criti-
cifms. In future editions he made feveral alterations
• and improvements, and from one of thefe, we believe
that of 1759, an Engliih tranflation was made, and
publiihed at London in 1762, in 2 vols large 8vo.
Du Frefnoy died in 1755 : the Paris edition of 1759
was printed from the author’s correfted copy; and.
the impreffion being fold off, another edition appear¬
ed in 1763, with confiderable improvements by an un¬
known editor : to the biographical part, a great num¬
ber of names of refpe&able perfons are added, not to
be found in the former edition ; and it has this fupe-
rior advantage in the hiftorieal parts, that the general
hiftory is brought down to the year 17612. Du Fref¬
noy, however, has loaded his work with catalogues of
faints, martyrs, councils, fynods, herefies, fchifms,
and other ecclefiaftical matters, fit only for the libra¬
ries of Popi.ih convents and feminaries.
LENGTH, the extent of any thing material from
end to end. In duration, it is applied to any fpace of
time, whether long or fhort.
LENGTHENING, in fhip-carpentry, the opera¬
tion of cutting a Ihip down acmfs the middle, and add¬
ing a certain portion to her length. It is performed
by fawing her planks afunaer in different places of her
length, on each fide of the midrtrip frame, to prevent
her from being too much weakened in one place. The
two ends are then drawn apart to a limited diftance;
which muff be equal to the propofed addition of
' length. An intermediate piece of timber is next
added to the keel, upon which a fufficient number of
timbers are ere&ed, to fill up the vacancy produced
by the feparation. The two parts of the kelfon are
afterwards united by an additional piece which is fco-
red down upon the floor-timbers, and as many beams
as may be neceffary are fixed acrofs the (hip in the new
interval. Finally, the planks of the fide are prolong¬
ed fo as to unite with each other; and thofe of the
ceiling refitted in the fame manner; by which the
whole procefs is completed.
LENEICIA, a Wrong town of Poland, and capi¬
tal of a palatinate of the fame name, with a fort feat-
ed on a rock. The nobility of the province hold their
diet here. It (lands in a morafs on the banks of the
river Bfura, in E Long, 19. 25. N. Lat 52. 12.
LENOX or Dunbarton Shire, a county of Scot¬
land, ftretching 24 miles in length and 20 in breadth,
is bounded on the fouth by the river and frith of
Clyde, on the weft by Lochlong and Argyleftiire, on
the north by the Grampian hills, and on the eaft by
Monteith and Stirlingftiire. Great part of this county
confifts of hills and heaths, fit for i\othing but paftu-
rage and fport; even in the lower lands, the foil is not
extremely fertile: yet the face of the country is agree¬
ably diverfified with hill, dale, mountain, heath,
ftreams, lakes, woods, and fields of corn: the (hire is
likewife beautified with a great number of agreeable
feats and plantations, belonging to gentlemen of for¬
tune. Part of this county is wafhed by the river Clyde
in its courfe to the fea; even at the caftle of Dunbar-
t ?87 1
L £ N
ton, the breadth of it amounts to two miles at high-
water, and it continues extending in width and depth
until it joins the ocean. From the mouth of^the *"
Clyde, the two bays of Lochlong and Lochfyn make
large ii^lentations in the (hire of Dunbarton. The
only river of any confideration that runs through this
county, is the Leven, the Lelanonius of Ptolemy,
otherwife called Lemma, the Latin name for Leno^c.
The river Leven is a pure tranfparent paftoral dream,
that warbles over a bed of pebbles, through a delight¬
ful vale adorned with farms, feats, woods, and.planta¬
tions. It derives its origin from the great lake called
Lochlomdltil, of which indeed it is the overflowirfg, and,
after a delightful meandring courfe of five or fix miles,
difembogues itfelf into the Clyde at the caftle of Dun¬
barton. But the greateft curiofity of this county i*
Lochlomond itfelf, a vaft body of frefh water, fup>-
plied by fubterraqeous fprings and rivulets, furround-
ed with huge mountains, extending 25 miles in length,
and in fome places five miles in breadth, incredibly
deep in every part, interfperfed with 24 verdant ifles,
fome of which are (locked with red deer, and inhabi¬
ted. Nothing can be more wildly romantic than this
part of the country during the fummer-feafon, on the
fouth fide of the lake: the high road runs in fome
places through natural woods; overhung, an one hand,
by deep mountains, covered with flowery heath ; and
on the other opening in long villas upon the lake, ter¬
minated by green iflands that feem to float upon the
water. Among the rivers of this (hire we (hall like-
wife^ mention the water of Blane, which, though itfelf
an inconfiderable dream, hath been rendered famous
by the birth of George Buchanan, the celebrated La¬
tin poet arid hiftorian. He was born on the north
fide of the lake, not far from the place called Bucha¬
nan, where we may behold an elegant feat belonging
to the duke of Montrofe, head of the noble family of
Graham, fo often diftinguilhed by its loyalty, inte¬
grity, and valour. The fame part of the'country gave
birth to the great mathematician and naturalift, Na¬
pier, Lord Merchifton, inventor of the logarithms.
The title of Lenox, with the property of great part of
the (hire, was heretofore veiled in a branch of the
royal family of Stuart, with which it was reunited in
the perfon of King James VI. whofe father, Henry
Lord Darnly, was fon to the duke of Lenox. This
prince conferred the title upon his kinfman Efme
Stuart, fon of John Lord d’Aubigney in France : but,
his race failing at the death of Charles duke of Lenox
and Richmond, and the eftate devolving to the crown.
King Charles II. conferred both titles on his own na¬
tural fon by the duchefs of Portfmouth ; and they are
dill enjoyed by his pofterity. The people of Lenox-
(hire are chiefly Ldwlanders, though in fome parts of
it divine fervice is performed in the Erfe language.
The mod.numerous clans in this diftridl, are the Mac-
farlaaes, the Colquhouns, and the Buchanans. They
generally profefs the Proteftant faith, according to
the Prefbyterian difeipline; yet fome of the gentle¬
men follow the Englifli ritual. The commonalty are
for the moll part fober, honed, and induftrious; and
though they live poorly, are tall, vigorous, and heal¬
thy.
LENS, a piece of glafs, or any other tranfparent
fubftauce, the furfaces of which are fo formed, that
3 G 2 - the
LEO t ?88 ] LEO
Lent
the rays of light, by paffing through it, are made to
change their dire&ion, either tending to meet in a
point beyond the lens, or made to become parallel af¬
ter converging or diverging; or laftly, proceeding as if
they had iffued from a point before they fell upon the
lens. Some lenfes are convex, or thicker in the
middle; fome concave, or thinner in the middle ;
fome plano-convex, or plano-concave; that is with
one fide flat, and the other convex or concave; and
fome are called memfcufes, or convex on one fide and
concave on the other. See Dioptrics, p. 33
LENT, a folemn time of failing in the Chriftian
church, obferved as a time of humiliation before
Eafter, the great feftival of our Saviour’s refurrec-
tion.
Thofe of the Romiflr church, and fome of the Pro-
teftant communion, maintain, that it was always a
fall of 40 days, and,- as fuch, of apoftolical inilitu-
tion. Others think it was only of ecclefiaftieal in-
llitution, and that it was varioufly obfefved in dif¬
ferent churches, and grew by degrees from a fall of
40 hours to a fall of 40 days. This is the fentiment
of Morton, Bifhop Taylor, Du Moulin, Daille, and
others.
Anciently the manner of obferving lent among thofe
who were pioufly difpofed, was to abftain from food
till evening: their only refreftiment was a fupper; and
then it was indifferent whether it was flefh or any other
food, provided it was ufed with fobriety and modera¬
tion.
Lent was thought the proper time for exercifing,
more abundantly, every fpecies of charity. Thus
what they fpared from their own bodies by abridging
them of a meal, was ufually given to the poor ; they
employed their vacant hours in vifiting the fick and
thofe that were in prifon, in entertaining ftrangers,
and reconciling differences. The imperial laws for¬
bad all profecution of men in criminal attions, that
might bring them to corporal punifhment and torture,
during the whole feafon. This was a time of more
than ordinary ftri&nefs and devotion, and therefore in
many of the great churches they had religious affem-
blies for prayer and preaching every day. All public
games and ftage-plays were prohibited at this feafon ;
as alfo the celebration of all feftivals, birth-days, and.
marriages, as unfuitabje to the prefent occafion.
The Chriflians of the Greek church obferve four
lents : the firft commences on the 15th of November;
the fecond is the fame with our lent; the third begins
the week after Whitfuntide, and continues till the
feftival of St Peter and St Paul; and the fourth com¬
mences on the firft of Auguft, and lafts no longer than
till the jy.th. Thefe lents are obferved with great
ftriftnefs and aufterity; but on Saturdays and Sun¬
days they, indulge themfelves in drinking wine and
lifing oil, which are prohibited on other days.
LENTIL, in botany. See Ervum.
LENTINI. See Leontini.
LENTISCUS, in botany. See Pistacia.
LEO, in zoology. See Felis.
Leo, in aftronomy, the fifth of the 12 figns of
the zodiac. The ftars in the conftellation Let> in
Ptolemy’s catalogue are 27, befides the informes,
which are 8 j in Tycho’s 30 ; in the Britannic cata¬
logue 95.
LeoX. whole proper name was John de Medicis, Leo
is a pope ever to be remembered by Proteftants, as ha- il 1
ving proved the caufe of the reformation begun by Le^™in'
Martin Luther. He had been honoured with a car-. ^r~ ,
dinal’s hat ac 14 years of age, and fome years after
with the dignity of legate by Julius II. He was in
that quality in the army which was defealed by the
French near Ravenna in 1512, where he was takea-
prifoner. The foldiers, who had overcome him, ftiow-
ed him fuch great veneration, that they humbly alked
his pardon for gaining the victory, befought him to
give them abfolution for it, and promifed never, to bear
arms againft the pope. When Pope Julius died, Leo
was very ill of the venereal difeafe at Florence, and wa*
carried to Rome in a litter. His hurrying about every
night to the cardinals of his fadlion, occafioned the
breaking of his ulcerand the matter which ran from
it exhaled fuch a ftench, that all the cells in the con¬
clave, which were feparated only by thin partitions,
were poifoned by it. Upon this the cardinals confulted
the phyficians of the conclave, to know what the mat¬
ter was. They, being bribed, faid the cardinal de
Medicis could not live a month; which fentence 00
cafioned his being chofen pope. Thus cardinal de
Medicis, then not 30 years of age, was ele&ed pope
Upon a falfe information ; and as joy is the moft fove-
reign of all remedies, he foon after recovered his
health, fo that the old cardinals had reafon to repent
their credulity.—-He was better calculated for a tem¬
poral prince, being ambitious, politic, luxurious, a
connoifleur in the .hue arts, and an accomplilhed fine
gentleman : thus qualified, it is no wonder that fo.
young a pontiff, neglefting the true intereft of hie
church, fhould avail himfelf of the folly of religious
dupes, and . publicly fell indulgences to fupport his
prodigality, efpecially as he was known to dilbclieve
Chriftianky itfelf, which he called ^ very profitable falls
for him anil his predecejfors. In 1517, he published ge¬
neral indulgences throughout Europe (and ordered the
priefts to recommend them) in favour of thofe who
would contribute any fum towards completing the
church of St Peter; and this was the bafis of the re¬
formation. (See Luther and Indulgence.) Leo
died in 1521.
It is but juftice to add, that to this pope was prin¬
cipally owing the revival of polite literature in Italy.
He fpared neither pains nor expence in recovering an¬
cient manufcripts, and procuring good editions oP'
them"; he favoured the arts and fciences ; and gloried
in being the patron of learned and ingenious men, who
in returu have been very lavifh in his praife. Mr
Pope, in his effay on Criticifm, bellows on him thefe.
hatmonious lines.
But fee ! each mufe in Leo’s golden days,
Starts from her trance ; and t.irusher wither’d bays;
Rome’s ancient Genius, o’er its ruins fpread,
Shakes off the dull, ai d rears his rev’rend head.
Then Sculpture and her filler Arts revive :
Stones leap to form, and rocks begin to live;
With Tweeter notes each rifing temple rung ;
A Raphael painted, and a Vida fung.
Leo (St),, a fmall but ftrong town of Italy, in the
territory of the church, and duchy of Urbino, with a
bithop’s ue It is feated on a mountain, near the ri¬
ver Marreciiia, in E. Long, 12. 25. N. Lat. 43. .57.
LEQMiNSTEK-* a town of Herefordfhire, in
England^
r. E O [ 789 ] L E
England, feated on the river Lug, which waters the ders it fubjeft to earthquakes,
north and eaft fides of the town, and over which there
are feveral bridges. It Isa large, handfome, populous
borough ; and is a great thoroughfare betwixt South-
Wales and London, from which laft it is diitant 113
meafured miles. In King John’s reign it was burnt,
but foon rebuilt. It was incorporated by Queen Mary,
and is-governed by a high ileward, bailiff, recorder, 12
capital burgefles (out of whom the bailiff is chofen),
and a town-clerk. Its market is on Friday, and its
fairs, which are all noted for horfes and black cattle,
on.-February 13th, Tuefday after Midlent-Sunday,
May 13th, July 10th, September 4th, and November
lift. The market was on. Thurfday till it was chan¬
ged, on a petition from the cities of Hereford and
Worcefter, complaining of their lofs of trade} fince
which, the vaft trade it had in wool and wheat is much
leflened. The belt flax is faid to grow here, and it
It was taken by LeongjjJ
in fight of a Spanifh ar- . II.,
—T r ^ Leoimctf,
the buccaneers in 1685,
my who were fix to one. W. Long. 86. 10. N. Lat.
12. 25.
LEONARD de noblet (St.) an ancient town of
France, in the province of Guienne and territory of Li-
mofin, with a confiderable manufaftory of cloth and
paper: It is feated on the river Vienne, in E. Long,
1. 35. N. Lat. 4?. 50.
LEONARDO da vinci- See Vinci.
LEONCLAVIUS (John), one of the mod learn--
ed men of the 16th century, was a native of"Weftpha-
lia. He travelled into Turkey, and collected excel¬
lent materials for compofing The Ottoman htjlory ; and
it is to him the public is indebted for the belt account
we have of that empire. To his knowledge in the
learned languages, he had added that of the civil law j
whereby he was very well qualified to tranflate the Ba-
has been equally noted for the beft wheat, barley, and Jtlica. His other verfions were efteemed, though critics
the fineft bread. The inhabitants drive a confiderable pretend to have found many faults in them. He died
trade not only in the wool, but in gloves, leather, hat- in 1593, aged 60.
making, ^ &c. and there are feveral rivers in and a-
bout the town on which they have mills and other ma¬
chines. Near its church arefome 1 .mains of its priory;
and on a neighbouring hill are the ruins of a palace,
LEONIDAS I. king of Sparta, a renowned war-
flain in defending the ftraits of Thermopylae a-
l Xerxes, 480 B. C. See Sparta.
LEONINE, in poetry, is applied to a kind of
called to this day Comfort-Caflle. It has fevetal good verfes which rhime at every hemiftic, the middle always
* 1:—w r chiming to the end. Of which kind we find feveral
ancient hymns, epigrams, prophecies, &c.—For in-
ftance, Muretus fpeaking of the poetry of Lorenii©
Gambara of Brefie, fays,
Brixia, wy?ratis merdofa volumina Tiatis,
Non funt tergere digna nates.
The following one is from the fcho.ol of Salernum :
Ut vites poenam de potibus incipe ceenam.
The origin of the word is fomewhat qbfeure : Pali*-
quier derives it from one Leoninus or Leonius, who
excelled in this way ; and dedicated feveral- pieces to
Pope Alexander III.; others derive it from Pope Leo 5,.
and others from the bead called/wn, by reafon it is the
loftieil of all verfes.
LEONTICA, feafts or facrinces celebrated among
the ancients in honour of the fun.—They were called
Leontica, and the pi iefts who officiated at them Leones^
inns, and fends two members to parliament, W. Long.
2. 45. N. Lat. 52. 20.
LEON, an ancient town of France, in Lower Bre¬
tagne, and capital of the Lyonnois, with a biftiop’s
fee. It is feated near the fea, in W. Long. 3. 55. N.
Lat. 48. 41.
Leon, a province of Spain, with the title of a king¬
dom ; bounded on the north by Afturjas; on the weft
by Galicia and Portugal; and on the fouth by Eftre-
madui a and Caftile, which alfo bounds it on the eaft.
It is about 125. miles in length, and too in breadth ;
and is divided into two almoft equal parts by the ri¬
ver Duero, or Douro. It produces all the neceffaries
of life, and Leon is the capital town.
Leon, an ancient and laige epifcopal town of Spain,
and capital of the kingdom of that name, built by the
Romans in the time of Galba. It has the fineft cathe¬
dral church in ail Spain. It was formerly more rich becaufe they reprefented the fun under the figure of a
and populous than at prefent, and had the honour of lion radiant, bearing a tiara, and griping in his two
being the capital of the firft Chriftian kingdom in fore paws the horns of a bull, who ftruggled with him
Spain. It is feated between two fources of the river in vain to difengage himfelf.
Efra, in W. Long. 5. 13. N. Lat. 42. 55. The critics are extremely divided about this feaft.
Leon (Petef Cicca de), author of the hiftory of Some will have it anniverfary, and to have made its
Peru. He left Spain his native country at 13 years of return not in a folar but in a lunar year ; but others
age, in order to go into America, where he refided 17 hold its return more- frequent, and give inftancea
years; and obferved fo many remarkable things, that where the period was not above two hundred and
he refolved to commit them to writing. The firft part twenty days.
of his hiftory was printed at Seville in 155.3. He be- The ceremony was fometimes alfo called Mitbriaca;
gan it in 1541, and ended it in 1550. He was at Li- Mithras being the name of the fun among the ancient
ma, the capital of the kingdom of Peru, when he gave Perfians. There was always a man facrinced at thefe:
the finiftiing ftroke to it, and waa then 32 years of feafts,.till the time of Hadrian, wdio prohibited it by
age. a law. Commodus introduced the cuftom afrelh, after
Leon de Nicaragua, a town of North America, in whofe time k was again exploded.
New Spain, and in the province of Nicaragua ; the re- LEONTICE, lion’s leaf: A genus of the mo-
fidence of the governor, and a bilhop’s lee. It con-
fifts of about looohoufes, and has ieveral monafteries
and nunneries belonging to it. At one end of the
town is a lake which ebbs and flows like the fea. The
town is feated at the foot of a volcano, which ren*
nogynia order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
24th order, Corydales. The corolla is hexapetalous
the ne&arium hexaphyllous, ftanding.on the heels of;
the corolla, with its limb patent; the calyx hexaphyl-
ous,..
LEO [ 79= 1 L E P
lieontini lous, and deciduous. There are four fpecies, natives 43d order, VtrHctllat*. The antherae are powdered Leonurm
i! of the fouthem parts of Europe, two of which are with (hining points, or fmall elevated globular par* . II 1
^.eonurus. fomet;mes cultivated in this country. Thefe are, tides. . eP^n 0,i
1. The cbryfogonum with winged leaves; and, z. The Species. 1. The Africana, with fpear-ftiaped leaves, 1
leontopetalum with decompounded leaves. Both thofe is a native of Ethiopia. It rifes with a Ihrubby ilalk
-plants are natives of the Archipelago iflands, and alfo feven or eight feet high, fending out feveral four cor-
growinthe corn-fieldsaboutAleppoin Syria, wherethey nered branches, garnifhed with oblong narrow leaves,
flower foon after Chriltmas. They have large tuberous acutely indented on their edges, hairy on their upper
roots like thofe of the cyclamen, covered with a dark- fide, and veined on the under fide, Handing oppofite.
"brown bark. The flowers fit upon naked footftalks: The flowers are produced in whorls, each of the
-thofe of the firfl fort fuftain many yellow flowers, but branches having two or three of thefe whorls towards
the flowers of the fecond _afe of a paler colour. Both their ends. They are of the lip kind, fhaped forrie-
fpecies are propagated by feeds, which mufl: be fown what like thofe of the dead nettle f but are much lohg-
foon after they are ripe, otherwife they feldom fucceed. er, ar^d covered with fhort hairs. They are of a gol-
When Cent to diflant countries, they muftbe preferved den fcarlet colour, fo make a fine appearance. The
in fand. The plants are, however, very difficult to be flowers commonly appear in October and November,
' preferved in this country : for they will not thrive in "and fometimes continue till the middle of December,
-pots ; and when they are planted in the full ground, but are not fucceeded by feeds in this country. There
froft frequently deftroys them. The beft way is to is a variety with variegated leaves which is admired by
fow the feed as foon as it comes from abroad, covering fome, but the whorls of flowers are fmaller than thofe
it with glafles in the winter to proteft it from froft ; of the plain fort. 2. The nepetasfolia, with oval leaves,
and, in the fpring, when the plants begin to appear, is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. This rifes
they muft have free air admitted to them at all times with a fquare fhrubby ftalk about three feet high,
when the weather is mild, otherwife they will be fending out feveral four-cornered branches, garniftied
weak. with oval crenated leaves, rough on their under fide
LEONTINI, or Leontium (anc. geog.), a town like the dead-nettle, but veined on the upper fide,
of Sicily on the fouth fide of the river Terias, 20 miles and placed oppofite. The flowers come out in whorls
north-weft of Syracufe. The territory, called Campi like thofe of the former fort, but are not fo long nor
was extremely fertile (Cicero): thefe were the fo deep coloured. They appear at the fame feafon
Campi Ltejlrigonii, anciently fo called; the feat of the with the firft, and continue as long in beauty. There
Laeftrigons, according to the commentators on the are three other fpecies, but the above are the moft re¬
poets. The name is from .Leo, the impteffion markable.
on their coin being a lion. Now called J.entini, a Culture. Both forts are propagated by cuttings,
town fituaced in the Val di Noto, in the fouth-eaft of which ffiould be expofed to the air long enough to
Sicily. harden the Ihoots, and planted in the beginning of
LEONTIUM, one of the twelve towns of Achaia, July, after which they will take root very freely,
whether on, or more diftant from, the bay of Corinth, They ftxould be planted in a loamy border to an ea-
is uncertain. Leontium of Sicily. See Leontini. Item afpeft ; and if they are covered clofely with a
LEONTODON, dandelion: A genus of the po- bell or hand-glafs to exclude the air, and ffiaded from
lygamia aequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia the fun, it will forward their putting forth *roots. As
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking un- foon as they have taken good root, they ftiould be taken
der the 49th order, Compofita. The receptacle is na- up and planted each in a feparate pot filled with foft
ked ; the calyx imbricated, with the feales fomewhat loamy earth, and placed in the lhade till they have ta-
loofe; the pappus feathery. There are nine fpecies, ken new root. In Odlober they muft be removed into
of which the only remarkable one is the Taraxacum, the green-houfe.
or common dandelion, found on the road Tides, in pa- LEOPARD. See Felis.
ftures, and on the banks of ditches. Early in the Leopard's Bane, in botany. See Doronicum.
fpring, the leaves whilft yet white and hardly unfolded LEPANTO, a ftrong^and very confiderable town
are an excellent ingredient in falads. The French eat of Turkey in Europe, and in Livadia, with an archbi-
the roots and tender leaves with bread and butter. Chil- (hop’s fee and a ftrong fort. It is built on the top of
dren that eat it in the evening experience its diuretic a mountain, in form of a fugar-loaf: and is divided in-
effedfs in the night, which is the reafon that other Eu- to four towns, each furrounded by walls, and com-
ropean nations as well as ourfelves vulgarly call it manded by a caftle on the top of the mountain. The
pi/s-a bed. When a fwarm of locufls had deftroyed the harbour is very fmall, and may be (hut up by a chain,
harveft in the ifland of Minorca, many of the inhabi- the entrance being but 50 feet wide, It was ta-
tants fubfifted upon this plant. The exprefled juice ken from the Turks by ^he Venetians in 1687 ; but
has been given to the quantity of four ounces three or was afterwards evacuated, and the caftle demolifhed in
four times a day; and Boerhaave had a great opinion 1699, in confequence of the treaty of Chilowitz. It
of the utility of this and other ladtefcent plants in vif- was near this town that Don John of Auftria obtain-
ceral obftruftions. Goats eat it; Twine devour it ed the famous victory over the Turkiflr fleet in 1571.
greedily ; ftieep and cows are not fond of it, and The produce of the adjacent country is wine, oil, corn,
horfes refufe it. Small birds are fond of the feeds. and rice. Turkey leather is alfo manufailured here.
LEONURUS, lion’s-tail: A genus of the gym- The wane would be exceedingly good if they did not
npfpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of pitch their veflels on the infide, but this renders the
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the tafte very difagreeable to thofe who are not accu-
ftomed
L E P [ 791 1 L E P
Lepas ftomed to it. The Turks have fix or feven mofqiies
. H here, and the Greeks two churches. It is feated on
_ eP‘um~ , a gulph of the fame name, in E. Long. 22. 13. N.
Lat. 38. 34.
LEPAS, the acorn, in zoology; a genus belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teftacea. The animal is
the triton; the fhell is multivalve, unequal, fixed by
a ftem or feilile. There are feveral fpecies, of which
the moft remarkable is the anatifera, confiding of five
fhells depreffed, affixed to a pedicle and in clufters. It
adheres to the bottom of fhips by its pedicles. The
tentacula from its animal are feathered ; and have gi¬
ven the old Englifh hiftorians and naturalifis the idea
of a bird. They afcribed the origin of the barnacle
goofe to thofe (hells. See Plate CCLXIII.
LEPID1UM, dittander, or PeppeTivort: A ge¬
nus of the filiculofse order, belonging to the tetradyna-
mia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 39th order, Siliquofa. The filicula is emar-
ginated, cordated, and polyfpermous, with the valves ca-
rinated contrary or broader than the partition. There
are 19 fpecies, of which the only remarkable one is the
latifolium or common dittander. This is a native of
many parts both of Scotland and England. It hath
fmatl, white, creeping roots, by which it multiplies
very, faft, and is difficult to be eradicated after it has
long grown in any place. The ftalks are fmooth, rife-
two feet high, and fend out many fide-branches. The
flowers grow in clofe bunches towards the top of the
branches, coming out from the fide ; they are fmall,
and compofed of four fmall white petals. The feeds
’ ripen in autumn. The whole plant has a hot biting
tafte like pepper ; and the leaves have been often ufed
by the country-people to give a relifh to their viands
inftead of that fpice, whence the plant has got the ap¬
pellation of poor man s pepper. It is reckoned an anti-
fcorbutic, and was formerly ufed inftead of the horfe
radijh Jcurvy-grafs.
LEPIDOPTERA, in zoology, an order of infefts,
with four wings, which are covered with imbricated
fquamuise. See Zoology.
LEPISMA, in zoology ; a genus of apterous in¬
fers, the chara&ers of which are : They have fix feet
formed for running ; the mouth is furnifhed with four
palpi, two of which are cetaceous and two capitated ;
the tail is terminated by extended bridles,, and the
body imbricated with feales. There are 7 fpecies. The
facchdrina (Plate CGLXXIV.) is an American fpecies,
fo called becaufe moftly found among fugar 5 but now
common in Europe. It is of a leaden colour, but ra¬
ther inclining to that of filver, by reafon of the fmall
filvery feales with which it is covered; by which fame
circumftance it refembles, efpecially in its under part,
the filver fifh. It is found in gardens, under boxes,
and in the crevices of window-fafhes in houfes, where
it is very common. It runs with great fwiftnefs, and
is difficult to catch. When touched, it lofes part of
its feales, and its foftnefs makes it eafy to crufh,
LEPIUM, in natural hiftory a genus of/offils of
the harder gypfum, compofed of very fmall particles,
and of a lefs glittering hue.
There is only one fpecies of this genus, being one
of the lead valuable and moft impure of the clafs of
gypfums. It is of an extremely rude, irregular, coarfe,
and unequal ftrudurej a little foil to the touch, of a
very dull appearance, and of different degrees of a Lcprofy
greyifh white. It is burnt in plafter for the coarfer II
works; it calcines very (lowly and unequally, and. Lepil3‘ ,
makes but a very coarfe and ordinary plafter. —y——
LEPROSY, a foul cutaneous difeafe, appearing-
in dry, white, thin, feurfy fcabs, either on the whole
body, or only fome part of it, and ufually attended
with a violent itching and other pains. See (the Index
fubjoined to) Mebicjne.
The leprofy is of various kinds, but the Jews were
particularly fubjed to that called Ekphantiafis. Hence
the Jewifh law excluded lepers from communion with
mankind, banifhing them into the country or uninha¬
bited places, without excepting even kings. When a
leper was cleanfed, he came to the city gate, and was
there examined by the priefts ; after this he took two
live birds to the temple, and fattened one of them to
a wifp of cedar and hyffop tied together with a fcarlet
ribbon ; the fecond bird was killed by the leper, and-
the blood of it received into a veffel of water; with,
this water the prieft fprinkled .the leper, dipping the
wifp and the live bird into it: this done, the live bird
was let go ; and the leper, having undergone this cere¬
mony, was again admitted into fociety and to the ufe
of things facred. See Levit. xiii. 46. 47. and Levit.
xiv. 1.2. &c.
LEPTODECORHOMBES, in natural hiftory, a
genus of foffils of the order of the felenitae; confiding
of 10 planes, each fo nearly equal to that oppofite Un¬
it as very'much to approach to a decahedral parallelo-
pepid, though never truly or regularly ib.
Of this genus there are pnly five known fpecies.
1. A thin, fine, pellucid, and (lender-ftreaked one,,
with tranfverfe ftrise, found in confiderable quantities
in the ftrata of clay in moft parts of England, particu¬
larly near Heddington in Oxfordfhire. 2. A thin*
dull-looking, opaque, and (lender-ftreaked one, more
fcarce than the former, and found principally in Lei-
cefterftiire and Staffordfhire. 3. A thin fine-ftreaked
one, with longitudinal ftriac, found in the clay pits at:
Richmond, and generally lying at great depths. This
has often on its top and bottom a very elegant fmaller
rhomboide, deferibed by four regular lines. 4. A
rough kind, with thick tranfverfe ftriae, and a fca-
brous furface, very common in Leicefterftiire and.
Yorklhire. And, 5. A very (hort kind, with thick.
plates, common in the clay-pits of Northamptonftiire.
and Y<5rk(hire.
LEPTOPOLYGINGLIMI, in natural hiftory, a.
genus of foffil (hells, diftinguilhed by a number of
minute teeth at the cardo ; whereof we find great,
numbers at Harwich-cliff, and in the marle-pits of
Suffex
LEPTUM, in antiquity, a fmall piece of money^
which, according to fome, was only the eighth part
of an obolus; but others.will have it to be a filver or
brafs drachm.
LEPTURA, in zoology, a genus of infe&s be¬
longing to the order of coleoptera, the charadters of
which are thefe —The feelers are briftly ; the elytra .
are attenuated towards the apex : and the thorax is
fomewhat cylindrical. There are 25 fpecies, princi¬
pally diftinguiftred by their colour.
LEPUS, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds be*
longing, to the order of glires. The chara&ers are.
thefe.|;
L E P [ 79* 1 E E P
Lepas, tlieh' *—They have two fore-teeth la each jaw; thofe hare is not fo favagre as his manners would indicate. He I-
in the upper-jaw are double, the interior ones being
fmallell.
i. The timidus, or common hare, has a flioft tail.;
the points of {he ears are black ; the upper-lip is divi¬
ded up to the noftrils; the length of the body is gene¬
rally about a foot and a half; and the colour of the
hair is reddifh, interfperfed with white. The hare is
naturally a timid animal. He fleeps in his form or
feat during the day ; and feeds, copulates, &c. in the
night. In a moon light evening, a number of them
^re fometimes feen fporting together, leaping and pur-
fuing each other : But the leaft motion, the falling of
a leaf, alarms them ; and then they all run off feparate-
ly,, each taking a different route. They are extremely
fwift in their motion, which is a kind of gallop, or a
fucceffion of quick leaps. When purfued, they always
take to the higher grounds : as their fore-feet are
much fhorter than the hind ones, they run with more
eafe up-hill than down-hill. The hare is endowed
with all thofe inftin&s which are neceffary for his own
prefervation. In winter he choofes a form expofed to
the fouth, and in fummer to the north. He conceals
himfelf among vegetables of the fame colour with him-
felf. ^r Fouilloux fays, that he obferved a hare, as
Toon as he heard the found of the horn, or the nolfe
of the dogs, although at a mile’s diftance, rife from
her feat, fwim acrofs a rivulet, then lie down among
the bufhes, and by this means evade the feent of the
dogs. After being chafed for a couple of hours, a
hare will fometimes pufh another from his form, and
'lie down in it himfelf. When hard preflcd, the hare
will mingle with a flock of flieep, run up an old wall
and conceal himfclf among the grafs on the top of it,
or crofs a river feveral times at fmall diftances. He
never runs again ft the wind, or ftraight forward; but
conflantly doubles about, in order to make the dogs
;lofe their, feent.
It is remarkable that the hare, although ever fo
'frequently purfued by the dogs, feldom leaves the
place where Are was brought forth, or even the form
in which (he ufually fits. It is common to find them
in the fame place next day, after being long and
keenly chafed the day before. The females are more
grofs, than the males, and have lefs ftrength and agi¬
lity; they are likewife more timid, and never allow
the dogs to approach fo near their form before rifing
as the males. They likewife praftife more arts, and
double more frequently than the males.
The hare is diffufed almoft over every climate ; and,
notwithftanding they are every where hunted, their
fpecies never diminifiies. They are in a condition of
propagating the firft year of their lives; the females
go with young about 30 days, and produce four or
five at a time ; and as foon as they have brought forth,
they again admit the embraces of the male; fo that
they may be faid to be always pregnant. The eyes
of the young are open at birth ; the mother fuckles
them about 20 days, after which they feparate from
her, and procure their own food. The young never
go far from the place where they were brought forth ;
but ftill they live folitary, and. make forms about 30
paces diftant from each other; Thus, if a young hare
be found any-where, you may almoft be certain of
finding feveral others within a very fmall diftance. The
IT 18 a.
is gentle, and is fufceptible of a kind of education. He
is pretty eafily tamed, and will even (how a kind of
attachment to the people of the houfe-: But ft ill this
attachment is not fo ftrong or lading as to engage him
to become altogether-domeltic ; for although taken
when very young, and brought up in the houfe, he no
fooner arrives at a certain age, than he takes the firft
opportunity of recovering his liberty, and flying to
the fields. The hare lives abotat feven or eight years.
He feeds upon grafs tind other vegetables. His flefti
is excellent food.
Hares are very fuhjeft to fleas. Linnaeus tells us,
that the Dalecarlians make a fort of cloth, called fell,
of the fur; which, by attracting thefe infers, pre-
ferves the wearer from their troublefome attacks. The
hair of this creature makes a great article in the hat-
manufa&nre; and, as our country cannot fupply a
fufficient quantity, a great deal is annually imported
from Ruflra and Siberia. The hare was reckoned a
great delicacy among the Roman; the Britons, on
the contrary, thought it impious even to tafte it: yet
this animal was cultivated by them, either for the plea-
fure of the chace, or for the purpofes of fuperftition ;
as we are informed, that Boadicea,‘immediately before
her laft conflict with the Romans, loofe a hare {he
had concealed in her bofom, which taking wh.at was
deemed a fortunate courfe, animated her foldiers by
the omen of an eafy victory over a timid enemy.
2. The variabilis, or varying hare of Pallas, has foft
hair, which in funamer is grey, with a flight mixture
of black and tawny ; the ears are fliorter, and the legs
more {lender, than thofe of the common hare : the tail
is entirely white, even in fummer ,• and the feet arc
moft clofely and warmly furred. In winter, the whole
animal changes to a fnowy whitenefs, exoept the tips
and edges of the ears, which remain black, as are the
loles of the feet, on which, in Siberia, the fur is doubly
thick, and of a yellow colour. It is lefs than the com¬
mon fpecies.—^Thefe animals inhabit the higheft Scot*
tifli Alps, Norway, Lapland, Ruflia, Siberia, Kamt-
fchatka, and the banks of the Wolga, and Hudfon’s-
Bay. In Scotland, they keep on the tops of the high¬
eft hills, and never defeend into the vales; nor do they
ever mix with the common hare, though thefe abound
in this neighbourhood. They do not run faft ; and
are apt to take flieber in clefts of rocks. They are
eafily tamed, arid are full of frolic. They are fond of
honey and carraway comfits; and they are obfer¬
ved to eat their own dung before a ftorm. This
fpecies changes its colour in September; refumes its
grey coat in April ; and in the extreme cold of Green¬
land only is always whit?. Both kinds of hares are
common in Siberia, on the banks of the Wolga, and
in the Orenburg government. The one never changes
colour : the other, native of the fame place, conftant-
ly afiumes the whitenefs of the fnow during winter,
This it does, not only in the open air and in a ftate
of liberty, but, as experiment has proved, even when
kept tame, and preferved in houfes in the ftove-warmed
apartments, in wfiich it experiences the fame changes
of colour as if it had dwelt on the foowy plains.—They
colleft together, and are feen in troops of five or fix
hundred, migrating in fpring, and returning in autumn.
They are compelled to this by the want of fubliltence,
quitting
Lepus.
L E P [ 793 ] L E P
quitting in the winter the lofty hills, the fouthern
boundaries of Siberia, and £eek the plains and northern
wooded parts, where vegetables abound ; and towards
fpring feek again the mountainous quarters.
Mr Muller fays, he once faw two black hares, in
Siberia, of a wonderful fine glofs, and of as full a black
as jet. Near Cafan was ..taken another, in the middle
of the winter 1768. Thefe fpecmens were much lar¬
ger than the common kind. •%»"•
In the fouthern and weftern provinces of Ruffia is
a mixed breed of hares, between this and the common
fpecies. It fuftains, during winter only, a partial lofs
of colour: the fides, and more expofed parts of the
ears and legs, in that feafon becoming white ; the
other parts retaining their colours. This variety is un¬
known beyond the Urallian chain. It is called by the
Ruffians rujfack ; they take them in great numbers in
fnares, and export their fkins to England and other
places for the manufa&ure of hats. The Ruffians and
Tartars, like the Britons of old, hold the flefh of hares
in deteftation, efteeming it impure : that of the vari¬
able, in its white ftate, is exceffively infipid.
There have been feveral inftances of what may be called
monflers in this fpecies, horned hares, having excrefcen-
ces growing out of their heads, like to the horns of
the roe-buck. Such are thofe figured in Gefner’s hi-
ftory of quadrupeds, p. 634; in the Mufeum Regium
Hafnia, n° 48. tab. iv; and in Klein’s hiftory of qua¬
drupeds, 32. tab. iii.; and again defcribed in Wor-
mius’s mufeum, p. 321, and in Grew’s mufeum of the
Royal Society. Thefe inftances have occurred in Saxo¬
ny, in Denmark, and near Aftracan,
3. The Americanus, American hare, or hedge-coney,
has the ears tipt with grey: the upper part of the tail
is black, the lower white : the neck and body are mixed
with cinereous, ruft-colour, and black ; the legs are of a
pale ferruginous colour; and the belly is white : the fore¬
legs are {hotter, and the hind legs longer, in propor¬
tion, than thofe of the common hare. In length it is
18 inches; and weighs from 3 to 44- pounds.—This
fpecies inhabits all parts of North America. In New
Jerfey, and the colonies fouth of that province, it re¬
tains its colour the whole year. In New England, Ca¬
nada, and about Hudfon’s-Bay, at the approach of win¬
ter, it changes its ftiort fummer’s fur for one very long,
filky, and filvery, even to the roots of the hairs; the
edges of the ears only preferving their colour. At
that time thefe hares are in the higheft feafon for the
table ; and are of vaft ufc to thofe who winter in Hud¬
fon’s-Bay, where they are taken in great abundance
in fpringes made of brafs-wire, to which they are led by
a hedge made for that purpofe,with holes left before
the fnares for the animals to pafs through.—They
breed once or twice a-year, and have from five to feven
at a time. They do not migrate, like the preceding;
but always haunt the fame places : neither do they bur
row; but lodge under fallen timber, and in hollow
trees. They breed in the grafs ; but in fpring {heller
their young in the trees, to which they alfo run when
purfued ; from which, in the fouthern colonies, the
hunters force them by means of a hooked fiick, or by
making a fire, and driving them out by the fmoke.
4. The tolai, or Baikal hare, has a tail longer than
that of a rabbit; and the ears are longer in the male
Vol. IX. Part II.
in proportion than thofe of the varying hare : the fur
is of the colour of the common hare ; and the fize be¬
tween that of the common and the varying hare. It
inhabits the country beyond lake Baikal, and extends
through the great Gobee even to Thibet. The Tan-
guts call it Rangivo, and confecrate it among the
fpots of the moon. The Mongols call it Tilai. It
agrees with the common rabbit in colour of the flefii;
but does not burrow, runnihg inftantly (without ta¬
king a ring as the common hare does) for Ihelter,
when purfued, into holes of rocks. The fur is bad,
and of no ufe in commerce.
5. The Capenfis, or Cape hare, has long ears dilated
in the middle ; the outfides naked, and of a rofe co¬
lour, the infide and edges covered with ihort grey
hairs : the crown and back are ©f a dulky colour mix¬
ed with tawny ; the cheeks and fides cinereous ; the
breaft, belly, and legs, ruft-coloured : the tail is buftiy,
carried upwards ; and of a pale ferruginous colour.
The animal is about the fize of a rabbit. It inhabits
the country three days north of the Cape of Good
Hope ; where it is called the mountain hare, for it lives
only in the rocky mountains, and does not burrow. It
is difficult to {hoot it, as it inftantly, on the fight of
any one, runs into the fiffures of the rocks.
Allied to this, in Mr Pennant’s opinion, feems the
vifcachos, or vifcachas, mentioned by Acofta and Feu-
illee, in their accounts of Peru : they compare them to
hares or rabbits. The laft fays, they inhabit the colder
parts of the country. Their hair is very foft, and of
a moufe-colour ; the tail is pretty long, and turns up ;
and the ears and whilkers are like thofe of the common
rabbit. In the time of the Incas, the hair was fpun,
and wove into cloth, which was fo fine as to be ufed
only by the nobility.
6. The cuniculus,or rabbit, has a very {hort tail, and
naked ears. The colour of the fur, in a wild ftate, is
brown; the tail black above, white beneath : in a tame
ftate the general colour varies to black, pied, and quite
white; and the eyes are of a fine red. The native
country of this fpecies is Spain, where they were for¬
merly taken with ferrets, as is pradlifed in this country
at prefent. They love a temperate and warm climate, and
are incapable of bearing great cold; fo that in Sweden
they are obliged to be kept in houfes. They abound in
Britain. Their furs make a confiderable article in the hat
manufactories; and of late fuch part of the fur as is unfit
for that purpofe, has been found as gbbd as feathers for
Huffing beds and bolfters. Numbers of the {kins are
annually exported into China. The Englifh counties
moft noted for rabbits are Lincolnftiire, Norfolk, and
Cambridgefhire. Methold, in the laft county, is fa¬
mous for the beft kind for the table : the foil there is
fandy, and full of moffes and the carex grafs. Rabbits
fwarm in the ifles oi Orkney, where their {kins form
a confiderable article of commerce. The rabbits of thofe
ifles are in general grey; thofe which inhabit the
hills grow hoary in winter-
The variety called the ftlver-haired rabbit was for¬
merly in great efteem for lining of clothes, and their flu'ns
were fold for 3s. a-piece ; but fince the introduction
of more elegant furs, their price has fallen to 6d. The
Sunk Ifland in the Humber was once famous for a
moufc-coloured fort, which has fince been extirpated
5 H by
Lepu's,
L E P
[ 79+ 1
L E P
by reafon of the injury they did to the banks by bur-
rowing. Other varieties are,
The Angora rabbit, with hair long, waved, and of a
filky fineuefs, like that of the goat of Angoraand
the Hooded Rabbit, deferibed by Edwards as having a
double fkin over the back into which it can withdraw
its head, and another under the throat in which it can
place its forefeet: it has fmall holes in the loofe Iktn on
whiftle, fo b'ke that of a fparrow, as to deceive the
hearer. On the report of a gun, they run into
their boles ; but foon come out again, fuppofing it to
be a clap of thunder, to which they are fo much ufed
in their loity habitations. By wonderful inftinft they
make a provilion againft the rigorous feafon in their in¬
clement feats. A company of them, towards autumn,
coll eft together vaft heaps of choice herbs and graifes,
the back, to admit light to the eyes. The colour of nicely dried, which they place either beneath the
the body is cinereous ; of the bead and ears, brown.
The fecundity of the rabbjt is fttil greater than that
of the hare. They will breed feven times in the year,
and the female fometimes brings eight young ones at
a time. Suppofing this Jo happen regularly for four
years, the number of rabbits from a fuigle pair will
amount to 1,274,840. By this account we might
juilly apprehend being overllocked with thefe animals i
bn ' ’ ’ ‘
over-hanging, rocks, or between the chaftns, or round
the trunk of fome tree. The way to thefe heaps ia
jnatked by a worn path. In many places the herbs ap- ‘
peared fcattered. as if to be dried in the fun and harveii-
ed properly. The heaps are formed like round or co¬
noid ricks; and are of various fixes, according to the
number of the fociety employed in forming them. They
are fometimes of a man’s height, and many feet in dia-
a great number of enemies prevents their increale ; meter, but ufualiy about three feet. Without this pro-
r—vifion of winter’s llock they mull perilh, being prevent¬
ed by the depth of fnow from quitting their retreats in
quell of food. They feledl the bed of vegetables, and
crop them when in the fulled vigour, which they make
into the bed and greened hay by the judicious manner
in which they dry it. Thefe ricks are the origin of
fertility amidd the rocks; for the reliques, mixed with
the dung of the animals, rot in the barren chafms, and
are in a condition for generating at the end of fix create a foil produflive of vegetables. Thefe ricks are
not only men, but hawks aqd beads of prey making
dreadful havoc among them. Notwithdanding all
thefe different enemies, however, we are told by Pliny
and Strabo, that they once proved fuch a nuiiance to
the inhabitants of the Balearic iflands, that they were
obliged to implore the affidance of a military force
from Augudus in order to exterminate them. They de-
r herbage of all kinds, roots, grain, fruits, &c. They
months; and, likv the hare, the female is almod 1
ftanily in feafon ; ihe goes with young about 30 days,
and brings forth from four to eight at a litter. A few
days before littering, die digs a hole iffthe earth, not
in a draight line, but in a zig-zag form: the bottom
alfo of great fervice to thofe people who devote them-
felves to the laborious employment of fable-hunting :
for being obliged to go far from home,their horfes would
often peridi for want if they had not the provifion of
thefe little indullrious animals to fupport them; which is
of this hole die enlarges every way, and then pulls off eafily to be difeovered by their height and form, even
a great quantity of hair from her belly, of which die when covered with fnow. It is for this reafon that this
makes a kind of bed for her young. During the two
fird days after birth, (he never leaves them, but when
preffed with hunger, and then fhe eats quickly and
returns: and in this manner die fuckles and attends
her young for fix weeks. All this time both the hole
and the young are concealed from the male ; fome¬
times, when the female goes out, die, in order to deceive
the male, fills up the mouth of the hole with earth
mixed with her own urine. But when the young
ones begin to come to the mouth of the hole, and to
eat fuch herbs as the mother brings to them, the fa¬
ther feems to know them : he takes them betwixt his
little creature has a name among every Siberian and
Tartarian nation, which otherwife would have been
overlooked and defpifed. The people of Jakutz are faid
to feed both their horfes and cattle with the reliques of
the winter dock of thefe hares. Thefe animals are ne-
gle&ed as a food by mankind; but are the prey of fa¬
bles and the Siberian weefel, which are joint inhabitants
of the mountains. They are likewife greatly infeded
by a fort of gadfly, which lodges its egg in their fltin
in Augufl and September, which often proves dedruc-
tive to them.
8. The ogotona has oblong oval ears, a little pointed
paws, fmooths their hair, and careffes them with great with fliorter whifleers than the former, and hairs lon^
fondnefs.
The following fpecies are without tails.
and fmooth : the colour of thofe on the body is brown
at the roots, light grey in the middle, and white at the
7. The Alpinus, or Alpine rabbit, has diort, broad, ends intermixed with a very fewdulky hairs : there is a
rounded ears ; a long head, and very long whifleers,
with two very long hairs above each eye ; the colour
of the fur at the bottom is dufley, towards the ends of a
bright ferruginous colour; the tips white, and intermixed
are feveral long dufky hairs, though on fird infpeftiou
the whole feems of a bright bay. The length of the
animal is nine inches. This fpecies is fird feen on the
Altaic chain ; extends to lake Baikal; from thence to
Kamtfchatka ; and, as is faid, found in the new-difeo-
vered Fox or Aleutian iflands. They inhabit always
the middle region of the fnowy mountains, in the ru-
ded places, wooded and abounding with herbs and
moidure. They fometimes form burrows between the
yellowilh fpot on the nofe, and fpace about the rump
of the fame colour : the outfide of the limbs are yel-
lowilh ; the belly is white. The length is about fix
inches: weight of the male, from 64- to 7^ ounces; of the
female, from 4 to 4^. This fpecies inhabits only the
country beyond lake Baikal, and from thence is commoa
in all parts of the Mongolian defert, and the vad de-
fert of Gobee, which extends on the back of China and
Thibet, even to India. It frequents the open valley*
and gravelly or rocky naked mountains. Thefe little
creatures are called by the Mongols Ogotonn ; and are
found in vad abundance. They live under heaps of
dones; or burrow in the fandy foil, leaving two or
rocks, and oftener lodge in the crevices. They are three entrances, which all run obliquely. They make
generally found in pairs: but in cloudy weather they a ned of foft grafs ; and the old females make forfe-
colleft together, and lie ou the rocks, and give a keen curity a number of burrows near each other, that they-
may
LEPLTS .
Plate COLXDt.
L E P f 795 1 L E R
Le;u=. tnay if difturbed retreat from one to the other. They
wander out chiefly in the night. Their voice is ex-
ceffivdy rtirill, and emits a note like that of a fpar-
row, twice or thrice repeated, but very eafily to be
ditiinguifhed from that of the Alpine rabbit. They
live principally on the tender bark of a fort of fer-
vice and the dwarf-elm; in the fprtng, on different
herbs. Before the approach of fevere cold, in the ear¬
ly fpring, they colledt great quantities of herbs, and
fill their holes with them, which the inhabitants of the
country confider as a fute fign of change of weather.
Directed by the fame inflinft with the former fpecies,
they form in autumn their ricks of hay of a hemifphe-
rical fhape, about a foot high and wide : in the fpring
thefe elegant heaps difappear, and nothing but the re¬
liefs are feen. They copulate in the fpring, and about
the latter end of June their young are obferved to be
full grown. They are the prey of hawks, magpies, and
owls: but the cat Manulf makes the greateft havock
among them ; and the ermine and fitchet are equally
their enemy.
9 The pufillus, or calling rabbit, with a long head
thickly covered with fur even to the tip of the nofe ;
numerous hairs in the whifkers; ears large and round¬
ed ; legs very fhort, and the foies furred beneath : its
whole coat is very foft, long, and fmooth, with a thick,
long, fine down beneath, of a brownifh lead-colour; the
hairs are of the fame colour, towards the ends of a light
grey and tipt with black ; the lower part of the body
is hoary: the fides and ends of the fur are yellowifh. The
length of the animal is about fix inches: weight from 3J
to 4^ oz. but in winter fcarcely 2j- This fpecies in¬
habits theTouth-eaft parts of Ruffia, and about all the
ridge of hills fpreading fouthward from the Urallian
chain ; alfo about the Irtifli, and in the weft part of
the Altaic chain ; but no where in the eaft beyond
the Oby. They delight in the moft funny valleys
and herby hills, efpecially near the edges of woods, to
which they run on any alarm. They live in fo con¬
cealed a manner as very rarely to be feen : but are
often taken in winter in the fnares laid for the er¬
mines fo are well known to the hunters. About the
Volga they are called femland Saetjhii, or ground hare ;
the Tartars, from their voice, ftyle them tfchotfchot or
ittfitjhan, or the bark 'mg mouje ; the Kalmucs call them
rujla. They choofe tor their habitations a dry fpot,
amidft bullies covered with a firm fod, preferring the
weftern fides of the hills. In thefe they burrow, lea¬
ving a very fmall hole for the entrance ; and forming
long galleries, in which they make theii nefts. Thofe of
the old ones and females are numerous and intricate:
fo that their place would be fcarcely known but for
their excrements; and even thofe they drop, by a wife
inftinCt, under fame bufh, left their dwelling ftiould be
<lifcovered by their enemies among the animal crea¬
tion. Their voice alone betrays their abode ; it is
like the piping of a quail, but deeper, and fo loud
as to be heard at the diftance of half a German mile.
It is repeated by juft intervals, thrice, four times, and '
often fix. The voice is emitted at night and morning;
in the day, except in rainy and cloudy weather. It
is common to both fexes; but the female is filent
for fome time after parturition, which is about the
beginning of May N. S. She brings forth fix at a
time, blind and naked ; which fhe fuckles often, and fiepu*
covers carefully with the materials of her neft. Thefe
moft harmlefs and inoffenfive animals never go from .
their holes. They feed and make their little excur-
fions by night: they are eafily made tame ; and will
fcarcely bite when handled. The males in confine¬
ment are obferved to attack one another, and exprefs
their anger by a grunting noife.
There are three or four other fpecies of Lepus. Se¬
veral are figured on Plate CCLXIX.
Lepus, the hare, in aftronomy, a conftellation of
the fouthern hemifphere ; whofe ftars in Ptolemy’s ca¬
talogue are 12; in that of Tycho’s 13; and in the Bri¬
tannic 19.
LERCHEA, in botany ; a genus of the pentandria
order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of plants.
The calyx is five-toothed ; the corolla funnel-fhaped
and quinquefid; there are five anthers fitting on the
tube of the germ ; there is one ftyle ; the capfule trilo-
cular and polyfpermous.
LERI (John de), a Proteftant minifter of the pro¬
vince of Burgundy. He was ftudying at Geneva
when it was reported there that Villegagnon defired
they would fend him fome paftors into Brazil. He
made 4hat voyage with two minifters, whom the church
of Geneva fent thither in 1556 ; and wrote an account
of that voyage, which has been much commended by
Thuanus and others.
LERIA, or Leiria, a ftrong town of Ef.remadura
in Portugal, with a caftle and bifhop’s fee. It con¬
tains about 3500 inhabitants, and was formerly the
refidence of the kings of Portugal. W. ,Long. 7. 50.
N. Lat. 39. 40.
LERIDA, an ancient, ftrong, and large town of
Spain, in Catalonia, with a bifhop’s fee, an univeriity,
and a ftrong caftle. This place declared foi king
Charles after the reduftion of Barcelona in 1705 : but
it was retaken by the duke of Orleans in 1707, after
the battle of Almanza. It is feated on a hill near
the river Segra, and in a fertile foil, in E. Long. o. 35.
N. Lar. 41.31;
LERINA, or Planasia, (anc. geog.), one of the
two imail iflands over againft Antipolis, called alfoLe-
rinas and Lirinus. Now St Honorat, on the coaft ot
Province, fcarce two leagues to the fouth of Antibes.
LERINS, the name of two ifiands in the Medi-
terranean fea, lying on the coaft of Provence in France,
five miles from Antibes; that near the coaft, called St
Margaret, guarded by invalids, ftate-prii'oners being
fent here. It was taken by the Engliftv in 1746, but
marfttal Belleifle retook it in 1747. The other is
called St Honorat; and is lefs than the former, but has
a Benedictine abbey.
LERMA, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, feated
on the river Arlanza, with the title of a duchy. W. Lon.
3. 5. N. Lat. 42. 2.
LERNA, (anc. geog.), not far from Argos, on the
confines of Lacouica ; fuppofed to be a town of Laco-
nica, but on the borders of Argolis; the pofition which
Paufanias allots to it, near Temenium, on the fea;
without adding whether it is town, river, or lake.
According to Strabo, it is a lake, fituated between the
territories of Argos and Mycene, in comradi&ion to
Paufanias, If there was a town of this name, it
5 H 2 feems
L E
R [ 796 ] L E R
Lereea feems to have Hood towards the fea, but the lake to have native of Zetland, and one Mr Milne architeft, for Lerwick
Lerwick been It10re inlancl- Mela calls it a well-known town on building the faid fort, with 20 or 30 cannons to plant Lefbos.’
* the Sinus Argolicus;andStatiusbyLerna feems to mean upon it for proteftion of the country. There was
fomething more than a lake. This, however, is the lake houfe built within the fort fufficient to lodge 100
in which, as Strabo fays, was the fabled Hydra ofHercu- men. The garrifon ftaid here three years; the charge
les: therefore calledStatius). The lake of which, with the building the fort, is faid to have
runs in a river or ftream to thefea,and perhaps arifes from flood the king 28,000 pounds llerling. When the
a river, (Virgil.) From the lake the proverb, Lerna garrifon removed, they carried off the cannon from the
Malorum, took its rife; becaufe, according to Strabo,
religious purgations were performed in it; or, accord¬
ing to Hefychius, becaufe the Argives threw all their
filth into it.
LERNEA, in zoology ; a genus of infe&s of the
order of Vermes mollufca, the chara&ers of which are:
The body fixes itfelf by its tentacula, is oblong, and
fort; and in the next war with the Dutch, two or
three years after the garrifon removed, a Dutch fri¬
gate came into Brafay Sound, and burnt the houfe in
the fort and feveral others the belt in the town.
Lerwick has no freedoms nor privileges, but is go¬
verned by a bailie upon the fame footing with the other
bailies in the country. There is a church in it, and •
rather tapering ; there are two ovaries like tails, and one minifter, of the Prefbyterian eftabliffiment. He has
the tentacula are fhaped like arms. (See three fpeci- for ftipend 500 marks paid him out of the bifhop’s rents
mens figured on Plate CCLXXIV.)—1. The cypri-
nacea has four tentacula, two of which are lunulated
at the top. It is a fmall fpecies ; about half an inch
long, and of the thicknefs of a fmall ftraw ; the body
is rounded, of. a pale greyifh white, glofiy on the fur-
of Orkney, 300 marks by the town of Lerwick, and
the tythes of Gulberwick about 200 marks; making in
all 1000 marks Scots yearly, with a free houfe and
garden. Lerwick chiefly fubfifts by the refort of fo-
„ . reigners to it; fo when that fails it muff decline, as in¬
face, and fomewhat pellucid : it is thruft out of a kind deed it has done for feveral years paft, having been very
of coat or ffreath, as it were at the bafe, which is of a little frequented by foreigners, and thereby is become very
white colour and a thick {kin : towards the qther extre- poor. Several projedts have been talked of, and written r„
mity of the body, there are three obtufe tubercules, upon, which might have been very beneficial to Lerwick ^
one of which is much larger than the reft : the mouth andZetland had they taken place ; as that of the Britifti Zetland]
is fituated in the anterior part, and near it there are merchants carrying goods from Mufcovy and Sweden,P-7-
two foft and flefhy procefles ; and near thefe there is defigned for the plantations in America, that muft be
alfo on each fide another foft procefs, which is lunated entered in Britain, having them entered at Lerwick,
at the extremity. It is found on the fides of the which would fave a great deal of time and charges to
bream, carp, and roach, in many of our ponds and thefe merchants; alfo the Greenland and Herring Fi-
rivers, in great abundance. 2. The falmonea, or fal- ftiery companies of Britain propofed Lerwick as a moll
mon-loufe, has an ovated body, cordated thorax, and commodious port for lodging their ftores in, and for re-
two linear arms approaching nearly to each other, packing their herrings, melting their oil, and thence
3. The afellina, has a lunated body and cordated tho- exporting the fame to foreign markets. The grand
rax ; and inhabits the gills of the cod-fifh and ling of obje&ion to thefe fettlements is, that Lerwick is an
the northern ocean. open unfortified place; and in cafe of a war, the mer-
LERN1CA, formerly a large city in the ifland of chants (hips and goods would be expofed to.the ene¬
my : for removing of which difficulty, it has been ob-
Cyprus, as appears from its ruins ; but is now no
more than a large village, feated on the fouthern coaft
of that ifland, where there is a good road, and a fmall
fort for its defence.
LERO (anc. geog.); one of the two fmali iflands in
the Mediterranean, oppofite to Antipolis, and half a
mile diftant from it to the fouth. Now St Margaritat
over againft Antibes, on the eoaft of Provence.
Lero, or Leros, an ifland of the Archipelago,
and one of the Sporades; remarkable, according to
fome authors, for the birth of Patroclus. E. Long.
26. 15. N. Lat. 37. o.
LE Rov le veut, the king’s aflent to public
bills. See the articles Bill, Statute, and Parlia¬
ment.
LERWICK, the capital town of Shetland, fituated
in the ifland called the Mainland, in W. Long. 1. 30.
N. Lat. 61. 20. It contains about 300 families, with
abundance of good houfes, and as fafliionable people as
are to be feen in any town in Scotland of its bulk. At
the north end of the town there is a regular fort, which
was built atthe chargeof the government in the reign of
King Charles IF ; who, in the time of his firft war with
the Dutch, fent over a garrifon confifting of 300 men
under the command of one colonel William Sinclair a
ferved, that would government beftow a fmall garrifon
upon it of only 100 men and about 20 pieces of cannon,
and be at a fmall charge in repairing the old fort, and
ere&inga fmallbatteryortv/o more, thefemeafuiesmight
be fufficient to fecure theplace againft any ordinary effort
the enemy mightmakeagainft it; and Lerwickbeingthus
fortified, all Britiffi {hips coming froih the Eaft or Weft-
Indies, could edme fafely there in time of war, and lie
fecure until carried thence by convoy, or otherwife as
the proprietors Ihould diredt; and thus Lerwick might
become more advantageous to the trade of Great Bri¬
tain than Gibraltar or Port Mahon, and that for one-
tenth part of the charge of either of thofe places.
LESBOS, a large ifland in the iEgean fea, on the
coaft of iEolia, of about 168 miles in circumference. It
has been feverally called Pelafgia, from the Pelafgi by
whom it was firft peopled; Macaria, from Macareus
who fettled in it 5 and Lejhos, from the fon-in-law
and fucceffor of Macareus who bore the fame name.
The chief towns of Lefbos were Methymna and Mity-
lene. It was originally governed by kings, but they
were afterwards fubjefted to the neighbouring powers.
The wine which it produced was greatly efteemed by
the ancients, and ftill is in the fame repute among the
1 moderns.
L E S [ 797 3 L E S
Lefcailie moderns. The Lefbians were fo debauched and diffi-
il pated, that the epithet of Lejbian was often ufed to fi*-
X.elguis. n^y debauchery and extravagance. Lefbos has given
* birth to many illuftrious perfons, fuch as Arion, Ter-
pander, Sappho, 1,6cc. S;e Mitylene.
LESCAILLE (James), a celebrated Dutch poet
and printer, was bom at Geneva. He and his daugh¬
ter Catharine Lefcaille have excelled all the Dutch
poets. That lady, who was furnamed the Sappho of
Holland, and the tenth Mufe, died in 1711. A col¬
lection of her poems has been printed, in which are
the Tragedies of Genferic, Wenceflaus, Herod and
Mariamne, Hercules and Dejaneira, Nicomedes, A-
riadne, Caffandra, &c. James Lefcaille her father
deferred the poet’s crown, with which the emperor
Leopold honoured him in the year 1603: he died
about the year 1677,- aged 67.
LESCAR, a town of Gafcony, in France, and in
the territory of Bearn, with a bilhop’s fee; feated on
a hill, in YV. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 43. 23.
LESGUI3, a people of Alia, whofe country is
indifferently called by the Georgians Lefguiftan and
Daghejlan. It is bounded to the fouth and call by
Pertia and the Cafpian, to the fouth-weft and weft by
Georgia, the Olfi, and Kifti, and to the north by the
Kifti and Tartar tribes. It is divided into a variety
of diftri&s, generally independent, and governed by
chiefs elefted by the people. Guldenftaedt has re¬
marked, in the Lefguts language, eight different dia-
leCts, and has claffed their tribes in conformity to this
obfervation.
The firft dialed comprehends 15 tribes, which are
as follow: 1. Avar, in Georgian Chunfagh. The
chief of this diftrid, commonly called Avar-Khan, is
the moft powerful prince of Lefguiftan, and relides at
Kabuda, on the river Kaferuk. The village of Avar
is, in the dialed of Andi, called Harbul. 2. Kafe¬
ruk, in the high mountains, extending along a branch
of the Koifu, called Karak. This diftrid is depend¬
ant on the Khan of the Kali Kumychs. 3. Idatle,
on the Koifu, joining on the Andi; fubjed to the A-
var Khan. 4. Mukratle, fituated on the Karak, and
fubjed to the Avan Khan. 5. Onfekul, fubjed to
the fame, and fituated on the Koifu. 6. Karakhle,
upon the Karak, below Kaferuk, fubjed to the fame.
7. Ghumbet, on the river Ghumbet, that joins the
Koifu, fubjed to the chief of the Coumyks. 8. A-
rakan; and, 9. Burtuma, on the Koifu. 10. Ant-
fugh, on the Samura, fubjed to Georgia. 11. Te-
bel, on the fame river, independent. 12. Tamurgi,
or Tumural, on the fame river. 13. Akhti; and,
14. Rutal, on the fame. 15. Dfhar, in a valley that
runs from the Alazan to the Samura. It was former¬
ly fubjed to Georgia, but is now independent. In
this diftrid are feen remains of the old wall that
begins at Derbent, and probably terminates at the A-
lazan.—The inhabitants of Derbent believe that their
town was built by Alexander, and that this wall for¬
merly extended as far as the Black Ser. It isj how¬
ever, probable, from many infcriptions in old Turkilh,
Perfian, Arabic, and Rufilh charaders, that the wall,
and the aqueduds with their various fubterraneous paf-
fages, many of which are now filled up, are of high
antiquity. This town fuffered greatly during its fiege
by Sultan Amu rath, who entirely deftroyed the lower
quarter, then inhabited by Greeks. It was again ta- Left
ken by Schach Abbas. (Gaerber). This town is -v
the old Pylae Cafpise.
The fecond dialed is fpoken in the two following
diftrids: 1. Dido, or Didonli, about the fource of
the Samura. This diftrid is rich in mines ; a ridge
of uninhabited mountains divides it from Caket. 2.
Unfo, on the fmall rivulets that join the Samura.
Thefe two diftrids, containing together about 1000
families, were formerly fubjed to Georgia, but are
now independent.
The third dialed is that o* Kabutlh, which lies on
the Samura rivulets, eaft ot Dido, and north of Ca¬
ket.
The fourth dialed is that of Andi, fituated on a
rivulet that runs into the Koifu. Some of its villages
are fubjed to the Avar-Khan, but the greater part to
the khan of Axai. The whole confifts of about 800
families.
The fifth dialed is common to four diftrids, name¬
ly, r. Akufha, on the Koifu, fubjed to the Ufmei,
or khan of the Caitaks, and Kara Caitaks, containing
about 1000 families. The following cuftom is attri¬
buted by Colonel Gaerber to the fubjeds of this
prince : “Whenever the Ufmei has a fon, he is carried
round from village to village, and alternately fuckled
by every woman who has a child at her breaft until he
is weaned. This cuftom, by eftablilhing a kind of
brotherhood between the prince and his fubjeds, An¬
gularly endears them to each other,” 2. Balkar. 3. Zu-
dakara, or Zudakh, down the Koifu, fubjed to the
Ufmei. 4. Kubelha, near the Koifu. Colonel Ga¬
erber, who wrote an account of thefe countries in
1728, gives the following defcription of this very cu¬
rious place: “ Kubefha is a large ftrong town, fitua¬
ted on a hill between high mountains. Its inhabitants
call themfelves Franki (Franks, a name common in the
eaft to all Europeans), and relate, that their anceftors
were brought hither by fome accident, the particulars
of which are now forgotten. The common conjedure
is, that they were mariners call away upon the coaft ;
but thofe who pretend to be better verfed in their hi-
ftory, tell the ttory this way :—The Greeks and Ge-
noefe, fay they, carried on, during feveral centuries,,
a confiderable trade, not only on the Black fea, but
likewife on the Cafpian, and were certainly acquainted
with the mines contained in thefe mountains, from,
which they drew by their trade with the inhabitants
great quantities of filver, copper, and other metals.
In order to work thefe upon the fpot, they fent hither
a number of workmen to ^eftablifti manufadures, and
inftrud the inhabitants. The fubfequent invafions of
the Arabs, Turks, and Monguls, during which the
mines were filled up, and the manufadures abandon¬
ed, prevented the ftrangers from effeding their return,,
fo that they continued here, and ereded themfelves
into a republic. What renders this account the more-
probable is, that they are ft ill excellent artifts, and
make very good fire-arms, as well rifled as plain
fabres, coats of mail, and feveral articles in gold and
filver, for exportation. They have likewife, for their
own defence, fmall copper cannons, of three pounds,
calibre, call by themfelves. They coin Turkilh and.
Perfian filver money, and even rubles, which readily
pafs current, becaufe they are of the full weight and
value..
L E S
value. Ib their valfeys they have pa ft u re and arable
lands, as well as, gardens^ but they purchafe the great¬
er part of their corn, trufting chiefly for fupport to
the fale of their manufarilures, which are much admi¬
red in Perfra, Turkey, and the Crimea. They are
generally in good circumftances, are a quiet, inoffen-
five people, but high fpirited, and independent. Their
town is confidered as a neutral fpot, where the neigh¬
bouring princes can depofit their treafures with fafety.
They ele£l yearly twelve magiftrates, to whom they
pay the moft unlimited obedience ; and as all the in¬
habitants are on a, footing of perfect equality, each in¬
dividual is fure to have in his turn a (hare in the go¬
vernment. In the year 1725, their .magillrates, as well
as the Ufmei, acknowledged the fovereignty of Ruflia,
[ 798 1
L E S
fon, Richard king of the Romans, and had privileges Lrflfi
from Edward the Black Prince. Queen Elizabeth '—“v—
granted it a chatter j by which it was to have a mayor
and burgeffes, who (hould have a perpetual fuccef- I
fion, purchafe lands, &c. Here is a handfome town-
hall built on (lone pillars, with a turret on it, and a
noble clock with four dials that eoft near 2001. Here
are a large church, a meeting-houfe, an eminent free-
fchool, and a curious conduit ; and on the adjacent
commons, which feed multitudes of (htep, there have
been frequent horfe-races. It has a market on Satur¬
day, and feven fairs in the year. The lift of its par¬
liament men begins the 23d of Edward I. Here is a
very great trade in all manufaftares of leather; and fome
fpinning is fet up here lately, encouraged by the clo-
but without paying any tribute.” 5. Zudakara, or tbiers of Devonflrire. On the hills of -.North Lelkard,
’Zadakh. down tb«» TTCmo! t» :n the way from hence to Launceflon, are many
t of tin, which is caft at the blowing houfes into
blocks, that are fent hither to be coined.
Zadakh, down the Koifu, fubjeft to the Ufmei. It and in the way from hence to Launceflon, are many
tontains about 2coo families.  c —L:-'- ^ ’ - ’ - •
The fixth dialed! belongs .to the dillridls on the
eaftern flope of Caucafus, between Tarku and Der-
bent, which are, 1. Caitak; and 2, Tabafferan, or
Kara-Caitak, both fubjedl to the Ufmei.
The feventh dialed! is that of Kafi-Coumyk, on a
branch of the Konifn, near Zudakara. This tribe has
LESLIE (John), bifliop of Rofs in Scotland, the
fon of Gavin Leflie an eminent lawyer, was born in
the year 1536, and educated at the univerfity of A-
berdeen; of which diocefe he was made official, when
but a youth. He was (oon after created dod!or . f
khan, whofe authority is recognifed by fome neigh- civil and canon law ; but being peculiarly- addidted
nnrino* rlifi-riAe J'.’ r*.— i _ i »
bouring diftridls.
the khan of Cuba.
Befides thefe, there are fome other Lefguis tribes,
whofe dialedls Mr Guldenftaedt was unable to procure.
o 7--”,--; . the °f divinity, he took orders, and became par-
rhe eighth dialed! is that of Kuraele, belonging to fon of Une. When the reformation began to fpread
e khan of Cuha. in Scotland, and difputes about religion ran high, Dr
Leflie, in 1560, diftinguifhed himfed at Edinburgh as
. _ r a principal advocate for the Romiffi church, and war
From a comparifon of thofe which he has obtained, it afterwards deputed by the chief nobility of that reli
appears that the language of the Lefguis has no kind
of affinity with any other known language, excepting
only the SamOyede, to which it has a remote refem-
blance.
gion to condole with queen Mary on the death of her
hufband the king of France, and to invite her to re¬
turn to her native dominions. Accordingly, after a
fhort refidence with her majefty, they embarked toge-
This people, is probably defeended from the tribes of ther at Calais in 156], and landed at Leith. She
mountaineers, known to ancient geographers under the
name oi Lefga, or Ligyes. The (Length of their coun¬
try, which is a region of mountains, whofe paffes are
known only to themfelves, has probably at all times
fecured them from foreign invafion ; but as the fame
caufe muft have divided them into a number of tribes,
independent of each other, and perhaps always di-
ftinguiflied by different dialefls, it is not eafy to ima¬
gine any common caufe of union which can ever have
affembkd the whole nation, and have led them to un¬
dertake very remote conquefts. Their hiftory, there¬
fore, were it known, would probably be very uninte-
refting to us. They fubfift by railing cattle, and by
predatory expeditions into the countries of their more
wealthy neighbours. During the troubles in Perfia,
towards the beginning of this century, they repeatedly
facked the towns of Shamachie and Ardcbil, and ra-
imediately made him one of her privy-council, and a
fenator of the college of juftice. In 1564, he was made
abbot of Lundores ; and on the death of Sinclair was
promoted to the bifhopric of Rofs. Thefe accumula¬
ted honours he wifhed not to enjoy in luxurious indo¬
lence. The influence derived from them, he exerted
to the profperity of his country. It is to him that
Scotland is indebted for the publication of its laws,
commonly called “ The i/acl ads of parliament,”
from the Saxon charadler in which they were printed.
At his moft earned delire, the revifion and colledion
of them were committed to the great officers of the
crown. In 1568, queen Mary having lied to Eng¬
land for refuge, and being there detained a prifo-
ner, queen Elizabeth appointed certain commiffioners
at York to examine into the caufe of the difpute be¬
tween Mary and her fubjeds. Thefe commiffioners
vaged the neighbouring diftrida ; and the prefent were met by others from the queen of Scots. The hi-
—.j . „r a .. {hop 0f R0f8 wasof the number, and pleaded the caufe
of his royal miflrefs with great energy, though with¬
out fuccefs : Elizabeth had no intention to releafe her
Mary, difappointed in her expedations from the con-
ference at York, fent the bifhop of Rofs ambaffador to
Elizabeth, who paid little attention to his complaints.
He then began to negociate a marriage betweep his
royal miflrefs and the duke of Norfolk ; which ;ego-
ciation, it is well known, proved fatal to the duke, and
was the caufe of Leflie’s being fent to the Tower. In
1573 he was banifhed" the kingdom, and retired to
5 Holland.
•wretched date of Georgia and of part of Armenia, is
owing to the frequency of their incurfions. In their
perfons and drefs, and in their general ■ habits of life,
as far as thefe are known to us, they greatly refemble
the Circaffian.
LESKARD, 3 town in Cornwall,-feated in a le¬
vel, is a corporation, and fends two members to par¬
liament. It had formerly a caftle, now in ruins. It
is one of the large!! and beft built towns in Cornwall,
■with the greateft market. It was firft incorporated by
Edward earl of- Cornwall, afterwards by King John’s
L E S L 799 ] L E S
• Ixflie. HollancL The two following years he fpent in fruit-
"""'v'" lefs endeavours to engage the powers of Europe to
efpoufe the caufe of his queen. His laft application
was to the pope ; but the power of the heretic Eliza¬
beth had no lefs weight with his holiiiefs than with
the other Roman Catholic princes of Europe. Find¬
ing all his perfonal applications inefft&ualj he had re-
ccurfe' to his pen in Queen Mary’s vindication ; but
Elizabeth’s ultima ratio regum was too potent for all
his arguments. Billiop Ltflie, during his exile, was
made coadjutor to the archbifhop of Rouen. He was
at Brufiels when he received the account of Queen
Mary’s execution j and immediately retired to the con¬
vent of Guirternberg near that city, where he died in
the year 1596. It was during the long and unfortu¬
nate captivity of Mary, that he amufed hixnfelf in .wri¬
ting the Hiftory of Scotland, and his, other works.
The elegance and charms of literary occupations fer-
ved to aiTuage the violence of his woes. His know¬
ledge and judgment as an hiftorian are equally to be
commended. Where he a&s as the tranfcriber of
Boece, there may be diftinguilhed, indeed, fome of the
inaccuracies of that writer. But, when he fpeaks in
his own perfon, he has a manlinefs, a candour, and a
mcderatio'n, which appear not always even in authors
of the Proteftant perfualion. His works are, 1. Af-
animi confolationes, &c. compofed for the confola-
tion of the captive queen. 2. De origine, moribus, et
gejlis Scotorum. 3. De titulo et jure ferenijjima Maria
Scvtvrum regina, quo regni Anglia fuccejfionem Jibi jujle
vindicat. 4. Paranejis ad Anglos et ScotOs. 5. De ilhtft.
fecminarum in rpeubl. adminiflranda, 8cc. 6. Oratio ad regi-
nam Elizabetham pro libertate impetranda. 7. Paranejis
ad nobilitatem populumque Scoticum. 8. An account of
his proceedings during his embaffy in England from
1568 to 1572 ; manufcript, Oxon. 9. Apology for
the bilhop of Rofs, concerning the duke of Norfolk ;
manufcript, Oxon. 10. Several letters, manufcript.
Leslie (Charles), an Irifh divine, and a zealous Pro¬
teftant : but being attached to the houfe of Stuart, he
left Ireland, and went to the pretender at Bar le Due,
and refided with him till near the time of his death ;
conftantly endeavouring to make him a Proteftant,
but without effeft. He died in 1722. His principal
works are, 1. A ftiort and eafy method with the De¬
lfts. 2. A fhort and eafy method with the Jews.
3. The fnake in the grafs. 4. Hereditary right to
the Crown of England afferted. 5. The Socinian
controverfy difeuffed. 6. The charge of Sociniaifm
againft Dr Tillotfon confidered j and many others.
All his theological pieces, except that againft Arch- Lefll-r
bilhop Tillotfon, were colle&ed and publilhed. by him-1 ins- ^
felf, in 2 vols folio. * '
LESSER tone, in mufic. See Tone.
LESSINES, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
in Hainault, feated on the river Deader, and famous
for its linen manufacture. W. Long. 3.53. N. Lat.
51.41.
LESSONS, among ecclefiaftical writers, portions
6f the Holy Scripture, read in ChrilUan churches, at
the time of divine fervice.
In the ancient church, reading the Scriptures was
one part of the fervice of the catechumens; at which
all perfons were allowed to be prefent, in order to ob¬
tain Inftru&ion.
The church of England, in the choice of leflbns,
proceeds as follows: for the firft kffon on ordinary
days, Ihe direCts, to begin at the beginning of the
year with Genefis, and fo continue on, till the books
of the Old Teftament are read over; only omitting
the Chronicles, which are for the moft part the fame
with the books of Samuel and Kings, and other par¬
ticular chapters in other books, either becaufe they
contain names of perfons, places, or other matters lefs
profitable to ordinary readers.
The courfe of the firft leffons for Sundays is regu¬
lated after a different manner. From Advent to Sep-
tuagefima-Sunday, fome particular chapters of Ifaiah
are appointed to be read, becaufe that book contains
the cleareft prophecies concerning Chrift. Upon Sep-
tuagefima Sunday Genefis is begun, becaufe that book
which treats of the fall of man, and the fevere judge¬
ment of God inflifted on the world for fin, belt fuits
with a time of repentance and mortification. After
Genefis, follow chapters out of the books of the Old
Teftament, as they lie in order; only on feftival Sun¬
days, fuch as Eatter, Whitfunday, &c. the particular
hiftory relating to that day is appointed to be read ;
and on the faints-days, the church appoints :leffons
out of the moral books, fuch as Proverbs, Ecclefiaftes,
Ecclefiafticus, &c, as containing excellent inftru&iona
for the conduct of life.
As to the fecond leffons, the church obferves the
fame courfe both on Sundays and week-days: reading
the gofpels and Adis of the Apoftles in the morning,
and the epiftles in the evening, in the order they Hand
in the New Teftament: excepting an faints days and
holy days, when fuch leffons are appointed as either
explain the myftery, relate the hiftory, or apply the
example to us.
END OF THE NINTH VOLUME.
ERRATA.
Vot. VII. p. 99. col. 1. 1. 11. from bottom. For 1760, read 1770..
238. col. 1. 1. 16. from bottom. For “ See Fillebeg,” read “ See Philibeg.’'
299. col. 1. I.23. For Jlood, readeW; and in 1. 24. dele “ ovoid.”
Vol. VIII. PlateCCXXIX. fig. 8. For 13, read 17 ; for 14, r. 18 ; for 15, r. 19 ; for 16, r. 20; for 17,
r. 13; for 18, r. 14; for 19, r. 15; for 20, r. 16.
Plate CCXXXIII. fig. 24. The Hatchments N° i, 2. are (haded, by miftake, on the dexter in-
(lead of the ftnijler fide.
Vol. IX. In Plate CCI.I. fig. 2, 4, 5. {Ichthyology), the letters of reference happened to be omitted. Cor-
re&ed impreffions were intended to have been given ; but it was found that the ftate of the plate would not
admit of it, and there was not time for a new engraving. The omifiions, however, may be eafily fupplied
with the pen, by copying in the letters as they are reprefented below :
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. IX.
Part I.
Plate CCXXXIX. to face
CCXL.
CCXLI.
CCXLII. ?
CCXLHI.5
CCXLIV. ?
CCXLV. 5
CCXLVI. ?
CCXLVII. 5
CCXLV1II.
CCXLIX.
CCL.
CLl.
CCLII. 7
CCLill. j
CCLIV.7
CCLV. J
Page 4
- 8
16
28
49
80
84
104
124
217
Plate CCLVI. to face
CCLVII.
CCLVIII.
CCLIX.
CCLX.
CCLXI.
CCLXII.
CCLXIII.
CCLXIV.
CCLXV-
CCLXVI.
CCLXVII.
CCLXVHI.
CCLXIX.
la all, 31 Plates.
312
365
484
493
500
504
564
597
600
604
764
774
785
794
■
^ ‘-r™. ■
&&£
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